The “Appearance of Innocence” Watching the Soviet Sixties Through Children’s Animation

AUTHOR: Rebecca Silver EDITED BY: Malika Navruzova, Esti Azizi, and Marisa Coulton

The animated cartoon Redhead, Redhead, representation. These cartoons provide a rich Freckle-face begins with an innocent story-line: platform for discussion as they share similarities a young boy ridiculed for having red hair.1 By the regardless of their differences in styles and end, the sun has turned the whole world red to the content. Many cartoons produced throughout the delight of the boy. By using Communist imagery, the sixties in the Soviet Union sent different messages joyful ending of this children’s cartoon clandestinely and signals to those who consumed them. It is, signals the power of the Soviet state through the however, the layers of overlapping similarities spread of Communism. After showing this flm to and multiple divergences between these two flms the class, my Russian language professor looked which provides informed conclusions on the socio- at us with a broad smile and said, “Wasn’t that political atmosphere in the Soviet Union at the time cute? I used to watch that as a child.” These subtle of their production. Through an analysis of Read references to the communist ideology of the Soviet this and Travel and The Three Fat Men, this paper Union, often found within seemingly innocent will argue that Khrushchev’s policies infuenced the childhood entertainment, reveal the pervasive uniquely “Soviet” way the sixties were represented and disturbing nature of Soviet propaganda. in the Soviet Union. Additionally, cartoons can be Propaganda pieces were often used by the Soviet considered representative of an intergenerational Union to maintain stability and control, particularly form of propaganda produced by a centralized during the years of uncertainty following Stalin’s agency. For these reasons, they may inform the death and Khrushchev’s Secret Speech denouncing viewer about policy decisions and the spirit of the Stalin’s legacy in 1956.2 The Khrushchev years also decade. marked an uneasy openness and shift away from the Stalin state-induced fear toward a sixties peace To support the above argument, this movement, Soviet style. Unsurprisingly, animated paper will frst contextualize the culture during the children’s programming produced during the Khrushchev era, as well as Khrushchev’s political Soviet sixties refect broader socio-political trends aims. Next, it will examine the reception and indicative of the time and spirit of that era. Chief audience of animated cartoons: who was watching among these trends are the concepts of socialist them and how they may have been interpreted. internationalism, competition and patronage both Finally, this paper will use both Read this and within and outside of the socialist system, a rise Travel and The Three Fat Men as case studies in Khrushchev-inspired consumerism, and an to examine trends in travel and tourism, socialist increase in travel and tourism.3 internationalism, a rise in consumerism, and competition and patronage both within and outside Two animated children’s shows, Read this of the socialist system. and Travel to Paris and China (hereafter referred to as Read this and Travel) and The Three Fat To determine Khrushchev’s effect on Soviet Men, are prime exemplars of this unique sixties society in the sixties, this paper will enter into a form of promotion of Soviet ideals through dialogue with scholarship concerning the import

10 of Soviet cartoons. Many scholars, most notably Khrushchev’s policies are animated. This analysis Natalie Kononenko, examine these media devices makes arguments about the era itself rather than in relation to folklore inspirations.4 Another scholar on the specifc purpose and use of the cartoons. utilizing the folkloric trope is Brigit Beumers. She suggests that Soviet animation should not be The era of Khrushchev was characterized considered propaganda as the genre was less by many changes in Soviet society, now known by affected by ideology in comparison to other forms historians as The Thaw.13 This period was marked of Soviet art.5 In response, Kononenko argues that by the eradication of the repressive policies the widely held belief that children’s entertainment associated with Stalin, the release of prisoners was innocent and beyond ideology is naive.6 In from camps across the Soviet Union, and the Kononenko’s opinion, it is the “appearance of liberalization of the press and arts.14 A new cultural innocence that allows creators of animated flms shift away from Stalin-era collectivization and […] to exert a powerful infuence on society.”7 This toward individualization resulted in several “thaw” paper will build on Kononenko’s interpretation of policies such as increased consumerism and the animated flms, which proposes the media source privatization or westernization of living spaces.15 did infuence Soviet society in the sixties and may Signifcantly, these “thaws” in Soviet policy were indeed be considered a subtle, yet powerful, form uneven and erratic, often followed by destabilizing of socialist propaganda. “freezes.”16 The limited opening of the Soviet Union exposed many Soviet individuals to the spirit of the Laura Pontieri is another scholar who sixties through contact with the West, yet due to the contends that Soviet animation was not only “thaw-freeze” dichotomy, these westernized ideals produced for a youth audience.8 Pontieri focuses were expressed in a uniquely Soviet way. on the sixties, but suggests that cartoons produced during this period were created with an adult Khrushchev’s foreign policy also refected audience in mind, and with an underlying message the internal changes occurring in Soviet society. directed at a mature audience.9 To support her His global approach was relatively peaceful theory, she analyzes cartoons intended for a youth compared to Stalin’s aggressive stance. Although audience, examining the language and images for Khrushchev frmly believed in socialism’s eventual incongruities in style and substance.10 economic victory over capitalism, he also believed in and encouraged peaceful economic competition In light of these scholarly works, this with Western countries.17 Underlying this policy essay views animation as representative of was Khrushchev’s view that war with capitalist trends in Soviet culture and as direct creations countries was not inevitable nor was it desirable.18 of Khrushchev’s policies during the sixties. This On the contrary, he was convinced that a major contention is supported by the manner in which world war could be avoided through a peaceful, these cartoons were produced. Soyuzmultflm, the world transition to socialism.19 As a result, he Soviet production studio creating these cartoons, supported non-violent, parliamentary transitions was a bureaucratic organ in a centralized state. Its to socialism in other countries, rather than mandate was to produce material consistent with destabilizing revolutionary approaches.20 Instead the party line and state beliefs.11 Such animation of fearing the West, Khrushchev welcomed the refected the state-approved vision that offcials comparison between capitalism and socialism, wanted the citizenry to believe, no matter the age encouraging transnationalism and an easing of or generation.12 Similar to Pontieri’s research, this travel restrictions to Western countries.21 These paper uses the 1960s as a focal point. However, policies were consistent with the general spirit of this paper will use cartoons as the lens through the sixties as envisioned in the West. which to view the 1960s and through which

11 Culturally, Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s 7 individuals per television set within the decade.30 ideologies, which initially created a sense of In 1960, 5 million households in the Russian Soviet dislocation in the Soviet Union. Instead of leaning Republic had access to television services; this on the recent past for inspiration, Khrushchev number increased to 10.5 million by 1963, and revived Leninist norms and embraced the spirit of would reach 25 million by 1970.31 the Russian Revolution.22 This connection with the distant past was taken up by the arts in a search to The increase in production and fnd acceptable stories and morals to teach to the consumption of cartoons which can be attributed next generation.23 The perfect container for these to the rise in television ownership had ideological narratives and parables was children’s literature. ramifcations. In the 1950s and early 1960s, there were some collective areas to watch television, Children’s literature underwent signifcant such as clubs, museums, and for youth, children’s modernization at the time of this socio-political homes.32 However, with Khrushchev’s building shift in Soviet culture. New technological advances scheme and the increase in private apartments, literally brought literature to life through the televised children watched cartoons with their families, medium. As a result of these new technological instead of in a collective and controlled setting. advances and Western sixties consumerism, Khrushchev’s policies and the generally freer spirit Soviet television ownership increased.24 By the of the 1960s allowed for an increase in individual 1970s, Soviet television would be the leading choice, especially in the realm of domestic and source for propaganda as Soviet families fully consumer goods. The interpretation of cartoons embraced the new technology.25 Further, the advent became less predictable and more diffcult for the of consumerism took on a decidedly different state to monitor, control, and dictate as a result of aspect in the Soviet Union due to the nature of the this sixties-style freedom.33 Not only did this permit economy and culture infused by the communist more individualistic interpretation of cartoons, but ideology.26 Television programming for children was it also allowed the individual a chance to escape one of the state-approved communication devices from the message of the cartoon at will and “turn- perfected in the sixties, which was encouraged by off” when desired.34 the predilection for television.27 It can therefore be assumed that the infuence of cartoons increased The content of cartoons also refected a exponentially with the increase in television marked change after Stalin’s death. The party, the ownership as an expression of the Soviet-style press, and the public demanded more from the genre consumerism of the sixties. than merely mindless children’s entertainment.35 This change in modes of reception is examined A possible reason for the dual growth in depth by Slavic Languages and Literatures in consumerism and television ownership was historian David MacFadyen. MacFadyen suggests an increase in the privatization of living spaces. that after Stalin’s death, the production of cartoons Between 1953 and 1970, approximately 38 million aimed to answer public demand and present the families moved into new single-family apartments.28 public with what they desired to see.36 This public This “individualization” of families resulted in the demand wanted more satirical flms and “foreign ability of intergenerational enjoyment of television or exotic screenplays.”37 These adult-oriented programs from the comfort of their new homes.29 demands support Pontieri’s argument that cartoons The increase in television-based entertainment at this time were not only pandering to younger consumption throughout the Soviet Union is audiences. However, within the more adult-oriented refected in the statistics of the time. In 1960, there goal of unique storylines was the state’s desire to were approximately 44 individuals per television set display the “fantastic,” or story-lines more attuned in the USSR. This number shifted to approximately to the fantasy genre and less realistic in nature.38

12 This corresponded to a movement away from the Both Read this and Travel, produced in “hyper-accuracy” of the Stalinist years.39 In order to 1960, and The Three Fat Men, produced in 1963, align oneself with the new party goals, one would provide insights into the Soviet Union in the sixties. have to present “either emotion, expression, and a Both flms are based on texts from the 1920s: spectacle or an homage to Maiakovskii’s [sic] lost Read this and Travel is based on a poem written art of the revolutionary poster.”40 These feelings of by Mayakovsky in 1927 while The Three Fat Men emotion, as well as the connection to Mayakovsky, is based on a short story written by Yuri Olesha is seen in the two cartoons discussed in this paper. in 1924. These two writers may be representative The Three Fat Men itself is a representation of the of the liberalization of The Thaw, as both opposed Revolution, while Read this and Travel is based Socialist Realist policies. Socialist Realism was the on a poem written by Vladimir Mayakovsky, a pre- offcial methodology of Soviet literature, introduced Revolutionary Soviet literary artist and actor. Both at the frst Soviet Writers’ Conference in 1934.47 of the texts used as inspiration for these cartoons The principles of Socialist Realism required that were originally children’s literature. The aspiration the writer or artist depict reality as “historically for animation to appeal to emotions may be accurate,” while educating the people ideologically interpreted as aligning with a more youth-oriented through the representation.48 Socialist Realism was goal. Thus, Soyuzmultflm may have attempted to used as propaganda to depict the utopia that the appeal to youth through content, while the genre state was working towards and was fundamental itself attempted to appeal to adult viewers. in the process of socialist state formation.49 Both Mayakovsky and Olesha’s opposition to Socialist Many of these cartoons, such as Read this Realism, and their subsequent use in sixties and Travel and The Three Fat Men, were produced cartoons, may represent a shift away from this form by Soyuzmultflm, which was originally established of art towards a more liberal literary representation in 1936 under the name Soyuzdetmultflm.41 seen throughout the Soviet Union during the sixties. “Det” is an abbreviation for the Russian word detskii, meaning children, and therefore the Vladimir Mayakovsky was a literary fgure eventual removal of this abbreviation further who has become closely linked with the Russian supports Pontieri’s argument that Soyuzmultflm revolution. As a writer, Mayakovsky was an produced cartoons for a variety of audiences.42 extremely vocal supporter of revolutionary ideals This centralized agency was created to strengthen and wrote many propagandistic verses, which state control over the production of flms.43 With the were meant to support and reinforce the spirit of creation of this centralized group, individual artists the revolution.50 Although Mayakovsky committed came under the direct control of the state and had suicide in 1930 as a response to Socialist Realist less artistic license.44 The Brumberg sisters, the policies, his works remain representative of the directors of The Three Fat Men, said to be “old revolution.51 This violent response to Socialist enough to have studied with Mayakovsky,” were Realism may be representative of Mayakovsky’s extremely active in Soyuzmultflm, directing more intense rejection of this form of art, and the return than forty flms in their ffty years at the studio.45 to Mayakovsky as an acceptable inspiration for Directors at Soyuzmultflm, such as the Brumbergs, state sponsored propaganda in the 1960s may be had to be aware that “cartoons, for all their fun, demonstrative of a movement away from Socialist were in harmony with the methods of constant Realism. revolution.”46 Although the production of children’s cartoons appeared to be an innocent occupation, Read this and Travel is a flm encouraging they needed to conform to the ideology of the time, communist children to travel around the world, as was true for all culture in the Soviet Union. spreading positive ideals and values, such as peace, friendship, and solidarity. Films such as

13 these, attempting to educate children on ideal atmosphere. In 1960, the year of release of Read socialist principles, were common during the time this and Travel, tensions had risen between the two of The Thaw.52 Although Read this and Travel countries over political decisions made by Mao, appears to be advocating for peace and harmony, resulting in the withdrawal of Russian specialists it is unclear which ideology will provide the setting from China.59 However, the relations between the for this peaceful world. The flm ends with children Soviet Union and China remained smooth until joining hands around the globe with a dove in the the end of 1962.60 Therefore, it would be logical centre, signifying a world of peace, but the ideology for the cartoon to downplay any tension between that this world will be formed through can be derived the two countries and focus on the concept of by inference only.53 This portion of the cartoon may internationalism, or the idea of socialist “friendship” be connected to the global revolutions during the and interconnectedness.61 In the cartoon, just as sixties, which caused both the United States and in policy, the Soviet Union attempted to play the USSR to scramble for patronage. It is also refective role of an elderly brother, guiding other socialist of the increase in tourism during the sixties. In this countries along the “right” ideological path. era, the Soviet Union used transnational contact as a fundamental part of the struggle for international A further characteristic of the Soviet sixties hegemony that was central to the Cold War.54 that is represented in Read this and Travel is the This transnational contact consisted of cultural, proliferation of tourism. The tourism industry began political, and technological exchange, both with to bourgeon in the 1960s, and the Soviet Union Soviet satellite states and with the West.55 In the did not escape from the infuence of this new form cartoon, the children are shown spreading socialist of leisure.62 The cartoon itself is advocating for an ideals, which eventually supplant other “inferior” increase in tourism, something that would not have ideologies. Through transnational contact, the occurred in the strictly isolationist times of Stalin positive ideology of socialism is spread across the following the Second World War.63 Not only was globe and creates a world that is united through tourism seen as a form of education and leisure brotherly love, harmony, and most importantly, at this time but it “also allowed ordinary people socialism. This also ties into the concept of to engage in frsthand observation and even socialist internationalism, which was linked with diplomacy.”64 the desire of the Soviet Union to appear supportive of newly established socialist states.56 This image The concept of diplomacy through of socialist internationalism is more clearly shown travel is clear throughout the cartoon, as the in the interactions between the travelling children Soviet children make their way around the world and their Chinese “brothers” that will be discussed spreading peace, love, and other morally positive below. “diplomatic” principles. The role of the Soviet youth as a tourist-ambassador, or acting as a role model, The portrayal of China as a “brother” of the was a common perception as travel became Soviet Union may be representative of the concept more frequent.65 During the sixties, Soviet tourism of Soviet internationalism, which was espoused in was encouraged by a sense of exploration and the sixties, although the Sino-Soviet Split was fast education, but also of expansion and control.66 approaching. The industrial landscape of China is These ideals can be seen in the cartoon: the glorifed and praised, compared to the landscape children are not only learning about the Western of America, which is represented as negative and world, but are attempting to insert their own ideology cacophonous.57 Furthermore, Chinese children into the lives of the people they meet. The transfer are greeted as “brothers” by the traveling Russian of ideologies is most clearly seen when the Soviet youth.58 This representation was being received children travel to America. When encountering amid a turbulent, but not yet critical, political American children holding a racist and divisive

14 book, the Soviet children take the opportunity to fgure than Mayakovsky, and the reasons behind the spread Soviet values by exchanging the American use of his short story as inspiration for a children’s book for a Soviet one, espousing fraternal love and show are more ambiguous. Olesha’s writing was friendship.67 Throughout the cartoon, the insertion banned during Stalin’s lifetime as it was deemed of Soviet values occur through the simplest of too individualistic to be supportive of the Socialist interactions – children meeting other children state.75 However, Olesha was rehabilitated by the through leisure and travel. state with Khrushchev’s ascendancy to power. As with Mayakovsky, it is possible that the use of This cartoon may also have connections to Olesha’s writing for a state-sanctioned production the global trend of world revolution in the 1960s, can be representative of a shift in the arts from a which corresponded with decolonization. The limited and restricted methodology towards a more reference to countries in turmoil during the time open and accepting one. of production, such as Japan, suggests the flm encouraged global revolutionary movements. In the The Three Fat Men is a story about the flm, the children travel past Japan.68 The Japanese October Revolution, a coup d’état that saw the are shown as hard-working, a trait that the Soviet overthrow of the Provisional Government by the Union valued highly as representative of the ideal Lenin-led Bolshevik proletariats. The cartoon communist individual.69 A child is shown writing the glorifes the Revolution as an event central to word “mir” on a wall, which can be translated both the Soviet Union’s collective memory. The story into “peace” and “world.”70 The labour of the adults underlines the interconnectedness between the and the desire for peace by the child occur while event as a revolutionary movement and the global a nearby volcano explodes in the background, revolutions occurring in other jurisdictions during creating an atmosphere of violence, chaos, and the sixties. As in the case of Japan, the sixties were instability.71 The volcano can be refective of the a time of global unrest and decolonization, which political atmosphere of Japan at the time. Protest led both the United States and the Soviet Union in Japan was widespread during the late 1950s to compete for the patronage of other decolonizing and reached a peak in 1960.72 These protests were countries.76 Still, there was a sense of competition connected to the US-Japan security treaty.73 At the in countries with frmly rooted ideologies. Globally, time, many believed communism would prevail in capitalist countries showed dissatisfaction with the Japan over the United States, a country resented prevalent ideology of the time. There was a sense because of post-war occupation.74 The scene of that change was coming, and that this change chaos in the cartoon may represent scenes of may fnally be in the form of a world-wide socialist protest and revolution in Japan and other non- revolution. There was also competition within the aligned countries while depicting the struggle as socialist system itself, as previously discussed in inclusive of youth and relevant to children watching. relation to the Sino-Soviet Split. The Three Fat This encouragement of global revolution also aligns Men was produced in 1963 and in mid-1962, Mao with the sixties spirit of competition for patronage denounced the Soviet Union, calling it “revisionist” of third-world societies. Both the Soviet Union and and “counter-revolutionary.”77 This deterioration of the United States were attempting to secure the Sino-Soviet relations may have caused the Soviet patronage of decolonizing countries and, in the Union to represent itself as a “true” socialist country case of the Soviet Union, countries that showed compared to China. By glorifying the October frustration with negative aspects of American rule Revolution, an event that in reality was not very and capitalism. romantic, the Soviet Union attempted to legitimize itself as a truly Soviet State, worthy of acting as The Three Fat Men is based on a story written China’s “elder brother,” as it had in the past. by Yuri Olesha. Olesha is a more controversial

15 The Three Fat Men, through its glorifcation many cartoons were produced during this period, of revolution, bolsters many of the ideals these two animated children’s flms were chosen represented in Read this and Travel. Read this because of their striking similarities and their overt and Travel depicted the Soviet Union as a role differences. Both cartoons can be representative model for socialist countries through diplomatic of the struggle for patronage and hegemony that tourism to the West and interaction with other occurred throughout the 1960s, however The Socialist countries.78 The Three Fat Man may have Three Fat Men focuses on the heroic past of the attempted to expand upon these ideals by turning to Soviet Union while Read this and Travel focuses on the Soviet history to legitimize this role. As the frst a bright, utopian future. socialist country, and a country founded through a glorious revolution as depicted in the two battles in Furthermore, the policies of Khrushchev the cartoon The Three Fat Men, the Soviet Union may have infuenced the tone and texture of the legitimizes its leadership role: a role which contested sixties in the Soviet Union. Khrushchev’s open during the sixties through the Sino-Soviet Split.79 policies permitted the advent of The Thaw, which Furthermore, this is representative, once more, of helped many aspects of the sixties to come to fruition the concept suggestively expressed in Read this in the Soviet Union. Khrushchev also allowed for and Travel of socialist internationalism. In this way, greater individuality and a unique brand of Soviet The Three Fat Men attempted to promote Soviet- consumerism that helped facilitate the viewing of styled socialist history to other socialist countries cartoons by individuals across the Soviet Union. in another attempt to connect all socialist countries under one infuence. The two cartoons discussed may be interpreted as representative of several aspects of The underlying purpose and objective of the Soviet sixties. These characteristics include the these cartoons and their explicit narratives can concept of socialist internationalism, competition tell historians many things, but they are often and patronage both within and outside of the overlooked because they are seen as “[…] innocent socialist system, and an increase in travel and of ideology and thus something that deals with the tourism. These ideas both exist individually and human rather than the political.”80 From the two in tandem. Because of an increase in travel, the cartoons Read this and Travel and The Three Fat concept of socialist internationalism came into Men the viewer can see, subtly, several aspects force: individuals from socialist countries all over of the era of the sixties: an increase in travel, the globe could travel and visit the Soviet Union awareness of world revolution, and competition and spread socialist ideas. As seen in Read this both globally as a result of the Cold War and within and Travel, individuals from the Soviet Union were the socialist system itself. These themes may have given the opportunity to travel to China and see been imbedded intentionally as part of calculated a different brand of socialism, unique from the propaganda, or unintentionally as symptomatic one they fashioned. Although the two animated of the spirit of the 1960s. As a part of a larger features answer many questions concerning the propagandistic enterprise, these cartoons act as atmosphere and aspect of the Soviet sixties, they exemplars in examining how children would have beg the question concerning the true nature and learned about the system they were a part of and quality of Soviet socialism during that time, as how the 1960s produced a unique sense of identity some questions cannot be answered by ‘innocent’ and awareness in the Soviet Union. imagery on the television screen.

The two cartoons Read this and Travel and ENDNOTES: The Three Fat Men can tell the viewer much about 1. Red Head, Read Head, Freckle Face (Рыжий the spirit of the sixties in the Soviet Union. Although Рыжий, Конопатый), directed by Leonid Nosyrev

16 (1971; Moscow: Soyuzmultflm). 16. The meteorological metaphor of “The Thaw” 2. Denis Kozlov and Eleonory Gilburd, “The Thaw has been extended to explain the cyclical nature as an Event in Russian History,” in The Thaw: of Khrushchev’s liberalization policies. These Soviet Society and Culture During the 1950s and cycles became known as successive “thaws” 1960s, ed. Denis Kozlov and Eleonory Gilburd and “freezes.” Khrushchev’s policies were often (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 31. uneven, allowing for unstable liberalization and 3. Anne Gorsuch and Diane Koenker, reform, especially in arts and culture. As Kozlov “Introduction: The Socialist 1960s in Global and Gilburd have noted in the introduction to their Perspective,” in The Socialist Sixties: Crossing collection, “Weather metaphors suggest instability Borders in the Second World, ed. Anne Gorsuch and unpredictability.” See Kozlov and Gilburd, and Diane Koenker (Bloomington: Indiana “The Thaw as an Event in Russian History,” in The University Press, 2013), 1, 6. Thaw, 21; Pontieri, Soviet Animation and the Thaw 4. Natalie Kononenko, “The Politics of Innocence: of the 1960s, 52. Soviet and Post-Soviet Animation on Folklore 17. Nikita Khrushchev, “Some Fundamental topics,” The Journal of American Folklore 124, no. Questions of Present-Day International 494 (2011): 273. Development,” in Documents of Modern Political 5. Brigit Beumers, “Comforting Creatures in Thought, ed. Thomas E. Utley and Stuart Maclure Children’s Cartoons,” in Russian Children’s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957), Literature and Culture, ed. Marina Balina and 167. Larissa Rudova (New York: Routledge, 2008), 18. Ibid. 154. 19. Ibid., 168. 6. Kononenko, “The Politics of Innocence,” 273. 20. Ibid., 172. 7. Ibid., 275. 21. Anne Gorsuch, “Time Travelers: Soviet 8. Laura Pontieri, Soviet Animation and The Thaw Tourists to Eastern Europe,” in Turizm: The of the 1960s: Not Only for Children (New Barnet: Russian and East European Tourist Under John Libbey Publishing Ltd., 2012), 4. Capitalism and Socialism, ed. Anne Gorsuch and 9. Ibid., 85. Diane Koenker (New York: Cornell University 10. Ibid. Press, 2006), 205. 11. David MacFadyen, Yellow Crocodiles and 22. MacFadyen, Yellow Crocodiles and Blue Blue Oranges: Russian Animated Film since Oranges, 143. World War II (Canada: McGill-Queen’s University 23. Ibid. Press, 2005), 87. 24. Kristin Roth-Ey, “Finding a Home for 12. Pontieri, Soviet Animation and The Thaw, 4. Television in the USSR, 1950-1970,” Slavic 13. The phrase “thaw” was coined by the Soviet Review 66, no. 2 (2007): 279. publicist Ilya Ehrenberg in 1954. The term, which 25. Ibid., 281. was the title of Ehrenberg’s novel, soon began to 26. Gorsuch and Koenker, “Introduction,” in The represent the spirit of liberalization many believed Socialist Sixties, ed. Gorsuch and Koenker, 11. Khrushchev represented. See Kozlov and Gilburd, 27. Kononenko, “The Politics of Innocence,” 275. “The Thaw as an Event in Russian History,” in The 28. Mihelj, “The Politics of Privatization,” in The Thaw, 18. Socialist Sixties, ed. Gorsuch and Koenker, 352. 14. Ibid., 29. 29. Kononenko, “The Politics of Innocence,” 275. 15. Sabina Mihelj, “The Politics of Privatization: 30. Mihelj, “The Politics of Privatization,” in The Television Entertainment and the Yugoslav Socialist Sixties, ed. Gorsuch and Koenker, 253. Sixties,” in The Socialist Sixties: Crossing Borders 31. Roth-Ey, “Finding a Home for Television in the in the Second World, ed. Anne Gorsuch and USSR,” 282. Diane Koenker (Bloomington: Indiana University 32. Ibid., 303. Press, 2013), 252. 33. Mihelj, “The Politics of Privatization,” in The

17 Socialist Sixties, 252. 59. Mingjiang Li, “Ideological dilemma: Mao’s 34. Roth-Ey, “Finding a Home for Television in the China and the Sino Soviet Split,” Cold War History USSR,” 288. 11, no. 3 (2011): 390. 35. MacFadyen, Yellow Crocodiles and Blue 60. Ibid., 391. Oranges, 105. 61. Applebaum, “Friendship Project,” 485. 36. Ibid., 108. 62. Gorsuch and Koenker, “Introduction,” in The 37. Ibid., 124. Socialist Sixties, ed. Gorsuch and Koenker, 6. 38. Ibid., 109. 63. Gorsuch, “Time Travelers,” in Turizm, ed. 39. Ibid., 108. Gorsuch and Koenker, 205. 40. Ibid. 64. Gorsuch and Koenker, “Introduction,” in The 41. Pontieri, Soviet Animation and The Thaw, 41. Socialist Sixties, 15. 42. Ibid. 65. Ibid. 43. Ibid. 66. Gorsuch, “Time Travelers,” in Turizm, ed. 44. Ibid. Gorsuch and Koenker, 205. 45. MacFadyen, Yellow Crocodiles and Blue 67. Read this and Travel to Paris and China Oranges, 87; Pontieri, Soviet Animation and The (Прочти и Катай в Париж и Китай), 5:54-6:15. Thaw, 84. 68. Read this and Travel to Paris and China 46. MacFadyen, Yellow Crocodiles and Blue (Прочти и Катай в Париж и Китай), 6:55-7:37. Oranges, 87. 69. Ibid., 7:27-7:59. 47. Thomas Lahusen, “Socialist Realism 70. Ibid., 7:34-7:36. (Soviet),” in Literature and Politics Today: The 71. Ibid., 7:18 Political Nature of Modern Fiction, Poetry, and 72. William Marotti, “Political aesthetics: activism, Drama, ed. M. Keith Booker (California: ABC- everyday life, and art’s object in 1960s’ Japan,” CLIO, LLC, 2015), 302. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 7, no. 4 (2006): 606. 48. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 49. Ibid. 74. Ibid. 50. Derek Maus, “Mayakovsky, Vladimir (1893- 75. Victor Peppard, “Yuri (Karlovich) Olesha,” in 1930),” in Literature and Politics Today: The Dictionary of Literary Biography: Russian Prose Political Nature of Modern Fiction, Poetry, and Writers Between the World Wars, ed. Christine Drama, ed. M. Keith Booker (California: ABC- Rydel, vol. 272 (Detroit: Gale, 2003). http:// CLIO, LLC, 2015), 200. go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/ps/i. 51. Ibid., 201. 52. Pontieri, Soviet Animation and The Thaw of BIBLIOGRAPHY: the 1960s, 56. Filmography 53. Read this and Travel to Paris and China (Прочти и Катай в Париж и Китай), directed Brumberg, Valentina and Zinaida Brumberg, dir. by Anatoly Karanovich and Teodor Bunimovich The Three Fat Men (Три Толстяка). 1963; (1960; Moscow: Soyuzmultflm), 8:48. Moscow: Soyuzmultflm. 54. Rachel Applebaum, “The Friendship Project: Socialist Internationalism in the Soviet Union and Karanovich, Anatoly and Teodor Bunimovich, dir. Czechoslovakia in the 1950s and 1960s,” Slavic Read this and Travel to Paris and China Review 74, no. 3 (2015): 486. (Прочти и Катай в Париж и Китай). 55. Ibid. 1960; Moscow: Soyuzmultflm. 56. Ibid., 485. 57. Read this and Travel to Paris and China Nosyrev, Leonid, dir. Рыжий Рыжий, Конопатый (Прочти и Катай в Париж и Китай), 7:45-7:59. (Red Head, Read Head, Freckle Face). 58. Ibid., 8:04. 1971; Moscow: Soyuzmultflm.

18 Soviet Society and Culture during the Primary Sources 1950s and 1960s, edited by Denis Kozlov and Eleonory Gilburd, 18-81. Toronto: Khrushchev, Nikita. “Some Fundamental Questions University of Toronto Press, 2013. of Present-Day International Development.” In Documents of Modern Political Thought, Lahusen, Thomas. “Socialist Realism (Soviet).” In edited by Thomas E. Utley and Stuart Literature and Politics Today: The Political Maclure, 166-173. Cambridge: Cambridge Nature of Modern Fiction, Poetry, and University Press, 1957. Drama, edited by M. Keith Booker, 302- 311. California: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2015. Secondary Sources Li, Mingjiang. “Ideological dilemma: Mao’s China Applebaum, Rachel. “The Friendship Project: and the Sino-Soviet Split.” Cold War History Socialist Internationalism in the Soviet 11, no. 3 (2011): 387-419. Union and Czechoslovakia in the 1950s and 1960s.” Slavic Review 64, no. 3 (2015): MacFadyen, David. Yellow Crocodiles and Blue 484-507. Oranges: Russian Animated Film since World War II. Canada: McGill-Queen’s Beumers, Brigit. “Comforting Creatures in University Press, 2005. Children’s Cartoons.” In Russian Children’s Literature and Culture, edited by Marina Marotti, William. “Political aesthetics: activism, Balina and Larissa Rudova, 153-171. New everyday life, and art’s object in 1960s’ York: Routledge, 2008. Japan.” Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 7, no. 4 (2006): 606-618. Gorsuch, Anne, and Diane Koenker. “Introduction: The Socialist 1960s in Global Perspective.” Maus, Derek. “Mayakovsky, Vladimir (1893- In The Socialist Sixties: Crossing Borders 1930).” In Literature and Politics Today: in the Second World, edited by Anne The Political Nature of Modern Fiction, Gorsuch and Diane Koenker, 1-21. Poetry, and Drama, edited by M. Keith Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Booker, 200-201. California: ABC-CLIO, 2013. LLC, 2015.

Gorsuch, Anne. “Time Travelers: Soviet Tourists Mihelj, Sabina. “The Politics of Privatization: to Eastern Europe.” In Turizm: The Television Entertainment and the Yugoslav Russian and East European Tourist Under Sixties.” In The Socialist Sixties: Crossing Capitalism and Socialism, edited by Anne Borders in the Second World, edited by Gorsuch and Diane Koenker, 205-226. Anne Gorsuch and Diane Koenker, 251- New York: Cornell University Press, 2006. 267. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013. Kononenko, Natalie. “The Politics of Innocence: Soviet and Post-Soviet Animation on Peppard, Victor. “Yuri (Karlovich) Olesha.” in Folklore topics.” The Journal of American Dictionary of Literary Biography: Russian Folklore 124, no. 494 (2011): 272-294. Prose Writers Between the World Wars, edited by Christine Rydel, Vol. 272. Detroit: Kozlov, Denis and Eleonory Gilburd. “The Thaw as Gale, 2003. http://go.galegroup.com. an Event in Russian History.” In The Thaw: ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/ps/i.

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