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Measurements MEASUREMENTS For ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS SYLLABUS Measurement concept, Classification of Measurement, Types of errors & Standard Measurement technics Analog Circuits, Measurement of Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance, Bridge Measurement, Concept of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, CRO, Volt meter & Frequency measurement, ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS Electrical Engineering Instrumentation Engineering 1 Mark 2 Mark 1 Mark 2 Mark Exam Year Ques. Ques. Total Ques. Ques. Total 2003 3 8 19 5 4 13 2004 3 7 17 5 9 23 2005 3 5 13 3 7 17 2006 2 4 10 2 5 12 2007 1 1 3 3 4 11 2008 1 2 5 2 6 14 2009 2 2 6 3 3 9 2010 2 1 4 4 4 12 2011 3 1 5 - 3 6 2012 3 1 5 3 1 5 2013 2 1 4 - 2 4 2014 Set-1 2 2 6 1 1 3 2014 Set-2 2 2 6 2014 Set-3 2 2 6 2015 Set-1 2 1 4 2 2 6 2015 Set-2 3 7 17 2016 Set-1 0 0 0 4 3 10 2016 Set-2 1 2 5 2017 Set-1 2 2 6 2 4 10 2017 Set-2 2 1 4 2018 2 1 4 2 4 10 © Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission CONTENTS Topics Page No 1. CHARACTERISTIC, ERRORS & STANDARDS 1.1 Measurements 01 1.2 Classification of Instruments 01 1.3 Types of Errors 04 1.4 Standards 05 Gate Questions 07 2. ANALOG INSTRUMENTS 2.1 Introduction 09 2.2 Indication Instrument 09 2.3 Types of Supports 11 2.4 Damping Forces 12 2.5 Electromechanical Indicating Instruments 13 2.6 PMMC Instruments 13 2.7 DC Ammeters 14 2.8 Voltmeter Multipliers 15 2.9 Moving Iron Instruments 16 2.10 Classification of Moving Iron Instruments 17 2.11 Electrodynamometer Type 18 2.12 Measurement of Power and Energy 22 Gate Questions 29 3. MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE & CAPACITANCE 3.1 Classification of Resistance 47 3.2 Different Method of Measurement 47 3.3 Types of Ohmmeter 47 3.4 Bridge Measurement 48 3.5 A.C Bridges 52 3.6 Measurement of Capacitance 55 3.7 Measurement of Frequency 56 Gate Questions 58 4. CATHOD RAY OSCILLOSCOPE 4.1 Capacitance Measurement 68 4.2 CRT 68 4.3 Expression of Electrostatic Deflection 69 4.4 Measurement Using CRO 69 4.5 Measurement of Frequency 71 © Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 4.6 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 72 4.7 Vertical Input and Sweep Generator Signal 73 4.8 Blanking Circuit 74 Gate Questions 76 5. MISCELLANEOUS 5.1 Digital Voltmeters 85 5.2 Successive-Approximations Conversion 86 5.3 Digital Voltmeters 87 5.4 RAMP Technique 87 5.5 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM 88 5.6 Successive Approximations 89 5.7 Resolutions and Sensitivity of Digital Meters 90 5.8 Block Diagram of SA DVM 90 Gate Questions 92 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 95 © Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 1 CHARACTERISTIC, ERRORS & STANDARDS 1.1 MEASUREMENTS Summarizing, it may be stated that in general electronic instruments have The measurement of a given quantity is i) a higher sensitivity essentially an act or the result of ii) a faster response comparison between the quantity and a iii) a greater flexibility predefined standard. Since two quantities iv) lower weight are compared, the result is expressed in v) lower power consumption numerical values. vi) a higher degree of reliability than their mechanical or purely electrical 1.1.1 METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS. counterparts. i) Direct Methods and 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS ii) Indirect Methods i) Absolute Instruments Direct Methods:- In these methods, the ii) Secondary Instruments. unknown quantity is directly compared against a standard. The result is expressed 1. Absolute Instruments. These as a numerical number and a unit Direct instruments give the magnitude of the methods are quite common for the quantity under measurement in terms measurement of physical quantities like of physical constants of the instrument. length, mass and time. The examples of this class of instruments are Tangent Galvanometer Indirect Methods:- Measurement by direct and Rayleigh’s Current Balance. methods are not always possible, feasible 2. Secondary Instruments. These and practicable. Then measurement is done instruments are so constructed that the by measuring Instruments. quantity being measured can only be measured by observing the output Instruments and Measurement indicated by the instrument. These Systems:- Measurements involve the use instruments are calibrated by of instruments as a physical means of comparison with an absolute instrument determining quantities or variables. or another secondary instrument which The earliest scientific instruments used the has already been calibrated against an same three essential elements as our absolute instrument. modern instruments do. These elements are: 1.2.1 DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE i) a detector INSTRUMENTS. ii) an intermediate transfer device iii) an indicator, recorder or a storage Deflection Type:- The instruments of this device. type, the deflection of the instrument The history of development of instruments provides a basis for determining the encompasses three phases of instruments, quantity under measurement. The vis.: measured quantity produces some physical i) mechanical instruments effect with deflects or produces a ii) electrical instruments mechanical displacement of the moving iii) electronic instruments. system of the instrument. © Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission NULL TYPE:- In a null type of instrument, a personnel handling the instrument or the zero or null indication leads to system for monitoring, control, or analysis determination of the magnitude of purposes. The information conveyed must measured quantity. The null condition is be in a form intelligible to the personnel or dependent upon some other known to the intelligent instrumentation system. conditions. Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems Comparison of Deflection and Null Type (i) Static characteristics, and Instruments (ii) Dynamic characteristics. i) Null type of instruments are more Static Characteristics. The main static accurate than deflection type characteristics discussed here are: instruments. i) Accuracy ii) Null type instruments can be highly ii) Sensitivity sensitive as compared with deflection iii) Reproducibility type instruments iv) Drift iii) Deflection type of instruments are more v) Static error suited for measurements under vi) Dead Zone dynamic conditions than null type of instruments whose intrinsic response is The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable, slower. while qualities (iv), (v) and (vi) are undesirable. Applications of Measurement systems. Static Error: The most important i) Monitoring of processes and operations, characteristic of an instrument of ii) Control of processes and operations, and measurement system is its accuracy, the iii) Experimental Engineering analysis. accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of its error. Elements of a Generalized Measurement Static error is defined as the difference System. between the measured value and the true 1. Primary sensing element, value of the quantity. Then: 2. Variable conversion element, A = Am -At 3. Data presentation element. the ratio of absolute static error A to At, the true value of the quantity under Primary Sensing Element: A transducer is measurement. Therefore, the relative static defined as a device which converts a errorr, is given by: physical quantity into an electrical absoluteerror A 0 quantity. r= = = true value At At Variable Conversion Element: The At = Am (1- r) output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form. It may be Accuracy: It is the closeness with which an necessary to convert this output to some instrument reading approaches the true other suitable form while preserving the value of the quantity being measured. Thus information content of the original signal. accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth. Data Presentation Element: The information about the quantity under Precision: It is a measure of the measurement has to be conveyed to the reproducibility of the measurements, the © Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission term ‘Precise’ means clearly or sharply 1 Resolution = scale division = 2 defined. 10 A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 7 =0.2 V in the unknown arm of the bridge to produce a change in deflection of 3mm of Example A digital voltmeter has a read- the galvanometer. out range from 0 to 9,999 counts. magnitudeof output response Determine the resolution of the instrument Sensitivity= magnitudeof input in volt when the full scale reading is 9.999 V. 3mm Solution. The resolution of this instrument = = 0.429 mm/ is 1 or 1 count in 9,999. 7 1 Inverse sensitivity or scale factor = Resolution = count = magnitudeof input 7 9999 = = 2.33 9.999 volt = 10-3 V = 1 mV. magnitudeof output response 3mm /mm Loading Effects: The ideal situation in a measurement system is that when an Linearity: One of the best characteristics of element used for any purpose may be for an instrument or a measurement system is signal sensing, conditioning, transmission considered to be linearity, that is, the or detection is introduced into the system, output is linearly proportional to the input. the original signal should remain un- distorted. This means that the original Dead Time: Dead time is defined as the signal should not be distorted in any form time required by a measurement system to by introduction of any element in the begin to respond to a change in the measurement system. However, under measured. practical conditions in extraction of energy from the system thereby distorting the Dead Zone: It is defined as the largest original signal.
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