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THE CASE of JU/'HOANSI, NARO and !XÓÕ B

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THE CASE of JU/'HOANSI, NARO and !XÓÕ B A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE VERB STRUCTURE IN NORTHERN, CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN KHOESAN: THE CASE OF JU/’HOANSI, NARO AND !XÓÕ by BUDZANI GABANAMOTSE-MOGARA Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject of AFRICAN LANGUAGES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROFESSOR S. MATSINHE JOINT PROMOTER: DR L. NAMASEB FEBRUARY 2011 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt gratitude goes to Professor Sozinho Francisco Matsinhe, my supervisor, for his guidance and encouragement during my years of study. I have over the years received tremendous support, encouragement, linguistic dissertations, books, journal articles and so forth from Professor Matsinhe. From him, I have learnt that challenges are there to be conquered. The end product indeed reflects the amount of time he has spent directing, correcting and advising me ever since we started working together. I am truly indebted to him. I am also deeply indebted to my assistant Supervisor, Dr. Levi Namaseb for his encouragement during the course of this study. He was always prepared to lend a helping hand whenever I needed assistance. My thanks are extended to my colleagues in the Department of African Languages and Literature, University of Botswana. I am particularly grateful to Professor Herman Batibo, Dr. Andy Chebanne, Dr. Pearl Seloma and Ms Naledi Mosaka for their assistance in a variety of ways during my years of study. I have received institutional support for which I wish to register my most sincere gratitude. I, in this respect, wish to thank the University of Botswana which is my home institution for supporting my PhD studies by paying my tuition fees. To Ms Hlezipi Nappai, Librarian of the Department of African Languages, UNISA, I am very grateful for her kind assistance. My greatest debt goes to my husband, Lonely Mogara for his moral support and understanding during my years of study. Thank you so much for the support, encouragement, advice that you have given me. i Dedication This dissertation is most lovingly and fondly dedicated to my husband, Lonely Ntombo Mogara. Your support has been tremendous. You were always there for me whenever I needed your support and guidance. ii ABSTRACT This dissertation, deals with the verb structure found in Ju/̕hoansi, Naro and !Xóõ, which form part of the Northern, Central and Southern Khoesan respectively. Although previous studies have been conducted on these languages, no study has been done to date involving a detailed comparison of the structures in these languages. Thus, not much has been done in the area of syntax; particularly syntactical comparison. Previous studies ignored comparisons of grammatical categories and structures such as noun class markers, plural formation markers, tense and aspect markers and verbal extensions. This dissertation consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 covers the language situation in Botswana. Chapter 2 is devoted to the literature review. Chapter 3 deals with the linguistic features found in the three languages. Chapter 4 covers the methodology and the theoretical framework adopted in the dissertation. The theoretical framework is eclectic in nature, in other words, the study is largely descriptive. However, on occasion, some aspects of lexical functional grammar (LFG) are used. This theoretical framework is appealing as it best handles important aspects of the languages under consideration, particularly the verb extensions. Chapter 5 describes the noun class system, highlighting the markers found in different noun classes. It also covers tense and aspect markers as well as the verbal extensions found in the three languages. Specifically, it is argued in this chapter that plural formation occurs in three ways; regular plurals, irregular plurals and neutral plurals. The study reveals a close relationship between tense and aspect and the motion of the events, points of reference and moment of speech encoded in the verbs involved. Adverbials can co-occur with the relevant tenses. Lastly, it is shown that verbal extensions do not just combine freely; they are subject to different kinds of sequential constraints. Chapter 6 summarizes the main findings, highlighting the similarities and differences in the three languages. Naro is SOV while Ju/'hoansi and !Xóõ are SVO. Chapter 6 also indicates areas in these Khoesan Languages requiring further research. iii KEY TERMS Khoesan, Ju/’hoansi, Naro, !Xóõ, noun classes, pronouns, plural formation, tense and aspect, person gender and number marker, Lexical Functional Grammar, Thematic roles, verbal extensions. iv LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Table 1 Percentages of African languages spoken in Botswana 5 Table 2 Ju/’hoansi egressive consonants 25 Table 3 Ju/’hoansi clicks 30 Table 4 Ju/’hoansi vowels 31 Table 5 Naro egressive consonants 36 Table 6 Naro clicks 38 Table 7 Naro vowels 39 Table 8 !Xóõ egressive consonants 43 Table 9 !Xóõ vowels 44 Table 10 !Xóõ noun class concord 46 Table 11 Ju/’hoansi noun classes 68 Table 12 Naro noun classes 82 Table 13 !Xóõ noun classes 88 Table 14 Double combinations 107 Table 15 Tripple combinations 107 Table 16 Quadruple combinations 107 Table 17 Class, pgn and tense and aspect markers in the 3 languages 111 Table 18 Verbal extension markers in the three languages 111 Table 19 Similarities and differences obtaining amongst the 3 languages 115 Figure 1 Bantu verb structure 22 Figure 2 English syllable structure 25 Figure 3 Setswana syllable structure 26 Figure 4 Ju/’hoansi syllable structure 26 Figure 5 Ju/’hoansi syllable tier 27 Figure 6 Naro syllable structure 35 Figure 7 Naro syllable tier 35 Figure 8 !Xóõ syllable structure 41 Figure 9 !Xóõ syllable tier 42 Figure 10 Argument structure 64 Figure 11 Functional structure 64 Figure 12 Linking A-structure and F-structure 65 Figure 13 Naro verb structure 112 Figure 14 Ju/’hoansi and !Xóõ verb structure 112 v SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS CV Consonant Vowel V Vowel N Nasal H High tone L Low tone HL High Low ML Mid Low LH Low High LMT Lexical Mapping Theory LM Low Mid MF Mid Falling SOV Subject Object Verb SVO Subject Verb Object Asp Aspect SUBJ Subject OBJ Object OBJƟ Thematic Object NP Noun Phrase VP Verb Phrase PP Prepositional Phrase C Constituent F Functional A Argument Ag Agent Th Theme Pt Patient Ben Beneficiary L1 Language 1 L2 Language 2 L3 Language 3 PST Past T/A Tense and Aspect Pgn Person Gender Number Part Particle Exp Experiencer App Applicative FV Final Vowel SM Subject Marker Rec Reciprocal Pn Pronoun ARG.1 1st Argument ARG.2 2nd Argument vi FUNC.1 1st Functional Structure FUNC.2 2nd Functional Structure GRAMM.REL.1 1st Grammatical Relation GRAMM.REL.2 2nd Grammatical Relation Loc Locative 1sg 1st person singular 3sg 3rd person singular Fut Future Aux Auxiliary Hab Habitual Caus Causative Conj Conjunction Adj Adjective Refl Reflexive Dem Demonstrative Pple People Pass Passive Neg Negative RNPE Revised National Policy on Education WIMSA Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa N.D. No Date Pl Plural Prep Preposition Perf Perfective Masc. Masculine > Takes Precedence Over < > Comprises of OBJ.1 Primary Object OBJ.2 Secondary Object OBL Oblique Object Ɵ Thematic Role [+0] Object Function [-0] Non-Object Function [+r] Restricted Function [-r] Unrestricted Function vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i Dedication ii Abstract iii Key terms iv List of tables and figures v Abbreviations vi Chapter 1: Introduction and Background 1 1.1 The country 1 1.1.1.1 Language Situation 3 1.2 The Research Problem 8 1.3 Relevance of the Study 10 1.4 Statement of the Problem 11 1.5 Rationale of the Study 11 Chapter 2: Literature Review 13 2.1. Introduction 13 2.1.1. JU/'HOANSI 13 2.1.1.1. Phonetics 13 2.1.1.2 Morphology 14 2.1.1.3 Lexicon 15 2.2 NARO 15 2.2.1 Morphology 15 2.2.1.1 Lexicon 15 2.2.1.2 Phonology 16 2.3 !XÓÕ 16 2.3.1 Phonetics 16 2.3.1.1 Morphology 17 2.3.1.2 Lexicon 18 2.3.2 Ju/’hoansi, Naro & !Xóõ 18 2.3.2.1 Summary 20 2.3.2.2 Identified Gaps 21 2.4 Background on Bantu Verb Structure 21 Chapter 3: The Linguistic Features of Ju/’hoansi, Naro and !Xóõ 23 3.1 The Three Languages 23 3.1.1 Introduction 23 3.1.1.1 JU/'HOANSI 24 3.1.1.2 Phonological Structure 24 3.1.1.3 Syllable Structure 24 3.1.1.4 Consonants 27 3.1.1.5 Clicks 29 3.1.1.6 Vowels 31 3.1.1.7 Tone 33 3.1.2 Morphology 33 3.1.2.1 Noun Class System 34 viii 3.1.2.2 Summary 34 3.2 NARO 34 3.2.1.1 Syllable Structure 35 3.2.1.2 Consonants 36 3.2.1.3 Clicks 38 3.2.1.4 Vowels 39 3.2.1.5 Tone 40 3.2.2.1 Noun Class System 40 3.2.2.2 Summary 41 3.3 !XÓÕ 41 3.3.1.1 Syllable Structure 41 3.3.1.2 Consonants 42 3.3.1.3 Clicks 43 3.3.1.4 Vowels 44 3.3.1.5 Tone 45 3.3.2.1 Noun Class System 46 3.3.2.2 Summary 46 Chapter 4: Research Methodology and Theoretical Framework 48 4.1. Introduction 48 4.1.1. Data Collection 48 4.1.1.1 Challenges to the data collection exercise 50 4.1.1.2 Accommodation 50 4.1.1.3. Availability of Data 50 4.1.1.4 Limited Samples 51 4.1.1.5. Limitations of the study 51 4.1.2 Theoretical Framework 51 4.1.2.1 Thematic Roles and Grammatical Functions 63 4.2 Summary 66 Chapter 5: The Verb Complex in Northern, Central & Southern Khoesan 67 5.1.
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