FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

he Germanic tribes, which probably originated from a mixture of peoples along the Baltic “TSea coast, inhabited the northern part of the European continent by about 500 B.C. By 100 B.C., they had advanced into the central and southern areas of present-day . At that time, there were three major tribal groups: the eastern lived along the Oder and Vistula rivers; the northern Germanic peoples inhabited the southern part of present-day Scandinavia; and the western Germanic peoples inhabited the extreme south of Jutland and the area between the North Sea and the Elbe, Rhine, and Main rivers. The Rhine provided a temporary boundary between Germanic and Roman territory after the defeat of the Suevian tribe by Julius Caesar about 70 B.C. The threatening presence of warlike tribesDelivered beyond by Ingenta IP: 192.168.39.151 On: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 00:29:27 the Rhine prompted theCopyright: Romans Americanto pursue aSociety campaign for Photogrammetry of and Remote Sensing expansion into Germanic territory. However, the defeat of the provincial governor Varus by at the Battle of the in A.D. 9 halted Roman expansion;

Arminius had learned the enemy’s strategies during his “One of the largest Germanic tribes, the Franks, came to military training in the Roman armies. This battle brought control the territory that was to become France and much of about the liberation of the greater part of Germany from what is now western Germany and Italy. In A.D. 800 their ruler, Roman domination. The Rhine River was once again the Charlemagne, was crowned in Rome by the pope as emperor boundary line until the Romans reoccupied territory on of all of this territory. Because of its vastness, Charlemagne’s its eastern bank and built the Limes, a fortification 300 empire split into three kingdoms within two generations, kilometers long, in the first centuryA.D. the inhabitants of the West Frankish Kingdom speaking an “The second through the sixth centuries was a period early form of French and those in the East Frankish Kingdom of change and destruction in which eastern and western speaking an early form of German. The tribes of the eastern Germanic tribes left their native lands and settled in newly kingdom--Franconians, Saxons, Bavarians, Swabians, and acquired territories. This period of Germanic history, which several others--were ruled by descendants of Charlemagne later supplied material for heroic epics, included the downfall until 911, when they elected a Franconian, Conrad I, to be of the and resulted in a considerable expansion their king. Some historians regard Conrad’s election as the of habitable area for the Germanic peoples. However, with the beginning of what can properly be considered German history. exception of those kingdoms established by Franks and Anglo- “German kings soon added the Middle Kingdom to their Saxons, Germanic kingdoms founded in such other parts of realm and adjudged themselves rulers of what would later Europe as Italy and Spain were of relatively short duration because they were assimilated by the native populations. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing The conquest of Roman Gaul by Frankish tribes in the late Vol. 81, No. 6, June 2015, pp. 435–439. 0099-1112/15/435–439 fifth century became a milestone of European history; it was © 2015 American Society for Photogrammetry the Franks who were to become the founders of a civilized and Remote Sensing German state. doi: 10.14358/PERS.81.6.435

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June 2015 Layout.indd 435 5/20/2015 1:58:59 PM be called the . In 962 Otto I became the the main social groups. Roman Catholic and socialist parties first of the German kings crowned emperor in Rome. By the contended with conservative and progressive parties and middle of the next century, the German lands ruled by the with a conservative monarchy to determine how Germany emperors were the richest and most politically powerful part should be governed. of Europe. German princes stopped the westward advances “After Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890 by the young emperor of the Magyar tribe, and Germans began moving eastward Wilhelm II, Germany stepped up its competition with other to begin a long process of colonization. During the next few European states for colonies and for what it considered centuries, however, the great expense of the wars to maintain its proper place among the great states. An aggressive the empire against its enemies, chiefly other German program of military expansion instilled fear of Germany princes and the wealthy and powerful papacy and its allies, in its neighbors. Several decades of military and colonial depleted Germany’s wealth and slowed its development. competition and a number of diplomatic crises made for Unlike France or England, where a central royal power was a tense international atmosphere by 1914. In the early slowly established over regional princes, Germany remained summer of that year, Germany’s rulers acted on the belief divided into a multitude of smaller entities often warring that their country’s survival depended on a successful war with one another or in combinations against the emperors. against Russia and France. German strategists felt that a None of the local princes, or any of the emperors, were strong war against these countries had to be waged by 1916 if it enough to control Germany for a sustained period. were to be won because after that year Russian and French “Germany’s so-called particularism, that is, the existence military reforms would be complete, making German victory within it of many states of various sizes and kinds, such as doubtful. This logic led Germany to get drawn into a war principalities, electorates, ecclesiastical territories, and free between its ally Austria-Hungary and Russia. Within weeks, cities, became characteristic by the early Middle Ages and a complicated system of alliances escalated that regional persisted until 1871, when the country was finally united. conflict into , which ended with Germany’s This disunity was exacerbated by the Protestant Reformation defeat in November 1918. of the sixteenth century, which ended Germany’s religious “The , established at war’s end, was unity by converting many Germans to Lutheranism and the first attempt to institute parliamentary democracy in Calvinism. For several centuries, adherents to these two Germany. The republic never enjoyed the wholehearted varieties of Protestantism viewed each other with as much support of many Germans, however, and from the start it Delivered by Ingenta hostility and suspicion as they did RomanIP: 192.168.39.151 Catholics. For On: Sat,was 02 under Oct 2021savage 00:29:27 attack from elements of the left and, more their part, Catholics frequentlyCopyright: resorted American to force Society to defend for Photogrammetryimportant, from and the Remote right. Moreover, Sensing it was burdened during themselves against Protestants or to convert them. As a its fifteen-year existence with serious economic problems. result, Germans were divided not only by territory but also During the second half of the 1920s, when foreign loans by religion. fed German prosperity, parliamentary politics functioned “The terrible destruction of the Thirty Years’ War of 1618- better, yet many of the established elites remained hostile 48, a war partially religious in nature, reduced German to it. With the onset of the Great Depression, parliamentary particularism, as did the reforms enacted during the age of politics became impossible, and the government ruled by enlightened absolutism (1648-1789) and later the growth of decree. Economic crisis favored extremist politicians, and and industrialism in the nineteenth century. ’s National Socialist German Workers’ Party In 1815 the stipulated that the several became the strongest party after the summer elections of hundred states existing in Germany before the French 1932. In January 1933, the republic’s elected president, Paul Revolution be replaced with thirty-eight states, some of von Hindenburg, the World War I army commander, named them quite small. In subsequent decades, the two largest a government headed by Hitler. of these states, Austria and , vied for primacy in a “Within a few months, Hitler accomplished the “legal Germany that was gradually unifying under a variety of revolution” that removed his opponents. By 1935 his regime social and economic pressures. The politician responsible for had transformed Germany into a totalitarian state. Hitler German unification was , whose brilliant achieved notable economic and diplomatic successes during diplomacy and ruthless practice of statecraft secured the first five years of his rule. However, in September 1939 Prussian hegemony in a united Germany in 1871. The he made a fatal gamble by invading Poland and starting new state, proclaimed the , did not include World War II. The eventual defeat of Hitler’s Third Reich Austria and its extensive empire of many non-German in 1945 occurred only after the loss of tens of millions of territories and peoples. lives, many from military causes, many from sickness and “Imperial Germany prospered. Its economy grew rapidly, starvation, and many from what has come to be called the and by the turn of the century it rivaled Britain’s in size. Holocaust. Germany was united on October 3, 1990” (Library Although the empire’s constitution did not provide for a of Congress Country Study, 2015). political system in which the government was responsible to Germany is bordered by Austria (801 km) (PE&RS, March parliament, political parties were founded that represented 2004), Belgium (133 km) (PE&RS, October 1998), Czech

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June 2015 Layout.indd 436 5/20/2015 12:49:55 PM Republic (704 km) (PE&RS, January 2000), Denmark (140 Departments of the various States, which were still to be km) (PE&RS, November 2006), France (418 km) (PE&RS, maintained as separate entities, were therefore enjoined to January 2001), Luxembourg (128 km) (PE&RS, November employ a simplified solution of the problem, in which only the 2005), Netherlands (575 km) (PE&RS, February 2003), specially disturbing errors of the older parts of the network Poland (467 km) (PE&RS, September 2000), and Switzerland were to be eradicated and the bulk of the existing network (348 km) (PE&RS, August 2001). The terrain has lowlands preserved intact. In this process the chains and networks in the north, uplands in the center, and Bavarian Alps in of the Prußischen Landesaufnahme lying West of the 13th the south. The lowest point in Germany is Neuwndorf bei Meridian, and the West and east Prussian networks were to Wilster (-3.54 m), and the highest point is Zugspitze (2,963 be left undisturbed and joined by the modern chain between m) (WorldFactbook, 2015). Berlin and Schubin bases, which was to be freshly adjusted. The following is taken verbatim from The Western The remainder of the triangulations of the Reich were to be European Datums by Jacob A. Wolkeau of Army Map joined to the above system and the Prussian Geographical Service, (unpublished manuscript, circa 1950). “The Coordinate system and datum adopted for the whole of the survey and mapping position of pre-war Germany presented Reich. even greater complexities than were to be found in “The origin of the national survey of Prussia completed France. Practically each German State had its own Survey in 1859 was the old Observatory at Enckeplatz, Berlin. The Department with its own triangulation and mapping system. accepted values for the latitude and longitude were: Φo = 52° The triangulations were based on different origins computed 30′ 16.68′′ N, Λo = 13° 23′ 55.23′′ (East of Greenwich). The on different figures of the earth, and, in general, unconnected longitudes of the Prussian Survey were referred to the across the frontiers of the States. The maps were reproduced Island of Ferro in the Canaries and the Meridian of Ferro on a variety of projections and with no common system of was conventionally fixed as 20° West of Paris. The new symbols or methods of showing relief, and moreover, at the fundamental azimuth obtained from the adjustment of the frontiers, sheets did not include detail in adjoining States. Berlin-Schubin chains the line Potsdam-Golmberg, whose The absence of control by one central survey and mapping value is αo = 154° 47′ 32.41′′. The Bessel Spheroid used by authority was further emphasized by the lack of uniformity the Prußischen Landesaufnahme is adopted for the proposed in the precision of the various State triangulations and unified triangulation system. The data of this spheroid, the varied rates of progress in map reproduction and map Delivered by Ingentawhich fits the Geoid particularly well in Mid Europe are: a revision. IP: 192.168.39.151 On: Sat, 02= 6,377,397.15500Oct 2021 00:29:27 metres, b = 6,356,078.96325 metres, f = “The triangulation Copyright: of the American former SocietyPrußischen for Photogrammetry 1/299.1528128. and Remote Sensing Landesaufnahme (Prussian Land Survey – Ed.), extending “At the end of the Great War no less than about fifty over the whole of Prussia and almost all the small North rectangular co-ordinate systems were in general use German States, and the separate triangulations in throughout Germany. For the purpose of the standardization Mecklenberg, Saxony, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Hessen and of the topographical maps, the Committee therefore th Baden, dates from the first half of last century (19 century recommended the adoption of a single co-ordinate system – Ed.). The history of the Prussian measures is contained for the whole of Germany plotted on the Gauss transverse in twenty-four volumes entitled Abrisse Koordinaten und conformal projection directly from the spheroid on to the Hohen, which give all the information necessary for a plane by Kruger’s formulae (Gauss-Krüger Transverse practical trigonometrical knowledge of Prussia and the Mercator – Ed.). Rhine Provinces. “By the circular of the 31st May, 1935, the uniform “The particulars of the other States of the German production, printing and publishing of the following maps Confederation are not generally available but they are for the whole territory of the Reich is centralized in the probably now only of historical interest, in view of proposals Reich Survey office. The uniform production of the 1/50,000 which have been made for the coordination of all German map is an innovation and as a temporary measure some of surveys. the sheets of the 1/100,000 of Bavaria and Wurtembureg will “In 1921 a special Survey Committee was appointed still be produced by local authorities on behalf of the Reich to draw up plans for the improvement of the survey and Survey Office” (Wolkeau, ibid.). mapping position, and in 1923 this Committee made various This system was known as the DHG or Deutches Herres recommendations to secure a unified triangulation net Gitter (German Army Grid) and has identical specifications and a single coordinate system for the topographical maps for the U.S. Army’s UTM with just a few differences. The of the Reich. The complete union and adjustment of the DHG was referenced only to the Bessel 1841 ellipsoid, triangulations of the various States into a single network free the scale factor at origin is unity (1.0) and each 6° zone is of distortion and residual errors desirable as it may be from numbered Eastward from Greenwich, England, and the 500 a scientific point of view, was realized to be impracticable, Km False Easting is preceded by the zone number in the as it would imply a complete re-computation of most of the millions unit place. nets, a project which was financially impossible. The Survey

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June 2015 Layout.indd 437 5/20/2015 12:49:56 PM The Prußischen Landestriangulation Datum origin is Prußischen Landesaufnahme Soldner utilized a new origin

at Rauenberg where: Φo = 52° 27′ 12.0210′′ N, Λo = 31° 02′ at the Helmertturm in Potsdam. However, the Prußischen 04.9280′′ (East of Ferro), and the azimuth from Rauenberg to Landestriangulation used the Berliner Sternwarte from

Berlin-Marienkirche, ao = 19° 46′ 04.87′′ (Bulletin géodésique, 1832–1923. The Old Bavarian Datum of 1801 was the Juillet-août-septembre 1936, page 232). reference origin for the Bayern (München) Soldner from Original German triangulation stations of the 1802–1873 as well as the Rheinpfalz (Mannheim) Soldner “Reichsdreiecknets” and the “Landesdreiecknetze” adjusted from 1819–1911. Note that Mannheim Sternwarte is easy to and unifi ed into a provisional Reichsfestpunktfeld with the fi nd with Google Earth™ at:f = 49° 29′ 11′′ N, λ = 08° 27′ 35′′

origin Potsdam, Helmertturn on Bessel spheroid where: Φo = E. Furthermore, the Old Bavarian Datum of 1801 was also

52° 22′ 54.81′′ N, Λo = 13° 04′ 01.725′′ East of Greenwich and used for the Wurttemburg (Tubingen) Soldner from 1792– 1841. Afterwards, the new datum used was the Helmertturm the azimuth to Golmberg, whose value is αo = 154° 47′ 33.61′′ (Geodetic Analysis of the M745 Series 1:50,000 Scale Maps in Potsdam from 1841–1923. The Berliner Sternwarte datum of Germany, Eugene De Bor, Army Map Service Geodetic of 1832 was used for the Saxonia (Großenhain) Soldner from Memorandum No. 1584, April 1965). 1862–1923. The Berliner Sternwarte was the origin for the Prußischen The Old Bavarian datum of 1801 was used for the Baden Landesaufnahme Soldner from 1822–1876. In 1879, the (Mannheim) Topographic Soldner from 1824–1923, the Baden (Mannheim) Forest Soldner from 1846–1923, and the Baden (Mannheim) Cadaster Soldner from 1841–1923. The Potsdam Helmertturm datum was used for the Oldenburg (Bremerle) Soldner from 1835–1923, and the Göttingen GeoBytes! datum of 1820 was used for both the Hannover (Göttingen) Soldner from 1866–1923 as well as the Kurfurstentum Hessen (Kassel) Soldner from 1821–1899. The Potsdam Helmertturm datum was used for the Hessen-Darmstadt Soldner from asprs gIs 1808–1923 and for the Herzogtum Nassau (Schaumburg) IvIsIOn Soldner from 1862–1923. The Potsdam Helmertturm datum d — was used for the Hessen–Darmstadt Soldner from 1808– Delivered by Ingenta IP: 192.168.39.151 On: Sat,1923 02 asOct well 2021 as the00:29:27 Herzogtum Nassau (Schaumburg) from freeCopyright: OnlIne American Society for Photogrammetry1863–1923, the and Elsaß–Lothringen Remote Sensing (Sausheim) 1889–1923, the Elsaß–Lothringen (Delmen) 1889–1923, The Hamburg semInars Soldner 1887–1923, the Schwarzburg–Sondershausen Soldner and the Schwarzburg–Sondershausen Prußischen Landestriangulation 1851–1923, and the Thüringen The ASPRS GIS Division, (Seeberg) Soldner from 1848–1923, and the Thüringen in cooperation with (Seeberg) Prußischen Landestriangulation 1880–1923. CaGIS and GLIS, is (Dipl.-Ing. Heinz W. Kloos, personal communications 1981- 1982) For all of these Grids, there were multiple periods in sponsoring free online which the fi rst usages were local Cartesian systems with no live seminars throughout geodetic position, later updated to a geographic position at the year. the Grid origin but computed on an equivalent sphere, and fi nally updated to ellipsoidal positions for fi nal adjustments and calculations. Note that most of these systems fell into Attention those seeking ASPRS disuse in 1923 when everything began to be coordinated into Certification: ASPRS Online a Reich-wide unifi ed triangulation net as discussed above, but the original Cadastral coordinates may be of interest to Seminars are a great way to gain real property owners. Professional Development Hours! The 40 Prussian Cassini-Soldner origin points used for the Prussian Land Survey and Cadaster established as of 1879 are: 1. Kucklinsberg – f = 54° 27′ 36.8055′′ N, λ = 39° http://www.asprs.org/ 37′ 18.3505′′ E; 2. Paulinen – f = 54° 17′ 21.1583′′ N, λ = 38° GISD-Division/Online- 23′ 59.3555′′ E; 3. Markushof I – f = 54° 03′ 31.728′′ N, λ = 37° 02′ 24.369′′ E; 4. Turmberg – f = 54° 13′ 31.8753′′ N, l = Seminars.html 35° 47′ 32.4975′′ E; 5. Kauernick I – f = 54° 13′ 31.8753′′ N, λ = 35° 47′ 32.4975′′ E; 6. Thorn (Rathausturm) – f = 53° 00′ 42.5371′′ N, λ = 36° 16′ 26.1154′′ E; 7. Heinrichsthal – f

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June 2015 Layout.indd 438 5/20/2015 12:49:58 PM = 53° 42′ 46.4118′′ N, λ = 35° 09′ 48.3641′′ E; 8. Gollenberg – f = 49° 29′ 13.7′′ N, λ = 26° 07′ 23.4′′ E. For Württemberg, (Denkmal) – f = 54° 12′ 30.8584′′ N, λ = 33° 53′ 46.4441′′ E; 9. Tübingen, Sternwarte – f = 48° 31′ 12.4′′ N, λ = 26° 42′ 51.0′′ Gnesen (südl. Domturm) – f = 52° 32′ 17.5346′′ N, λ = 35° 15′ E (also see 150 Jahre Württembergische Landesvermessung 40.2180′′ E; 10. Josefsberg – f = 51° 59′ 15.6770′′ N, λ = 35° 52′ 1818-1968, Landesvermessungsamt Baden-Württemberg, 01.5980′′ E; 11. Schroda (kath. Kirche) – f = 52° 13′ 52.9454′′ Stuttgart 1968 – Ed.). For Sachsen, Großenhain – f = 51° N, λ = 34° 56′ 40.6334′′ E; 12. Pschow (östl. Kirchturm) – f = 18′ 20.050′′ N, λ = 00° 00′ 00.000′′ (00° 09′ 33.180′′ measured 53° 00′ 42.5371′′ N, λ = 36° 16′ 26.1154′′ E; 13. Rummelsberg from Berlin). For Baden, Mannheim, Sternwarte – f = 49° (Aussichtsturm) – f = 50° 42′ 12.6833′′ N, λ = 34° 46′ 44.4210′′ 29′ 11.00′′ N, λ = 26° 07′ 35.80′′ E. For Schwerin, Schloßturm E; 14. Gröditzberg I – f = 51° 10′ 41.4963′′ N, λ = 33° 25′ Mecklenburg – f = 53° 37′ 29.6900′′ N, λ = 01° 58′ 29.2′′ (westl. 40.5751′′ E; 15. Kaltenborn – f = 51° 55′ 44.5335′′ N, λ = 32° Berlin), 29° 05′ 12.05′′ (ö Ferro). For Oldenburg, Oldenburg, 19′ 43.6659′′ E; 16. Bahn I – f = 53° 06′ 06.6450′′ N, λ = 32° Schloßturm – f = 53° 08′ 22.447′′ N, λ = 25° 52′ 51.334′′ E. 22′ 05.2034′′ E; 17. Greifswald (Nikolaikirche) – f = 54° 05′ For Hannover, Göttingen, Sternwarte – f = 51° 31′ 47.85′′ 49.1594′′ N, λ = 31° 02′ 43.7053′′ E; 18. Müggelsberg – f = N, λ = 27° 36′ 28.30′′ E. For Hessen-Darmstadt, Darmstadt, 52° 25′ 07.1338′′ N, λ = 31° 17′ 37.9332′′ E; 19. Götzer Berg Knopfmitte des Stadtkirchturms – f = 49° 52′ 20.27′′ N, λ = – f = 52° 26′ 14.1346′′ N, λ = 30° 23′ 43.7870′′ E; 20. Torgau 26° 19′ 25.5768′′ E. For Herzogtum Nassau, Schaumburg (Stadtkirche) – f = 51° 33′ 40.9038′′ N, λ = 30° 40′ 27.3695′′ – f = 50° 20′ 23.63′′ N, λ = 25° 38′ 29.61′′ E, (see also Die E; 21. Burkersroda (Kirchturm) – f = 51° 10′ 35.6276′′ N, λ = Landesvermessung des Herzogthums Nassau, Wiesbaden 29° 18′ 29.0172′′ E; 22. Inselsberg – f = 50° 51′ 08.5674′′ N, λ 1868). For Kurfürstentum Hessen, Kassel Martinsturm = 28° 08′ 03.9542′′ E; 23. Magdeburg (nördl. Domturm) – f = – f = 51° 19′ 06.509′′ N, λ = 27° 09′ 56.956′′ E. For Elsaß- 52° 07′ 34.5112′′ N, λ = 29° 18′ 07.8117′′ E; 24. Ostenfeld I – f Lothringen, Sausheim – f = 47° 47′ 29.8430′′ N, λ = 25° 03′ = 54° 28′ 12.6744′′ N, λ = 26° 54′ 02.7995′′ E; 25. Rathkrügen – 17.9059′′ E and Delmen – f = 48° 54′ 47.2184′′ N, λ = 06° f = 53° 49′ 06.2171′′ N, λ = 27° 42′ 31.9268′′ E; 26. Bungsberg 21′ 41.6101′′ East of Greenwich. For Hamburg, Hamburg, (Aussichtsturm) – f = 54° 12′ 39.9835′′ N, λ = 28° 23′ 34.9115′′ Michaeliskirche – f = 53° 32′ 55.7′′ N, λ = 9° 58′ 41.75′′ ö E; 27. Celle (Stadtkirche) – f = 52° 37′ 32.6709′′ N, λ = 27° Greenwich. For Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Possen, Turm 44′ 54.8477′′ E; 28. Kaltenborn – f = 51° 47′ 47.2820′′ N, λ = – f = 51° 20′ 23.86′′ N, λ = 28° 31′ 30.45′′ E (Triangulation 27° 56′ 28.1079′′ E; 29. Silberberg – f = 53° 43′ 52.4446′′ N, von Thüringen 18∞1-1855), – f = 51° 20′ 24.6378′′ N, λ = λ = 26° 43′ 27.8973′′ E; 30. Windberg – f = 52° 52′ 51.1814′′ Delivered by Ingenta28° 31′ 34.0489′′ E (Preuß. Landestriangulation). For N, λ = 25° 11′ 50.2361′′ E; 31. HermannsdenkmalIP: 192.168.39.151 – On: f = Sat, 02Thüringen Oct 2021, Seeberg 00:29:27, Sternwarte – f = 50° 56′ 05.2′′ N, λ = 51° 54′ 46.8583′′ N, λ Copyright: = 26° 30′ 25.8667′′American E; Society 32. Münster for Photogrammetry 28° 23′ 43.5′′ and E Remote (Planheft Sensing GROSSDEUTSCHES REICH, (Überwasserkirche) – f = 51° 57′ 55.7151′′ N, λ = 25° 17′ 1944 ibid.), (Handbuch der Vermessungskunde, Dr.Wilhelm 24.0598′′ E; 33. Bochum (Peter-Paul Kirche) – f = 51° 29′ Jordan, Stuttgart, 1897), (Die Trigonometrischen und 01.4472′′ N, λ = 24° 53′ 16.1696′′ E; 34. Homert – f = 51° 15′ Polygoometrischen Rechnugen in der Feldmeszkunst, F. G. 53.2853′′ N, λ = 25° 46′ 24.7338′′ E; 35. Kassel (Martinskirche, Gausz, Stuttgart, 1922). südlicher Hauptturm) – f = 51° 19′ 06.4736′′ N, λ = 27° 10′ “To compute Ferro values to Greenwich the German 07.3106′′ E; 36. Schaumburg (Schloß) – f = 50° 20′ 25.7627′′ Geodetic Survey used the value Ferro-Greenwich = N, λ = 25° 38′ 41.0936′′ E; 37. Fleckert – f = 50° 11′ 15.4516′′ 17° 39′ 59.411′′” (Heinz W. Kloos – personal communication, N, λ = 25° 16′ 21.3944′′ E; 38. Köln (Dom. Dachreiter) – f = 26 July 1982). 50° 56′ 33.2607′′ N, λ = 24° 37′ 32.3136′′ E; 39. Langschoß – f According to TR 8350.2, the mean solution for the = 50° 40′ 02.5936′′ N, λ = 23° 57′ 21.6853′′ E; 40. Rissenthal transformation from European Datum 1950 (ED50) to – f = 49° 28′ 40.8655′′ N, λ = 24° 25′ 31.1162′′ E (Planheft WGS84 is: ΔX = –87 m ±3 m, ΔY = –98 m ±8 m, ΔZ = –121 GROSSDEUTSCHES REICH, Nur für Dienstgebrauch!, m ±5 m. Because of the myriad coordinate systems in the Reichsministerium des Innern, Juli 1944). Federal Republic of Germany listed above, the error envelope In regard to “Koordinaten-System Names” (Datums), listed with the transformation parameters for WGS84 is for Alpen and Donau-Reichsgaue, Hermannskogel – f = probably realistic. Localized transformations can offer better 48° 16′ 15.29′′ N, λ = 33° 57′ 41.06′′ E; St. Stephan, Wien accuracies when only individual networks or chains are (Vienna – Ed.) – f = 48° 12′ 31.5277′′ N, λ = 34° 02′ 27.3275′′ involved, but transformation accuracies are still dependent E; Gusterberg bei Kremsmünster – f = 48° 02′ 18.4753′′ N, on the accuracies of determination of the original positions. λ = 31° 48′ 15.0242′′ E; Schöcklberg bei Graz – f = 47° 11′ Some of the positions given above were determined over 200 54.8745′′ N, λ = 33° 07′ 59.9472′′ E; Krimberg bei Laibach – years ago. f = 45° 55′ 43.7228′′ N, λ = 32° 08′ 18.8027′′ E; Innsbruck, südl. Pfarrturm – f = 47° 16′ 11.3060′′ N, λ = 29° 03′ 39.3157′′ The contents of this column reflect the views of the author, who is E. For Galizien, Löwrnburg in Lemberg (Kopiec Unij) – f responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented herein. = 49° 50′ 55.2459′′ N, λ = 41° 42′ 29.5684′′ E. For Bayern, The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies of München, Frauenkirche, nördl. Turm – f = 48° 08′ 20.00′′ N, the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing and/ 4 λ = 29° 14′ 15.00′′ E. For Pfalz, Mannheimer Sternwarte or the Louisiana State University Center for GeoInformatics (C G).

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