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An Analysis of the Classroom Language Of AN ANALYSIS OF THE CLASSROOM LANGUAGE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENT-TEACHERS WITH REFERENCE TO ITS INTERLANGUAGE FORMS, COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES WITH IMPLICATIONS OF THESE FOR TEACHER TRAINING IN ZIMBABWE by P. H. MHUNDWA THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION SEPTEMBER 1987 2 ABSTRACT This study was designed to analyse and to describe the language of non-native student-teachers who use English as a medium of instruction and who also teach it as a subject. The aim was to describe the formal and functional features of the variety of English they use and to discover whether it constitutes a language system that applies identifiable and descriptively adequate sets of rules. In his analysis, the researcher discussed definitions and 'general properties' of communication to establish criteria within which communicative activities were described in terms of information structuring by student-teachers and information processing by learners. He observed that student-teachers' language generally consists of systematically occuring features that constitute a spoken interlanguage that can be described as a language in its own right. He also observed that the interlanguage variety consists of syntactical and stylistic features some of which are identical to those that characterise native-speaker discourse. At the level of communication, the reseacher observed that student-teachers' and pupils' communicative utterances tend to be defective in situations where higher order thinking processes and ideas need to be articulated in the L2. Another important observation was that student-teachers do not adequately use their interlanguage to realise the important pedagogical functions of explaining, elaborating and classifying key concepts and issues that arise in teaching/learning situations. On the basis of these findings, the reseacher proceeded to suggest course guidelines for a Language and Communication Course which he hopes will improve student-teachers communication skills in Zimbabwean ESL classrooms. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my tutor, Mr. John Norrish for providing the encouragement and useful assistance without which this work would not have been possible. I am deeply indebted to him for the magnificent support he gave me throughout the research period. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the University of Zimbabwe Research Board for offering me the financial assistance I needed to travel to schools and Teacher Training Colleges. Without their financial assistance it would not have been possible to cover a wide cross-section of schools involved in this study. Last, but not least, I would like to express my gratitude for the encouragement I received from my wife, Petronella Chipo, and my children. The encouragement I received from my parents Raina and Mketiwa cannot be left unmentioned in these few lines of special acknowledgements. 4 A NOTE ON THE USE OF TERMINOLOGY In this study, the following terms are used interchangeably: i) "Student-teachers" and "Teacher-trainees" or "trainees" are terms used to refer to the same group of students. Wherever these terms are used they refer specifically to the research sample, that is, to the 16 student-teachers involved in this study except in situations where generalisations are deliberately made. ii) 'Pupils' and 'learners' are also used interchangeably to refer to the 'taught' in the research classrooms. iii) interlanguage refers specifically to the variety that constitutes a stable form of language that deviates in its application of rules from that of native speakers. In certain cases the researcher uses the term 'language' to refer to student-teachers' interlanguage when the latter is not being compared to any other language variety but is being considered as a language 'in its own right. CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I 1 Research Aims and Hypothesis 12 1.1 Genesis of Research Hypothesis 12 1.2 Aims of Study 16 1.2.1 Statement of Research Problem and Formulation of Research Hypothesis 17 1.3 Importance of Study 22 CHAPTER II 2 Zimbabwe: Background Information 26 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 The Zimbabwean Sociolinguistic Context 27 2.2.1 Shona 27 2.2.2 Ndebele 28 2.2.3 Other Major Indigenous Languages 30 2.2.4 English 30 2.3 Bilingualism in Zimbabwe 31 2.4 Local Forms of English in Zimbabwe 38 2.5 The Role and Status of English in Zimbabwe 46 2.5.1 National Functions 46 2.5.2 Language Policy in Zimbabwe 47 2.5.3 The Role of English in the Education System in Zimbabwe 51 2.6 Summary 62 CHAPTER III 3 Literature Review 65 3.1 Interlanguage as a 'Linguistic Concept' 67 3.2 Historical Background to Interlanguage Studies 71 3.3 Origins of Interlanguage Studies 73 3.3.1 Error Analysis 74 3.3.2 Morpheme Studies 81 3.3.3 The Markedness Theory 83 3.4 Aspects of Classroom Discourse 86 3.4.1 The Linguistic Environment 86 3.4.2 Linguistic Characteristics of Teacher Talk 89 3.4.3 Linguistic Simplification 91 3.5 Interactional Aspects of Classroom Discourse 94 3.5.1 Communicative Discourse in the Classroom 94 3.5.2 Patterns of Classroom Discourse 98 3.5.3 Communication Strategies in Classroom Talk 100 3.6 Pedagogical Aspects of Classroom Discourse 104 3.6.1 Classroom Question Categories 105 3.6.2 Error Handling 108 3.7 Sociolinguistic Functions of Classroom Discourse 109 3.7.1 Classroom Management Talk 110 3.7.2 Group Work and Classroom Discourse 112 3.8 Classroom Discourse as a Basis for Designing a Teacher Training Syllabus 113 3.9 Summary of Review 115 CHAPTER IV 4 Research Methodology 117 4.1 Research Design 117 4.1.1 Factors That Influenced the Research Design 117 4.1.2 The Multi-Stage Sampling Design 119 4.1.3 Application of the Multi-Stage Sampling Design in the Study 121 4.2 Data Collection Procedures 132 4.2.1 Primary Data 132 4.2.2 Secondary Data 134 4.3 Tape Transcription 135 4.4 Data Analysis 136 4.4.1 The Error Analysis Method 137 4.4.2 Interlanguage Analysis 137 CHAPTER V 5 Research Findings I: An Overview of Grammatical Errors 141 5.1 Introduction 141 5.2 Grammatical Error Categories 145 5.3 Notion of Error in Interlanguage 149 5.4 Description of Error Categories 150 5.4.1 Errors in the Use of Articles 150 5.4.2 Errors in the Use of Prepositions 151 5.4.3 Errors in the Use of Pronouns 152 5.4.4 Errors in the Use of Number 154 5.4.5 Errors in the Selection of Lexical Items 154 5.4.6 Errors in the Use of Adverbials 157 5.4.7 Errors in the Use of Infinitive Constructions 157 5.4.8 Errors in the Formulation of Questions 158 5.4.9 Errors in the Use of Tense 159 5.4.10 Miscellaneous Errors 161 5.5 Conclusions 162 CHAPTER VI 6 Research Findings II: A Descriptive Analysis of Communicative Activities 168 6.1 Types of Communication Activities 168 6.2 General Properties of Discourse Exchanges 172 6.3 Analysis of Pedagogical/Instructional Functions of Classroom Discourse 176 6.3.1 Pedagogical Functions of Questions 176 6.3.1.1 Identifying/Naming Vs.'Why' and 'How' Questions 178 6.3.1.2 Recall/Reproduction Vs. Expl anatoryi Narrative Questions 185 6.3.2 Informative Discourse Units 194 6.3.2.1 Process Descriptions 194 6.3.3 Controlling Functions of Student-Teachers' Classroom Discourse 204 6.3.4 Organisational Functions of Student-Teachers' Classroom Discourse 210 6.3.5 Organisational Functions of Student-Teachers' Classroom Talk in Group Work 212 6.3.6 Classroom Talk and Teacher-Pupil Relationships 217 6.3.7 Communication Strategies in Classroom Talk 221 6.3.8 Effective/Defective Communication 233 6.4 Conclusion 238 CHAPTER VII 7 Research Findings III: Interlanguage Rule Categories 240 7.1 Discourse Unit Structures 243 7.2 Syntactical and Stylistic Rule Categories 246 7.2.1 Syntactical Rule Categories 246 7.2.1.1 Wh- Questions 247 7.2.1.2 Yes/No Questions 250 7.2.1.3 Indirect Questions 253 7.2.1.4 Declarative and Completion Questions 259 7.2.2 Stylistic Rule Categories 261 7.2.2.1 Contexts in Which Ellipted and Full Sentence Responses Occur 261 7.2.2.2 Variability in the Use of Contracted and Uncontracted Forms 266 7.2.2.3 Domain Variability of Learners' Responses 269 CHAPTER VIII 8 Research Findings IV: Relationship Between Student-Teachers' Language and Instructional Strategies 273 8.1 Introduction 273 8.2 Teaching Patterns in Language Lessons 273 8.3 Student-Teachers' Corrective Styles 274 8.4 Presentation of Ski1E-Oriented Lesson Components 281 8.5 Comparison of Student-Teachers' and Experienced, Regular Teachers' Teaching Approaches 291 8.6 Te act, irt 3 St ra #esies r) Conterit Subject s 29 S.7 S rs1 re? a r- y 30? CHAPTER IX 9 Summary of Research Findings and Their !moll cationsfor Teacher Training in Zimbabwe 312 9.1 Interlanguage Rule Categories 313 9.1.1 Syntax 313 9.1.2 Lexis 315 9.1.3 Tense System 316 9.1.4 Other Grammatical Systems 317 9.1.5 Discourse Cohesion and Coherence 318 9.1.6 Discourse Exchanges 318 9.2 Implications of Interlanguage Categories for Teacher Training in Zimbabwe 320 9.3 Guidelines for Designing a Teacher Training English Syl 1 abus 325 9.3.1 Grammatical/Linguistic Competence Aims 325 9.3.2 Communication/Discourse Competence Aims 326 9.3.3 Pedagogical Competence Aims 327 9.3.4 Language Forms 328 9.3.5 Communication Skills 328 9.4 Teacher Training Activities 335 9.5 Teacher Training Procedures 340 9.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 343 9.6.1 Interlanguage Description 343 9.6.2 The Communicative Effect of Student Teachers' Interlanguage 344 9.6.3 Communicative Language Courses 349 9.6.4 Training 'Procedures' and 'Processes' 350 9.6.5
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