The Asian ESP Journal
October 2020 Volume 16, Issue 5.2
Chief Editor - Roger Nunn
1 Published by ELE Publishing (Division of the TESOL Asia Group)
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ISSN. 2206-0979
2 Table of Contents
1 .Nareeman Jabbar Rasheed, Huda H. Khalil and Hiba Kareem Neamah……...... 05 - 20 Pragmatic Analysis of WhatsApp Status Updates in Iraq
2. Abubaker Suleiman Abdelmajid Yousif...…...……………………………………...... 21 - 38 The Influence of Task-based Language Teaching on Writing and Reading Performance of EFL Sudanese University Students in Sudan
3. Muhammad Ajmal, Saleh Alrasheedi, Muhammed Salim Keezhatta and Ghulam Mujtaba Yasir……………...... 39 - 56 COVID‐19 and Online English Language Teaching: Students’ Response and Feedback
4 .Rasib Mahmood, Akhter Habib Shah and Iftikhar Alam..………………...... 57 - 68 The Impact of L1 on L2 in Academic English Writing: A Multilingual Dilemma of Pakistani Students
5 .Ahmed Benyo and Tribhuwan Kumar………………………………………..……………69 - 85 An Analysis of Indian EFL Learners’ Listening Comprehension Errors
6 .Bashar Ragheb Hasan Odeh, Nasser Mohammed Saleh Al-Sa’egh …………...…………86 - 101 andMohammed Ali Mohammed Qarabesh Corona Pandemic and New Educational Interventions for Saudi Learners: A Socio-Psychological Study at Qassim University
7 .Mohammed Ali Mohammed Qarabesh………………...... ………………………..102 - 115 Implementation of Process and Product-Based Writing Approaches
3 8. Ulbossyn Baimanova, Bakhytzhan Akhmedov, Askarbay Niyazov, Kaliya Kiyassova and Azat Kazakov………………………………………………….….…..……………….……116 - 130 Training Future English Teachers for the Formation of Critical Thinking in Students
9. Fahad Saleh Suleiman Alfallaj...………………………………………………. ………..…131 - 152 Non-Digital Gamification of the English as Foreign Language Classroom: Developing the Tools at Home
10. Murad Al Kayed...…..……………………………...…………………………………..…....153 - 165 A study of Pragmatic Failure among Jordanian EFL Learners
11. Imroatus Solikhah and Teguh Budiharso …………………….….…………...…………...166 - 190 Standardizing BIPA as an International Program of a Language Policy
12. Dwi Ima Herminingsih and Mohamad Jazeri…………………………………………...... 191 - 203 Elevating the Speaking Ability through a Culture Talk in a Video: Evidence from Universitas Tulungagung, Indonesia
13. Umar Fauzan, Arif Husein Lubis and Eri Kurniawan...……………………...……....…..204 - 232 Rhetorical Moves and Linguistic Complexity of Research Article Abstracts in International Applied Linguistics Journals for English Reading Materials Development
14 . Abdullah H. Alfauzan and Mohammad Shariq……………………...……...... ……233 - 247
Media and Communal Guidance: An Analytical Study of Corona-Campaigns
15 . Ameen Alahdal………………………….....………………………………..……....…..248 - 276 A Syntactic Approach to Verb Movement in Arabic
4 Pragmatic Analysis of WhatsApp Status Updates in Iraq
Nareeman Jabbar Rasheed, Huda H. Khalil, Hiba Kareem Neamah Department of English, College of education for women, University of Baghdad Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Biodata: Nareeman Jabbar Rasheed (Ph. D) is an Applied Linguistics researcher working at College of Education for Women, University of Baghdad – Iraq. She has publications in Language and Linguistics and other reputed journals. Her research interests are Language, Applied Linguistics and Interdisciplinary areas. She has applied a variety of methodologies in her research. Email: [email protected]
Huda H. Khalil is a faculty member in the Department of English, College of Education for Women, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq, since 2002.The major field of study is English Language and Linguistics. She has a number of researches works in pragmatics, stylistics and discourse analysis. Email: [email protected]
Hiba Kareem Neamah is an English Linguistics researcher, specialized in pragmatics, working at College of Education for Women-English department, University of Baghdad-Iraq. She has publications in Language and linguistics. The interests of her research are English Linguistics, pragmatics, and interdisciplinary areas. Email: [email protected]
5 Abstract WhatsApp has spread exponentially through various areas, and people's everyday lives across the globe. This study examines some of the most critical areas in discursive realisations and pragmatic topics of WhatsApp status, which are the pragmatic topics used and the discursive realisations of users' status updates. 846 compilation of WhatsApp user profile status updates were checked. Data were collected between February and May 2020 from three users of diverse backgrounds and educational levels. The statuses have been qualitatively analyzed concerning both the pragmatic topics and discursive realizations. The primary results obtained from the analysis revealed a series of discursive realizations, including 31% of 5tautomatically-generated statuses and 69% of self-generated statuses. Data indicated that the most commonly used self-generated type was pure text, which comprised 53%. Data identified five domains concerning the main pragmatic topics employed by WhatsApp users, which are personal thoughts, social life, spirituality, nationhood's spirit, and adverts. The article ends with drawbacks and suggestions for researchers to do more related studies shortly.
Keywords: WhatsApp; pragmatic; discursive realization; social media
Introduction Nowadays, English has become a globalized language spoken by people from different culutural and linguistic background particularly after the tremendous advances in technology (Alzeebaree & Yavuz, 2017, as cited in Alzeebaree & Hasan, 2020). Technology has affected many facets of our lives. The implementation of technology has "reorganised how we live, how we communicate, and how we learn" (Siemens, 2005). Technology has intrigued people, and diverse methods have often been used to make the freedom to thrive a better and convenient way of living. The numerous technological advances and inventions have made it possible to function in a better and more efficient way (Alakrash &Bustan 2020). Cell phones, together with the Internet, have made a major contribution to this transition. Smart devices and the many apps we install have become essential elements of our daily lives (Sultan, 2014). As we all live, we invest a lot of time exploring the different apps and services on our cell phones. This includes a variety of actions, including text messaging, which has become the most popular means of communication in social networks (Sultan, 2014; Al-Ghamdi & Alrefaee, 2020). The user activities have all been controlled by interaction with friends, families, and other connections. Some of these practices include rooms for self-expression in various applications.
6 Each person will now express anything he or she desires to make it accessible to as many viewers as possible. Smartphone consumers also have multiple channels for both send messages sharing their attitudes and commenting on topics in or out of their society. In the context of digital communication, online organisations may connect to web social networking. A coherent concept in the sense of online networking is essentially a combination of creativity and social collaboration to recreate quality — customers may discover electronic and print results for various aspects such as news, instructions, and other knowledge. Online media is mostly mechanical or conventional, for instance, local newspapers, television, and films, because they are accessible on any platform quite easily and efficiently (Bustan & Alakrash 2020; Medriano & Bautista, 2020). One post shared through web-based social networking has the potential to allow small or massive events; for example, one person or plenty of people will access a blog post. Social networking has since been credited for transforming the way public affairs practitioners operate. They give an online space where people can share knowledge about businesses, labels, and services. Not only to professionals, but it has also induced the youngsters regarding its uses, i.e. whether sharing of notes or messages or important documents any time anywhere. WhatsApp is now one of the world's leading popular apps. Brian Acton and Jan Koum developed the application in 2009, which intended to create a free of charge SMS platform to make communication easier and faster (Yeboah & Ewur 2014). WhatsApp has become the most common application in the Arab Peninsula (Dev et al., 2019). It binds more than one billion users per day, with almost 55 billion messages sent by a billion people. Aside from linking messages with WhatsApp, status updates provide a medium to exchange feelings and thoughts on issues and events among one another. By using these texts, users can openly share their thoughts and feelings with friends and contacts (Al-Khawaldeh et al., 2016). Analysing the language used in these modes of communication gives valuable insights into how these people communicate to their contacts with the types of language used. Therefore, this current study aims to add efforts to research related to pragmatic used in social networking, preferably status alerts used by WhatsApp users. Consequently, the discursive accomplishments of WhatsApp status update together with different constructive pragmatic topics frequently engaged in these texts may provide applied linguistic researchers with a significant number of opportunities. This study is therefore intended to examine a variety of status updates to figure out the trends and habits of WhatsApp users to connect with others. In specific, the present study intends to analyse the discursive
7 realisations of updates and to evaluate the most practical topics shared by the users. Below are the research questions that this study is designed to address (Alakrash et al.2020): 1) What are the pragmatic topics that the users of WhatsApp express? 2) What are the general discursive realisations shown by these WhatsApp statuses? This study will allow one to learn how users manage the status styles of this platform and how their images are reflected in this application's visual world. Naaman, Boase, and Lai (2010) mentioned that this kind of study would allow one to consider how consumers deal with the status styles of this platform and how their images are reflected in this application's visual world. The written language of the social network is of considerable value as it retrieves communications between friends and associates which are an integral aspect of their lives by revealing a vast volume of personal details accessible for analysis purposes retrospectively.
Theoretical Framework This section discusses the theoretical components of WhatsApp, as well as pragmatics and discourse.
WhatsApp WhatsApp Messenger is a recent and common communication network that uses instant messaging. The accumulated users of WhatsApp had raised over one billion by February 2016, and one billion users sent 55 billion texts a day by July 2017 in 60 languages. Previous research indicated that WhatsApp is today's youngster's best-known instant messenger service (Kiran & Srivastava, 2018). WhatsApp is the pioneer in instant messaging systems, according to (Parate and Tripathi 2015). A specific language overuse for text messages is especially noteworthy among young people and has spread into other forms of texts (Salem, 2013). WhatsApp is utilised on a large basis among young people who place greater value on community, social life, and family relationships. WhatsApp's popularity among the community members has provided tremendous profit to professional cooperatives since it helps them to use site data tailored. The explanation of how WhatsApp is so popular among people all around the world is that it allows you to transmit instant messages to your beloved at no charge other than the network data system package that you already have as being one of the specialized cellular telephones. Upon installing the program, it is incredibly easy to use. It displays all friends on your phone that is using the application and allows the ones who are not yet to have the application to
8 download it and use it immediately after installation (Bustan &Alakrash 2020). They will start to notify, post audios, images, refreshing status, and so on at that stage. In addition to text messages, this program allows people to exchange information and media content through real-time messaging or contact (Ahad & Lim 2014). According to Bustan & Alakrash (2020), there are photos, comments, photographs, blogs, emoticons, etc. WhatsApp users may use their data to build their virtual profiles. Users may add the picture and status up to 139 characters to their identities online (Sanchez-Moya and Cruz-Moya 2015). Pragmatics and discourse. The term 'discourse' is the principal notion that the vocabulary of people is divided into separate fields of existence, including social or political discourse. According to Austin (1962), the idea transmitted by a text should be understood from a rational, logical point of view employing a speech act consisting of Locution (i.e. a substantive and ostensible expression), Illocution (i.e. interpretation of the given term), and Perlocution (i.e. the real effect that this interpretation has of the given word on emotions, opinions or actions). This refers to the alert from WhatsApp that such messages are being placed by the users to transfer a text providing details about their present position that concerns the recipient. To bring those political, economic, and social concepts into action, users attempt to leave an influential text. The WhatsApp functionality would also provide us with pragmatic features that give rise to new perspectives. Besides, the messages included in WhatsApp should be written and voiced (Sanchez-Moya & Cruz-Moya, 2015). Yus (2011) identifies that phonetic, colloquial, and prosodium orthography are some of the popular consumer techniques for oralising written messages. It offers a hybrid flavour that is not written or spoken, but rather something that has its features (Maizarevalo, 2014). All this is critical for users to transform and build effects to their contact. On the other side, social cognition tracks communication and other forms of interaction, which "mediates between micro- and macro- levels of society, between discourse and action and between the individual and the group (Van Dijk, 1993, p.257). The micro-aspects contribute to the linguistic options, while the macro-level has wider implications (the schematic representations). Theme analysis may also be focused on the Fairclough conventions that "ideologies reside in texts," that "it is not possible to 'read off' ideologies from texts" and that "texts are open to diverse interpretations" (Fairclough, 1995, p. 71). WhatsApp members also use the chance to express their personal opinions and beliefs through these messages. This may also be an excellent choice for researchers to transmit internal hidden messages shared by users.
9 Previous Studies WhatsApp has undertaken a large number of studies in diverse fields. Multiple studies have been conducted on the influential SMS text messaging platform WhatsApp. Studies indicate that every connexion through contact by phone, e-mail, or instant messages comprises a portion of the overall discourse on a specific topic (Lenhart, 2012). In daily human life, language plays a significant role in promoting knowledge and concepts (Maynard and Peräkylä, 2006; Krauss and Chiu, 2007). Consequently, Pennebaker and Graybeal (2001) suggest that the language system employed can be regarded as physiologically, perceptually, and as social physiognomy of the community. Sanchez-Moya & Cruz-Moya (2015) conducted one leading study concerning WhatsApp status updates. The research seeks to classify the most frequent pragmatic uses of a corpus of WhatsApp messages by analysing the multi-modality presented by those statuses. The study utilised a sample of 400 WhatsApp statuses for people of varying ages. The analysis provided a five-mark taxonomy for recurring, self-generated, and auto-generated status realisations, in which the forms of self-generated are primarily wordy, mixed, strictly iconic, and void. Another research project devoted to WhatsApp status updates is Al-Khawaldeh et al. (2016). The research focused on discursive and thematic analyses of the status of WhatsApp. The research aimed to establish, in this regard, both the key features and objectives of the alerts and gender disparities. To obtain these goals, Jordan users tested a corpus of 300 statuses. The analysis considered the critical characteristics of the data to be analysed qualitatively under five strips: intimate, social, religious, and political. Personality, society, and culture was the most recurrent form, whereas belief was the last. Al-Smadi (2017), from a sociolinguistic perspective, studied the WhatsApp status by exploring the disparity between the consumer ages and gender. The research analysed 400 statuses for two categories of participants using a qualitative method: those under the age of 30 and those over 30. There were various age and gender variations in the findings of the analysis. The analysis showed that female users were more likely to have religious status, whereas male users possessed social status to be the most frequent. The studies above gave a clear overview of the application of these statuses. This paper also attempts to provide more attention to this scarcely explored field by integrating discursive realisations and the pragmatic themes.
10 Methodology Data from 3 sets of smartphone contacts that represent both men and women were used in this study. The three pairs of subjects are a male educator, a female high school student, and a housewife. Between February and May 2020, data were gathered from this report. Status updates at the period were usually emojis or written messages. WhatsApp users had to get text- based updates to complete their profile at the time. The status updates for Iraqi users with diverse backgrounds and levels of education (from university students to working-class communities) were included in the current study. While Iraqi contacts were mainly used in this analysis, numerous user groups, including speakers who do not speak Arabic, had been included in this study as participants. For example, the teacher's contacts included students, friends, colleagues from other countries, and many more. Students from the university were primarily having colleagues and family members in the same country as their contacts. For the status updates, 850 statuses were analysed and evaluated qualitatively in forms and topics. The topics for the status’s updates were then grouped into five main categories, which are personal thoughts, social life, spirituality, nationhood's spirit, and adverts. The data provided a collection of 920 separate status for analysis of discourse realisations from several 920 participants, where status was provided from each individual. They were subsequently divided into two primary categories of realisations, which are the automatic and self-generated ones. The self-generated group is categorised into four main classes, which are purely-text, hybrid, blank, and purely iconic.
Results and discussion The following segment is meant to analyse and address the effects of the information gathered. The objective is to answer the research questions of the study, where each of the issues is discussed in a separate segment. Facts and figures have been used to convey discursive realisations of the status and topics.
The topics used for the WhatsApp status For the first analysis, the main pragmatic topics of the WhatsApp status in this research are identified. Five main categories of topics were identified throughout the study of the data. As seen below in Figure 3, they are personal thoughts, social life, spirituality, nationhood's spirit, and advertisements, as shown in Figure 3 below. The total number of statuses analysed for this section is 850 statuses.
11 Table 1 Pragmatic topics of WhatsApp statuses and total sample (%) Pragmatic topics Number of statuses Percentage of the total sample Personal thoughts 375 44% Social life 205 24% Spirituality 105 12% Nationhood’s spirit 98 12% Adverts 67 8% TOTAL 850 100%
Figure 1 The distribution of WhatsApp status by topics
Adverts 8%
Nationhood's spirit 12%
Spirituality 12%
Social life 24%
Personal thoughts 44%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Personal thoughts: Personal thoughts fell into the first place out of the other pragmatic topics. This accounts for 44% which comprises several 375 out of 850 statuses. These expressions represent personal motives such as wishes of someone's, present thought, love expressions, etc. These thoughts include: - Desires: "Should I buy the shoes? Help please!!", "Craving for some good food now", and "I haven't been on a vacation for so long. I want to go to one soon!". - Current thoughts: "Wonder what will happen on this weekend" and "So many random thoughts on my mind now". - Specific wish for future events: "Ya Allah! Ease our journey soon." And "Oh Allah may everything goes well with his surgery".
12 Social life: Social life fell into the second big group which is listed in the sample results. This constitutes 24% out of the overall data, which is 205 status. Data have shown that users want to fill in the message to meet social goals in the section offered by the application. It includes represented words that exchange activities and occasions with those in the group at different times, such as invitation, wedding, and many more. This form of category includes: - Greetings: "As-salamu alaykum!", "See you later!" and "Good day to all of you!". - Special day: "Ramadhan Mubarak", "Eid Mubarak" and "Happy birthday to you!". - Wedding ceremony: "Congratulations on your marriage." And "Have a blessed marriage life!"
Spirituality: 105 (12%) of the statuses used are primarily listed under the spirituality category. These include verses of the Holy Quran such as: "And He has made me blessed wherever I am", "And whoever puts all his trust in Allah, He will be enough for him"; Prophet Sayings, e.g. "The best among you are those who have the best manners and character", Be afraid of nothing but sins"; prayers, e.g., "Oh Allah, I seek refuge from worry and grief weakness and extreme cowardice debt and being overpowered by men" and "Oh Allah, help me make correct choices". The regular usage of this application can be linked to the trend among users to discuss belief with their contacts through this platform. The users tend to choose to share their interactions through religious practices. They can either inform you of your spiritual responsibilities, or call you to share with you in your life, to repeat the holy verses or sayings to praise God, or to send you a photo, so you are closer to God.
Nationhood's spirit: The status written concerning the country of origin and national condition concerned. This group comprises 12% of the results. Many of the statuses took the form of demands and prayers that there would be better conditions for the country, or a town or area. This conclusion is in line with Al-Smadi (2017), who found that Jordanian users have the least national standing, although, in this current study, it is the second least status before adverts.
Adverts: The analysis showed that the users tend to promote their business on the WhatsApp statuses as well. 67 statuses were related to the users promoting their products or service to their contacts.
13 For example, some statuses were promoting their shops that sell various products such as groceries, etc. Some users sell products online and share their customers' reviews, to attract more customers to buy them. Ibrahim et al. (2014), through his study, mentioned that everywhere we go we can see how people are so attached to their phones. Most of them are smartphone users who actively use a smartphone to browse websites, social networking, and get information about the product through Facebook, WhatsApp group, and so on. Advertising business product by using new technology gives easy access, especially which using a smartphone as it is effective and applicable in today's world.4.2 Discursive realisations In this section, the second research question will be answered to identify the discursive realisations of the status updates by the participants. The data review identified two kinds of WhatsApp status updates: automatically-generated and self-generated status. Consequently, four subtypes of self-generated statuses were identified: (1) purely-text realisations, (2) blank, (3) hybrid, and (4) purely-iconic.
Automatically-generated statuses Figure 2 Discursive realisations of status updates
31%
69%
Automatically-generated status Self-generated status
There are a reasonable amount of users within this study that has automatically generated WhatsApp statuses. The data shows that 282 statuses, representing 31% of the total sample of 920, uses automatically generated notification status. Those are: "Available", "Busy", "At work", "At the Movies", and many more. The updates were in both the Arabic and English languages.
14 The usage of these statuses may be because certain people do not realise or perhaps unwilling to access the area offered by the app. For some users, however, this might be intended to show a lack of interest in "reshaping their digital identity" (Sanchez-Moya & Cruz-Moya, 2015).
Self-generated statuses The remaining 638 statuses, which comprises 69%, is then analysed after recognising the automatically generated status. These self-generated statuses are those that the users have purposely created or changed to communicate. Findings showed four types of such notifications, which are purely text, hybrid, blank, and purely iconic. The numbers shown in Table 2 below are for the self-generated status of 638 users. In needed to finalise their WhatsApp profile, 237 users (37% of the overall dataset) chose to complete their digital profile utilising purely-text features. It is found that the preference in WhatsApp statuses to use purely text realisation was a common phenomenon, as seen in Table 2 above.
Table 2 Discursive realisations of the WhatsApp statuses and the total sample (%) Sub-typologies for self- Number of respondents Percentage of the total generated status sample Purely-text 237 37% Hybrid 164 26% Blank 142 22% Purely-iconic 95 15% TOTAL 638 100%
15 Figure 3 Discursive realisations of status updates for self-generated status
Purely-iconic 15% Purely-text 37% Blank 22%
Hybrid 26%
Purely-text Hybrid Blank Purely-iconic
Purely-text realisations: This accounts for 37% (237) of the self-generated sample statuses. In our corpus, purely text position is distinguished both as respect to type and meaning by a certain degree of uniformity. Of interest, the most common status of these was written in the popular language variety, with no effort at recourse to more prototypical textual characteristics of this form of talk (Thurlow & Brown, 2003, Tagliamonte & Denis, 2008). This was an important discovery, as text features are usually visible in WhatsApp communications (Sánchez-Moya & Cruz-Moya, 2015), where the users may not have any character limit.
Hybrid realisations: Several 164 users of the dataset preferred a hybrid status, comprising 26% of the self-generated statuses sample. The structured characteristics of hybrid statuses are not substantially different from those conveyed through verbal means alone. In other sentences, verbal sections were identical to purely verbal realisations. Nevertheless, it is undoubtedly worth considering the function of icons (emojis) in these hybrid contexts. We found that three main uses were created for emoticons in this state, which are (1) emphasising the details in the verbal message, (2) attaching semantic meaning to the verbal text, and (3) constructing quick narrative segments.
Blank realisations: Some WhatsApp users purposefully removed and then let the space blank for the text choices offered by the WhatsApp. This form represents 22% (142 users) of the overall status sample
16 of 638 participants. In this way, they have accessed this domain and intentionally removed its information, as well as the automatically generated default text. Although they are aware of this service, this could mean that they have not shown any enthusiasm in transmitting any information by using it. Also, some users tend to highlight and intentionally erase their status out of this domain.
Purely-iconic realisations: The least popular realisation among users who have their WhatsApp status created is that of having a solely iconic status (15% out of 95 participants), considering their slight part concerning all the other choices. This classification is only visible for icons, and the results show that they are minimal. This may have been triggered by several elderly and not millennial users. For instance: " ", " ", and " ". Sanchez-Moya & Cruz-Moya (2015) have noted that younger people have used this kind of rank primarily as a way of "communicating more ambiguously.". The observation of the data on types of self-generated statuses shows that the highest discursive realisation of statuses is the pure text, followed by hybrid, blank, and the minor realisation is purely iconic, which may suggest that users are less comfortable with the icons used in different contexts in the survey.
Conclusions Concluding remarks This study explored the discursive realization of the 920 status updates and 850 statuses uploaded by users of WhatsApp from February until May 2020. The sample comprised of data collected, ranging from university students to working-class people in Iraq. The primary results of the research indicated several discursive realisations, including 31% automatically generated statuses and 69% of self-generated statuses. The pure text (37% from 638 self- generated statuses) was the most frequent self-generated form. The analysis also showed that personal thoughts are the most commonly used pragmatic topic (44%), followed by social life (24%), spirituality (12%), nationhood’s spirit (12%), and adverts (8%). The results of the current study ideally provide further insight into the priorities and goals of WhatsApp users concerning utilising statuses, along with previous studies in this field. This will be incredibly helpful to improve our comprehension of the discursive and pragmatic functionality that the applications provide.
17 Limitations and further research One of the key concerns experienced while researching for this paper was precisely the lack of study that describes this in a mapped region. Besides, since only a comparatively narrow sample is observed, we can't generalize the whole findings. While the final standard of obtained statuses was relevant in most other ways, a broader database would help to provide more detailed explanations and potentially verify those trends that have been identified. WhatsApp statuses in the current multimodal will be an enormous source of data for a potential study that might give rise to more insights for applied linguistics researches. This current multimodal status will offer an outstanding medium for obtaining insight into the modes utilised in discourse and pragmatics. Researchers may explore different contextual aspects, including variations between individuals of different nationalities, races, ages, and educational levels. Also, it will be worth investigating why many users express their status in a language which is not their natural language. Possibilities for this can be varied, including attempting to create a more complex personal persona to prevent any of the contacts from getting the meaning of the message.
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19 Razak, N. A., Alakrash, H., & Sahboun, Y. (2018). English Language Teachers’ readiness For the Application of Technology Towards Fourth Industrial Revolution Demands. Asia- Pacific Journal of Information Technology and Multimedia, 7(2-2), 89-98. Razak, N. A., Saeed, H., & Alakrash, H. (2018). Pedagogical Issues of Using ICT Applications in Iraq. Asia-Pacific Journal of Information Technology and Multimedia, 7(2-2), 79- 87. Salem, A. A. M. (2013). The impact of technology (BBM and WhatsApp applications) on English linguistics in Kuwait. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 2(4), 65-69. Sánchez-Moya, A., & Cruz-Moya, O. (2015). “Hey there! I am using WhatsApp”: a preliminary study of recurrent discursive realisations in a corpus of WhatsApp statuses. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 212, 52-60. Siemens, G. (2014). Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. 2004. Online: http://www. elearnspace. org/Articles/connectivism. htm (accessed October 2012). Sultan, A. J. (2014). Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal, 51(1), 57-69. Van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4, (2), 249-283. Yeboah, J., & Ewur, G. D. (2014). The impact of WhatsApp messenger usage on students’ performance in Tertiary Institutions in Ghana. Journal of Education and practice, 5(6), 157-164. Yus, F. (2011). Cyberpragmatics: Internet-mediated communication in context. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
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The Influence of Task-based Language Teaching on Writing and Reading Performance of EFL Sudanese University Students in Sudan
Abubaker Suleiman Abdelmajid Yousif Department of English, College of Sciences and Humanities, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, P.O Box: 83 Al-Kharj 11942, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) Email: [email protected]
Biodata: Dr. Abubaker Suleiman Abdelmajid Yousif is currently working as an Assistant Professor of English in the College of Science and Humanities, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. He holds a Ph.D. degree in English from Sudan University of Sciences and Technology, Sudan. He has been teaching English language to the undergraduate students for the last 10 years. His research interests include Applied Linguistics, EFL teaching, Second Language Acquisition, Foreign Language and L2 vocabulary Learning and Teaching.
Abstract This paper aims to evaluate the impact of TBLT on EFL Sudanese university students writing and reading performance by suggesting various frameworks at the First Year, College of Languages, Sudan University for Science and Technology. The study explores the influence of TBLT on Sudanese EFL university students reading and writing performance, Willis’ TBL pattern is propositioned for the basement of the relationship through task-based techniques and reading, Rooney’s (1998) style is employed. The researcher employed two tools to collect data, feedback forms, and face-to-face interviews. In the feedback method, the participants inquired to point out each of the tasks utilized. In face to face interviews, participants enquired about their opinions on the tasks, and the glitches they came across. Appropriately, (50) EFL Sudanese university students who are studying English at the First Year, College of Languages, Sudan University for Science and Technology, are selected randomly to present this investigation. The blends of qualitative and quantitative approaches were used for collection
21 and analysis of data. The findings of this study revealed that employing TBLT has an explicit impact on EFL Sudanese university students writing and reading outcomes. Moreover, TBLT application helps EFL Sudanese university students to solve some related problems indecently during writing and reading tasks and improve their competence as well. Finally, the researcher recommends that EFL Sudanese university students should be taught by using TBLT strategies to help them be aware of entertaining and valuable techniques and activities.
Keywords: communicative language teaching, English as a Foreign Language, task-based instruction, task-based language teaching, task-based learning; Second language, First language.
Introduction Learning the English language requires gaining its wordlist, language rules, pronunciation, and the four skills of the English language e.g. listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Writing is incredibly significant for communication. It produces a communication bridge between the writer and the reader. It is demanded to convey messages, alphabets, and knowledge. Writing is not an effortless duty, as particular learners may believe; it is fairly a complex ability if contrasted with the rest of language skills, which may require a humble endeavor ((Nisreen, W, 2016 & Abu Shawish, 2009, p.1). Reading-writing abilities of English are measured like the duo mightily crucial talents in educational processes in cooperation of EFL learners and instructors (Wolff, 2000, p. 107- 112). Besides, some significant changes have occurred to language teaching-studying procedure in the last (20) ages: like getting through TBLT for teaching and learning that categorizes as CLT (Chastain, 1988, p. 164). The principal emphasis of these modernistic styles is to give significant attentiveness to all the four language aptitudes by engaging EFL learners in educational processes to the progress of learning enactments. (Nisreen, W, 2016 & Al-Ghamari 2004) also signposts the importance of the incorporated skills demonstration for getting better language-learning outcomes, particularly the amalgamation of writing abilities with other language proficiencies e.g. such as reading, listening, speaking, wordlist, and pronunciation. Writing has been outlined both legitimately and functionally. It is described ceremoniously to reveal its tangible demonstration since the footage of human communication making use of signals or codes to act the verbal lexes (Macmillan Encyclopedia, 1986, p. 1317). This characterization exhibits writing and nominates it merely as an obvious illustration of human
22 language. The feasible description of writing also nominates it as a communicative incident (Nisreen, W, 2016). It is worth noticing that the study of language in the 20th century is inclined to give attention to the spoken language. Numerous linguists from DeSassure across Chomsky ignored the written genre in courtesy of the spoken one. Though, this participated in the truth that writing was for a long time a mistreated domain in language teaching. If we inquire ourselves why we write, the answer may well be to convey information to someone we cannot currently talk to; therefore, writing permits us to surpass time and place as well. Scholars in EFL have now turn out to be conscious of the consequence of enhancing writing proficiencies amongst non-native writers of English ((Nisreen, W, 2016; Freedman et al., 1983 and Raimes; 1983). Firstly, writing emphasizes the grammatical structures, the figure of speech, and wordlist imparted to learners. Secondly, when learners write, they also have an opportunity to be risk- taking with the language, to go further than what they have just studied to input, to take risks. Thirdly, when they write, they inevitably come to be engaged with the up-to-date language; the effort to extract thoughts and the permanent usage of eyes, hand, and brain is a sole model to boost learning. Since learners strengthen with what to put down next or how to put it down on paper, they often find out something novel to write. Furthermore, EFL/ESL writing has always been measured as a vital competence in teaching and learning (Nisreen, W, 2016, Reyes, De Vera & Medriano, 2018). The Functions of Language in Facebook Posting. The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly March 2018 Volume 20, Issue 3, 196. ). In L2, writing précises sundry factors that influence the writing outcome of the L2 student (Friedrich, 2008; Tang, 2012; Al-Ghamdi & Alrefaee, 2020; Medriano & Bautista, 2020). It has a connection of tangled fundamentals which creates it as a hard-hitting domain of study where certain investigators would rather hold off from. Besides, L2 writing embraces various chapters, which are not essentially consequent, but rather possessing miscellaneous signs compared to the other. For instance, when L2 students try to generate a portion of writing, it contains perceptive (Li, 2008), cultural (Myles, 2002), the proportional expertise in the targeted language (Allen & Katayama, 2016), and type (Hyland, 2004). Furthermore, writing in L2 has the significance of distinctiveness mirroring in the L2 students' writings. It occasionally comprises and influences the uniqueness of the L2 student (Cox, Jordan, Ortmeier-Hooper, & Gray Schwartz, 2010; Riyanti, 2015). Matsuda and Tardy (2007) think that L2 authors transport their “speech in a certain framework of social communication, fetching their assumptions, arrogances, ethics, and anticipations to bear on the writer’s transcript” (p. 247).
23 Students at the College of languages are poor in writing skills. They misapprehend the environment of the writing process un-specifically and writing paragraphs specifically. Their paragraphs miss agreement and consistency as a consequence of misconnected sentences which blocked a soft and reasonable overflow of notions. Therefore, this investigation is an endeavor to advance paragraph- writing proficiencies amongst students of the College of languages and to evaluate the link between reading and writing dexterities. The researcher chose this topic because of its significance in improving reading and writing performance as well as EFL in the Sudanese context. As EFL Sudanese university students encounter many difficulties and commit many errors when they read and write. The researcher tried mainly to spotlight on investigating the influence of TBLT on EFL Sudanese university students reading and writing performance that is why this paper will be of magnificent value to the EFL university learners, as well as to the teachers who grid on the domain of tutoring by increasing their awareness of what they are doing during the teaching process. A great demand for reading and writing performance is required from students to accomplish various tasks ranging from homework, assignments, writing essays, and paragraphs to writing dissertations. This study will be useful in exploring students’ major difficulties in reading and writing and their solutions. More interestingly, future researchers who wish to carry studies on this subject and suggest solutions in the Sudanese context. The insufficiency of studies that focuses on the reading and writing performance exactly in the Sudanese EFL situation obliges it as a compulsion to carry out this investigation which may positively go along with comparable upcoming studies and give away priority to such matters by the sponsors at colleges and universities in Sudan.
Literature Review According to (Yang, 1995, p. 71-74), (Cook, 2000, p. 266-278) task is described as “The portion of classroom practice that encompasses students in understanding, handling, creating or acting together in the targeted language whereas their consideration focuses on rallying in the comprehension of grammar to communicate sense, and in which the aim is to pass on concept rather than to operate structure. TBLT proposes that it's essential on behalf of instructors to remain conscious and cope with enormous kinds of task needs and afford scaffolding to accelerate language learning. Meanwhile, EFL learners also must be acquainted with these techniques, which support them to have good learning upshots.
24 With the initiation of the CLT method in the early 1980s and abundant stress on students' communicative skills across the latest 20 years, TBLT brought predominant usage in the domain of second language acquirement like improving procedure-oriented curriculum and scheming communicative assignments to enhance students' genuine language usage (Jeon and Hahn, 2006). TBI depended on the assumption of constructive proofs via the gaining of knowledge and the CLT system has progressed in reaction to specific curbs of the conventional PPP method (Long and Crookes, 1991, p. 46-52) (Ellis, 2003). (Ellis 1999, p. 285-301) otherwise, indicated that the theoretic foundation of the task-based method is contribution and communication notion. But, it's obvious, the present concern in tasks' trunks fundamentally from "the communicative approach" to the tutoring of language (Cheng-jun, 2006, p. 120-132). The sort of assignments operated in teaching may constructively affect students' enactment. Unreliable proof taken from the learners in EFL learners proposed that reading-writing are measured approximately the supreme uninteresting aptitude by the students. For example, the learners did not pay any attention to these procedures; moreover, they did not join the reading or writing sessions. Besides, they looked like they did not adore these sessions. From the instructors' viewpoint, they experience the demand to offer our learners with enormous approaches and styles to overwhelmed reading-writing-related difficulties. Therefore, employing a task in instructing their aptitudes looks like a conceivable answer for this drawback. In general, reading and writing are considered to be very insisting on learners. There are enormous causes to this problem. Firstly, learners do not possess any confronts in their L1, so they did not own any reading capabilities in their L1. Consequently, it's incredible to obtain a reading talent in a foreign language. One more challenge may be learners may dislike the approach handled in their reading-writing sessions. They have discovered it extremely tedious to read according to conventional approaches e.g. read and reply comprehension questions or using traditional writing techniques. Additionally, when they read or write, they sometimes look up a dictionary, and they left-over too much time in the reading-writing process, which reasons evading of attentiveness and incentive. Using a wordlist for a long time may interrupt them and they often lose their attention. This investigation intends to explore the plausible influences of task-based reading and writing strategies upon the students' consequences at the College of languages, Sudan University for Science and Technology. The importance of the current investigation can be argued from two dimensions, theoretical and practical. Like theoretic, task-based techniques are employed on behalf of reading-writing instruction, so the key attention is on the reading-writing procedure and last recital of EFL
25 Sudanese university learners. Hence, even though considerable work has been created to examine the hypothetical explanations of TBL pedagogy (Willis, 1996, p. 149), (Skehan, 1998, p. 268-286), (Bygate et al., 2000), and of the writing-reading pedagogy (Horowitz, 1986, p. 445-462), (Walshe, 1987, p. 22-27), (Wolff, 2000, p. 107-112), the exploration of the TBI of these duo aptitudes, is departed rather considerably unconcerned. Therefore, evaluation of whether the TBI is practicable, in improving EFL learners' reading-writing rendering, is thought to remain respected like a provisional effort to pedagogic philosophies appropriate to the TBI of EFL learners. Like realistic importance, it can be indicated that presently TBL techniques are implemented in different universities and colleges over the world. Though, instructors and learners still have worrying interests about the actual impact of these acquiring techniques on EFL writing-reading procedures. Meanwhile, both as duo crucial talents for EFL learners have obtained copious care form EFL teachers (see, for instance, (Willis, 1996, p. 149), (Skehan, 1998, p. 268-286), (Bygate et al., 2000). Thus, the findings of the current investigation highlighted the consequence of task-based techniques on EFL writing-reading rendering. Furthermore, equally learners and English instructors will be notified that this method assumes to significantly accelerate the instructing of EFL writing-reading aptitudes according to their governable and elastic processes.
Task-Based Instruction TBI is acknowledged as task-based teaching, which is another method that can be respected as developing from attention on classroom procedures. In the case of TBI, the call is that language learning will come to a result from making the correct types of global procedures during classes, and the best style to craft these are to employ planned instructional assignments in specific. Rather than utilize a traditional curriculum, particularly a grammar-focused one, defends of TBI claim that grammar and other scopes of communicative aptitude can be enhanced as a by- an outcome of involving students in collaborative tasks. Most instructors make use of various sorts of tasks as a form of systematic teaching. Task-based instruction, despite this, forms strong argues for the utility of tasks and perceives them as the principal entity to be employed, both in designing teaching (i.e., in improving a curriculum) and also in classroom tutoring, but what exactly is a task? And what is not a task? The idea of the task is a slightly ambiguous one; however different endeavors have been created to specify it. Some of the main factors of a task are as follow: It is something that students handle employing their current language materials. It has a product that is not easily connected with language learning; however, language acquirement may take place as the
26 student implements the assignment. It includes concentration on sense. Like tasks consisting of two or more students, it claims the students' usage of communication techniques and collaborative abilities. In task 16, do you employ classroom practices that can be labeled as tasks in the meaning of the above-mentioned ones? What do you consider are the features of a useful task? Many of the activities suggested in the early days of the CLT can be defined as tasks due to the description above, i.e., information-gap and information-sharing practices that we discover in different textbooks and ELT resources. From the standpoint TBI, two types of tasks can practically be discriminated: Pedagogical tasks are specifically planned classroom tasks that are meant to provide the utility of special communicative techniques and may also need the usage of special sorts of language (aptitudes, language structure, and wordlist). A task in which two students have to attempt to discover the number of variances between two alike images is an instance of a pedagogical task. The task itself is not something one would ordinarily come across in the authentic world. Though, the communicative procedures need to provide useful involvement to language progress. Real-world tasks are tasks that mirror the actual-world utilities of language and which might be esteemed as a practice for authentic- world tasks. A role play in which learners conducting a job meeting would be a task of this model. (Richards, Jack C. 2006).
Task versus Exercise An exercise is a teaching formula that includes planned, directed, or unlimited performance of some factors of language such as practice, a cloze task, and a reading comprehension episode whereas a task is something that learners execute, utilizing their obtainable language materials. It also has an upshot that is not solely associated with language learning, though language acquirement may take place as the student performs the duty. It is pertinent to students' requirements because it implicates an emphasis on meaning. Besides, it uses communication strategies and interactional skills. Moreover, the task intends to entail the usage of explicit interactional techniques and may even involve the utility of certain modes of language (skillfulnesses, sentence structure, and wordlist) as the pedagogical duty. (Richards 2014). For all these above-mentioned reasons, the researcher preferred to use a task rather than using activity and adopted the pedagogical task. Previous Studies Ahmad Mugableh1 & Mohammad Khreisat (2019) made a study to examine two of the existing approaches; specifically, the TBL method and the traditional 3Ps standard, to enhance Saudi EFL learners'' writing ability in Jouf University. This study focuses on identifying the influence
27 of two different approaches, and what are the progressive factors that the TBL approach can attain. The data was gathered via experimental writing pretest and posttest after learners have given a training course employing the two methods for 6 weeks. The outcomes showed that implementing the TBL methodology is considerably operative in learning writing ability. It was also noted that the TBL approach is more operative than the traditional one. Moreover, results manifested that utilizing the TBL approach on tutoring Saudi EFL learners' writing skills developed five writing sub-skills compromising arrangement, subject matter, system, language rules, and wordlist. Fawzi Altayeb Yousuf (2016) conducted a study tries for exploring the writing faults of Saudi EFL university students of the College of Science & Arts, King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia. The study points toward investigating the reasons for errors, examining the factors that influence their incidence, and proposing appropriate solutions for the drawback. The sample contained 20 students who were chosen haphazardly from students of Level Four besides the EFL teachers. The analytic descriptive style is taken on to carry out this investigation. This paper pays particular attention to the errors of grammar, punctuation, lexical, spelling, and discourse errors in the production of writing English by the Saudi EFL university students. The researcher employed testing, questionnaire, structured interview, and personal observation instruments for bringing data together. The findings of this study exhibited that the Saudi EFL university students committed mistakes during their writing performance as a result of some causes like mother tongue intrusion, besides unsatisfactory activities and practice of requisite modes of writing as well as the shortage of preceding the students’ writing performance. In Palestine, Nisreen Walleed (2016) attempted to find the effect of incorporating reading and writing dexterities at Palestine Technical College learners' writing of paragraphs and their standpoint. The researcher concluded the study because of the low level of achievement in writing the performance of paragraph coherence, paragraph improvement, and paragraph unity. The investigator utilized an exemplary specimen of 80 EFL learners studying at Palestine Technical College. The pattern consisted of two sets; the empirical set and the control one. The investigator occupied two tools; pretest and posttest. The assembled data were analyzed statistically by using SPSS. Therefore, this investigation showed that integrating reading and writing skills had an immeasurable outcome range. The researcher proposed that instructors and college teachers are requested to incorporate reading and writing tasks in tutoring writing abilities in common and in writing a paragraph in specific to enhance their writing performances.
28 Juhee Lee & Diane L. Schallert (2015) investigated a yearlong classroom-focused interference was intended to examine the reading-writing bond with L2 literateness by scrutinizing whether the growth of reading advances writing and conversely. Medium school EFL students in South Korea were allotted to three experiments that encompassed a wide range of reading and writing or having extra regular instruction like the role of their steady school English syllabus one time a week on behalf of the entire educational year. Pre- and posttests rated variations in reading knowledge and expressive writing practice. The findings exhibited that for reading knowledge, all three sets were considerably amended through the interval, and nevertheless, the sets did not vary statistically. As per writing rendering, merely the massive reading and writing sets, not the control one, went through substantial improvements upon a time, with the two empirical sets screening no statistically significant differences from one another. Moreover, for reading understanding, learners exposed progress despite their English- competence degrees, while barely the learners with greater ability underwent a significant advancement in writing enactment. The findings recommend that a person can study to recite by writing and reading a lot and can acquire to write by reading and writing as well since reading and writing requires a series of sub-procedure. Al Nashash (2006) did a study to reveal the impact of a task-based program for EFL productive dexterities on the progress of the female students of the first year at the secondary level especially the oral and written skills in Amman. The results revealed that applying TBLT via a constructed program focused on the actions and techniques of TBLT bettered the learning of communicative speaking and writing skills slightly better than the ordinary method of teaching.
Research Method This investigation was performed at the College of languages, Sudan University for Sciences and Technology in Sudan. The aim of this investigation is intended to identify whether TBLT affects EFL Sudanese university students reading and writing performance or not. The researcher employed a descriptive method.
Statement of the Problem English reading-writing aptitudes are measured as the two supreme crucial talents in educational processes for EFL learners and instructors (Wolff, 2000, p. 107-112). Besides, some significant changes have occurred to language pedagogical procedure over the last (20) years: for instance, employing TBLT for teaching and learning that categorizes as CLT (Chastain, 1988, p. 164). The major emphasis of these modernistic approaches is to give
29 significant attention to all the four language aptitudes by engaging EFL learners in educational processes to enhance learning renderings. EFL University Students at universities and colleges who are learning EFL encounter many problems and difficulties in all English language skills especially reading and writing ones. They misapprehend the environment of the writing procedure generally and writing paragraphs specifically. Their paragraphs suffer nonexistence of unity and coherence as a product of dis- connected sentences which hindered the easiest and reasonable connection of thoughts. EFL university students face the issues of decoding (put sounds to letters), poor comprehension from the letters and words realization to the sympathy of meaning at the phrase, sentence, and paragraph and essay level. This makes reading hard, consequently making reading more cognitively challenging and frustrating. Moreover, sometimes the problem comes as a result of employing a conventional or insufficient teaching method in their reading and writing session which is extremely poor and uninteresting because it depends on the traditional tasks e.g. read and respond comprehension interrogations or utilizing ineffective writing techniques. Thus, due to these problems, this paper intends to scrutinize the influence of TBLT on reading and writing performance on the EFL Sudanese university learners at the College of Languages, Sudan University of Sciences and Technology English classes.
Research Design To discover students' impediments in writing and reading, the researcher conducted qualitative research to find out whether TBLT influences the reading and writing performance of EFL Sudanese university students. Besides, employing feedback forms and interview to recover students' difficulties in writing paragraphs and cross-examine them to attain their views about writing encounters.
Questions of the Study The present study aims at finding out TBLT's influence on EFL Sudanese university students reading and writing performance in Sudan. It attempts to solve the subsequent questions: To what degree does TBLT influence EFL Sudanese university students reading and writing performance? Does the implementation of TBLT help students solve their reading and writing problems that they encounter?
Research Subject
30 The subjects of the study were (50) EFL Sudanese university students of the English Department at the College of Languages, Sudan University for Sciences and Technology in Sudan who are studying EFL, in the first semester of the first year. Their ages range between 18 to 21 years old. They have just admitted to the university after they passed examinations of the High Secondary School. They were selected randomly from different sections to participate in this study without being informed. They study English writing courses which enables them to improve writing and reading skills at the same time.
Research Instrument To obtain more satisfactory data, it is necessary for the investigator to employ many research apparatuses, for example, feedback forms and face to face interviews. The learners were granted enormous reading activities (i.e. as itemizing, arranging, matching, comparing, and problem- cracking, sharing experience, and innovative assignments). Any task expected learners to cope with identifiable reading-writing skills. Once the duties were employed, the contributors were provided the feedback forms by which they were enquired to statement on each of the assignments utilized. Moreover, on the forms, the learners specified what they learned or did not study. Furthermore, they write down whether or not they believed the activities were entertaining. Additionally, (15) of total (50) subjects were chosen in the random way the meetings. They were inquired about their opinions on the duties, and additionally the glitches they confronted. Additionally, they were questioned about what they acquired with the assistance of activities. To conclude, the subjects' standpoints from the feedback forms, and face-to-face interviews were tested utilizing content analysis.
Data Analysis In this study, the researcher used a qualitative method. After gathering the data, the researcher analyzed them systematically. Also, the data were grouped and categorized as per the problems of the study, the characteristics of the items, and the objectives. The numbers and percentages were employed. The data from the feedback form were analyzed and scored based on the frequency of answers. The frequency of each item was then measured and put into a percentage. The researcher interpreted and described the collected data grounded on the finding of the feedback form and interview.
31 Results & Discussion One of the foremost queries of this investigation was to spotlight on how learners reacted to task-based reading tasks. Feedback forms were functioned to achieve this aim. Feedback- forms, and interviews' analysis exposed that 34 (68%) of respondents have responded positively to the using of the tasks, while, 16 (32%) of respondents have responded negatively. Furthermore, after remaining subjected to the task-based reading assignments, learners' attentiveness, and curiosity (concerning the reading modules were enriched. These result mirrors in Willis and (Willis 2007) claim that task-like actions should involve students' attentiveness since they state that without actual attention, there can be no concentration on sense or product. The supreme essential influence of TBI across this particular investigation was that 39 (78%) of learners discovered that the tasks are enjoyable and fruitful while, the others 11 (22%) found them unenjoyably. These two upshots can be stated to foster EFL students' motivation for language studying. Also, by remaining pretentious EFL students can effortlessly enrich progressive learning outcomes in their classrooms that is what (Skehan, 1998) affirms "judging success in terms of outcome", is a single constituent of the task-like activity. The complete testing of the feedback forms brings to light that assignments got through in the handling obtained permanently favorable while incompletely unconstructive reactions. The motive for this can be that even if learners were keen on the duties, nevertheless, filling up the feedback forms might have been disturbing and considered as a supplementary load for them. It can stand confirmed that the cause why specific of the learners destructively noted on the assignments was that there were certain exterior aspects e.g. individual glitches. Besides, 19 (38%) of EFL students did not adore the instructors' standpoint. One more negative factor due to respondents' reply is that ‘drawing’ as they required portraying images, particularly in two tasks. 11 (22%) of learners discovered drawing hard. 13 (26%) of students could not obtain trust; consequently, we may make awareness that this subjective influence disallowed some students from performing activities. Lastly, only 7 (14%) of EFL students realized the subject matters were not pleasurable. The testing of the interview datum showed that TBL participates in the genuine utility of the target language. Thus, EFL students study the language besides undergoing it. Moreover, TBL heads to the simplicity of EFL components particularly reading duties in our learning. TBL makes educational framework ready for EFL students by making language contributions straightforward and generating this contribution understandable. What is more, is that truth,
32 TBI consequences in observing and perception in foreign language components? EFL students can simply concentrate on such elements employing a TBI. The qualitative datum collected via the interviews pointed out that learners were getting involved in the activities and the TBL dealing with classrooms. Due to the testing of the interview, filling up feedback forms at the end of the sessions embracing a TBI has created learners becoming fed-up. Away from that filling in feedback forms, the learners made a complaint that the sessions went on for a stretched duration. In general, the interview datum grants a valuable finding regarding the TBI. These trivial unhelpful details are barely connected to specific tangible circumstances e.g. long duration of hours etc. One of these points of this investigation was whether learners thought that they developed their reading competencies when imparted via assignments. The utmost noticeable finding is wordlist development using TBI. This progress was accomplished by finding out the language in which learners overcame a vigorous section. In the language attainment procedure, they enhanced their reading aptitudes by employing kinesthetic duties for example imaging what they read, rotating the manuscript they read into role-play formulating research, and applying it to the out-of-doors individuals, preparing a salad after comprehending a formula. These results also indicate; making a communication duty includes accomplishing an upshot, making the last consequence that can turn out to be valued by others (Willis and Willis, 2007) that are constituents of TBL. An additional essential influence of TBL is that EFL students come to be aware of metacognitive techniques therefore they find out the perimeters of their abilities by doing the tasks to study on their personal. Furthermore, they developed their meta- cognitive learning techniques like reading quickly or slowly. Additionally, TBL heads learners to wide usage of language that realizes chattering with a foreigner on the network, transmitting and extraditing a dispatch in English, or owning a part-time post. In their feedback forms, we can simply view their pragmatic usage of language. Besides, learners reinforced their EFL awareness and obtained reading awareness across the reading duties. Out of these, there are particular unenthusiastic factors obtained from feedback forms. The utmost crucial one is that the learners could not study sufficiently as of off-putting session setting e.g. interrupting during the lesson whereas executing the assignment and weak control of the classroom. An extra grievance about assignment practice is the long-term class duration that learners did not adore and become very uninterested. A further factor of TBL is that many learners had a problem in sentence structure. Additionally, one student complained about wordlist memorization that was another unhelpful point. All-in, the analysis of the two tools (feedback forms, and interviews)
33 of this investigation showed that other learners replied confidently to the assignments planned in TBL handling. As per the findings elaborated, there is an extraordinary concurrence that 37 (74%) of the participants think that they have created abundant improvement with how to treat with subjects regarded with several factors as ‘subject matter or notion, ‘oratorical arrangement, ‘structure of clause and wordlist, ‘glibness’ and ‘reasoning’. In specific, after they have had a task-based writing program, participants who affirmed that they have crafted massive paces in conveying their thoughts with graphical language. Quantitative findings of this paper, which are concerned as the powerful and the supreme straightforward proof of EFL students' writing aptitude development expose that there is a measured variance between the post-trial mean score of the empirical session and that of the planned one, or more, in particular, the post-trial mean score of the empirical session is notably higher than that of the planned one, while respondents in two sets were ultimately at the equal standard of English writing ability before the test was employed; in one set, there is also a considerable growth of the post-test mean score of the empirical session in contrast with its pre-trial mean score, while there is no notable variance in respects to mean scores of the planned session between the pre-trial and the post-trial. Conclusively, the overall amount of wordlists utilized by the medium subject of the empirical session in his or her writing part for the post-trial is further than the planned set. Regardless of the medium overall amount wordlists of the empirical session in the post-test is the greatest of the three items required to be contrasted, its medium overall amount of various wordlists is the greatest and therefore its repetition scale of wordlists is the least. In addition to that, like ‘the medium range of wordlists’ and ‘the medium range of structure, the performing of respondents of the empirical session in the post-trial can be measured to be superior to their performing in the pre-test and what respondents of the planned session have practiced in the post-test. Consequently, it can be implied that 41 (82%) of participants in the empirical set were capable to use more varied wordlists, supplementary ‘huge wordlists, and extra structure with complicated modes to create their writing parts in the post-trial than they acted in the pre-trial or the rivals in the planned set performed in the post-trial. On the other hand, participants in the empirical session are regarded, their considerable progress in English writing proficiency is assumed to be carried by the acceptance of the TBI to the instructing of EFL writing, or further purposely, the implementation of Jane Willis model for TBL to EFL writing sessions.
34 Conclusion The researcher drew the following results as a result of the thorough investigation that getting through task-based strategy has a crucial encouragement on Sudanese EFL university learners' writing-reading consequences and implementing of TBI as a learning method for EFL university learners supports them to settle particular associated complications and matters indecently during the writing-reading of assignments. Consequently, TBL strategies will assist learners to evolve their writing-reading capability. The analysis of the collected data via assorted data collection procedures exposed that both learners and the tutor were extremely gratified with TBL strategies primarily diversity like inserting selection to the schoolroom actions and rising studying in a session. TBL strategies were helpful, useful in students’ performance of writing and reading skills as well as increased learners' motivation, and improved learning upshots. TBL urged learners' practice chances of the targeted language approachability in the classes as a product of demonstrating countless duties. In this regard to learners' echoes on the utilized activities during the investigation, which was incredibly constructive, it can be wrap up that learners were accessible to the notion of TBL strategies while learning EFL. In addition to all that task-based learning strategies incline to produce extraordinary input, enriched student innovation, and provided expressive significative studying, which is one of the major factors of TBI.
Recommendations In this study, the researcher recommends some points to be considered for any further investigation or future studies. Firstly, EFL Sudanese university teachers have to receive more developmental and professional training sessions on the uses of strategies of task-based learning for developing students' performance on writing, reading, listening, and speaking. Secondly, Students should be taught through task-based learning strategies to help them to be aware of enjoyable and useful techniques and activities.
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38 COVID‐19 and Online English Language Teaching: Students’ Response and Feedback
Muhammad Ajmal Assistant Professor, Department of English Language and Literature, University of Lahore, Pakistan [email protected]
Saleh Alrasheedi Department of English, College of Education, Majmaah University, Majmaah, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Muhammed Salim Keezhatta Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz university, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Ghulam Mujtaba Yasir Assistant Professor, Department of English, Ghazi University, DG Khan [email protected]
Corresponding author Email: [email protected]
Biodata: Muhammad Ajmal is perusing his PhD in English Language and Literature from International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan. He has been teaching at various universities for the last 10 years and currently working as an Assistant Professor at the University of Lahore. He has secured Indigenous and International scholarships from Higher Education Commission of Pakistan and visited Universitat Heidelberg Germany. He presented his research paper at James Joyce Conference in Universitat Roma Tre, Italy. He is also member of Poetics and Linguistic
39 Association (PALA), UK. His research interests include ELT, Applied Linguistics, Corpus Stylistics, Literary Stylistics, Text Linguistics and Narratology.
Saleh Alrasheedi is working at Department of English, Department of English, College of Education, Majmaah University, Majmaah, Saudi Arabia his research interests include Applied Linguistics, ELT & Discourse Analysis.
Muhammed Salim Keezhatta is working at Department of English, College of Science and Humanities in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdul Aziz University and his research interests include Applied Linguistics, ELT & Discourse Analysis.
Ghulam Mujtaba Yasir is working as an Assistant Professor of English at Ghazi University DG Khan, Pakistan. He possesses almost 15 years of teaching experience at postgraduate level. His research interests include; ELT, Discourse Analysis, Sociolinguistics and Applied Linguistics.
Abstract The outbreak of the COVID‐19 caused Pakistani universities to close the campuses and forced them to initiate online teaching. This study explores the responses and feedback of students regarding its advantages, limitations and recommendations. The research population is the graduate students of department of English at University of Lahore, Pakistan. Specific instructional strategies are presented to summarize current online teaching experiences for university students who were forced to take online education in such circumstances. Learning system is developing day by day with the help of modern technology and the it plays a significant role in online education. English language teachers utilized and incorporated modern technology into their pedagogical practices. For this reason, they mostly utilize virtual interface. In their capacity, English Language teachers and learners involved in interactions, i.e. “anytime anywhere”, which enhances extra momentum teaching learning process. The nature of this study was based on a descriptive-exploratory research. The mixed approach was utilized in this research. One hundred and ten respondents were selected with a set of questions, i.e. educational attainment, technological aspects, learning process and learners’ responses. So, this study demonstrates how Google Classroom, Moodle, WhatsApp and Instagram have been a source of lesson and it records the studens’ experiences and feedback.
40 Keywords: ELT, Google Classroom, Moodle, WhatsApp, Instagram, technology,
Introduction Following the huge development in technology and communication technology, English language is becoming one of the most dominating language worldwide (Alzeebaree & Yavuz, 2017, as cited in Alzeebaree & Hasan, 2020). Since the late-winter of 2020, Pakistani colleges have been encountering a remarkable gigantic "movement" from conventional in‐class face‐ to‐face training to online instruction. Due to the broad of Coronavirus malady (COVID‐19) in Pakistan, following the administration's prerequisites of "constant instructing and learning," most Pakistani colleges have begun online training. In a brief timeframe period, a huge number of employees began to educate before a PC screen, and their understudies need to remain at home and take the courses through the web. Past Pakistan, with the spread of COVID‐19 over the world, as of March 13, 61 nations in Africa, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, North America, and South America have reported or actualized school and college terminations and the greater part of colleges have upheld restricted terminations (UNESCO, 2020). This examination recognizes the high‐impact practice standards of online advanced education and gives a contextual analysis to associates at colleges to think about directing on the web training in comparative conditions. It is an enormous, problematic move to move all the current courses online surprisingly fast. As a rule, a total online course requires an intricate exercise plan configuration, showing materials, for example, sound and video substance, just as innovation uphold groups. Be that as it may, because of the abrupt rise of the COVID‐19, most employees and understudies are confronting the difficulties of lacking internet showing experience, early arrangement, or backing from instructive innovation groups. Notwithstanding the difficulties to the workforce and understudies, existing examination shows that over 60% of Pakistani graduates tend to have equivocal future profession objectives, need dynamic scholastic association, and invest more energy in‐class study contrasted with out‐class concentrate agreeing with their investigation time (the normal complete graduation credit prerequisite for Pakistani colleges is 163 credits) (Bao, 2019; Bao and Zhang, 2012). Also, in light of an investigation of understudies' reactions in web-based media, for such a large‐scale internet educating, the difficulties for understudies didn't originate from specialized operational obstructions. Rather, they experience issues because of the absence of a decent learning disposition. Understudies frequently have issues, for example,
41 absence of self‐discipline, appropriate learning materials, or great learning conditions when they are self‐isolated at home. The current contextual analysis will zero in on those issues introduced above, and examine how staff can execute successful instructional methodologies to forestall negative learning mentalities of undergrads and guarantee the adequacy of online education. Since the start of the 21st century, Pakistani institutions initiated online instruction changes to shape open training network dependent on data and organization innovations. With the fast advancement of Massive Open Online Courses, the quantity of these online courses offered by Pakistani colleges has surpassed 500, and about 3 million individuals have taken an interest in these courses (Shang and Cao, 2017). As the herald of online instruction in Chinese colleges, Peking University has offered around 100 online courses. In the past years until today, the modern technology in education has received considerable critical attention, including the field of language teaching (Yassin, Razak, & Maasum, 2019). Modern technology in education, particularly in English teaching is not a new paradigm; the influence of globalization brings the revolutionary changes. It makes the role of technology integration in teaching as one of the important matter for teachers to be prepared, to face and to apply their classroom into more fit in the new era (Razak, Yassin, & Maasum, 2020). The use of technology takes many forms especially in English language teaching which causes many of researchers interested in this discipline. In addition, the technology integration can facilitate learners in their language learning. ELT Teachers have looked beyond their physical classroom settings, coming to terms with the virtual dimensions in the form of modern technology. Virtual world has expanded spectacularly with technical, theoretical and pedagogical underpinnings. With the passage of time and advances of technology, teachers and students are getting increasingly dependent on various platforms of e-learning. Turning now to the next technology web-based and mobile-phone friendly: Podcast, it is online audio files or downloadable audio/video files that can be listened to anywhere, anytime. In ELT, teachers use this device to provide authentic materials in encouraging the students’ listening, writing, speaking skills. This radio program also available for mobile phones which makes this application is very convenient to be adopted in teaching learning process. Next, another technology network device is called DST for digital storytelling; it is simple, creative and computer-based application to tell story. On the other hand, WhatsApp, Instagram, Podcast, DST, Edmodo, Ms. Photo Story and Orai are the applications and software used in various mode of education 2016-2020. WhatsApp and Instagram are two popular social-media platforms where people can share his or her story of life and connect to each other worldwide.
42 It has been known since many years ago that the technology in the field of English language teaching holds important role even before the emergence of the latest paradigm, it makes the role of the technology; internet-based and digital learning getting more famous in the field. Despite of the growth application usage and network technology in supporting the teaching and learning English, more traditional technology devices such as audio, video and recorder still able to attract scholars, or teachers’ attention to use it in their teaching classrooms. It is proved by a number of researches that had been conducted in teaching English using such technology devices as has been found in the existing researches, one of them is Shazali (2019) mentioned above. Audio-clips are designed materials using audio files or recording sounds in teaching learning process. It is different with the audio-visual in which using both hearing and sight, meanwhile audio-clip is reproduced sound that can be used as materials in teaching. Wide availability of computer, laptop and smart phones, and the easy access to internet have made it possible for teachers and students to engage in interaction outside their intra- mural classrooms, making teaching-learning more interesting and effective (Al-Ghamdi, Almansoob & Alrefaee, 2019; Yassin, Abdul Razak, Qasem, & Saeed Mohammed, 2020; Medriano & Bautista, 2020 ). In course of technological development, a number of applications emerged, enabling integral management of on-line learning process, including blended learning. Such platforms, as ramifications of e-learning, have dual roles to play in teaching/learning process. So the use of modern technology in the form of synchronized collaboration and non-synchronized collaboration play a vital role particularly in ELT. And secondly, they help in managing students and their courses. Many technological tools have been innovated to facilitate teaching and learning in the recent decades. Like teachers of other disciplines, the ELT practitioners have also adopted them for the benefits of their students. In this paper we will discuss various technological tools, i.e. Google Classroom vs Moodle, WhatsApp vs Instagram and how they are used by the language teachers, what are taught and how, what are their benefits and limitations, and other related issues.
Objectives of the Study a) to assess the significance of content for online education b) to discover the impact and role of the Google Classroom and Moodle in language teaching classes c) to study effectiveness of WhatsApp and Instagram in the learning process of ELT Research Questions 1) What is the significance of online lectures in the perspective of ELT?
43 2) What is the role and impact of the Google Classroom and Moodle in language teaching classes? 3) How do WhatsApp and Instagram play an effective role in ELT?
Literature Review Google Classroom was first introduced in 2014 and since then it has enjoyed wide acceptance and popularity among the teaching community. It has been appreciated as a free web service aiming to simplify creating, distributing and grading assignments, enabling teachers and students to share files among themselves. For Google Classroom, assignments are stored in Google Drive while Google Docs, Sheets and Slides are used for writing. It is also connected to Gmail and Google Calendar, used for communication and scheduling respectively. Students are invited to join a class through an automatically generated course code. Students can submit their assignments, write in textbox or attach files. On the other hand, Moodle is an online educational platform for teachers and students to get engaged in interaction for discussion and clarification of lessons. Originally developed by Martin Dougiamas and owned by Moodle Headquarters and Moodle Community, it has been appreciated as a free and open-source learning management system and adopted by a large number of educational institutions all over the world (Costello, 2013). The system is customizable and hence the personal and institutional users can customize it according to their own needs. It may provide interactive and stimulating learning experiences to the tutors (Chourishi et al, 2015). According to Oproiu (2014), it makes ―communication process between students and the teaching staff more efficient. Students are attracted to Moodle for various reasons. Damnjanovicet al (2015) identified several factors including communicativeness, information quality, performance outcome, perceived usefulness, satisfaction and system quality that influence students‘ decision for using the platform. Horvat et al (2015) claimed that in the platform female students were better users than their male counterparts in terms of average waiting time for a response, feedback quality, material thoroughness, material clarity, website user-friendliness, cooperation diversity, and material quantity. The researches claimed that the integration of technology indeed helps students in increasing their performances and motivation particularly with related to mobile phones. This result reflects the statement of (Tutkun, 2011) and (Bennett, 2014) who claimed that technology- based learning atmospheres encourage students to be more independent in their learning; in which, it triggers them to be more active and confidence through WhatsApp and Instagram.
44 This also accords with Altun (2015) who noted that the use of cell phones, internet, smart board and video games in the process of learning can increase students’ language awareness which it also creates natural environment for students (p. 23). In addition, the usage of those applications cannot be separated from mobile phone integration as well. As Rezaei, Mai, & Pesaranghader (2014) also reported that the use of mobile applications enhanced students’ learning of vocabularies, confidence and class participation. Furthermore, they also reported that this research claimed that the students had positive attitude. Moving on to technology integration in ELT regarding to the use of audio clip that was reported by Shazali (2019), this research implies that using audio in teaching listening in particular can increase the engagement in students’ learning. It was taken from the students’ perception, hearing the native voices motivated them more in paying attention and be more attentive. Situated in a rural area, the availability to use the multimedia is one of challenges faced by teachers. Instagram and WhatsApp integration in an English speaking class situated in one of cities in Indonesia, the research done by Anggraeni (2018) implies that the activity urges students to be more active and motivated in developing their speaking skills, as well as their communication skills in which they had to give comments under their friends’ postings. In accordance with the present results, previous research also demonstrated that integrating WhatsApp and Instagram provide them chance to do self-evaluation by listening to their own voice recording (Han & Keskin, 2018, p. 19), and it can also widen their skills in using vocabularies and other language skills (Shazali, 2019, p. 96). However, three main challenges are exposed in the present research regarding to teacher’s techniques, students’ proficiency and facilities (p. 18). Nonetheless, those obstacles should not hinder teachers to incorporate technology into their classroom. It is because by integrating technology, it helps students to become autonomous learners which are meant that they are encouraged to develop their own strategies in learning, they can reflect their own learning progress, and increases their involvement in learning process.
Research Methods This research study was carried out at University of Lahore, Pakistan. The nature of this study was based on a descriptive-exploratory research. The mixed approach was utilized in this research. However, the teachers were engaged for the relevant and prompt responses of surveys. The teachers were given with a questionnaire to evaluate the effectiveness of use of technology, i.e. Google Classroom, Moodle, WhatsApp and Instagram for the usefulness of L2 instruction and its developments as well as shortcomings. Designing of tools, data-collection,
45 analyses and interpretations were involved for the purpose of the research. One hundred and ten from two sections were selected with a set of questions, i.e. educational attainment, technological aspects, learning process and learners’ responses. Researchers’ observations and experiences were employed as well. However, instructors were asked and involved in the research to respond for the set of said (seventeen) questions. The questionnaire was organized to address the instructional and academic nature of learning process in the perspective of ELT. The 110 participants were included in this study. The learners were aged from 21-28 years old. All were graduate students of University of Lahore. The medium of instruction was English language. They were informed that all the responses were kept confidential. All the learners were motivated, enthusiastic and quick to respond. The likert scale of the questionnaire was (A= Agree, SA= Strongly Agree, N= Neutral, D= Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree).
Data Analysis Educational Attainment A SA N D SD
1 Google Classroom technology is an appropriate tool for 80 13 9 8 5
academic purposes particularly for ELT. 72.7% 11.8% 8.1% 7.2% 4.5%
2 Moodle technology is useful a motivating technology for 65 21 10 8 6 education learning process of ELT. 59.0% 19.0% 9% 7.2% 5.4%
3 WhatsApp is a source of interactions among 70 15 16 4 5 Educational instructors and the learners during learning process of ELT. 63. 6% 13.6% 14.5% 3.6% 4.5%
4 Instagram is a privacy-friendly Educational tool for 75 20 15 4 6 learning process of ELT. 68.18% 14.6% 13.5% 3.6% 5.4%
Interpretation: 1. 72.7 % (80) respondents over 110 were agreed that Google Classroom technology is an appropriate tool for academic purposes particularly for ELT. 2. 59.0% (65) respondents over 110 were agreed that Moodle technology is useful a motivating technology for education learning process of ELT. 3. 63.6% (70) respondents over 110 were agreed that WhatsApp is a source of interactions among Educational instructors and the learners during learning process of ELT.
46 4. 68.18% (75) respondents over 110 were agreed that Instagram is a privacy-friendly Educational tool for learning process of ELT.
Technological Aspects A SA N D SD
1 Google Classroom is an academic-friendly tool 13 67 20 6 4 for ELT teachers. 11.8% 60.9% 18.1% 5.4% 3.6%
2 Moodle tool is a motivating technology for 70 15 16 4 5 learning process of ELT. 63. 6% 13.6% 14.5% 3.6% 4.5%
3 WhatsApp is an innovative technology for 18 72 12 8 0 learning process ELT. 16.3% 65.4% 10.9% 7.2% 0%
4 Instagram technology is a time-friendly tool for 74 16 15 5 0 learning process of ELT. 67.2% 14.5% 13.6% 4.5% 0%
Interpretation: 1 60.9 % (67) respondents over 110 were strongly agreed that Google Classroom is an academic-friendly tool for ELT teachers. 2 63.6% (70) respondents over 110 were agreed that Moodle tool is a motivating technology for learning process of ELT. 3 63.6% (72) respondents over 110 were strongly agreed that WhatsApp is an innovative technology for learning process ELT. 4 67.2% (74) respondents over 110 were agreed that Instagram technology is a time- friendly tool for learning process of ELT.
Learning Process A SA N D SD
1 Google Classroom facilitates in learning process 20 70 15 5 0 not only for learners but for ELT teachers. 18.1% 63.3% 13.6% 4.5% 0% 2 Moodle tool is a collaborative tool for learning 75 20 15 4 6 process of ELT.
47 68.1% 14.6% 13.5% 3.6% 5.4 % 3 WhatsApp is easy and feasible tool in learning 10 80 15 0 5 process of ELT. 9.0% 72.2% 13.5% 0% 4.5 % 4 Instagram is an immediate-counseling tool for 75 20 15 4 6 learning process of ELT. 68.18% 14.6% 13.5% 3.6% 5.4 %
Interpretation: 1 63.6 % (70) respondents over 110 were strongly agreed that Google Classroom facilitates in learning process not only for learners but for ELT teachers. 2 68.1% (75) respondents over 110 were agreed that Moodle tool is a collaborative tool for learning process of ELT. 3 72.2% (80) respondents over 110 were strongly agreed that WhatsApp is easy and feasible tool in learning process of ELT. 4 68.1% (75) respondents over 110 were agreed that Instagram is an immediate-counseling tool for learning process of ELT. Learners’ Responses A SA N D SD
1 Google Classroom is a motivating tool learning 90 10 5 0 5 process of ELT.
81% 9% 4% 0% 4% 2 Moodle is a collaborative tool for learning process of ELT. 20 80 6 4 0
18% 72% 5% 3% 0% 3 WhatsApp is an easy and feasible tool for learning process of ELT. 85 15 5 0 5
48
77% 13% 4% 0% 4% 4 Instagram is a time-friendly tool for learning process of ELT. 79 18 3 6 4
71% 16% 2% 5% 3% 5 Google Classroom is a source of interaction for the learners with their instructors. 81 17 6 0 6
73% 15% 5% 0% 5%
Interpretation: 1 81 % (90) respondents over 110 were agreed that Google Classroom is a motivating tool learning process of ELT. 2 80% (72) respondents over 110 were strongly agreed that Moodle is a collaborative tool for learning process of ELT. 3 85% (77) respondents over 110 were agreed that WhatsApp is an easy and feasible tool for learning process of ELT. 4 79% (71) respondents over 110 were agreed that Instagram is a time-friendly tool for learning process of ELT. 5 81% (73) respondents over 110 were agreed that Google Classroom is a source of interaction for the learners with their instructors.
Discussion and Findings The findings show that modern technology in English language teaching gives positive effects in terms of students’ achievement, students’ behavior, students’ motivation, and students’ language awareness. Some obstacles also can be inferred from this investigation, for instance; firstly, the availability to access the technology either it is online or offline; it happens for settings that is located in more secluded or limited internet access area. Secondly, teachers’, instructor’s or lecturer’s capability in applying or integrating the technology-based teaching into their classroom which is also deals with their lack of internet or computer know-how. Thirdly, learners’ anxiety, low motivation, and low English proficiency level that become hindrance for them to be brave in developing their English skills (Yassin, & Razak, 2017).
49 Fourthly, when the technology itself can be a disruption in learning process, hence, teacher guidance and students’ self-efficacy play an important role to avoid giving the teaching and learning process bigger disruptions. For this reason, despite the obstacles mentioned before, some big steps need to be done.
Fig:1 Similarities between Google Classroom and Moodle
Google Classroom and Moodle are founded on the basic principles of interaction and collaboration/cooperation. On the other hand, Whatsapp and Instagram don’t provide all the facilities which are presented in Google Classroom and Moodle. Interaction is ensured with teacher’s creation and conduction of a course and students’ enrolment and attendance in that course. And, of course, it is accomplished in a virtual environment. Interaction is deemed to be a key learning strategy here. It is a fact that when interaction among the learners increases then the motivations of learning process develops. Here the students learn not only from their teachers, but also from their peers. This interactive learning is endorsed by the philosophy of Social Constructivism, according to which the development of knowledge is enabled by social interactions (Vygotsky, 1978). Following is the contrast between the Google Classroom and Moodle interface:
50
S. Google Classroom Moodle 1. Teachers may create their own courses Teachers cannot create their own in Google Classroom. courses in Moodle themselves. Only administrations can do this.
2. It is less complex in its operation. It is comparatively complex. Teacher can learn it with a little self- It requires training. effort. 3. Google Classroom is a small and Moodle is a bigger with numerous simple, with rudiments of option. options. 4. It functions well both in computer It functions well in computer and and smartphone. less so in smartphone. 5. There are only a few ‗add-ons’(e.g. There are more than a thousand driveslide, slideshot, group maker, downloadable plugins which can be list docs, teacher newsletter) used to extend the functions of available which can be used to Moodle. extend the functions of Google Classroom. 6. Google Classroom is a well- Moodle is well recognized as a recognized e-learning system where course management system and the list of topics of a course does not here the topics of a course is well take the visible in the middle center space. of the page.
51
Fig:2 Similarities between WhatsApp and Instagram
When students interact among themselves, they form a peer bond and make efforts to solve a problem without anxiety (often anxiety is symptomatic of student-teacher face-to-face interaction). When students work together, they in fact collaborate or cooperate among themselves. That is, the solution of a problem in this method of learning is collaborative in nature. Collaborative learning has excellent potential to improve individual learning. Smith (2005) observes, Cooperation, compared with competitive and individualistic efforts, tends to result in higher achievement, greater long-term retention of what is learned, more frequent use of higher-level reasoning and meta-cognitive thought, more accurate and creative problem solving, more willingness to take on difficult tasks and persist in working toward goal accomplishment. It is supported by Slavin (2011), Cooperative learning methods are extensively researched and under certain well-specified conditions they are known to substantially improve student achievement in most subjects and grade levels (p. 344). In fact, based on the principle of collaboration/cooperation, a full-fledged English language teaching method has developed which is referred to as Cooperative Language Learning (Richards & Rodgers, 2009, p. 192). The principle of collaboration/cooperation is effectively used by the e-learning platforms Moodle and Google Classroom. Students employ sufficient time in communicating with one another and reach a level of competence and performance with the spirit of teamwork.
52 Conclusion The results of the study record the responses and feedback of students at University of Lahore in regard to application of online teaching due to COVID-19. The results indicate certain issues and problems in incorporating Google Classroom, Moodle, WhatsApp and Instagram. In the present world, ELT practitioners, like teachers of other disciplines, use them mostly as supportive teaching facilities to attain their professional objectives. Teachers and learners become smarter with the use of technology. However, the technological tools are yet to be recognized as the complete alternatives to physical classrooms. Their role is rather supplementary. Teachers provide additional teaching services through them. Students get extra care from their teachers outside their routine classes. The educational institutions around the world take two approaches to the use of such e-learning platforms. In one approach, it is obligatory and in the other, it is optional. In the former one, the teachers and students are bound to use the tools as part of their academic activities. In case of the latter, the teachers and students use the tools out of their own interests to reap additional benefits. As the trend goes, it seems that more and more obligation will be in order. Google Classroom and Moodle however are not devoid of limitations. They are not real substitutes for physical classrooms. The contact and face-to-face interactions between teachers and students is essential for many courses which are aesthetic and practical in nature. For example, music and art classes can hardly be conducted effectively without the presence of a teacher. There are other limitations such as, in most of the cases, teachers engage themselves in Moodle and Google Classroom as an additional workload but they are paid additionally for it. Students learn manner and courtesy in the physical classroom, but Moodle and Google Classroom do not promise to teach so. Moodle and Google Classroom are dependent on computers, certain configurations and internet. They cannot be used where these equipment and services are not available. Using Moodle and Google, WhatsApp and Instagram too much may cause affecting both physical and mental health. Personal data in these platforms may be misused in violation of privacy. They may be used for business and other self-interests.
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53 Anggraeni, C. W. (2018) ‘Promoting Education 4.0 in English for Survival Class: What are the Challenges?’, Metathesis: Journal of English Language, Literature, and Teaching, 2(1), p. 12. doi: 10.31002/metathesis. v2i1.676. Bao, W. (2019). Bridging the gap between research and practice: Identifying high‐ impact educational practices for Chinese undergraduate education. Peking University Education Review, 1, 105– 129. Chourishi, D., Buttan, C. K., Chaurasia, A., & Soni, A. (2012). Effective E-Learning through Moodle. International Journal of Advance Technology & Engineering Research (IJATER). Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265974790 Costello, E. (2013). Opening up to open source: looking at how Moodle was adopted in higher education. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning. 28(3), 187-200. Damnjanovic, V., Jednak, S., &Mijatovic, I. (2015). Factors affecting the effectiveness and use of Moodle: students' perception. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(4), 496-514. Han, T. and Keskin, F. (2018) ‘Uso de la Aplicación Móvil (WhatsApp) para Reducir la Ansiedad al Hablar en Inglés como Lengua Extranjera’, GiST Education and Learning Research Journal, (12), pp. 29–50. doi: 10.26817/16925777.243. Horvat, A., Dobrota, M., Krsmanovic, M., & Cudanov, M. (2015). Student perception of Moodle learning management system: a satisfaction and significance analysis. Interactive Learning Environments, 23 (4), 515- #527. Lei, G. (2020). Peking University spring semester begins with online teaching. Peking University News. Retrieved from http://news.pku.edu.cn/xwzh/979e47acd7bf4c9592945323a2292f4d.htm Oproiu, G. C.. (2014). A Study about Using E-learning Platform (Moodle) in University Teaching Process. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277935033 Razak, N. A., Yassin, A. A., & Maasum, T. N. R. T. M. (2020). Formalizing Informal CALL in Learning English Language Skills. In Enhancements and Limitations to ICT-Based Informal Language Learning: Emerging Research and Opportunities (pp. 161-182). IGI Global. Rezaei, A., Mai, N. and Pesaranghader, A. (2014) ‘The effect of mobile applications on English vocabulary acquisition’, Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences and Engineering), 68(2), pp. 73–83. doi: 10.11113/jt.v68.2912.
54 Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (2009). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shang, J., & Cao, P. (2017). “Internet plus” and the reform of higher education: A preliminary study on the development strategy of higher education informatization in China. Peking University Education Review, 1, 173– 182. Shazali, S. (2019) ‘Instagram: a platform to develop student’s writing ability’, International Journal Of Academic Research In Business & Social Science, 9(1), pp. 88–98. doi: 10.6007/IJARBSS/v9-i1/5365. Slavin, R. E. (2011). Instruction based on cooperative learning. In R.E. Mayer & P.A. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of research on learning and instruction. New York: Routledge. Smith, D. G. (2005). Teaching English with Information Technology. London: Modern English Publishing. Tutkun, Ö. ̈ F. (2011) ‘Internet access, use and sharing levels among students during the teaching-learning process’, Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(3), pp. 152–160. UNESCO. (2020, Match 13). COVID‐19 educational disruption and response. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/themes/education- emergencies/coronavirus-school- closures Medriano Jr, R. S., & Bautista, A. S. (2020). Integrating Business English Communication in the Contextualized Teaching of an ESL Graduate Course. The Asian ESP Journal, 70. Al-Ghamdi, N. A., Almansoob, N. T., & Alrefaee, Y. (2019). Pragmatic Failure in the Realization of the Speech act of Responding to Compliments among Yemeni EFL Undergraduates. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies – Vol 25(4): 1 – 14. http://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2019-2504-14 227 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Yassin, A. A., Abdul Razak, N., Qasem, Y. A., & Saeed Mohammed, M. A. (2020). Intercultural Learning Challenges Affecting International Students’ Sustainable Learning in Malaysian Higher Education Institutions. Sustainability, 12(18), 7490. Yassin, A. A., Razak, N. A., & Maasum, N. R. M. (2019). Investigating the Need for Computer Assisted Cooperative Learning to Improve Reading Skills Among Yemeni University EFL Students: A Needs Analysis Study. International Journal of Virtual and
55 Personal Learning Environments (IJVPLE), 9(2), 15-31. Yassin, A. A., & Razak, N. A. (2017). Investigating the relationship between foreign language anxiety in the four skills and year of study among Yemeni University EFL learners. 3L: Language, Linguistics, Literature®, 23(3).
56 The Impact of L1 on L2 in Academic English Writing: A Multilingual Dilemma of Pakistani Students
Dr. Rasib Mahmood1, Akhter Habib Shah2, Dr. Iftikhar Alam3
¹ Associate Professor, Department of English Language and Literature, University of Lahore, Pakistan [email protected] 2Assistant Professor of English, Department of English, Collage of Science and Humanities in Alkharj, Prince Sattam Bin AbdulAziz University Saudi Arabia. [email protected] 3Assistant Professor at Deanship of Common First Year, Umm Al Qura Al University Mecca, Saudi Arabia. [email protected]
Biodata: Dr. RasibMahmood is working as an Associate Professor in the Department of English Language and Literature, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan. Mr. Mahmood is also a poet, a researcher, a Pakistani national, and the freedom fighting face of new promise. His fields of interest are English Literature, Linguistics and Asian Civilizations. With his lilting, deep-searching words, Mr. Mahmood stands poised to figuratively sit at the lunch counters where the natives dared to peacefully stake their place. He stands poised to begin the unraveling of the war men and women all over the world who are facing―domestic abuse and other gender-based warfare.
Dr. Akhter Habib Shah is currently working as an Assistant Professor in college of science and humanities, Prince Sattam Bin AbdulAziz University, Saudi Arabia. He has more than 3 years working experience as EFL educator. His research interests include English literature, English Language and other areas in Linguistics.
57 Dr. Iftikhar Alam is currently working as the Head of English Section in the Deanship of Common First Year (CFY) at Al Qunfuda Campus, Umm Al Qura University Makah, Saudi Arabia. He has worked at Al Baha University KSA for 10 years. He has worked Umm Al Qura University Makkah for 7 years. He has been ELT, ESL, and TEFL instructor for 17 years. He has special interest in Washback Effect Studies of Applied Linguistics.
Abstract Pakistan is a multilingual country where Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, and Urdu are dominant languages, among other 22 pocket languages. The speakers of these languages have an urge to learn English as a second language (L2) to compete with the rest of the world in the field of science and technology. Most of the Pakistani students know three languages which include mother tongue, national language (L1) and English language (L2). The mother tongue and national language have an impact on academic English writing of Pakistani students because they have different verb-subject ordersand rules and regulations from the English language (SVO). Students living in this multi-lingual environment make a lot of mistakes while writing in English. They do not have sufficient vocabulary in L2, make spelling mistakes, use the wrong tense, incorrect sentence structure, and their writing is devoid of cohesion and coherence due to L1 interference.The learners' knowledge of their mother tongue and national language impedes them from writing correct English, and this is the main reason they make mistakes while writing in L2 (English). The rules and regulations of L1 overshadow the rules and regulations of L2 and students commit mistakes.This research is an investigation of how L1 influences L2 in learning academic English writingIt is also under examination that what mistakes Pakistani graduate students make the most in academic English writing? This study is limited to the graduate students of 1st semester in selected universities of Pakistan. The data has been collected from test papers of the students and interviews of the teachers.
Keywords: Academic English Writing, L1, L2, A Multilingual Dilemma
Introduction English language proficiency has become one of the crucial parts in an EFL context. Especially after the rapid technological growth in various fields, the rule of the English language has become more influential globally. As a result, people from different cultures and countries get closer, and efficiency in English has become essential (Alzeebaree & Yavuz, 2017, as cited in Alzeebaree & Hasan, 2020). People living in a multilingual society have to face a lot of
58 language barriers while learning a second language (Medriano, & Bautista, 2020; Pavlenko&Piller, 2002). Accent and sentence structure of the mother tongue overshadow the sentence structure of the second language (Freeman, 2001). Students of most of the developing countries learn L2 through L1 with the help of the traditional Grammar Translation Method. Learners try to search out the word equivalence to comprehend the second language in a better way (Dyvik, 1998). Mostly they try to translate every word of English in their mother tongue. There will be no wrong to say that they put the English vocabulary in the sentence structure of their language (Pokorn, 2005). Mother tongue accent, sentence structure, and selection of vocabulary dominates/overpowers in non-natives speakers when they speak, talk, and write in the English Language (Cruz-Ferreira, 1987). They commit errors. Ellis is of the view that error occurs when deviations take place because of a lack of knowledge. An error cannot be self-corrected (Ellis, 1994). The deviations faced can be understood through the investigation of the language of second language learners (Corder, 1974). It is vital to address the errors made by second language learners. These errors arise because of the intermingling of the rules of first language and second language.It is necessary to examine the deviations and variations faced by second language learners in learning the language.It improves the teaching as well as the learning process (Michaelides, 1990).English has been spoken in different parts of the world in styles based on language variations; this is the reason that this world has become the world of Englishes rather than English ( Pakir, 2009).English is not the national language of Pakistan, but even then, it has become the official language of the country and requirement of the people (Akram & Mahmood, 2007). One of the problems faced by the English language learners in Pakistan is to write correct English.They lack practice because a multilingual environment does not allow them (Mason &Tufis, 1997). Most students speak mother tongue at home, Urdu language in college, and the English language just in the English class. Most of the students in Pakistani institutions speak Urdu even in English teaching classes (Rahman, 2001). They try to learn English, through other languages which they know. The students become confused between the rules and regulations of the first language and second language (Cohen, 2014). The developing nations try to teach their students using the national language as the medium of instruction (Vegas, 2007). They used to start English learning/teaching practice from the 6th class, but the situation has changed. The government schools have started teaching English from 1st class. The students in the Government schools are learning only English as a subject, whereas, the medium of instruction in private schools is English except for Urdu subject (Rahman, 2001).There is a difference in the standards of different institutions when it comes
59 to teaching/learning the English language. The background knowledge of the students also counts a lot.
Literature Review Gharabally (2015), in his article “The Writing Difficulties Faced by L2 Learners and How to Minimize Them”, observed that written English receives less attention than the spoken one among the learners of the English language. As a teacher, he found that Arab learners have to face a lot of challenges during the L2 learning process. Wrong use of grammar, incorrect use of punctuation, poor sentence structure is the few problems encountered by Arab learners during the L2 learning process.Gharabally, quotes Grabe and Kaplan (1996), that it is difficult to write in a second language without making any errors.They believe that teachers should encourage learners and should not make them think that writing is a stressful exercise. They should present it before the learners as a creative means of expressing thoughts, emotions, etc. Gharabally (2015) suggests some tips in his article to facilitate L2 learners during the task of writing coherently. These are brainstorming, making mind maps, taking notes of the different ideas which pop up in their minds during the process of learning academic English writing. He further approves the idea of making rough drafts before finalizing the document. According to him, if learners share their ideas and drafts with peer groups for discussion and suggestion, it can further enhance their writing skills. Gharabally, as a teacher, observes that teachers prefer to give writing tasks to the learners as home assignments rather than giving them giving these tasks to them to perform in class.During class, teachers only give oral and aural activities and assignments.One’s writing style and preferences always differ from those of others. Therefore, it is better to leave it to an individual’s choice rather than imposing it on him/her.He points out that when learners are confined to write in isolation, the teachers devoid them of the opportunity of proper guidance in terms of learning writing, and they do not have an apt vocabulary, incorrect grammar, and the wrong usage of tenses. Al Fadda (2012) researched academic writing issues faced by the students of King Saud University.In his study, he highlights the difficulties encountered when they start learning to write English for academic purposes. He took a sample of 50 postgraduate students who got admission in the King Saud University during the academic session of 2009- 2010. After analyzing the data, it was observed that learners face many difficulties. For example, they cannot distinguish between spoken and written English properly, have insufficient knowledge of writing skills, unable to use proper phrases, and have limited vocabulary.Al Fadda (2012)
60 claims that Asian students are more prone to such difficulties as they come from ‘non- Anglicized linguistic background’. Al Badi (2015) surveyed on a limited scale and investigated the issues faced by ESL learners. She chose 20 postgraduate students of four different origins who were studying at a university in Australia. The research suggested that the students who want to learn academic English writing, face the same types of difficulties, no matter what their educational background is. The most common problem that she finds out is related to cohesion and coherence. Among others are the issue of finding a suitable topic as well as resources. Al Badi (2015) is of the view that there are multiple factors involved in generating such difficulties. Lack of experience and knowledge of academic writing skills is one of the reasons behind it. Another research in the field of TEFL conducted by Al. Mukdad (2019) aims at finding problems faced by learners who were enrolled in Arab International University. These students had opted (AWR) Academic Writing module. A questionnaire was distributed among 50 students selected from different disciplines (AIU). The research concluded that students face difficulties in all aspects of academic writing. One significant reason behind it is poor background knowledge of technicalities involved in academic writing. Another major reason explored is related to the linguistic level. However, research on the impact of L1 on L2 in Academic English Writing in the context of Pakistani students studying at the BS level is limited. Therefore, this study explores how L1 influences L2 in learning academic English writing and also examines the mistakes Pakistani graduate students make in academic English writing.
Research Methodology The research design used is mixed-methods research. This research project is descriptive, which is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research. For data collection, tests and interviews are used. The total mistakes in tests are three hundred, which include misspelled words, grammar mistakes, tense mistakes, low vocabulary, and lack of cohesion and coherence. To know the reasons behind these mistakes researcher has conducted interviews with ten teachers. They have highlighted different reasons behind these mistakes. The model of Pit Corder (1974) has been adopted for this study. He became the father of error analysis through his article “The Significance of the Learners Errors” error analysis developed. Corder (1974) has presented the model of error analysis, and this model comprises of five stages. First stage deals with the sampling/collection of the data. Inthe second stage, the researcher identifies the problems of the writing. In the third stage, he describes the errors in
61 detail while the fourth stage deals with the explanation of the errors. Fifth and last stage is the stage of the evolution and correction of the errors. The theorist has identified three types of errors: pre-systematic errors, systematic errors, and post-systematic errors. A systematic error occurs when the learner discovers the rule but it is the wrong one. Pre-Systematic errors occur when the learners are unaware of the existing rules of the target language. On the other hand, post systematic errors occur when the students are well aware of the rules and regulations of the target language rule but even thenuse it inconsistently.
Participants The population of this research comprises students of BS first semester belonging to The University of Lahore and NUML University Peshawar. Sixty tests have been collected from two universities (30 each).
Data Analysis Analysis of Data Collected from Tests In this particular study, the collected data would be analyzed through the model formulated by Pit Corder.Step one and step two of the model have already been incorporated at stages of data collection and problem identification. In this section, the researcher will take assistance from the Pit Corder (1974) study of error analysis. These stages are description, evaluation, and correction of the errors.Most of the students think in their native language, whether it is a spoken or written discourse of L2.As they think in their language, they come up with a structure of the sentences the same as their native language, which creates a problem for them to use correct academic writing skills and this results in the wrong use of words, incorrect use of collocations, and not making the right use of phrasal verbs and other parts of speech, etc. The tests’ results of the students show the errors of syntax, spellings, grammatical and coheision and coherence. The tests reflect 43% errors of syntax, 35% spelling errors and 38% errors of cohesion and coherence. The students have made more syntax errors as compare to the other errors. The influences of their mother tonguge seem very prominent in the construction of their sentence structures in target language.
62 50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25% Series 1 Series 2 20% Series 3 15%
10%
5%
0% Spelling Errors Syntax Grammatical Cohesion & Coherence
The use of inappropriate tense is one of the major issues faced by L2 learners. For example, “I have gone to meet him” produces an effect of the action in present but if one says “I met him”, the effect produced would be of an action that began and ended in the past. This hurdle in using an appropriate tense is due to the complexity of English grammar having detailed demarcation of time-division unlike our native dialects in Pakistan. Yet in another example, ‘When a man was old there was many problems in his life’ the analyst highlighted the wrong use of a helping verb i-e ‘was’. If one translates the sentence in Pashto it might sound flawless but it is not the case with English. It is a kind of an error in English and should be ‘when a man is old orwhen a man is in his retirement…’. Here the students think in their native language and then translate it into English thus end up using the wrong tense. The majority of the students do not have the idea of the prescribed grammar of the English language. Though in L1 and L2 sometimes there is a similarity between the rules, still students do not understand the basic concepts due to their use of improper grammar. For example, the subject-verb agreement has become a common occurrence problem among students. The correct use and command over the subject-verb agreement come with practice, which is often ignored. For instance, “One should know the importance of their culture”; however, the correct sentence is “One should know the importance of one’s culture”. Similarly, in another example, “They plays cricket”, the correct sentence would be “They play cricket” because there is an agreement between subject and verb about which most of the students are unaware. Furthermore, in our native language, we do not use the articles whereas in English, to produce
63 a meaningful discourse the use of articles plays a vital role. For example, “I just took bath” would need correction by adding an article ‘a’ with ‘bath’. Yet in another example which is; “In old age, people behave like a children” here the omission of an article attached with children is necessary according to the rules of English grammar. One can explain that the direct translation of the above sentence to a native language could be correct but it’s grammatically incorrect. Hence the use of parts of speech such as the closed class words, preposition, and articles are wrongly used. Also, the use of some specific words like that of ‘I’ is often used wrongly due to its conflicting use in L1 and L2. The use of a pronoun ‘I’ in most of the Pakistani native languages is in a singular case as there is no difference between a personal pronoun ‘I’ and other singular pronouns as ‘he, she, it’. However, in English ‘I’ is used as a plural pronoun in some cases. For instance, the analysis of “Only if I were from a rich family” indicates that ‘I’ in English cling to ‘have or were’ which act as the helping verbs for plural nouns or pronouns. In addition to these barriers of L1, the tense aspects, moods and other exceptions in English grammar further complicated its application. By analyzing the online quiz of fresh enrolls in the undergraduate course of 2020 forecasted that the learning of L2 for Pakistani students under inadequate learning conditions and contracted duration of the session due to the pandemic of Covid-19 hindered them in achieving their proficiency in English academic writing skills. The assessment reports of the students showed their perplexity in using varied rules of verb tense and sentence format of narrations and voices as well. When the students were asked to change the voice of a simple active voice sentence, they unconsciously made errors e.g. ‘The mouse frightened the elephant’ was changed as ‘The elephant was being frightened by the mouse.’ This example clearly explains their puzzlement and ignorance in using concrete rules of English grammar because of their acquired system of L1. Keeping in mind their native language, the students end up using inappropriate diction. The vocabulary of L2 learners in Pakistan is not strong enough. Therefore, their limited word choice handicaps them to bring a variety and appropriateness in their use of L2. Most commonly used words are frequently used which results in making the meaning of a sentence not very clear and lucid. As an example, a paragraph on “Basant” was analyzed in which one of the learners could not differentiate a suitable mood tense in a sentence. (They all were dressed and told me to get ready). The learner used “told” where he should have used “asked” to give a correct mood to the sentence and it is mainly due to the lack of appropriate vocabulary. Moreover, in our native language one word such as “group” could be used to mean many collective nouns but in English different words are used for collective nouns to serve the purpose and indicate the
64 intensity. For example, instead of using “a team of actors,” a suitable option would be “a cast of actors”. But the students due to their flaky grip over English as a second language often commit such errors. The students often use proverbial phrases and figures of speech like that of metaphors or similes as they use it in their native language which is wrong. In Pakistani native languages, there are a few numbers of intensifiers in contrast to that of the English language. Therefore, the learners due to a limited numberof intensifiers in their native language face many problems in learning English as a foreign language. E.g. His body will become so weak. ‘So’ can be replaced with quiet, rather, surprisingly or dangerously to convey the meaning with exact intensity. All-in-all, such lexical difficulties and grammatical errors restrict them to bring coherence and cohesion in their writing style. Their limited vocabulary and interpretive capacity to understand the usage of certain words compel them to use persistently the common cohesive devices in their academic writings and fail to bring an overall unity in their development of ideas. Cohesion and coherence give strength to one's creative writing, but, if not given due attention, all fall flat and distort its effect.Like that of the use of moreover, furthermore, another and as being used repeatedly in the learners' creative arrangement suggest the scarcity of their knowledge to write in English with acute precision. The teacher while assessing the competence of his students at the end of a language learning course observed their conflict between L1 and L2 that acted as a language barrier and affected their proficient learning. It was observed that the students belonging from distant areas of KPK were more rigid in acquiring English as a second language. They were observed to make errors unconsciously in their spoken and written the English language. The analyst excerpt that the students with a different dialect of their native language had not only a difficulty in pronouncing certain sounds or phonemes of L2 but also misspelt certain words. For instance, the “F” sound in English language was mostly pronounced as “P” sound thus instead of writing “February” they spelt it “Pebruary” and “Flane” instead of “Plane”. Moreover, the students were being unable to describe how words group together in their normal use of L2.
Analysis of Data Collected from Interviews An interview is considered one on one conversation between the interviewer and interviewee. In an interview, one person asks the question, and another person answers. The three types of interviews used are structured interviews, semi-structured and unstructured interviews. In
65 structured interviews, the interviewer prepares the questions in advance. But on the other hand, questions are not determined in advance in unstructured interviews. The interviewer can change the research question anytime, as per the response of the interviewee. There are different ways to conduct structured and unstructured interviews. One can conduct interviews face to face, through Skype, mobile phone, and computer programs. In this study, the researcher conducted interviews with ten teachers. The interview was used for data collection from the teachers. Most of the interviewees are agreeing that the main reason why students make errors in academic English language writing is the interference of the mother tongue.The respondents agreed that the rules governing the mother tongue interfere with the learning process of the target language.Their responses also revealed that learners apply pre-systematic rules of mother tongue upon target language. Usually, foreign language learners translate the target language as per the rules and regulations of their mother tongue.
The interviewees also highlight the fact that multilingualism is one of the causes of theircommitting errors while leaning a second language. The students not only have the grammatical structure of their mother tongue, but they also know the rules and regulations of their national language which is the Urdu language. They are of the view that multilingualism is also a hurdle while learning English as a second language. Most of the grammatical errors occur as a result of multilingualism. A hybrid set of rules and regulations develops in the minds of second language learners, which results in the hybrid of the culture in one way or another.
Conclusion This study aimed to analyze the impact of L1 on L2 in academic English writing. After conducting detailed analyses of data, the researcher concludes that L1 creates impacts on L2 in various ways. These errors include the subject-verb-order, sentence structure, spellings, and wrong use of tenses. The research found that these errors can be divided into three groups which pre-systematic, systematic, and post-systematic.
Recommendation • The teaching of L2 should be done through an eclectic approach instead of usingthe grammar-translation method.
66 • A target language should be taught through such methods that inculcate the practical rules of that language. • A subject should be introduced at the elementary level that deals with distinct rules governing L1 and L2. After learning the different sets of rules, the students could be able to cope with language barriers in a better way.
References Akram, M., & Mahmood, A. (2007). The status and teaching of English in Pakistan. Language in India, 7(12), 1-7. Al Badi, I. A. H. (2015). Academic writing difficulties of ESL learners. In The 2015 WEI international academic conference proceedings (Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 65-78). Al Fadda, H. (2012). Difficulties in Academic Writing: From the Perspective of King Saud University Postgraduate Students. English Language Teaching, 5(3), 123-130. Al-Gharabally, M. (2015). The writing difficulties faced by L2 learners and how to minimize them. International Journal of English Language and Linguistics Research, 3(5), 42- 49. Al-Mukdad, S. (2019). Investigating English Academic Writing Problems Encountered by Arab International University Students. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 9(3), 300-306. Alzeebaree, Y., Hasan, I.A. (2020). What makes an effective EFL teacher: High School Students’ Perceptions. Asian ESP Journal, 16 (2), 169-183. Cohen, A. D. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language. Routledge. Corder, S. P. (1974). Idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. Error analysis: Perspectives on second language acquisition, 158-171. Corder, S. P. (1974). Error analysis. The Edinburgh course in applied linguistics, 3, 122-131. Cruz-Ferreira, M. (1987). Non-native interpretive strategies for intonational meaning: An experimental study. Sound patterns in second language acquisition, 36, 103-20. Dyvik, H. (1998). A translational basis for semantics. Language and Computers, 24, 51-86. Ellis, R. (1994). A theory of instructed second language acquisition. Implicit and explicit learning of languages, 726. Freeman, D. E., & Freeman, Y. S. (2001). Between worlds: Access to second language acquisition. Grabe, W., & Kaplan, R. B. 1996. Theory and practice of writing.
67 Mason, O., & Tufis, D. (1997, October). Probabilistic tagging in a multi-lingual environment: Making an English tagger understand Romanian. In Third European TELRI Seminar, Montecatini, Italy. Medriano Jr, R. S., & Bautista, A. S. (2020). Integrating Business English Communication in the Contextualized Teaching of an ESL Graduate Course. The Asian ESP Journal, 70. Michaelides, N. N. (1990, October). Error analysis: An aid to teaching. In English Teaching Forum (Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 28-30). Pakir, A. (2009). English as a lingua franca: analyzing research frameworks in international English, world Enaglishes, and ELF. World Englishes, 28(2), 224-235. Pokorn, N. K. (2005). Challenging the traditional axioms: Translation into a non-mother tongue (Vol. 62). John Benjamins Publishing. Rahman, T. (2001). English-teaching institutions in Pakistan. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 22(3), 242-261. ta Pavlenko, A., & Piller, I. (2002). New directions in the study of multilingualism, second language learning, and gender. Vegas, E., & Petrow, J. (2007). Raising student learning in Latin America: The challenge for the 21st century. The World Bank.
68 An Analysis of Indian EFL Learners’ Listening Comprehension Errors
Dr. Ahmed Benyo1, Dr. Tribhuwan Kumar2 1Assistant Professor of English, College of Science and Humanities at Sulail, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia [email protected] 2Assistant Professor of English, College of Science and Humanities at Sulail, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia [email protected] ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7259-9364
Biodata: Dr. Ahmed Benyo is currently serving as an Assistant Professor in the College of Science and Humanities, Sulail at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. He has more than 10 years of working experience as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include Applied Linguistics, MALL, L2 Vocabulary learning and Teaching, Second Language Acquisition, and EFL teaching.
Dr. Tribhuwan Kumar is an Assistant Professor in the College of Science and Humanities, Sulail at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia where he has been a faculty member since 2015. Before joining this university, he has taught in many institutions in India since 2010 including SRM University, NCR Campus, Ghaziabad. Dr. Kumar has got published two books from different international publication houses: Comparative Literature: Critical Responses from Alfa Publications, New Delhi and The Plays of Mahesh Dattani: Themes, Techniques, and Theatre-craft from LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. To his credit, there are numerous publications in Research journals of international repute including various Scopus and Web of Science indexed journals. Dr. Kumar has also presented papers at international conferences in universities in India, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, and
69 Turkey. He has successfully organized some national and international level conferences in India. Further, he has served on various conferences’ and journals’ editorial committees.
Abstract This study was expected to discover errors in L2 listening and find out their causes. The specialists led an IELTS test alongside a survey to gather information from the L2 students. The outcomes indicated that the primary purposes of listening were the absence of training and introduction to the listening materials. Besides, there were numerous reasons, for example, restricted jargon, absence of training, and admittance to the listening materials, for example, local English projects, syndicated programs, and conversations. Generally, language schools do not have important tools, for example, recording devices and other Audio-Visual guides for L2 listening. These discoveries would be valuable and accommodating for ESL educators, scholars, and organizations to comprehend their listening issues. The discoveries of the study might be utilized by the course designers and schools, universities, and organizations for showing English as a second language.
Keywords: L2 Listening, Error Analysis, ESL Learning, ESL Learners
Introduction English appreciates the status of the second language after Hindi and Urdu as first languages in India. All the four language aptitudes, for example, Perusing, Writing, Speaking, and Listening are found out by the ESL students in India. Listening aptitudes is viewed as a significant ability among others. The field of second language L2 learning is wide-going and has been a profitable field for specialists. The ESL students in India obtain English as a second language after their native languages. The student of English nonetheless, face issues in learning English by and large and especially in listening ability as this aptitude isn't tried straightforwardly for advancement to the next class as they move to the next classes without being tried in listening expertise. Mistake investigation specifically is one of the parts of L2 learning measures which got a lot of consideration from the scientists in the 1960s and 70s ( Eun-pyo, 2002; Kasanga, 2006; Khodabandehm, 2007; Makoni, 1993; Medriano & Bautista, 2020). It is the part of applied etymology worried about the amendment of blunders made by L2 students. Mistake examination is firmly identified with bury language and contrasts the students' information and L2 and prevents out the genuine difficulties in that material. Blunder examination is the cycle
70 through which a wide range of errors is judged. The lacking of students is distinctly seen through it. The ESL students particularly at the school level don't have a specific ability in English. They submit numerous mix-ups while learning English as the subsequent language. Accordingly, they produce similar outcomes which they got with their restricted competency. In learning various aptitudes of dialects, particularly tuning in, understudies make blunders. They might be a direct result of various causes. Among others in the listening abilities, there may be listening due to the phonic substance of basic to the ESL language instructors. Listening is a significant language aptitude, yet it is regularly disregarded by unfamiliar and ESL instructors. This exploration would clarify the unpredictability and the significance of listening expertise sums up research on L2 tuning in as the aptitude is utilized most every now and again. People utilize a large portion of their time tuning in to other people. We may state that listening is the most significant ability in learning any information. Each school keeps its understudies bound to talk in English. Talking aptitude is completely connected with listening on the grounds that the more one listens the more one can talk. Communicating in English requires the understudies to have a decent listening aptitude first then they can have the option to learn L2 with its real appeal. However numerous ESL understudies commit errors during the learning cycle because of their social issues. Notwithstanding, the ESL students don't perceive the degrees of endeavors in creating listening capacity. Since 1970, listening appreciation has become a significant part of the unknown dialect technique. In the 1980s, listening was given exceptional concentration and it was incorporated into new instructional structures in informative methodologies. All through the 1990s, thoughtfulness regarding tuning in ESL language showing expanded a great deal. It turned into a vital part of language guidance. Presently a-days listening appreciation is currently viewed as essential for oral capability. In learning language abilities, particularly tuning in, the ESL students make blunders. The mistakes may have a few reasons, for example, the listening propensities, interruption of native language, and instructing tuning in. In showing listening understanding, the ESL students ought not to go to boundaries, either by being concerned a lot with hypotheses without pondering their accommodation to educating or by following the timetables of playing the recording device. It is basic for the ESL instructors to have a careful comprehension of the idea of tuning in and a few different exercises which may help the ESL students to develop their listening appreciation aptitudes. Thus, the instructors can change their homeroom introduction that brings about all the more fascinating study hall exercises. It investigated the frail territories of understudies language use in tuning in and gave different methodologies to the language instructors for utilizing L2 in their study halls. Since English is viewed as a larger part of people
71 groups' life nowadays, the ESL students need to create ability and authority in all the aptitudes of English. Listening is apparently the most fundamental capacity since on the occasion regularly the ESL students don't understand what the local speakers state. It is seen that most optional level students in India particularly in reverse territories reliably feel abnormal when they attempt to talk with the speakers of English despite the fact that the way that they don't grasp the local state. From this case, it very well may be normal that ESL students have helpless English listening abilities at the auxiliary level which is viewed as a serious issue in learning a second language. Grievances had been set against that issue. Either the ESL instructors were accused, or the training framework. Who was liable for that lacking? This serious issue had been raised by the ESL students at Language School.
Literature Review Language learning and language indigenization is a complete cultural and educational study where there is also a little bit of element of transformation (Mahmood, Shah & Kumar , 2020).The field of second language (L2) learning is wide and has been rich for the scientists. Mistake investigation explicitly is one of the parts of L2 learning. As of late, it has gotten a lot of consideration from the specialist. There are various perspectives about the mistake in listening L2 generally contains moving degrees of syntactic and intelligent blunders. Myles (2002) battles "Contingent upon capacity level, the more substance rich and imaginative the substance, the more essential the probability there is for mistakes at the change syntactic level" (p.10). This examination of blunder investigation has been one of the critical worries in the Second Language Acquisition (SLA). It was an overall idea that the subsequent language (L2) students' blunders were the outcome of local language (L1) obstruction. Selinker (1972) named as 'Between language. Between language, anyway a mistaken sort of language, as it might be a principal bit of L2 student' language obtaining and language improvement. Along these lines, it is essential not exclusively to see the students' mistakes and between language vehemently anyway to cure them astutely with the objective that they are not settled in the understudies' mind as a fossilized sort of language. Hamouda (2013) portrayed tuning in discernment infers as a natural system in which the ESL students are related to building criticalness. Audience members comprehend the verbally expressed commitment right through sound isolation, past learning, etymological structures, push and articulation, and the other phonetic or non-semantic bits of information. It is motioned before that in the listening understanding cycle; audience members require two kinds of data; etymological and nonlinguistic information. Semantic information contains “Phonology, lexis, and language
72 structure” and non-etymological information which includes all appreciation highlights, for example, “setting and general information on the world and its working position” (Buck, 2001; p. 156). The cycle of listening happens in five phases. They are hearing, getting, recalling, assessing, and reacting. Step 1 Receiving (Hearing)
Step 5 Step 2 Responding Understanding (Answering) (Learning)
Step 4 Step 3 Eveluating Remembering (Judging) (Recalling)
Figure 1: Listening Process
Wilson (2008) proposes questions that ought to be asked by the understudies during the phases of tuning in: "Pre-tuning in: What do I know? Why tune in? What would I be able to hope to hear? While-tuning in: Are my desires met? Am I prevailing in the task? Post-tuning in: Did I satisfy the assignment? By what method can I respond?" Firstly, Wilson (2008) sums up the meaning of a procedure as "cognizant, intentional conduct which improves learning and permits the student to utilize data all the more successfully" (p.34). The systems can be confined into three get-togethers: Intellectual Strategies, Meta Psychological Strategies, and Socio-enthusiastic Strategies. Scholarly techniques are used to complete a speedy task. Meta mental techniques relate to learning all things considered and have long hurl advantages and Socio-enthusiastic procedures deal with the students’ correspondence with various students notwithstanding the direct towards learning. Mistake examination was created by an American language specialist in 1950 as he dealt with contrastive speculations. As per the speculation of this hypothesis, the fundamental hindrance in L2 securing was the impedance of L1 and that was the logical, basic examination between two dialects. It made individuals mindful of which issue they confronted and to which they not. By a comparative token, second dialects L2 students are moreover thought to make decay articulation before they achieve local like ability. Like those of first language students, the outflows of second language students, both right and wrong, are acknowledged to be an
73 indication of their capacity at a particular stage (Corder, 1967; Richards, 1972). Spolsky (1969) saw that few out of every odd right execution can be taken as a proof that the right structure has been picked up, considering the way that the student may continue listening articulation, in which case his conduct should be classed as ‗language-like conduct. Without considering the examination in first language procurement is hard to look at L2 language learning. The effect of first language learning/procurement was concentrated by Lado (1957) just because watched the impacts of L2 on local speakers' between language teachers in expression and the inspiration driving why it was found to finish the examination relied upon the way that: The individuals will in general trade the structures and suggestions and the movement of structures and ramifications of their local language and culture. This temporary language Selinker named between languages, including, in actuality, another measurement to the investigation of the student language L2.
Figure 2: Relation between first language and second language
Generally in the current decade 2020, concentrates on blunders recorded as a hard copy ability of the EFL/ESL students were accomplished more when contrasted with the examinations on mistakes in L2 tuning in of the EFL/ESL students, for example, Hussain et al. (2013) took a shot at blunders of L2 composing at optional level in India and discovered 19 classes of mistakes in their composition and most regularly happening were mistakes of action words followed by different classifications, for example, accentuation, subject-action word understanding and article; Diana and Mihaela (2014) dealt with interpretation mistakes; Silalahi (2014) discovered blunders and their causes recorded as a hard copy tasks of innovation understudies; Agung (2016) followed mistakes in the story messages at essential, auxiliary and tertiary levels and discovered fours causes behind them, for example, bogus ideas, overgeneralization, failure to apply rules and obliviousness of rules limitation; Faisal, Mulya & Syamsul (2017) did their investigation on blunders in the EFL composing and presumed that most regularly discovered mistakes were word structures, articles and action word tense individually and Hussain, Ayub and Awan (2018) distinguished blunders at
74 graduate level and inferred that these mistakes were expected to entomb and intra-lingual elements. Notwithstanding, various specialists and researchers did their examination deals with mistakes and issues of L2 listening understanding (Hamouda, 2013); different analysts dissected the blunders of the EFL students' listening aptitudes and found that L2 students' listening mistakes were expected the accompanying components: helpless language structure, articulation, multifaceted nature of sentences and new jargon (Emadi & Arabmofrad, 2013).
Research Methodology To discover the blunders in listening ability at language focuses was the primary target of my investigation. The scientist needed to uncover why the students couldn't comprehend while listening to L2. For this reason, the specialist utilized a survey as an instrument. As in quantitative exploration, the survey is viewed as a superior wellspring of information assortment at the bigger scope. The poll was isolated into three sections with their sub subtleties. These various parts had distinctive data in it. The ESL students should record themselves like sexual orientation, instruction, and their introduction of listening L2. In the subsequent part listening poll and listening procedures were presented. In the third part, the participation of the understudies had been made in rate. The absolute quality of the understudies had been referenced. The members of this test were 15 young men and 15 young ladies. It was impractical to remember the complete quality of understudies for the whole investigation populace, so 30 examination members from both the sexes were reached. All the volunteers were picked as they were told to play out all the exercises including the survey. The reason, choosing auxiliary level understudies was that they had been concentrating in the school for the most recent six years. Besides the understudies were natural to each English ability it is possible that it was perusing, composing, or tuning in. Henceforth, in all courses, English was being followed carefully by the instructors. The information was gathered in two distinctive sex tight clamp bunches from the ESL students of the auxiliary level. The poll was dispersed among the ESL students in their classes within the sight of the analyst. The specialist was helped and helped by the school organization and his associates. Ten understudies, for example, five from male and five from females were made the organization of the test and they additionally disseminated the survey among the understudies. Thirty auxiliary level understudies' gathering was the central gathering. They were approached to come in the language lab of the school for thirty minutes listening test. Inside fifteen male understudies and in the following meeting fifteen female understudies were given the survey.
75 The understudies were gotten some information about the overall data and their experience. They were additionally approached to specify their listening presentation in a solitary line. Following thirty minutes listening test the understudies were approached to fill the appropriate responses sheets which were MCQs type. They were asked to answer the inquiries with full nearness of their psyches so as to get focuses. Toward the end, the understudies were gotten some information about the issues and reasons for mistakes while listening test. Also, their oral proposals were noted down.
Data Analysis The study was separated into four sections in which data, general background data. The ESL learners’ frequency on listening problems issue and the ESL learners’ IELTS score and opinion from the exploration questions were included.
Table 1: General description of ESL Learners General Background Frequency Percentage Gender Female 15 50.00 Male 15 50.00
Total 30 100.00 Age 13 years old 2 6.70 14 years old 8 26.70 15 years old 10 33.30 16 years old 7 23.30 more than 16 years old 3 10.00
Total 30 100.00 Learning English 4-6 years 3 10.00 Experiences 7-10 years 21 70.00 more than 10 years old 6 20.00
Total 30 100.00
76
Table 1 (Continued)
General background Frequency Percentage Have you ever given IELTS test No 15 50.00 Yes 15 50.00
Total 30 100.00 Have you ever mastered English No 28 93.30 listening skills development Yes 2 6.70
Total 30 100.00 How much do you interact with foreigners? 1-2 8 26.70 times/day
3-4 times/day 14 46.70 more than 4 times/day 8 26.70
Total 30 100.00
In table 1 (50%) the ESL learners were male and (50%) the ESL learners were female. The average age of ESL learners was 14 to 16 years. Their experiences of listening to English were different according to their classes and duration in the school. There were 30% ESL learners who had 2-4 years of English listening experiences, 70% ESL learners had 3-7 years listening to English experiences and there were 0% ESL learners who had more than 10 years of listening experience. Except for this, it can be said that 90% of learners had never attended IELTS test only 10% of learners had attended this type of test before. Among all 93.30% of students had never attended their listening skills, development classes. They were 6.70% who had attended their listening classes to develop their listening skill. Being Indian students in a remote area they had less time to communicate with foreigners. There were 46.47% of learners who had communicated with the foreigners 1-2 times per day, 24.40% had communicated 3-4 times per day and 13.33% had communicated more than four times in a day.
77 Table 2: The ESL Learners’ Frequency on Listening Comprehension Problems
Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never I have a listening (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) Mean S.D problem when… Opinion unfamiliar words 9 30.00 12 40.00 7 23.33 2 6.67 0 0 3.93 0.907 Agree slang, idiom 11 36.67 13 43.33 3 10.00 2 6.67 1 3.33 4.03 1.033 Agree expression difficult 1 3.33 12 40.00 12 40.00 4 13.33 1 3.33 3.27 0.868 not sure grammatical structures unfamiliar 2 6.67 10 33.33 12 40.00 5 16.67 1 3.33 3.23 0.935 not sure situation difficult to 3 10.00 14 46.67 9 30.00 2 6.67 2 6.67 3.50 1.008 Agree understand long listening text unorganized texts 2 6.67 6 20.00 18 60.00 4 13.33 0 0 3.20 0.761 Not sure
Total 3.52 0.636 agree
In table 2 it had been shown that the average mean of unfamiliar words is 3.93 and most of the problems which were caused by slang and idiom expressions and the average mean of this factor is4.03. The average mean of difficult grammar structure is 3.27. Moreover, the meaning of the long listening text was difficult to interpret (mean score = 3.50). Unexpected circumstances were the other factors which caused difficulty for ESL especially in an unnatural situation (mean score = 3.23) and also the unfamiliar text was included in it (mean score =3.20).
Table 3: Speakers’ Related Listening Problems and their Frequency
Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never
I have a listening (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) Mean S.D Opinion problem when …
Hard to follow 33.3 3 10.00 10 11 36.67 6 20.00 0 0 3.33 0.922 not sure natural expression 3
78 full of ambiguity and pauses
Hard to comprehend 53.3 well when speaker 7 23.33 16 4 13.33 3 10.00 0 0 3.90 0.885 Agree 3 speak too fast
Hard to comprehend the meaning of the 56.6 5 16.67 17 7 23.33 1 3.33 0 0 3.87 0.730 Agree word which are not 7 pronounced clearly
Hard to comprehend the pitch and 36.6 1 3.33 11 14 46.67 4 13.33 0 0 3.30 0.750 not sure intonation of the 7 speaker
Hard to comprehend 56.6 well when speaker 5 16.67 17 5 16.67 1 3.33 2 6.67 3.73 1.015 Agree 7 with varies accents
Hard to comprehend the meaning of the 26.6 spoken text without 2 6.67 8 15 50.00 4 13.33 1 3.33 3.20 0.887 not sure 7 seeing the speaker's body language
Hard to comprehend well when speaker 33.3 speaks 1 3.33 10 13 43.33 5 16.67 1 3.33 3.17 0.874 not sure 3 grammatically incorrect
Total 3.50 0.579 Agree
In table 3, it has been indicated the average mean to listening related to the speaker and problems of ESL learners were at “often” and the ESL learners felt difficult to understand it well. When the speaker spoke too fast and the most (mean score = 3.90) and the words which were not uttered clearly (mean score = 3.87). While there were some ESL learners who were unable to get well as the speaker spoke with different accents. (mean score = 3.73). However, the ESL learners were unable to get the natural speech sound that was full of nervousness as well as pauses (mean score = 3.33). The ESL learners were unable to understand the intonation and pitch of the native speakers (mean score = 3.30). To comprehend the spoken material, without watching speakers’ gestures and postures. (mean score = 3.20). When the speaker spoke wrong grammar, it was difficult to comprehend for the ESL learners (mean score = 3.17).
Table 4: Frequency of Listening Problems because of Physical Setting
Problem in Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never Mean S.D. Opinion listening when …
79 (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%)
Noise 7 23.33 10 33.33 11 36.67 2 6.67 0 0 3.73 0.907 Agree
Visual indices help to 4 13.33 11 36.67 9 30.00 5 16.67 1 3.33 3.40 1.037 Not sure clarify the spoken texts
poor quality equipment 1 3.33 10 33.33 15 50.00 4 13.33 0 0 3.27 0.74 Not sure
Total 3.46 0.646 Not sure
In Table 4, it was assumed the frequency of the total ESL learners was "sometimes" (3.46). Due to much noise, they faced problems (mean score = 3.73). They comprehend the spoken text through visual clues and also the bad quality of equipment (mean score = 3.40), visual clues helped them to comprehend the spoken text (mean score = 3.27), and the poor quality of the equipment (mean score = 3.27) in that order Table 5: Frequency of Listening Problems concerned with Listener
Problem in Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never Mean S.D Opinion listening when … (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%)
Difficult to understand 1 3.33 15 53.33 10 33.33 2 6.67 1 3.33 3.47 0.819 Not sure the text from the first listening
Difficult to answer questions after 0 0 13 43.33 12 40.00 4 13.33 1 3.33 3.23 0.817 Not sure listening
Poor quality equipment 1 3.33 11 36.67 16 53.33 2 6.67 0 0 3.37 0.669 Not sure
Total 3.35 0.573 Not sure
In table 5, it had been discovered the frequency of the ESL learners and causes of problems during listening was "sometime" (mean score = 3.35). When they considered necessary to comprehend the listening data they faced most problems (mean score = 3.47). There were some ESL learners who got trouble if they required listening through poor quality equipment (3.37). In the end, they had felt trouble to answer particular answers. Table 6: Frequency of Listening Problems for ESL Learners
80 Problem listening Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never Mean S.D opinion because of (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) lack of practicing listening 3 10.00 17 56.67 7 23.33 3 10.00 0 0 3.67 0.802 Agree skill lack of exposure to different kinds of 0 0 20 66.67 8 26.67 2 6.67 0 0 3.60 0.621 Agree listening materials physical problems 1 3.33 7 23.33 13 43.33 8 26.67 1 3.33 2.97 0.890 not sure psychological factors 1 3.33 6 20.00 14 46.67 8 26.67 1 3.33 2.93 0.868 not sure lack of background 1 3.33 12 40.00 10 33.33 6 20.00 1 3.33 3.20 0.925 not sure knowledge
Total 3.27 0.554 not sure
In table 6, it had been shown the frequency of listening data by the research participants and aspects of listening problems at "sometimes". The vital problem which was the source for the listening problem was less practice of listening skill (mean score = 3.67). The lack of exposures to various kinds of listening materials (mean score = 3.60), and the lack of background awareness (mean score = 3.20). There are two other factors which also caused trouble for the ESL learners were physical and psychological problems (mean score = 2.97). Physical problems (mean score = 2.97).
Conclusion Numerous ESL students had assessed English for 15-25 years living in a similar domain. When at that point, tuning in to different sorts of speakers, a ton of new sources would have given them to encourage listening measure. From this methodology, a considerable lot of them neither went through any spoken based tests nor other English subjects. Some basic factors which impact listening indistinguishably, as per the substance, were casual slang, skill, and different projects on language. The ESL students were not comfortable with the structure and troublesome substance of tuning in. Just they used every one of these things in their group activities during the listening meeting. They didn't locate any opportunity to speak with the non-local outside of their group. Without a doubt, they had been listening to all the stuff all the more frequently, regardless of possible, it was from the movie or some film based information. More probable they would have profited each opportunity to speak with the speakers with most extreme familiarity. Sometimes, they needed to intrude on the speakers for better
81 comprehension of the message they conveyed. One more basic factor that was recognized by the physical condition which caused the listening issue it was a commotion. Such an uproarious condition assumed an imperative job for this condition as it might upset the student while they were mindfully tuning in the class. Lion's share of the understudies was of the view that they couldn't concentrate on the substance with the intentional reason in the earth especially for tuning in to some particular terms to which they were not comfortable. They just had to do with such conditions that they needed to listen the part over and again so as to get away from the substance. This investigation demonstrated the listening issue of students; it would be separated into two exploration inquiries as follows; After having long thought, there were numerous factors which had impacted their listening abilities. With the listening viewpoint, slang colloquialism was at lion's share. It could be perplexing to fathom because of the hole between the two distinct societies those are the Eastern and Western societies. Some saying and slang were not deciphered as they were because of their sense. Hasan (2000) distinguished that there was strength in listening pressure due to composed setting or text. Numerous the ESL students were uninformed of this action or method. In Hassan's exploration, there were new words, new language structure, new condition circumstance, and formal setting fused in it. The coordinator additionally diminished the listening part for its adequacy. Since the speaker was talking smoothly; the respondent couldn't appreciate the content or information and they began exhausted. In this exploration, Hasan (2000) indicated his concern that the respondent went up against numerous issues when the speaker talked excessively snappy. It was seen that clamor was the main consideration which caused listening issues in the establishment and natural disturbances of tuning in. Listening in helpless setting additionally made an issue. Yagang (1994) indicated his stress over the closeness of correspondence. Listening insinuations and low quality setting are the genuine elements of these listening issues. This investigation explained that the crowds were additional factors who caused listening issues. A portion of the ESL students couldn't grasp listening information. Next to this, the helpless setting harmed the listening understanding. For instance, it was difficult to understand the fundamental listening it likewise stayed in the appropriate response as well. The ESL students must plan a few procedures to improve their listening ability. For this reason, the ESL students should open themselves to a tremendous assortment of music and listening based projects. In doing this they need not devour the most extreme hours of the day, they can take only 2-3 hours for such action. Along these lines, the ESL students would have the option to get recognition of the new structure of language by tuning in. Through this movement, they
82 may have the option to comprehend entangled story is simply the first appearance. In addition, they got themselves simple to interpret the speaker's message with no trouble.
Implications In the light of the analyzed data the following remedies are suggested: ➢ The ESL learner should be a consistent listener of English. ➢ They should do extensive listening. ➢ They should have excessive practices of listening to native speakers. ➢ They should use authentic material for listening. ➢ A sound listening lab should be established in the school. ➢ They should listen as much as they can. ➢ They should be quiet while listening. ➢ They should work with professionals. ➢ They should develop liaison with native speakers or native like speakers.
References Buck, G. (2001). Assessing Listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 4, pp. 161–70. Diana, P., & Mihaela, B. (2014). The effectiveness of error analysis in translation: A pilot study. Petra. Linguirum.22. pp. 49-59. Emadi, M., & Arabmofrad, A. (2013). Individual dynamic assessment: An analysis of Iranian EFL learners’ listening comprehension errors. Theory & Practice in Language studies. 12, pp. 2599-2605. Eun-pyo, L. (2002). Error analysis on medical students‟ writing. Eulji University, School of Medicine. Accessed on: 20/06/2020. Retrieved from: http://www.paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/PAAL8/pdf/pdf053.pdf. Faisal, M., Mulya, K. & Syamsul, B. Y. (2017). Error analysis in EFL writing by junior and high students. Indonesian International Journal of Research in Language Learning. 6(1), pp. 38-55. Hamouda, A. (2013). An Investigation of Listening Comprehension Problems Encountered by Saudi Students in the EL Listening Classroom International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development. 2(2), 113-155.
83 Hasan, A. S. (2000). Learners’ perceptions of listening comprehension problems. Language Culture and Curriculum 13(2):137-153, DOI: 10.1080/07908310008666595 Hussain, E., Ayub, M.T., & Awan, A. G. (2018). Errors in the essays. Global Journal of Management, Social Sciences and Humanities. 1, pp.181-210. Hussain, et al. (2013). An error analysis of L2 writing at higher secondary level in Multan, India. International Journal of Contemporary Research in Business. 17, pp. 828-844. Kasanga, L. A. (2006). Requests in a South African variety of English, pp 1; 65-89. Accessed on: 17/05/2010. Retrieved from: www.nie.edu.sg/profile/kasanga-luangaadrien-0. Khodabandeh, F. (2007). Analysis of students' errors: the case of headlines. Asian ESP Journal, 3(1), 6-21 Kurniawan, D. A. (2016). A Comparative Study of Error Analysis in Writing Narrative Texts Made by Junior, Senior and University Students. (Ph.D. Thesis), Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics Across Cultures. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Mahmood, R., Shah, A. H., & Kumar, T. (2020). English Language Learning and its Socio- cultural Effects: A Comparative Study of Private and Government Schools of Islamabad. Asian EFL Journal, 27 (3.3), 150-164. Makoni, Sinfree B. 1993. Is Zimbabwean English a type of new English? African study monographs 14. 97-107. Medriano, Jr. R. & Bautista, A. (2020). Integrating Business English Communication in the Contextualized Teaching of an ESL Graduate Course. Asian ESP Journal. 16. 2.1. Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: The writing process and error analysis in student texts at Queen's University. TESL-EJ, 6(2), pp 1-14. Richards, J. (1974). Analysis: Perspective on second language acquisition. In J. C. Richards (Eds.), A non-contrastive approach to error analysis (pp. 172-188). London: Longman. Richards, J. (2008). Teaching Listening and Speaking from Theory to Practice. New York: Cambridge University Press. Selinker L (1972). ‘Inter-language’. IRAL 10, 209–231. Silalahi, R.M., (2014). Error analysis of information and technology students’ sentence writing assignments. Indonesian International Journal of Research in Language Learning. 2, pp. 151-166. Spolsky, B. (1969). Attitudinal aspects of second language. Language Learning, 19, 271-283. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1969.tb00468.x.
84 Wilson, J.J. (2008). How to Teach Listening. London: Pearson. Yagang, F. (1994) Listening: Problems and solutions. In T. Kral (ed.) Teacher Development: Making the Right Moves. Washington, DC: English Language Programs Divisions, USIA
85 Corona Pandemic and New Educational Interventions for Saudi Learners: A Socio-Psychological Study at Qassim University
Bashar Ragheb Hasan Odeh Department of English and Translation, College of Arabic Language and Social Studies, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Nasser Mohammed Saleh Al-Sa’egh Department of Islamic Studies, College of Sciences and Arts, Rass, Qassim University Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Mohammed Ali Mohammed Qarabesh Department of English Language, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Biodata: Dr. Bashar Odeh is an Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics at the Department of English Language and Translation, College of Arabic and Social Studies, Buraidah, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia, in which he has been teaching language and linguistics courses for the past 12 years. He has received some grants by the University to work on specific projects related to Language acquisition. He has also been involved in the administration of IELTS Exam and helped in the smooth running of the sessions at the University. He has been working on research topics pertaining to Applied Linguistics and managed to publish some papers in Scopus-indexed journals. His research interests include English as an international language, intelligibility of second language users, language attitudes, language assessment, and curriculum design.
86 Dr. Nasser Al-Sa’egh, born in 1969, is a Professor of Islamic Studies at the College of Science and Arts, Rass, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. He has examined many dissertations and theses and published widely on Islamic Studies, and is a popular figure in the field. With over three decades of teaching at tertiary-level Institutions, he is currently the Dean, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University and a member of umpteen academic and administrative Committees at both the University and Province levels. He has lots of research work both published and in press. Prof. Al-Sa’egh is also an Editorial Board member in many well-reputed journals. Apart from all these academic activities, he is into volunteering work and has participated actively in many voluntary and community service projects.
Dr. Mohammed Ali Qarabesh is currently an Assistant Professor of Linguistics, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. He received his MA in Linguistics and Literature from Thamar University, Yemen and PhD in Linguistics and Phonetics from the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India. Apart from Heading the Department of English for five years, he has been working as an Assistant Professor of Linguistics, teaching Linguistic courses to BA and MA students at Al-Baydha University, Thamar University, Yemen. He has published many research papers in International Journals and has some others accepted for publication in Scopus-indexed journals of great repute. His research interests include Phonology, Morphology Syntax, Translation & Teaching Methods.
Abstract Global shutdown of educational institutions has caused significant interference in students' learning, and delays in internal evaluations. The present study is a quantitative research. The 59 respondents are purposively sampled from the total number of undergraduate students of QU-KSA. The paper seeks to answer the following research questions: What is the experience of students about new educational interventions? 1. What are the preferred online learning modalities for students as to: schedule, mode of assessment, level of participation, and learning styles and interest? 2. Is there a relationship between the students' learning strategies and other factors such as class schedule, mode of assessment, and level of online-class participation? 3. How would the new educational interventions impact the education in post-Corona scenario? Moreover, the study will provide theoretical and pedagogical implications for university education. Result of the study will serve as the basis
87 for Qassim University to offer better learning opportunities to their students both during Corona and in post-Corona periods.
Keywords: learning, Motivation, Online Learning, Home Education
Introduction The highly deadly attack of COVID-19 severely infects countries worldwide. The industries in various countries have become unprecedentedly frozen, and so is every walk of life far and wide. Despite the fact that the virus was born in Wuhan, the capital of the province of Hubei, China, it has destroyed virtually all international commerce and economies of nations. In the domain of education, online and home studies have replaced conventional modalities of teaching and learning; precisely because, these new alternative modalities assist in avoiding COVID-19 contamination. While this move and intervention are highly commendable and necessary, there are grounds for concern, as prolonged closure of school and homes during an outbreak of the disease, which has a detrimental impact on the physical and mental health of students (Prem et al., 2020). According to Brooks et al. (2020), the evidence indicates that, when learners are out of school, they become mentally less involved, have a far longer time cycle, sleep patterns, and less favourable diets, which contributes to weight gain, and a decrease of cardiorespiratory fitness. Aside from this, learners' personality, in particular their motivation, interest, and engagement in learning is affected (Carvalho et al., 2020). Motivation and learning behaviour are two significant variables in the acquisition cycle. Students' lack of enthusiasm may contribute to circumstances where students have little interest in studying. Such a condition would potentially impact the progress of learners in the acquisition of knowledge in general. Several studies suggest that, enthusiasm is a crucial factor affecting the pace and quality of learning. As Lin, Zhang, and Zheng (2017) made it clear, students’ motivation is one of the most significant factors in the progress of their learning, or their failure to learn. Likewise, the perceptions of learners toward learning can be constructive or pessimistic, and this, in effect, influences their desire to learn. In this study, however, it is argued that, the active management of knowledge by students, and their motivation, and a combination of cognitive and metacognitive factors are key to their active online learning. Despite the large number of students participating in online courses in the present COVID-19 pandemic era, there is very little understanding as of student motivation to learn in their home learning environment, focusing on their preferable online learning modalities, or how they can impact their performance online. This research helps to fill in this lacuna in the existing
88 literature by exploring the motivation of students, and the use of the learning approach through several online courses, in addition to the role of motivation and the multiple strategies in/of learning. It foregrounds the students' Socio-Psychological Orientation, which will constitute the basis for student-centred learning interventions. In Saudi content, Addressing leaners’ needs is a way of assuring students’ well-being. It will eventually develop them to become more prepared citizens of the world particularly in their language lessons, it is a way of making them communicatively competent (Al-Ahdal, 2020; Alkhudiry, & Al-Ahdal, 2020; Almakrob & Al-Ahdal, 2020).
Significance of the study The study will provide theoretical and pedagogical implications for university education. Result of the study will serve as a basis for QU to offer better learning opportunities, which are culturally appropriate to the students. The study may also serve as a contribution in the empowerment of Saudi education in the face of COVID-19 pandemic. The study is likely to be of paramount importance about understanding the experience of studying online from the perspective of students; and, therefore, helps the Government and the Universities to know the preference of the students in post Covid-19 scenario.
Statement of the Problem The problem of the COVID-19 epidemic is a big worry to the entire community, policymakers, educators, and the public, as it impacts their lives, especially in terms of the imposed lockout, and of the potential risk of contamination with this virus. The education system has been greatly impacted by the outbreak because of the closure of educational institutions since March 08, 2020. The educational institutions have responded in a very short span of time to start online learning as the best option available under the present circumstances. It follows, therefore, that there is a pressing need to understand the perspective of the students to the new educational intervention from socio-psychological point of view.
Research Questions The present study will answer the following research questions: 1. What is the experience of students about new educational interventions? 2. What are the preferred online learning modalities for students as to: schedule, mode of assessment, level of participation, and learning styles and interest?
89 3. Is there a relationship between the students' learning strategies and other factors such as class schedule, mode of assessment, and level of online-class participation? 4. How would the new educational interventions impact the education in the post- Corona scenario?
Literature Review Although world-wide homeschooling can create a few encouraging moments as well as disappointing ones, it seems quite impossible that it will replace the lost learning from school on average. The key argument, though, is that there would always be major gaps within families to the degree that they will help their children understand. Key differences include (Oreopoulos et al. 2006) the amount of time available for education, parents' non-cognitive skills, resources (e.g. not all will have the kit for the best online material), and also the amount of knowledge, which makes it difficult to help your child learn something you do not understand yourself. This episode would also contribute to a rise in human capital development disparities among the impacted cohorts. Yet, it is likely that interruptions may help individual students' careers. In Norway, for example, it was determined that all graduates of 10th grade should earn a high school degree. Maurin and McNally (2008) demonstrate that, the abolition in 1968 of standard test procedures in France (following student upheavals) has had a significant effect on the affected generation on the long-term labour market. Most universities and colleges substitute standard assessments with electronic evaluation methods in higher education, however. This is a modern environment for both instructors and pupils, so evaluations are expected to be higher than average. Evidence suggests that, managers utilize academic qualifications, such as diploma and grade point averages, to distinguish candidates (Piopiunik et al. 2020). The increase of the signal of the candidates, therefore, would theoretically decrease the corresponding level of productivity for recent students, who may experience slower wage growth and higher work displacement levels in the sphere of the marketplace. It is costly for both the individual and community as a whole (Fredriksson et al. 2018). Likewise, the motivation for learning plays an essential role in the psychological approach of study. Different researches have demonstrated the beneficial impact of learning motivation on popular courses (Ehrman, Leaver & Oxford for a review, 2003), namely linguistic abilities and the development of vocabulary (Tshang, Lin, Zhang & Choi, 2016). Nevertheless, high-level L2 students often tend to be more conscious of the nature of their learning than low-level
90 students, and to be able to monitor their learning patterns (Tsuda& Nakata, 2013). Psychologically, motivation is described an intensity within the learner, which is marked by a strong enthusiasm leading to an anticipated goal; in such a case, the purposes of the program (McDonald, 1965). This interpretation seems to be compatible with the motivational views of Crookes and Schmidt (1991), who defined motivation as the desire of the learner to learn. Consequently, Boin and Lodge (2016) stated that, the outbreak of epidemic is unpredictable; and its effects are devastating, and contribute to the shattering of the whole system of the country. In contrast, the educational system impacts the epidemic in the sense that, in such times of crisis, administrations are obligated to shut educational institutes. Similarly, teachers, in crisis-fraught conditions, face not only the issue of students’ lack of engagement but also their own inability to deliver their full efforts in the learning process. It is relevant in this regard to cite Švarcová, Hošková-Mayerová, and Navratil (2016), who supported the argument, stating that educational institutes should prepare a crisis management plan that helps them in both delivering the education, and minimizing the effect of the epidemic. The crisis management plan should include an emphasis on providing suitable strategies, which contribute to reducing the impact of epidemic along with making a proper plan that helps in dealing with similar type of situation in future. In case of an emergency in which the health of mass is on stake, suitable crisis management staff should be employed in order to make necessary strategies, and overcome the crisis. As noted by Jaques (2010), every institute should prepare a crisis management plan to deal with the issues in times of crisis. There are several elements of a crisis management plan that should be considered for its successful implementation in the educational institutes. The aspects of the crisis management plan are crisis management committee, which includes members from senior management, centralized approach for communication, and competent spokespersons, who can adequately perform the task, and implement strategies of crisis management. Patil and Yan (2003) confirmed that, the SARS crisis had created the opportunity to integrate digital technologies in the training and learning methodologies in schools. Seeing that the large number of students gathered in the lecture hall is seen as a high-risk activity, PowerPoint files with the instructor's talk is made accessible on the website of the faculty. This succeeded, because the students did not have to hurry to their complete session08.00 hours to follow the lecture. Students no longer experience difficulties in their college falling unconscious, or dreaming! Since SARS refused, the suggestion for PBL lessons to be preserved on the web via chat rooms was not sufficient. Naturally, this was a long way from face-to-face interactions with students and tutors, although helpful.
91 In the experience of Hong Kong, Wu et al. (2010) described school closure as a mitigating way of a pandemic. Kindergartens and primary schools were suspended when local influenza pandemics were reported. Through using a parsimonious communication model to evaluate age-specific data, the resultant close-out of high schools over the summer break is slightly less communication around the age spectrum. For the delivery of instruction in Australia, Walsh, Sandars, and Nordquist (2018) found out that, technology-enhanced learning is an essential response to infectious disease pandemics. The reach of advanced health curriculum across the epidemics has had an enormous impact: from the schooling of students to continuing education for extended and rising healthcare staff. As a consequence, health care is compromised during the pandemic. Teaching and learning are seriously impeded, and the facilities for clinical training are scarce. Safety care is usually taken at the bedside, but it is not possible during a pandemic. In the recent study of Ahmed, Allaf and Elghazaly (2020) noted that the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic a considerable influence on government organizations and has crucial issues for medical schools. Rotations between departments and hospitals often require potential COVID-19 vectors for medical schools. We should also learn a number and proceed to professional attention as trainee physicians. COVID-19 has a more direct impact on professional education for students.
Research Methodology The empirical study was conducted on undergraduate students of EFL program at Qassim University. The data was collected on the basis of a questionnaire through an online survey, which the students were told to fill honestly and sincerely. The respondents were told the purpose of the study, and were also ensured about the privacy of the data. Students were, then, asked to mark on a scale of 1 to 5 with 1 representing poor agreement with the statement, and 5 representing good agreement with the statement. A quantitative method of analysis was used to examine the data, and 59 responses were received in total.
Data Analysis and Discussion The data was collected on the basis of a questionnaire, which the students were asked to mark on a scale of 1-5 with 1 representing poor agreement with the statement, and 5 representing good agreement with the statement. What is the understanding of Covid-19 among students? Do they appreciate the decision of the KSA to close educational institutions so as to maintain social distancing?
92 Students were asked the three following questions so as to elicit their response to the above- mentioned questions: 1. It is good that contact classes have been called off in the university (No. 1 of the questionnaire) 2. I am fully aware of the dangers of social contact in these times of the pandemic (No. 7 of the questionnaire) 3. I feel comfortable studying at distance. It has eased my Corona anxiety (No. 19 of the questionnaire). Fig 01 is the graphic representation of the responses of the students to the questions stated above. If we combine both 4 and 5 responses, as both represent an agreement with the statements with varying degrees, we find that more than 90% respondents have affirmed that they agree with all the three statements above. It implies that, the respondents have an awareness about Covid-19, and about the need to maintain social distancing in order to prevent its transmission. The respondents are also appreciative of the decision of the Ministry of Education in the KSA of closing all the educational institutions at this time of pandemic.
FIG. 01
90.00 84.7 79.70 80.00 70.00 64.4 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 25.4 20.00 10.20 6.8 6.8 10.00 5.10 5.1 3.40 3.4 1.7 0 1.70 1.7 0.00 1 2 3 4 5
It is good that contact classes have been called off in the university I am fully aware of the dangers of social contact in these times of the pandemic I feel comfortable studying at distance. It has eased my Corona anxiety.
Technology has made it possible that, teachers are able to teach with the help of computer / smartphone in a virtual classroom on real time basis over the internet. Thanks to the progressive
93 and visionary leadership of the KSA, the country has 93% internet penetration and there are 32.23 million internet users as on January, 2020 (Digital 2020). The pre-requisite for the success of online teaching is the availability of good internet connection and device both with the teachers and students. It is, therefore, important to know if the students are well-equipped technologically. The students were asked to rate on scale of 1 to 5 the following: I have comfortable access to a computer set and fast internet connection for my online classes (No. 16 of the questionnaire). The responses to the questions above have been tabulated in Fig. 02 below. It is surprising that, despite the KSA being extremely well-connected with internet, only 64.4% (47.5%+16.9) of the respondents feel that they have good technology with them to support online education while 13.8% (5.3+8.3) lack it. The online learning program cannot be completely successful unless all the students and teachers are equipped with the required technology. It is important to understand here that, the present format of online learning is an intervention, a compulsion under the present circumstances, and has been termed as emergency remote teaching (Hodges et al 2020) by few scholars.
FIG 02
50
45 47.5
40
35
30 I have comfortable access to a 25 computer and fast internet connection for my online 20 classes
15 16.9
10 11.9 5 8.5 5.3 0 1 2 3 4 5
What is the experience of students as regard to online teaching so far? Students were asked the following questions:
94 1. I am certain my course requirements will be satisfied via the new academic interventions (No. 04 of the questionnaire). 2. Faculty members are teaching professionally during Covid-19 (No. 20 of the questionnaire). Fig. 03 is graphic representation of the responses to the above statements. Since the experience of students about the online learning is of vital interest to this study, the students were asked in the diametrically opposite way as well. 1. Studying via computer for several hours clubbed together can be boring and monotonous (No. 12 of the questionnaire). 2. Since this new system of education, I am doubtful of continuing with my course (No. 17 of the questionnaire). Fig 04 shows the responses of the above. FIG. 03
I am certain my course requirements will be satisfied via the new academic interventions Faculty members are teaching professionally during Covid-19
44.1
33.9 28.8
20.3 18.6 13.6 11.9 11.8 10.2 6.8
1 2 3 4 5
95 FIG. 04
Studying via a computer for several hours clubbed together can be boring and monotonous Since this new system of education, I am doubtful of continuing with my course
57.6
33.9 27.1
16.9 16.9 11.9 11.9 8.5 10.2 5.1
1 2 3 4 5
It is evidently clear from Fig 03 that significant numbers of respondents are in strong agreement with the statements, which means that, they find that the new academic intervention is able to meet their academic requirements. They also find that; the teachers are able to deliver good lectures through the new format. The graph in Fig 04 is almost opposite of Fig. 03, because the statements were asked in an opposite manner with the exception that 27% respondents feel that, online learning can be monotonous at times. What are the preferred online learning modalities for students as to: schedule, mode of assessment, level of participation, and learning styles? The students were asked the following questions to know their preference with respect to some of the features of online learning: 1. It is fun studying from home as I need not wrestle with traffic and similar mundane issues (No. 08 of the questionnaire). 2. The new method of online assessment via projects is more suited to my ability (No. 09 of the questionnaire). 3. Uploading assignments is better than in-class submission, as now I am able to devote more time to their revision and pre writing research (No. 14 of the questionnaire). The responses to the above as tabulated in Fig. 05 reveal that, students have high preference
96 for some of the modalities associated with online learning. Around 80% respondents (4 & 5 of the scale combined) have stated that, it is fun for them that they no longer have to wrestle with traffic. Uploading assignments, rather than in-class submission, also finds approval of 81.3% (4 & 5 of the scale combined) students.
FIG. 05
. It is fun studying from home as I need not wrestle with traffic and similar mundane issues The new method of online assessment via projects is more suited to my ability
Uploading assignments is better than in-class submission as now I am able to devote more time to their revision and pre writing research 69.4 62.7
23.7 25.5 18.6 18.6 18.6 10.213.6 10.2 10.2 5.1 8.5 5.1 0
1 2 3 4 5
It is a matter of introspection for the Universities authorities and planners that how the teaching is going to be in post Covid-19 times. Will the Universities function in future as they were in pre Covid times? Or the functioning of the Universities change as is popularly said about Covid that the world shall never be the same again. It is important to know the students’ perspectives about future way of learning. We asked the following questions to the respondents: 1. I am more comfortable with classroom contact classes for my course (No. 05 of the questionnaire). 2. Once the situation is back to normal, I would rather have more of my language classes online (No. 15 of the questionnaire). 2. Fig. 06 is the graphic representation of the responses to the above. If we combine responses 4 and 5 of the scale, we find that 66% respondents have shown their preference for contact classes in post-Corona time while 81% would want to have their language classes to be online even after the normalcy of the situation. Apparently it seems to be contradictory but it simply means that, though the students shall want to
97 see the University function as in earlier days yet they would like to continue with online classes for some of the courses.
FIG. 06
I am more comfortable with classroom contact classes for my course
Once the situation is back to normal, I would rather have more of my language classes online 62.7
44.1
22 20.3 18.6
8.5 8.5 5.1 5.1 5.1
1 2 3 4 5
Conclusion Covid-19, or corona virus, has caused major disruption in the regular run of people’s lives worldwide. The virus has spread to 188 countries, whose educational institutions were consequently closed at one point of time. The KSA had ordered closure of all educational institutions on March 08, 2020, and they remain closed even at the time of writing this paper. A “new educational intervention” in the form of online learning was started by most of the institutions to minimize the effect of suspension of contact classes. We find that, most of the students are satisfied with the progress of their courses, and also appreciate the professional approach of their professors. Nevertheless, availability of appropriate technology is the issue with around 14% of the respondent students. A significant majority of the students would want blending of both classroom teaching and online learning in post-Corona period. Our study has great relevance for the authorities and the planners in the sense that, they can use the results of the study to improve upon the present system, and keep in mind the preferences of students in planning the post-Corona educational system.
98 Recommendations Global sever infrastructure and engineering capabilities may be ramped up to increase the outreach of new educational interventions, especially in the rural regions of the country. Virtual learning may be further empowered with partnerships forged with IT companies to realize the possibility of local educational broadcast channels that can fill in for online classes. The teacher community should be encouraged to upgrade their capabilities in ICT so that the new hybrid model of educational that is likely to emerge as the restrictions imposed following Covid are relaxed, is sustainable in the long run given its encouraging results.
Limitations The collection of data proved a challenge, though a small one, as the respondents were totally inexperienced at participating in a survey. Delays in reverts were beyond the control of the researcher as some of the participants reported problems with understanding the questions, a situation which was tackled by the researcher having to telephonically assist them. Finally, a mixed gender participant base would have made the results more generalizable and this factor should be kept in focus in following studies on the subject.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge Qassim University represented by the Deanship of Scientific Research, on the financial support for this research under the number ASC-SS- 2020-1-1- L - 9964 during the academic year 1441AH/2020AD.
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101 Implementation of Process and Product-Based Writing Approaches
Mohammed Ali Mohammed Qarabesh Assistant Professor of Linguistics & Phonetics, Department of English Language, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Biodata: Dr. Mohammed Ali Qarabesh is currently an Assistant Professor of Linguistics, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. He received his MA in Linguistics and Literature from Thamar University, Yemen and PhD in Linguistics and Phonetics from the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India. Apart from Heading the Department of English for five years, he has been working as an Assistant Professor of Linguistics, teaching Linguistic courses to BA and MA students at Al-Baydha University, Thamar University, Yemen. He has published many research papers in International Journals and has some others accepted for publication in Scopus-indexed journals of great repute. His research interests include Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, and Translation & Teaching Methods.
Abstract Teaching methodologies determine the learning outcomes in higher education. Change in learner needs and deep infiltration of technology have led to a trend in educational institutions in Saudi Arabia to periodically evaluate the pedagogies in practice and discard those that are detrimental to desirable learning outcomes. EFL writing is an area of great challenge for both teachers and learners, one because the skill needs an intricate play of other sub-skills; and two because teachers and learners come with negative epistemological beliefs to the EFL writing class. The current study investigates the linguistic and attitudinal effects of Process and Product approaches in writing as Saudi EFL classrooms frequently find teachers in conflict over the choice of approach. Even so, previous studies have indicated the efficacy of collaborative and
102 communicative elements in the Saudi EFL classrooms. This study, nevertheless, adds to the existing body of literature on the effectiveness of Process and Product approaches in the context of Saudi EFL undergraduate students. The participants were two groups of forty preparatory year Arts students at Qassim University, and one way ANOVA showed that the Process approach was effective in enhancing learners’ writing ability. An attitudes questionnaire demonstrated that they were positively disposed to its use as compared to the product approach.
Keywords: Writing skill, process approach, composing, product approach, teaching strategies, writing proficiency
Introduction Of the four language skills, writing is perhaps the most challenging for foreign language learners. There are many reasons for this. In the Saudi context, learners are introduced to the learning of English much later after they begin with the mother tongue. More than communicative competence, one way or the other, English is conveyed to the learners that ‘passing’ the subject is important. It is accorded the status of ‘foreign language,’ and with this epistemological background, learners make a half-hearted effort to attain proficiency in the language. The classroom dynamics is also unfavourable to language learning. As the teacher takes the centre stage, a translation approach is followed, and therefore learners are encouraged to be reticent. In writing tasks, a loose product approach is developed, and the written output is meant to ape ‘model’ samples. While it is true that teachers are under enormous pressure of syllabus completion, what the current study emphasizes is that even in the given parameters, a change in approach can help make the Saudi EFL learners achieve a considerable degree of autonomy. The debate on which approach to follow for enhancing learners’ writing skills has been ongoing continually for decades. Also true is that there can be no one-size-fits-all formula that can be applied to all EFL learners. Yet, it is essential for the teachers to have clarity in best suited pedagogical input if the Saudi learners are to be made communicatively competent in English.
Review of Literature English writing is a difficult task for many non-native English language educators (Bingham, Quinn, & Gerde, 2017; Shao & Purpur, 2016; Strobl et al, 2019). Teachers frequently
103 experience difficulties in writing classrooms in English as a foreign language (EFL) in helping students understand the conventions of writing, which are essential to the delivery of effective and purposive communication (Elola, & Oskoz, 2017; Liao, 2016; Reyes, De Vera, & Medriano, 2018). Educational research recently started to explore the use of different approaches to writing (as a problem-causing skill) and in response to the national and global mounting challenges and needs for student proficiency in EFL (Alfaki, 2015; Bayat, 2014; Faraj, 2015; Hyland, 2016; Klimova, 2014; McQuitty, 2014; Medriano & Bautista, 2020; Teng, 2016). Liao (2016) utilized the automated writing evaluation, which improved the writing performance of Taiwanese university students. Baker (2016) used peer review as a strategy, which enhanced the writing skills of students. Consequently, Pascual (2019) reported that the genre-based process technique improved the writing performance of the students. Accordingly, Marshall and Underwood (2019) described the process-oriented approach to writing as a productive technique in teaching undergraduate research in economics. Azari (2017) positively described the effect of web-blog based writing, which improved the performance of EFL students. Henao (2017) supported that the use of ICT through online platforms developed the writing skills of students. According to Al-Ahdal et al. (2014), the low standard of English competence among students raised numerous questions regarding Saudi Arabia's English language schooling. Many attempted to promote the communication skills of students should be considered. These efforts led to a significant shift in teaching approaches from relying on responsive abilities and information, for example, grammar and learning hearing, to prioritize useful abilities such as voice and writing. Writing could be considered a significant skill of EFL because it requires thought. It can be seen not just as a medium of communication but also as a knowledge-building process. As an ability, practicing how and when to compose obviously needed to be taught (Strobl et al., 2019). Proficiency in writing skills depends totally on how well the students will be trained through the EFL (Hsieh, Hiew & Tay, 2017). Writing has historically been seen as a product; however, the changeover from the view of writing as a product to that of a process is among the most important paradigm shifts in the annals of writing teaching. The process approach is useful for language students, since students will be the developers of language expression, they need to concentrate on material and intent, and their own inherent motivations are appreciated (Azari, 2017, Al-ahdal, 2020a; Barrot, 2018, Gielen et al., 2010). Process writing is where language students concentrate not on the products but on the process by which they create their written products (Alkhudiry & Ahdal, 2020; Hwang, Hung & Chen, 2014). Process Writing is
104 an approach to writing teaching, which requires teachers and students alike to go through several stages for collectively creating a text (Özkul & Ortactepe, 2017). In the process approach, students are allowed to learn about what they are going to read, create notes, revise, rewrite, and give and receive input on their work until coming up with a final edition of the text (Strijbos, Narciss, & Dünnebier, 2010). Hence, the process approach to writing differs from the product approach where the main goal is on the text to be written by the students (Woo et al., 2011).
Problem Statement and Research Gap While there are many studies in the international context showing the effectiveness of process- approach to writing, there are only minimal studies conducted in the Saudi context, which needs to be further explored (Eubanks, Yeh, & Tseng, 2018; Hsieh, Hiew, & Tay, 2017; Ng & Cheung, 2017; Xu & Li, 2018). Saudi-based language education requires teachers to become conversant with the use of effective language teaching strategies to address the ever-escalating challenges and needs of the global economy, emphasizing the English language as the language of the world, particularly with the advent of education 4.0. In the Saudi context, problems arise with the use of teaching strategies, manufacturing deaf-and-dumb English students (Al-Ahdal, 2020b; Fang, 2017; Li, Tao, Joshi & Xu, 2018; Liu, Lin & Wiley, 2016; Wang, Smyth & Cheng, 2017), and showing that the students cannot use the English language in real-life situations. It is a sad reality but a reality nevertheless, that Saudi EFL students do not have the language facility to speak and write in English as efficiently as is often expected of them. To address such emerging concerns, the Saudi Ministry of Education in 2001 initiated interventions to standardize English language instruction for all levels of schools. The emphasis was on paying equal attention to all the four language skills: speaking, listening, writing, and reading. Yet, higher education is still caught in a stage of experimentation as teachers constantly endeavor to modify pedagogies to fulfill changing learner needs.
Research Objectives There are many ways in which teachers can approach writing in EFL classes, and it can be said that a lot of improvisations may be needed on the teachers’ part to modify methods or approaches to best suit learner needs. Institutions and policymakers in the KSA make a continued effort to evaluate teaching pedagogies against learning outcomes as the language output of EFL learners leaves a great deal to be desired. As part of this endeavor, technological
105 interventions have been integrated into the teaching systems to keep the learners motivated and engaged in the learning process. EFL is the single most heavily invested area of education both in terms of human resources and infrastructure. The guiding objective of this paper is to focus on the enhancement of learners’ writing skill. This skill is mostly dreaded by both teachers and learners given its very complexity and degree of proficiency needed.
Research Questions The objectives of the study were based on the comparative effectiveness of two approaches to writing; namely, the process and the product. Hence, the following are the specific research questions: 1- Were significant differences in achievement reported after the interventions using process and product writing approaches?, 2- What are the attitudes of the Saudi ESL undergraduate students to the process and product approaches in writing?, and 3- Is there any causal relationship between the Achievement and Attitude of the Respondents in the process approach and product approach in the paper?
Materials and Methods The study employed a quasi-experimental research design, which is commonly used in teaching-learning settings. It specifically employed the pre-test-post-test experimental research method. This method is considered appropriate to examine the effects of innovations in an educational background which is a standard method for educational research (Bloomfield & Fischer, 2019; Campbell & Stanley, 2015; Dugard & Todman, 1995; Secomb & Smith, 2011). The technique measures the growth and gain of students’ performance with their exposure before and after a particular intervention is initiated. As a pre-test evaluation tool, we used the standard Cambridge Preliminary English Test (2003), which consists of twenty-five questions to be answered in thirty minutes. Previous studies have used the instrument on the writing performance of EFL students (Daneshvar & Rahimi, 2014; Elder, McNamara, Kim, Pill &. Sato, 2017; Li, et al., 2020; Sadeghi & Rahmati, 2017). The respondents were 40 Saudi EFL undergraduate (previous year) students with median age falling at 17.5 years, grouped into the Process Approach (G1) and Product Approach (G2). It may be noted that the entire sample formed one class in the regular teaching schedule, but for our purpose, it was bifurcated into two groups (G1 and G2). The example was non-random and
106 consisted mainly of the researchers’ students in the university. In other words, it was a convenience sample. The sampling size was calculated using the G*Power T-test Mean difference between two independent sample means (matched pairs) with A priory Type of power analysis set into a two-tailed test showing an actual power of 0.90, and effect size of 0.5. The duration for the intervention was two weeks, and before commencement, the respective teachers were briefed in two sessions on the components of the two approaches. The guided teaching began in the first week of January 2020 and is inclusive of the questionnaire feedback. All data was collected by the end of the third week.
Data Analysis and Results G1: Process Approach The process approach was used with six spontaneous writing tasks in G1. For each job, the group had to work out a topic of general interest via brainstorming. This is an essential step in the process approach, as an imposed topic may fail to bring about learner participation. The participants were given full control of the topic selection process, and to ensure authentic authorship, the teacher took an active and keen interest in the next step, i.e., idea generation. As per the pre-intervention teacher orientation, the participating teacher took a passive role at this stage, as learner contribution can be severely retarded in this approach if the teacher flaunts his/ her superior knowledge of the topic. Collaboration is the other significant factor in the process approach. The teacher ensured that all ideas found a place on the whiteboard, where the ideas were duly recorded. Similarly, all contributions were acknowledged in the next step of refining the ideas that were collaboratively collected. Participants were assured that they need not worry about grammatical correctness and focus, instead, on capturing and collecting thoughts as they came across to them. At this stage, the teacher withdrew from active class participation and took to individually helping the participants by moving around the classroom as responding to participants’ requests for assistance. The participants were free to work on their writing through the remaining part of the week and make their submissions either for feedback and improvement or for final marking by the teacher. G2: Product Approach In this group, the topic for writing was already chosen by the teacher and announced to the participants. Thereafter, a model written piece was also given to the participants. Following this, the teacher (literally) took it to parts, and explained to the group the features of the extract in great detail. For instance, for topic 1, the teacher began by demonstrating the characteristics
107 of an ideal introductory paragraph and creating five to six initial statements for item 1. This was followed by an enunciation on the ‘body’ of the product, and then was followed by a ‘concluding or summary’ paragraph. The learners were then asked to write similar essays, strictly keeping an eye on the desired product. Paragraphing and topicality of the paragraphs were also reinforced. Grammatical and form correctness were frequently exhorted on the participants, and they were constantly reminded to produce a writing piece in line with the sample. This was also needed to be completed within a given time frame and teacher’s feedback to be sought. It may be noted, however, that in contrast to G1, the participants were not encouraged to redo the drafts for improvement. This group, too, was made to do six writing tasks throughout the intervention period.
Writing Attitude Questionnaire Since the research sought to evaluate the effect of the listed approaches on participants’ attitudes and writing abilities, a behavioral checklist was designed based upon Mehr (2017). The instrument has been used by many previous authors on assessing EFL students ‘writing attitude (Crosthwaite, Cheung, & Jiang, 2017; Garcia-Martin, & Garcia-Sanchez, 2018; Liaghat & Biria, 2018; Xu & Nesi, 2019). The questionnaire for the current study had a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.854, which is considered to have high reliability. This included fifteen statements and the respondents were required to indicate their response by using the standard Likert Scale gradient from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. This questionnaire was administered twice to the groups, before and after the intervention to evaluate change, if any, in attitudes to writing which may be attributed to the approaches used. In the pre- and post-intervention stage, the results of one way ANOVA were also recorded in Table 1 below. The table shows the comparative results for both the groups.
Table 1: One way ANOVA for attitude to writing in pre- and post-intervention stage Variable G1 G2 p value Mean SD Mean SD Pre intervention Attitude 43.8 5.21 44.3 4.39 0.7 measure Post- intervention 72.9 4.68 48.7 4.72 0.02 Attitude measure
108 Statistical significance clearly establishes that post-intervention, there is a marked difference in the attitudes of the two groups. Since the groups were relatively small (N=20 each), the researchers also examined each response sheet individually and concluded that the responses of G1 changed drastically over the intervention period. While they were comparable with G2 in terms of inhibition and demotivation to writing tasks in English in the pre-intervention evaluation, G1 reported a much higher level of confidence and motivation to take up writing jobs after the process approach based training. The skills and effects of the two approaches the study measured therein were writing accuracy and fluency. Both these parameters cannot be quantified, and the researchers sought to judge the writing samples holistically, focusing generally on content, variety of ideas, organization, flow, and connectedness of the sentences. The writing outputs were accordingly marked on a scale of 1-10. This was followed for both the groups, G1 and G2. Table 2 below depicts the change in writing accuracy and fluency scores of the two groups before and after the intervention. One way ANOVA was computed to verify if the differences of the changes between the groups were statistically significant. Table 2: Writing assessment G1 G2 p-value Mean SD Mean SD Pre- intervention 29.7 4.62 28.14 3.89 0.6 Post- intervention 58.2 3.97 32.60 4.66 0.001 The above scores demonstrate a significant change in the mean scores of G1 from the pre- intervention stage. In terms of percentage, there is a hike of 47.5% in the writing scores of G1 whereas G2 shows a marginal hike of 7.4%. Informal interaction with G2 participants brought out the probable reason for this increase. During the three weeks of intervention, the teacher focused solely on writing tasks, to the exclusion of other components. Resultantly, the participants received more significant input on improving their writing even though the approach was product-based. This finding is also significant, for it can be interpreted to mean that, even with the product-based approach, learners’ writing output may be enhanced though it will be a slow process. The success of the process approach as a means of language learning is due to the way students function from beginning to end. Processes tend to be the foundation of significant cognitive writing styles. With this approach, students of the language were able to analyze ideas and feelings, to examine and construct their meaning and understanding and to compose using
109 different pre-writing techniques. Taking into consideration the beneficial effect of the method methodology on the writing skills of the graduates, it can be inferred that the learners needed to compose in English since the teacher guided them by giving guidance and helping them develop their writing skills. Throughout fact, as they composed the story themselves, it gave them a far more optimistic outlook towards writing skills. The results of this research mostly match previous studies that, if language teachers use a teaching method strategy, academic success and written mood for students in a trouble-free learning environment appear to be improved. The productivity of a product-oriented writing method has meanwhile been focused on the usage of language, a variation of sentences and rhetorical written tasks—the conceptual sentence and expression used by the researcher to combine behaviours during the therapy process. For the processing of the product approach, the researcher used five model paragraphs. Throughout the lesson, the students were instructed to compose articles according to the various models. We have also been told of the written syntax, word use and sentence structure conventions. With these steps, students were encouraged to realize that writing the product form allows them to know more about the laws and published conventions. The efficiency of the writing process, therefore, also reflects its similarities with prior work in the educational classroom.
Conclusions and Recommendations The findings of the study on the use of the Process approach and Product approach provide practical teaching and learning implications for language education to offer better opportunities for students to develop their communicative competence. This study contends that, it is challenging to develop writing skills of the students when their grammatical skill is at a low level; hence, the study provides significance to literature, showing the effectiveness of process approach to writing will be better implemented when supplemented or complemented with the product approach. It implies that language teachers must be capable enough to adopt an eclectic teaching approach in the teaching of writing in such a way that students will be engaged to master the rules of language, in addition to exposing them to real applications of language use. The following are the implications: (1) Language teachers should be able to properly integrate the use of both approaches ‒ product and process ‒ for the Saudi EFL students not only in language subjects but in other content areas since this integration aids in providing a strong perspective for helping students improve their writing performance and attitude; (2) implementation of sustained professional development for the language arts teachers focusing on the benefits and other strategies aligned to process approach and product approach to
110 writing should be initiated; (3) the gender gap in language learning can be appropriately tackled by providing the students with a broader opportunity for using strategies that will help improve the writing proficiency of male EFL students. The use of strategies that will suit the personality, styles, and inclinations of male and female students in language teaching may be considered; (4) there is a need to integrate process approach and product approach with the use of technologies as a way to cope with demands of Education 4.0; (5) language teachers are encouraged to devise other innovative learning activities and tasks that are aligned to the process and product approaches to writing; and lastly, (6) strong support of educational managers and administrators on the use of process approach and product approach is sought.
Limitations of the Study Having attained the specified objectives of this study, this study has several limitations, which can be based on future studies. First, the study is only limited to the small sampling size of Saudi EFL students at the undergraduate level, which can be a limiting factor on the test of differences. Second, the use of the simple pre-test-post-test as the weakest type of quasi- experimental research design will not be able to cover all the needed factors and variables on the implementation of the process approach and the product one. The use of mixed-method design is recommended for further investigations. Such a hybrid research design (of using two or more methods) can be more reliable to triangulate the gathered findings by focusing on the fluency, accuracy, and discourse markers. Third, future studies are encouraged to whether replicate or adopt the context of the study to the different levels of education in the KSA, considering and correlating other variables, such as students’ cultural background, parents' education, level of income, and language performance. Lastly, there is a need to identify the cognitive and attitudinal effects of other forms of product and process approaches to writing, for example, by focusing on the prewriting, during writing, and post-writing activities.
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115 Training Future English Teachers for the Formation of Critical Thinking in Students
Ulbossyn Baimanova Doctorate Student, Department of Pedagogical Sciences, Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University [email protected]
Bakhytzhan Akhmedov Senior Teacher, Department of Physical Education, Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University [email protected]
Askarbay Niyazov Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education, Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Azhiniyaz [email protected]
Kaliya Kiyassova Acting Associative Professor, Department of Foreign Languages, South Kazakhstan State Pedagogical University [email protected]
Azat Kazakov Head of the Department of Physical Education, Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Azhiniyaz [email protected]
116 Bio data: Ulbossyn Baimanova is a doctorate student of 3rd course at the department of Pedagogical Sciences in Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University.
Bakhytzhan Akhmedov is a senior teacher at the department of Physical Education in Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University.
Askarbay Niyazov in an associate professor at the department of Physical Education in Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Azhiniyaz.
Kaliya Kiyassova in an acting associative professor at the department of Foreign Languages in South Kazakhstan State Pedagogical University.
Azat Kazakov is the head of the department of Physical Education in Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Azhiniyaz.
Abstract This article aims to reveal approaches to the development of critical thinking in children by teaching them English. Knowledge of the English language provides opportunities not only for each individual's professional and personal growth but, in general, has a positive effect on the human development index, reflects the level of education, life expectancy, literacy, and well- being of the population. From the point of view of psycholinguistics, the problem of mastering a foreign language should be considered as interdisciplinary, associated with the field of activity not only of linguistics and teaching methods but also of cognitive psychology, sociology, medicine, as areas affecting the issues of the communicative nature of language and communicative potential linguistic personality. Thus, in order to prepare children for the full study of subjects in English, it is necessary to have high-quality teaching throughout the entire period of study. Keywords: English Language, English Teacher, Critical Thinking, Foreign Philology, Education System
Introduction Since 2015, the education system has already introduced secondary school students' teaching in three languages, and in this regard, teaching English at the primary and secondary levels
117 should be carried out using new technologies and in a new format. The "Trilingualism" program within the framework of introducing the updated content of primary and secondary education is already operational. Suppose we follow the analysis of the situation with the introduction of broadband Internet. In that case, as calculated by the GSM Association and the Mozilla Foundation, by 2017, mobile communications will reach three billion, half of which will be smartphone connections, in which the information space is English. In countries with a high level of English proficiency, PISA scores are 20% higher (Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Slovenia, Estonia). European Commission data indicate that 54% of Europeans speak one foreign language, incl. 25% - in two, 10% - in three foreign languages. Many European countries' strategic objectives concerning increasing the importance of English proficiency showed that 98% of Europeans believe that their children will benefit from foreign language knowledge, 67% consider English a critical language. Japan's experience shows that if until 2015, the Japanese did not attach importance to English proficiency, now Japan has set a goal to lead in this issue among Asian countries. In Kazakhstan, the state's language policy is arranged in such a way that the state (Kazakh) language remains the priority, as the share of students in schools with the Kazakh language of instruction increased from 51% in 1999 to 64% in 2015. The percentage of university students in the Kazakh language increased by two times (from 32% in 2000 to 63% in 2015). At the same time, most Kazakh parents (81%) want their child to know English. In comparison, only 34% of parents can afford the services of language courses or tutors, 27% pin their hopes solely on preparation at school, and 20% of parents believe that English knowledge depends on the child himself (Mannahali et al., 2020; Razak, Yassin, & Maasum, 2020; Elashhab, 2020; Ching & Chan, 2020). As for the study of the importance of the English language for a person, parents' survey showed the following: 38% - a means of communication; 37% - the language of scientific discoveries, innovations, and professional growth; 26% note the relevance of modern requirements. According to the State Program for the Functioning and Development of Languages for 2011- 2020, 25% of the country's population should speak English and 90% - the state language by 2020. In turn, the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan, following step 79, implements a phased transition to English for teaching in grades 10 and 11; the change began in 2019 in the subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle: physics, chemistry, biology, and computer science.
118 Literature Review In linguistics, attempts to comprehend the active formative role of the language system in relation to the system of thinking go back to I. Herder and W. Humboldt (this problem, as a rule, was of interest to idealist scientists). I. Gerder speaks of language as a "mirror of the people", and W. Humboldt and his followers believe that the activity of a certain "spirit of the people" is manifested in the language, a special worldview, and a specific way of thinking are hidden. "The peculiarity of the spirit and the structure of the language of a people," writes W. Humboldt, "are so internally connected with each other that if one of them were given, the second should be derived from it. Language is also an external manifestation of the spirit of peoples. Language is their spirit, and their spirit is their language. It is never possible to sufficiently express their identity" (Humboldt, 1984; Yassin, Razak, & Maausm, 2019; Peniro & Cyntas, 2019; Woods, 2018; Grant et al., 2017). He sees in language a force that shapes the thinking of the people, reveals the peculiar features of its national spirit, and is completely divorced from the material world. The language itself creates an image, a picture of the world; therefore, the difference in languages gives rise to a difference in the world's views. E.L. Parfenova, in her work "English in philological coverage: the initial stage of mastering" considers speech in terms of the dichotomy "speaker" - "listener", where at least three considerations should be taken into account: 1) psycholinguistics focuses on mainly on the verbal element of speech, underestimating the apparent importance of information transmitted by paralinguistic and kinetic means; 2) the role of the "speaker" in the transmission-perception of information is traditionally studied in more detail than the role of the "listener," although psycholinguistically both communicants are equally important; 3) insufficient attention is paid to the fact that the learner of the initial stage does not master the language as such, but to a large extent the socio-culturally determined norms of behavior of a given linguistic society (Parfenova, 2003). In this regard, and in the context of the stated thought, one can speak not just about interpenetration, but about the real possibility of a mutually enriching and promising study of verbal and non-verbal components of verbal communication on the basis of its various forms (Yassin, Abdul Razak, Qasem, & Saeed, 2020). There are two main approaches to mastering a foreign (English) language by beginners: learning, studying; and the first is to be correlated with those studying the initial stage in general, while the second is considered relevant for mastering the language by "novice philologists" (Parfenova, 2002). As you can see, the ever-increasing requirements for a teacher of foreign philology activities are quite justified. Our task is to improve and develop skills that allow future English language
119 teachers to develop their linguodidactic education trajectories (Kang, 2017; Parvizian, Ghojavand and Niknejadi, 2015). The problem of critical thinking is complex and multifaceted. In various historical periods, representatives of various sciences studying man turned to her. Thus, the intellectual roots of critical thinking go back to Socrates (Materials of Ancient Greece, 1955). His questioning method is now known as Socratic, that is, questioning and is the main strategy for critical thinking. In his survey method, Socrates highlighted the need for thinking for clarity and consistency. Further, the problem of critical thinking was touched upon by Plato, Aristotle, who consider the side of the systematic nature of critical thinking (Materials of Ancient Greece, 1955). The idea of systematic critical thinking was implemented in thinkers' letters and training, such as F. Aquinsky (Philosophy, 1995). In the Renaissance (15th-16th centuries), many European scientists began to think critically about religion, art, society, human nature, law, and freedom. Thus, R. Descartes developed a critical thought method based on the principle of systematic doubt (Descartes, 1950). In the Italian Renaissance, Machiavelli critically assessed the day's politics and laid the foundation for contemporary critical political thought (Philosophy, 1995). D. Locke (16-17 centuries) laid a theoretical basis for critical thinking regarding the basic human rights and responsibilities of all governments (Locke, 1960). In the 19th century, critical thought was brought into the realm of human social life by Spencer; in biology - Ch. Darwin; in psychology - Z. Freud. In the 20th century, D. Dewey pointed out the great need for critical thinking in life and education: "Criticism is an examination and testing of judgments that are offered for adoption in order to find out whether to respond to reality or not. The ability to think critically is a mental habit. This is the main condition for human well-being; all people should be trained in this. This is our only guarantee against delusions, deception, superstitions. That education can be considered good, which teaches us to think critically" (Petrovsky, 1982). In the most general sense, critical thinking is the activity of the mind, aimed at identifying and correcting its mistakes. Further definition of critical thinking depends on how we understand the place and role in human reasoning of errors. Consider two positions that consider critical thinking as a temporary or permanent phenomenon. First, if we assume the possibility of achieving absolute objective truth (G.V.F. Hegel), then the criticality of thinking is a temporary and subjective phenomenon, justified only on approaches. Second, if we assume the likelihood of mistakes in the process of cognition, then critical thinking is a constant phenomenon, serving as an irreplaceable guide to the new. (K. Popper) (Philosophy, 1995).
120 Speaking about the sources of critical thinking, K. Popper distinguishes two: cognitive and social. He connects the cognitive source with justified dogmatic thinking. "Faith — trust in the authority of an educated person and its manifestation — dogmatic thinking — precede independent cognition as a means of not only accumulating a stock of knowledge but also forming a culture of thinking itself, including critical thinking. In this sense, faith-trust is the most important prerequisite for any educational process" (Philosophy, 1995). Thus, critical thinking is a characteristic attribute of scientific knowledge. However, it does not exist without dogmatic thinking, justified within a certain framework, which allows to accumulate material for subsequent criticism and contribute to the cultivation of its culture. Considering the social source of criticality, K. Popper divides it into negative and positive components. The negative component of critical thinking is the limitations and contradictions of social systems and phenomena. The positive source - lies in the relationship between tolerance and criticality. Tolerance is a recognition of another person's freedom to be different and defend his "distinctiveness," peculiarity, grounded in one way or another. However, criticality appears as a manifestation of the inner freedom of a person who is free to disagree and in one or another legal way to refute "other" or "other". The study of the literature on this issue allows to say that criticality is considered in two directions: in the cognitive sense - as a quality of the mind and in the personal aspect - as a personality trait. S.L. Rubinstein believed that "verification, criticism, control characterize thinking is a conscious process." Researcher M.N. Shardakov considers the criticality of thinking as the orientation of schoolchildren's personality and an evaluative attitude towards the phenomenon under consideration. A.C. Bayramov defines critical thinking as "the mental ability of a historically established personality, aimed at finding the optimal way to solve a problem," which manifests itself in younger students in finding errors and absurdities in text or pictures, and only in some - in determining the causes of such errors. Critical thinking is interpreted as a quality of the mind and is defined as conscious control over intellectual activity implementation. In Kazakhstan, the technology for the development of critical thinking has been known since the early 2000s. It is based on the ideas and provisions of Piaget's theory of the stages of mental development of a child, L.S. Vygotsky on the zone of proximal development and on the inextricable link between learning and the general development of a child, K. Popper and R. Paul on the foundations of the formation and development of critical thinking, E. Brown and I. Beck on metacognitive teaching, civil and legal education and others. The indisputable merit of active developers of technology is that they were able to "shift" the provisions of these
121 theories into the language of practice and brought their work to the level of pedagogical technology, highlighting the stages, methodological techniques, and evaluation criteria result. In particular, such developers were Curtis Meredith, Charles Temple, and Ginny Still. The research analysis showed that the priority in the initial development of the critical thinking problem belongs to foreign psychologists (D. Dewey, A. Binet, R. Paul, D. Halpern, etc.). However, a distinctive feature of foreign studies is the predominance of an empirical approach to studying the phenomenon of critical thinking. Many authors (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.A. Smirnov, B.M. Teplov, etc.) pointed out the need for a theoretical solution to the issue of the place and role of critical thinking in the structure of personality.
Materials and Methods The National Educational Database (NEDB) indicates that according to the leading indicators of the assessment of regional educational systems is the quality and accessibility of secondary education, which in 2018 amounted to 38.7 points out of a possible 70, and the average republican indicator in primary school was 20 out of 30 possible (National report on the state and development of the education system of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 2018). It should be noted that according to the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievements, the level of "reading literacy", which consists in the ability to understand and use written language forms required by society and valuable to a person and to construct extractable semantic variations of the text, were performed by 536 points and corresponded to 27th place in the PIRLS-2016 ranking. The reading literacy of students was tested in Russian and Kazakh languages (Today.kz, 2016). As for the knowledge of the English language by secondary school students, according to the Education First English Proficiency Index ("EF EPI Index"), Kazakhstan ranks 54th out of 72 countries in the world with an index of 47.42 (very low) along with Turkey (51st). Azerbaijan (57th place) and Sri Lanka (58th). The area of scientific interest, covering a wide range of problems in the theory and practice of teaching a foreign (in this case, English) language, attracts an increasing number of specialists (Lorelyn and Lasaten, 2020). Here it is necessary to clarify the formulation of the problem immediately: we are not talking about the peculiarities of teaching a foreign language "in a beginner group", but about teaching the language of a specialty to novice English philologists, future teachers of the English language, various aspects of its history and theory, as well as, possibly, literature - that is, to all those to whom the proposed prof. OS Akhmanova is an extremely apt epithet "budding philologists"(Akhmanova, 1977).
122 Analyzing various fundamental and practical sources in the framework of the study of critical thinking, we set the task to determine the content and the phenomenon of the concept of "thinking". From scientific psychological literature, we know that thinking is the highest mental process of an individual's cognitive activity. It is characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality; it is an analysis, synthesis, generalization of the conditions and requirements of the problem being solved and methods for its solution (Psychological dictionary, 2019). Human thinking in concepts is the operation of the concepts of objects reflected in these concepts; therefore, the reasoning is the correlation with each other, not of judgments or positions in themselves, but of the objects they are talking about, their properties and relationships. In the course of such reasoning, thinking obtains new data that go beyond the initial conditions, and, using them, leads to new conclusions.
Results Any thought process begins only when a problem situation arises, when a thought encounters a contradiction, when something appears that is at odds with the knowledge available in the available experience. For logical thinking, the appearance of a "contradiction" is a signal of the appearance of a problem that cannot be solved with the help of already well-known, already stamped intellectual actions. It is a signal for the inclusion of thinking in the proper sense of the word as an independent study ("comprehension") of an object. But not every person is ready to solve a problem situation. The human mind, which is accustomed to actions according to a cliche, according to a ready-made recipe for a "typical solution" from childhood, does not like contradictions. A person with such a mindset is lost where independent reflection and decision is required of him. For the intellect, avoiding contradictions, afraid of reality (and it is the reality that creates contradictions), a characteristic feature is the inability to correlate this world with reality. That is why, from the very birth, the mind should be educated, so that life's contradictions are conducive to independent work, to independent consideration of the thing itself, and the essence of things. Only where one has to find ways to solve problems that arise, and not just repeat other people's words can the ability to think are born. And the ability to detect and resolve contradictions is the criticality of thinking. However, with the development of personality, critical thinking acquires new features. This quality of thinking requires that a person can sacrifice. And no matter how difficult it could be.
123 The prevailing opinions and ready-made solutions can free the intellect, both from ready-made ideas and too simple ones, to hold thought on the slippery slope of deductions and generalizations and, finally, protect from the excessive trust. Through reflection, the critical mind analyzes the results of its mental activity and its possible consequences - this is the first characteristic feature of critical thinking. Its second feature is its openness to new ideas. In turn, this openness is based on such qualities as a constant striving for the search for truth, the confidence that one's conclusions may not be free from errors and delusions, since any person's knowledge is limited. Hence, the third feature - unconditional respect for the opponent, tolerance even towards those ideas you do not share, cautioning that you are right, readiness to search for a third way, to find a compromise.
Discussion Both theoretically and experimentally, critical thinking is a poorly understood phenomenon. There are many controversial issues in modern approaches to the study of critical thinking. Their solution is of fundamental importance for the theory and practice of educational psychology. So, David Cluster, professor, teacher of American literature at Hope College in Holland, USA, defined critical thinking. He noted that, firstly, critical thinking is independent thinking, when students should have enough freedom to think of their head and independently solve even the most challenging issues. Secondly, information is the starting point for the development of critical thinking. Third, critical thinking begins with posing a question and clarifying the problems that need to be solved. Fourth, critical thinking strives for convincing argumentation. Fifth, critical thinking is social thinking; when we argue, read, discuss, object, and exchange opinions with others, we clarify and deepen our position. Thus, critical thinking is: - Open thinking that develops by imposing new information on life experience; - A starting point for developing creative thinking. The theoretical component on which modern technology for the development of critical thinking is based on: - Constructivism (development is carried out in the process of active construction of knowledge by the subject of learning) (Kearney, 2015); - The presence of the theory of schemes (in the process of cognition, the student modifies, modifies his schemes, ideas, which need to develop the ability to be aware of these schemes, to work with them);
124 - Reciprocal criticism of the reader (comprehension of the text by the students leads to the inevitable voicing of opinions, independent construction of the meaning of the message received); - The introduction of metacognitive learning as a cognition process is realized through drawings, graphs, and speaking. The applied aspects of the formation of critical thinking in students should be developed by the teacher based on the indicated theoretical provisions since a student who knows how to think critically has a variety of ways of interpreting and evaluating an information message, is able to highlight contradictions and types of structures present in the text, and argue his point of view based on not only logic, but also the presentation of the interlocutor. Such a student feels confident in working with various types of information and can effectively use multiple resources at the level of values (Levine, 2011). A critical-thinking student knows how to interact with information spaces effectively, fundamentally accepting the multipolarity of the surrounding world, the possibility of coexistence of various points of view within the framework of universal human values. Consequently, he will be able to adapt more successfully to modern life. However, it is not easy to motivate a modern student for cognitive activity in our time's vast information space. In our opinion, this is due to an insufficient level of development of critical thinking, which, in turn, is very important for a person in the modern world. Learning critical thinking is not an easy task. Thus, dialogue communication (L.S.Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin, and others) is of great importance in developing critical thinking, which is not a dispute, but an explanation from another, possibly decisive in the development the human psyche (Elkonin, 1974). Researchers who have studied the formation of critical thinking reveal this path from different perspectives (Brody, 2003). The first approach reflects the formation of critical thinking in the process of detecting, correcting, and refuting errors. In the work of A.C. Bayramov, pictures and texts were used as the presented material, the logical structure of the content of which inspired the manifestations of criticality. Also, three types of instructions were specially developed that guided students to solve analytical problems, problem situations, put children in a position where they had to activate their thinking, showing independence and criticality. Instructions of the first type only formulated the task assigned to the students; the second type's instructions revealed the possibility and conditions of students' manifestation of the criticality of mind; instructions of
125 the third type focused the students' attention on individual shortcomings, inconsistencies in pictures (text). To study the manifestation of critical thinking in preschool children, D. Dzhumalieva used a particular experiment method. When teaching children, the correct way of comparing the object of knowledge with a standard, the criticality of thinking was formed. The second approach is to teach students how to write reviews. A.I. Lipkin and L.A. Rybak identified the following ways of forming critical thinking in senior schoolchildren: 1) mutual review, 2) self-review, 3) writing reviews for a review, 4) discussion. S.I. Veksler proposed the third approach. The essence of the system is to form critical thinking in two stages. The first stage is in the process of detecting, correcting, and refuting errors; the second stage is in the process of teaching students to write reviews and reviews. The fourth approach - the formation of criticality as a personality trait- is carried out simultaneously with students' mastery of the structure of educational activity (B.C. Koneva). She distinguishes five stages: the first and second stage is the acquaintance of students with the formed personality trait; at the third stage, the formation of skills was going on, providing students with the opportunity to be critical at certain stages of solving educational problems (problem analysis, updating knowledge, planning problem solving) at the fourth stage - the formation of criticality in the process of mastering the integral structure of educational activity (Luanganggoon, 2020); and the fifth stage presupposes the functioning of skills that ensure the activity of a person with criticality. Thus, the basis for various approaches to the formation of criticality was the active activity of students. Researchers generally associate the formation of criticality as the quality of thinking with the mastery of such educational actions as control and assessment. However, the range of skills that make up the essence of critical thinking is wider and includes control and assessment skills and skills: 1) Focusing skills: the selection of information, screening out everything that is not important in this particular case (defining a problem: clarifying needs, contradictions, or incomprehensible situations; setting goals: defining direction and purpose.) 2) Skills of information gathering: clarification of the data necessary for the thought process (observation: obtaining information through the use of one or more sensory systems; formulating questions: finding new information through questions.) 3) Organizational skills: effective use of information (Comparison: similarities and differences between or among objects; classification: grouping and labeling objects based on their characteristics; presentation: changing the form, but not the essence of information.)
126 4) Analytical skills: clarifying existing information by studying its parts and relationships (identifying attributes and components: defining characteristics or parts of something; identifying relationships and concepts: defining the ways in which elements relate; identifying main ideas: identifying a central element, for example, hierarchy of key ideas in the message, or ordering of causes; identification of errors: identification of false statements or other errors and their possible correction). 5) Generation skills: the creation of new information, meaning or ideas (conclusions: the relevant information means were necessary and reasonable; prediction: the anticipation of events or consequences of situations; development: the explanation of additional details, examples, or other relevant information. 6) Integration skills: communication and combination information (summation: an effective combination of information into a coherent statement; reconstruction: changing existing knowledge into new information.)
Conclusion Here are some generalized data. So, the first condition - the basis for forming the foundations of critical thinking is the dialogue between the teacher and the student. In the dialogue, younger students get the opportunity to compare their points of view with others and generalize their own experience and the group's experience. The teacher's thinking differs from the thinking of the student in that it is saturated, mediated, guided by the logic of common sense, wisdom. Facing in a dialogue with the teacher's logic, with the logic of common sense, in the form of judgments, statements, the student understands and appropriates this logic. The child learns to see his position through interaction with adults. Understanding and appropriating a different point of view allows the child to get away from egocentrism. He can look at the starting position as if from the outside. The second condition is that the success of critical thinking at school age depends on the formation of positive motivation for this quality. Critical thinking is formed more successfully when students are satisfied with the understanding and realization that the successful mastery of knowledge and skills depends on their position in the process of cognition and the ability to be critical. The need for critical thinking arises from the desire for a meaningful attitude towards reality. The student experiences the process of discovering, creating his own answer to a question or problem as a discovery, personal value, which in the future has a positive effect on the development of cognitive motives.
127 The third condition is that the formation of critical thinking is carried out in the process of mastering specific subject content. Critical thinking can be directed, first, at knowledge about the object, at the cognizable content itself, i.e., for knowledge in various academic disciplines; secondly, on the ways of assimilating and obtaining knowledge; thirdly, criticality can be directed at oneself as a subject of activity (for example, making their position clear to another, students themselves better understand it, and also come to understand the meaning and purpose of their own activity). The fourth condition is learning in the form of a dialogue. Joint activity in solving a problem is a necessary stage and an internal mechanism of individually carried out activity. Joint reasoning, subject-subject interaction, the subject of which is a question, a problem, gives rise to the ability to internal reasoning in students. The fifth condition is the use of various techniques aimed at the formation of critical thinking. The use of various methods and techniques allows, firstly, to highlight and concretize the subject of formation, to ensure its acceptance by students; secondly, to influence the formation of knowledge and skills; thirdly, to provide students with the manifestation of their position in the process of solving an issue, problem, expressing their point of view. Here, such techniques are effective as the inclusion of students in active activities to detect and correct contradictions, errors not only in setting goals for the activity but also in the result and method of solving the problem; deliberate inclusion in tasks of errors, contradictions, inconsistencies, as well as the presence of someone else's, usually "authoritarian" point of view on the existing problem; brainstorming techniques; key terms; clusters aimed at updating knowledge on the topic; marking system; interrogation; peer education; written assignment; discussion, etc. The sixth condition is the gradual formation of critical thinking. The formation of critical thinking is a long-term process, which involves the development of elements of its structure. The sequence of the formation of critical thinking is realized in certain stages. Each stage solves specific problems: from getting to know the criticality of thinking, developing an attitude towards critical thinking to the functioning of the formed quality in the educational process.
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130 Non-Digital Gamification of the English as Foreign Language Classroom: Developing the Tools at Home
Professor Fahad Saleh Suleiman Alfallaj Department of English Language, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Biodata: Dr. Fahad Alfallaj is a Professor of Linguistics at the Department of English Language, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. He has published many research papers in journals of international fame and name and examined many MA dissertations and PhD theses. His interests include ESP Course Design, SLA, and pronunciation problems among EFL learners, not to forget Islamic Translation.
Abstract Much of the early EFL education budget in KSA goes into brainstorming, procurement, establishment, and training for greater inclusion of ICT into the learning environment. However, the process is slow, with few schools being digitally enabled and sometimes, even then, not having adequately trained teachers to put the facility to optimum use. It is also widely believed that young learners learn the best with the provision of tactile or kinesthetic learning opportunities, which is discounted with digital learning aids. The current study employed the tactile approach to language learning by developing non-digital language games for middle school EFL learners. A quasi-experimental research design was used. The respondents were one hundred class-eight EFL learners from two Saudi schools. The researcher developed five non-digital tactile language games and tested their efficacy with the learners over two months. The aim was to bring into the loop of effective EFL teaching even those institutions and teachers who have limited access, or none whatsoever, to digital options for the teaching task, and, in the long run, help them develop their resources. The results categorically confirmed the
131 working hypothesis of this research: Participants had higher scores in the follow-up achievement tests and reported that the novelty of the idea engaged them with the learning process more readily in their daily interactions.
Keywords: Non-digital tactile classroom games, technology-enabled games, EFL learning, classroom activities
Introduction Digital presence can be seen in all aspects of the lives of young learners today. The language classroom is no exception, either. More than textbooks and teachers, these learners rely on their smartphones and laptops, whether to access information or to verify it. There have been hundreds of studies in these past few decades of the digital deluge that have positively correlated learning with technology. Studies on digital-based learning have indicated that such learning is positive over traditional language learning (e.g., Chiu, Kao & Reynolds, 2012; Crompton, Lin, Burke & Block, 2018; Go Silk, et al.,2020; Hung, Yang, Hwang & Wang, 2018; Wichadee, S., & Pattanapichet; ). However, an equally large number of studies have established the addictiveness and non-educational input of technology. Beyond the purview of learning, learner engagement with digital sources is almost alarming with entertainment and leisure activities taking precedence over actual learning. Commercially available off-the-shelf games are designed with fun and entertainment at the center rather than learning (Hollins & Whitton, 2011). In Saudi Arabia, English is taught as a foreign language, and the medium of education remains Arabic in all state schools (Alfallaj & Al-Ahdal, 2017). Computer games, on the other hand, are mostly available in English, and that is also the language in which they are played by the Arabic speaking young people (Al-Ahdal, 2020). In this context, it can be stated that these games provide a platform for autonomous learning of English beyond the classroom. Studies have also focused on the interaction afforded by L2 games where linguistically varied players get to interact in real-time, for instance, the highly popular game, PUBG. Cooperation is fostered by such games, in addition to, the spirit of helping the co-gamers by translating content in one's mother tongue into that of the co-player. All these are fine. Yet, the question that needs to be posed is how we as teachers accommodate the particular curricular and learning demands in the unstructured ‒ though the authentic ‒ communicative world of the games. Digital games cannot, for the most part, be customized to suit the specific needs of learners. Where they can be customized, the process is intensive in terms of money and workforce needed for it.
132 Moreover, the language interaction platform offered by digital games is, for the most part, unstructured, unformatted, and informal. They are designed with a particular user and ability in mind; and, as a result, have a limited learning scope as compared to the traditional learner- teacher approach where both learners and teachers are free to modify the learning process during the class. For instance, anytime the teacher feels there is a digression from learning objectives (which are charted out in previously prepared lesson plans), they can redirect the learners. Nonetheless, this is not possible with most computer-based learning opportunities as it is by default, a platform designed to exclude the teacher or to presuppose the absence of the teacher. Technology today has become an end in itself even in our classrooms (especially so in Saudi Arabia), whereas the ideal state was for it to be a means for the achievement of the learning objectives (Al-Ahdal & Shariq, 2019). There can be no two arguments about the fact that technology can be a useful teaching tool, yet whether it is necessary is undoubtedly doubtful. A few decades ago, technology was, to no small extent, a great tool, as individuals had limited or no access to it, and even the most elementary of aids, such as stock videos and audios, were a source of great joy for the learners. Even then, education was not dependent on technology (whatever little was available). Today, however, our learners are already struggling with a sea of data and information unwittingly bombarded at all internet users (thanks to the pro-active initiative of site designers). Given such facts, however, raises a lot many doubts as to the efficacy of informatics bombardments, particularly about learner engagement and class involvement. As is quite evident in the current situation in Saudi Arabia, the tool itself has become central to our classrooms rather than learning. Teacher development, learner participation, delivery of course content, and everything else in the language arena has become inextricably and insanely focused on technology and only secondarily on learning. Organizational pressures to integrate ICT into the curriculum have further intensified the technology rush: The tool is selected first, and then a lesson is planned around it. Critical learning elements, collaboration, communication, lateral thinking skills, creativity, the very lifeblood of the language class have all taken a back seat. Our undue obsession with ICT has become a disruptor in the language classroom, as it is superficially imposed upon the syllabus with little thought for connecting it to the curriculum. It is seen as a challenge by the teachers, who are mostly at a loss about the extent of 'blending.' For young EFL learners in schools, using the computer-based learning applications can also be a challenge with problems being encountered in creating accounts, managing passwords, working in groups, and integrating
133 book content with the digital content. They may also be stumped where learning games are highly individualized with no scope for collaborative work. Education ought to be independent of any crutches if we are to bring about a creative, thinking, and innovative generation of language proficient young people.
Theoretical Grounding Early thinkers in learning, such as Vygotsky (1978), and Bettleheim (1987) have emphasized the importance of play in learning, as it helps in parallel problem-solving processes, which may be challenging to do in a traditional set-up. Motivation, an essential factor in other language learning, is positively fostered in a game-based environment, where learners are pitted against one another (Cohen, 1994). Play is, indeed, a mediator between fantasy and reality (Alsina, 2006). Zimmerman (2006) points out that games offer enormous scope for interaction, adherence to rules, healthy conflict, and substantial learning. Karpicke and Roediger (2008) demonstrate the usefulness of games in strengthening the learners' memory, as they engage in 'active retrieval' of information. Scholars like Kapp (2012) and Gerber (2014) have stressed the usefulness of 'edutainment' in learning contexts. One area of language learning, which remains under-explored so far vis-à-vis board games, is language testing. Cerqueiro& Castro (2015) points out that, games can be a great way of testing the learning outcomes in place of traditional tests, where learners are able to guess the kind of questions they are most likely to be asked; and, hence, manage to 'manage' the test. The results of such testing may not reflect their actual language proficiency. FathAlah (2013) is firm in the belief that electronic games are popular with children, for they help them feel in control. However, Liao, Chen & Shih (2019) make a claim that, though computer games can be used for learning in a limited way, their disadvantages can be broad and deep. They cite being physically glued to one place, social isolation, addictiveness, and violence as some of the obvious consequences. Yet another view is presented by Hileh and Ibrahim (2018) who assert that electronic games are particularly helpful in learning for children with emotional problems. The following sub-sections deal with different aspects of digital and non-digital (tactile) game based learning:
Non Digital Game-Based Learning Whereas the effects of digital games on educational process has been extensively researched, little intellectual corpus is available on the non-digital games as learning tools, especially as they enter school. Wangenheim and Schull (2009) hold that educational games help broaden
134 concepts, are great for reinforcement of previously learned information and also help change previous attitudes to particular concepts sought to be taught via the game. Hands-on learning opportunities are greatly favoured by Backlund and Hendrix (2013). As compared to digital games, better achievement of learning objectives was reported with non-digital games in a study by Petri et al (2018).
Digital Game-based Learning Digital Game-Based Learning is essentially computer-based and is targeted to enhance cognitive growth and satisfaction amongst the users. According to Khaleel et al. (2016), it uses games in an academic setting, promoting the man-machine interface but dependent on the precision of electronic applications. Research confirms that gamification can enhance engagement and motivation (Bal, 2019; Hursen & Bas, 2019; Khan, Ahmad, & Malik, 2017; Welbers et al, 2019). As opposed to other computer-based games, game-based learning is an exclusive niche that produces games specifically for educational purposes. They are the means connecting teaching with technology, and yet promoting cognition and providing entertainment at the same time (Braghirolli et al., 2016; De Freitas, Morgan, & Gibson, 2015; Tsai, Tsai, & Lin, 2015). Modern educational technology links the development of learning and cognitive growth to tech-based educational games as intrinsic satisfaction is given a boost when these are used (Astri, Gunarhadi, & Riyadi, 2018; Avdiu, 2019; Zain et al., 2017). However, these games need to continuously adapt themselves to the needs of the school children (Avdiu, 2019; Boghian et al, 2019). Overall learner engagement and commitment are known to be improved with digital game based learning. This is mainly because these digital games simultaneously provide a committed and joyful learning experience (Landers et al., 2015; Villagrasa& Duran, 2013).
Use of Language Games Using games in language learning and teaching offers ample opportunities and exciting possibilities for development (Sykes, 2018). The idea of using digital games in language learning is gaining a wider currency amongst language learners and teachers as well. It is an issue of practicality and pedagogy. Digital game-based teaching is not only accessible in language learning, but this is widely used in the industry and research arenas. The main reason behind its popularity lies in research findings, which have proven, time and again, how this medium of teaching can be successfully applied to improve both learning and motivation in
135 language classes. Various researchers around the world have shown consistently that language learning with the aid of digital games makes an onerous task easy and appealing. With the broader inclusion of digital games in learning environments, the language learning environment has been impacted explicitly in the context of both how educators teach, and students learn. This remarkable change, like the learning processes, has paved the way for a greater acknowledgment and broader acceptance of digital games in language classes. Unlike entertainment games, digital games are mainly focused on learning outcomes. At different levels of play (and the keywords here are different levels), learners learn different problem- solving strategies, which remain long-lasting in their memory. Thus, it stands to reason to state that digital games improve knowledge absorption and retention of the learners. Felicia (2014) notes that teachers will not be able to complete their resumes due to the meaningless data created by digital gaming. The author, nonetheless, introduces the many aspects that render gaming a genuinely-engaging success instrument to educate and prepare in the 21st century, dealing with issues related to health games, language teaching by mobile games, structured education, relaxing, and education. Yet, the challenges faced by digital game developers and educators show equal concern. Reinders (2012) explains how digital games have the potential to engage learners both inside and outside the classroom. Digital games can provide constructivist-learning environments where learners develop their understandings through troubleshooting and exploration. They can create a chance for players to enter immersive worlds. These games offer purposeful contexts not just for active skills that can be applied to the real world but also for working with other people in/towards the achievement of shared goals (De-Marcos et al, 2014). From behaviorist drill-and-practice games to constructivist learning environments, digital games furnish students with opportunities for collaborative problem-solving, as well as, for learning from their experiences (de Freitas, 2006; de-Marcos, et al, 2016; Jagušt, Botički, & So, 2018; Reyes, De Vera & Medriano,2018; Tóth & Tóvölgyi, 2016; Zainuddin, 2018). According to Yildirim (2017), digital games have a great impact on learning the English language in a natural relaxed comfortable and exciting way. Different studies have come up with different arguments in principle for the learning power of digital games, but experimental investigations are rare (Gee, 2003). A majority of the teaching community aver that, digital games occupy more and more of the time and interest of the learners. They are likely to distract learners from the learning objectives. Sometimes teachers may fail to apply exact purposes of learning utilizing digital games, which may lead to slow learning. Poorly designed digital games may lead to disengagement and confusion among
136 learners, too. There is always a chance of overstimulation or addiction while learning languages with the aid of digital games. Digital games replace other learning activities, such as hands-on experiments and simulations in language classes. The availability of tools and technology during language sessions is one of the most significant limitations in digital games. This is a situation one is often made to encounter at schools, especially in Saudi Arabia. Digital games, like any other teaching aid, have many advantages and disadvantages, depending on how they are put to use in the classroom. Their impact is immense on both teachers and students, as technology is intruding into the human realm, taking over many of the functions and roles that had hitherto been exclusive to humanity. Some studies claim that digital games in language learning contribute to the development of memory of the learners, making it easier for them to learn and relate content than was done by reading or watching a lecture. This claim has been questioned, however. Research shows that the inclusion of digital games in language learning significantly influences the language-learning processes. For instance, Wichadee and Pattanapichet (2018) reported that digital gaming as an intervention resulted in students' higher and better performance and motivation in language learning. According to Crompton et al. (2018), digital gaming is a useful means of engaging school children in constructive language learning. Students also reported a positive experience in engagement with learning through digital gaming, such as the feeling of being involved in learning, of being active in the learning process, and of increasingly perceived challenge (Grimley, Green, Nilsen, Thompson & Tomes, 2011). Such games even play an essential role in informally improving language learning (Godwin-Jones, (2014). However, detractors of this strategy assume that, the immediate feedback and high speed at which the games move plays tricks with learners' attention span as they expect the same responses from all aspects of education, and end up facing frustration when they do not find it. This school of thought holds that games have passive impact, and that too only if the teacher in the language classroom uses it. According Tsai & Tsai (2018), digital games may impact academic achievement negatively, as when used very often in classrooms, leading to learning disorders among the peer group like negligence of homework, waste of time, health disorders, and even escaping from classes. Increased and unsupervised use of digital games in language learning classes may lead to behavioral and psychological problems among users, causing other larger issues, especially at social levels. In other words, there is clear evidence regarding the impact of these digital games; for example, lack of physical activity may result in laziness and lethargy among learners in language classrooms. As Poerantz and Bell (2007) point out, the use-based and communicative aspects of language that we would like our EFL learners to
137 pick are not reinforced sufficiently by digital gaming though it does introduce the element of fun in the classroom. Kramsch (2009) asserts that second or foreign language learners ought to have the same degree of freedom with language use as native speakers if they are to benefit from any activity. Where commercially available off-the-shelf games may not fulfill the learning aims, specially designed games (for lack of sufficient investment) do lack the sophistication and glamour of the former, making the whole idea of language learning a bit too visible to the learners. This factor immediately acts as a demotivator (Marquez et al, 2019). Popular games like GTA (Grand Theft Auto) and even PUBG offer minimal scope for language use, and one is at a loss if asked to use them in language teaching. Cornillie, Thorne & Desmet (2012) are slightly firm in their belief that it has not be empirically established so far that digital games benefit language learning. Amid all the vast and ultimately confusing literature for and against the use of digital games in language learning, this study discusses in some considerable detail the findings of Godwin- Jones (2014), which provides an overview of the possibilities and challenges in this field. In Godwin-Jones (2014), it all hinges upon the language teacher to decide the 'what' and the 'how' of digitalization to be incorporated in the language classroom.
Overview of the Study and its Significance In the recent decades, there has been a gradual but certain movement of the teaching stage to the digital platform given its high acceptance by learners who are born in the technology age, and its great adaptability to user needs. However, heterogenous grouping of learners both in terms of technology access and learning style preferences have created the need in sensitive institutions to also encourage pedagogy and materials that cater to the needs of all learners uniformly. Limited resources and inadequate teacher training make it imperative for teachers in the non-native speaking environments of English to be armed with the most essential tools rather than relying only on technology to make their classes a success. In this paradigm, talking of digitizing education can appear as a cruel farce. The case of KSA is somewhat similar: Given the late exposure to English and, in fact, English not being the medium of instruction in state-run schools and it is introduced in upper primary, resorting to technology alone to fulfil learning objectives is instead a lame attempt to do the impossible. Technology must not become an end in itself, with teachers engaged in a crazy rush to meet 'targets' of lesson plans developed around technology. Instead, the need of the hour is to empower the language classroom with teachers and learners collaborating in developing tools that best suit their needs. Generally, this study aims to assess the effectiveness of non-digital gamification for
138 EFL learners. It specifically aims to: (1) Compare the pre-test and post-test scores of the two groups of respondents before and after their exposure to non-digital gamification; (2) Ascertain the post-intervention attitude scores of the experimental group after their exposure to non- digital gamification.
Research Context and Justification With growing digitization of Saudi classrooms, technology has registered a larger presence from schools to universities. Lessons, assignments and sometimes, activities are undertaken to be executed and submitted in the soft medium. However, there are certain obstacles that prevent uniform implementation of these changes. Talking of schools, some disadvantaged children are always to be found in urban region schools with little or no access to technological devices or poor guidance at home to assist them with the completion of the tasks. These are few in numbers, nonetheless, these children are liable to suffer not only academically, but also, psychologically at not being at par with their peers. Where the majority of enrolled students do have technology access and help at home, the over exposure to these devices has caused the young learners to be indifferent to the pedagogical changes. Teachers report difficulty in engaging these learners for whom there is no novelty in the concept. In the rural areas, these numbers see marked escalation. Both economically and technologically, these rural regions lag far behind their city counterparts. Teachers in these regions are also not adequately trained, equipped or aware of the technological tools that can be employed. Infrastructural shortcomings in the rural regions, including poor or very slow net connectivity, rule out use of technological aids. In these circumstances, teachers need to engage in a great deal of improvisation and manage with locally available materials.
Research Design The study employed quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test research. It is a research design in which the same dependent variable is measured in one group of participants before (pre-test) and after (post-test) treatment is administered. In this study, the experimental research spread over two months, with 40-minute sessions, five times a week. Minimal formal instruction was used during this period, and the teacher was requested not to interrupt or correct the learners while they played the games. However, if they sought the teacher's help, it was readily offered. At the end of each session, the teacher took a few minutes to clarify the language rules, which s/he felt deserved discussion as a result of their observation of the game activity.
139 Research Participants: Rationale behind selection English is taught as a foreign language in KSA. It is first introduced at the phonetic and alphabet level to schoolchildren in grade four. The beginner level learners are taught using a variety of learning materials which include flashcards, simple puzzles, colouring and drawing activities and short audio-visual clips. As per the curriculum implemented throughout Arabic medium schools, it is only by class eight that learners settle with sentence construction and the basic grammatical components. Thus, learners of this stage are best suited to introduce language games given their learning input and ability to work with peers as the researcher’s teaching experience showed that young learner learn best in a collaborative environment where they also have the freedom to communicate in the mother tongue. The study chose only those components to base games upon which were already introduced to the learners. The language games used were a secondary reinforcement aid. The respondents were one hundred class-eight EFL learners from two Saudi schools. All were male EFL learners of Hakeem Bin Hezam School, Qassim, KSA. The median age of the participants was 12.6 years, all the participants had been at the same school for at least three years and with about six years of EFL exposure. Using the Raosoft (http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html) sample size calculator set with a 5% margin of error, confidence level of 95%, and 50% response distribution, the sampling size of 100 was generated. After identifying the sample size, the systematic sampling technique was used to determine the respondent representation of the study. The sampling interval of 3 was used. The respondents were requested to participate in the study. Voluntary participation and confidentiality were observed.
Questionnaire and Analysis In addition, a post-test questionnaire was administered to the EG participants so as to gauge the success of the pedagogy by measuring the participants' attitude to educational games in language learning. The original questionnaire was in Arabic (to make it easier for them to answer), but a translated version is reproduced here. Responses to the questions were sought on the Likert Scale grid of 1 to 5, wherein one represents 'strongly agree' while 5 'strongly disagree' in the context of the language games. It may be noted here that all the language classes were not devoted to this activity, and during the other periods, the teachers were free to teach as they wished.
140 Materials and Games How the Games were developed: The teaching objectives were identified for each of the five components that were sought to be reinforced via the games. Textual materials, exercises at the end of lessons and supportive workbooks were consulted to keep the games centred or closely connected to these. We kept one principle in mind while developing the games: They were meant to simplify the learning process. It was also ensured that the games looked sufficiently challenging and attractive at the same time. Since peer participation was part of the learning experience, the researcher designed the games with the communicative potential in mind. Participants were encouraged to interact in English as far as possible and call for the teacher’s assistance if need be. This was not a new practice for the participants as similar behaviours are encouraged in their regular EFL classes. Finally, a sufficiently large number of materials was prepared to keep up the novelty value and richness of learning, all games were always available for after-class use throughout the duration of the experiment. The common aim behind the games was to get the participants to use language. Here is a brief description of the games:
Game 1: Idioms, Snakes, and Ladders: This was a dice linked board game that could be played by two or more players. Every time a player encountered a snake or a ladder, he had to correctly tell the meaning of an idiom (written on one side of 4X4 cards with purpose on the reverse) to escape the snake or get ahead using the ladder.
Game 2: Needle in the Haystack: Using a two-minute hourglass, a pair of learners had to pick any of the twenty cards that bore a letter grid, and needed to locate as many words hidden in the grid as they could only in two minutes. Each card carried words that are somehow related. For instance, words related to things seen in a supermarket or at an airport.
Game 3: Adjective Dominoes: This was a group activity with the class divided into two. Each side was to throw a giant dice that had adjectives instead of numbers on its faces. After throwing the dice thrice, the team had to arrange the articles in the right order within the twenty seconds allowed.
Game 4: Jumbled Sentences: This was a pair activity in which a set of ten cards bearing half- sentences each had to be arranged to form complete, meaningful sentences.
141 Game 5: Match the Picture: This was a single game that required the learner to match sentences on different cards with the relevant picture, all of which were depicted on a large board.
Results and Discussion This study used a quasi-experimental design as prior to the intervention, data on the impact of tactile language games on EFL learning was not available. Moreover, administrative and curricular compulsions ruled out a fully experimental framework. Internal validity of the intervention was not a matter of concern as the experimental and control groups shared the same baseline in terms of age, gender, years at school, continuity at the same school, EFL learning experience. Since the effect of tactile games on language learning was the subject area of the study, the treatment condition was not random, and therefore the quasi-experimental design was favoured. Learning achievement in the five components sought to be taught and reinforced using our games were idioms, spelling, adjectives, sentence formation, and comprehension. It may be noted that these were also shown to the learner group in their other language classes every week. During these different periods, the teacher observed greater motivation, participation, and learning among the learners, which she attributed to the positive impact of the games.
Pre and Post Intervention Achievement Tests The standard achievement tests up to middle school EFL in Arabic medium schools in KSA is largely communicative. It is designed to test the four language skills with a section each devoted to speaking, listening, reading and writing. Based on the communicative approach to language learning, these tests are designed by experts in the field and hence, generally accepted as valid measures of EFL learning. To make comparison of pre and post tests a reliable measure of progress or otherwise of the participants, these were used in both pre and post stages of intervention. The average achievement scores in the pre-test for the entire grade eight rested at 28.09% with sample standard deviation for the population (N=166) at 1.6, which shows that the individual scores were not majorly spread out. In other words, all the participants exhibited similar proficiency. In student-teacher interactions before the intervention, learners of this grade always complained of facing problems with the following learning issues: motivation, learner participation, recall of content, comprehension, and retention of knowledge. The teachers, on their part, reported disinterest given the poor learner feedback, inability to integrate technology (like an overhead projector) into the lessons, and most of all, having to repeat previous
142 experiences as the retention and recall of the learners was extremely poor. At the end of the experimental period, there was a drastic change in the performance of the EG, while the other group (CG) showed more or less the same results as before. The average achievement scores of the CG came to 27.3%, with sample standard deviation for the population (N=126) at 2.01 and Mode value of 17 which is almost unchanged from the pre-test value, which again reflects similar individual scores of this group. The EG, however, far outperformed the CG, as their average scores were calculated at 49.32%, with a low sample standard deviation at 0.3, an improved Mode value of 31, indicating that the entire group benefitted almost uniformly from the intervention. As stated earlier, their teacher reported much improvement in the motivation, class participation, recall, and retention of this group. This established the fact that the learners gained from the inclusion of non-digital games in language learning.
Table 1: Central tendencies of Pre- and Post-Test Achievement Score of CG and EG
Group Pre-test mean Pre-test mode Post-test mean Post-test mode CG 28.09% 18 27.3% 17 EG 28.09% 17 49.32% 31
The above representation clearly shows how the achievement level of the CG is more or less uniform at below 30% through the entire period of two months. During this time, they were taught the same curricular content as the EG, also the teachers used the lecture method with some inclusion of digital content as is the ongoing practice. The EG, too, were getting some exposure (averaging 90 minutes per week) to the previous methodology, as non-digital games were used only for 45 minutes a day with this group through the experiment period. Feedback on the attitude questionnaire also helped arrive at certain conclusions. Table 2 below depicts the responses of the EG (N=40). But first a note on the questionnaire and its validity. We used the inferential statistical tool, t-test on the post-test mean to establish whether learning of foreign language improved with educational games. At 5% level of significance the critical level of t is 1.98 and at 0.01 level the critical value of t is 2.61. Our computed value 241.76 is greater than the critical values. As a result, with 1% level of confidence, we can reject the null hypothesis and say that educational games will help in the learning of a foreign language. Table 2: t-test to assess the difference between the groups in learning of foreign languages p≥0.01
143 The Questionnaire and its Validation The questionnaire was validated by two eminent experts in the field of ELT and further checked for leading, confusing or weak questions by a psychometrician. A modified questionnaire based on their suggestions was finalised with ten items. The questionnaire was not pilot tested because it measured learners’ attitudes after the intervention, tactile language
Post-test Group N SD df t value Significance mean Control group 126 27.3 2.01 164 241.76** 0.000 Experimental Group 40 49.32 0.03 games, which is not a regular exposure for them.
Table 3. Feedback on the attitude questionnaire N Question Strongly Somewhat Neither Somewhat Strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree not disagree 1 Language games helped me 29 7 3 1 0 learn what was previously a challenge for me 2 When my teacher taught the 0 0 0 0 40 same things using chalkboard, I found my language classes more interesting 3 Working with a partner made 31 5 3 1 0 learning fun 4 I feel the games gave me great 28 6 3 3 0 opportunity to learn language autonomously 5 The games helped me 36 4 0 0 0 remember language rules which I previously forgot when the teacher did them in class 6 I found idioms easy to do when 24 7 5 3 1 we used the Snakes and Ladders game in class 7 Spellings are easier to learn by 2 3 8 9 18 mugging them up 8 When we played the language 35 4 1 0 0 games, we also learnt new ways of using what we learnt in the class 9 I feel I have learnt more using 33 7 0 0 0 the games than I do in my regular class
144 10 I felt motivated before the class 40 0 0 0 0 as the idea of playing a language game appealed to me immensely
EG Attitude Questionnaire Responses 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Strongly agree Somewhat agree Neither agree not disagree Somewhat disagree Strongly disagree
Figure 1. Graphical representation of the Attitude of the Experimental Group Questionnaire
The questionnaire responses were very interesting, pointing out the problem areas in the language class of these learners. It is especially notable that much congruity exists in the participants' responses as the frequency of occurrence of response is highly concentrated, with the lowest reading being 18 for Q 7. Games acted as a great motivating factor for these learners (Q10) as hands-on learning experience is maximized in a game-based environment. All 40 participants reported high levels of motivation in the new environment. In contrast, the previous experience of learning by mugging (Q 7) was perceived negatively by the participants. Having something to do enhanced the learning experience of the group, as the participants unanimously reported that learning was weak in the teacher-centered classroom
145 (Q 2). This response also concurs with the answer to Q 4 about autonomy as a contributing factor in learning. Twenty-eight participants reported that the independence offered by tactile games was in itself a learning opportunity. As pointed out earlier, all the language classes were not used for language games for the EG. As a tool in Blended Learning, the inclusion of such games can be a fantastic impetus for forming new connections in the brains of the learners. This was proved by the response to Q 8, whereas many as 35 participants reported being able to use their classroom knowledge critically when they played the games. Collaboration and cooperation, two aims of all learning, are also fostered by these games. In response to Q 3 to which a high number of participants reported that partnering with a peer made learning fun for them. The inappropriate usage of Electronic GBL in the classroom is manifested with the insufficient time in the execution of a given task, and repressed student engagement (Boghian et al., 2019). Nonetheless, the work has found that GBL supports a constructive outlook towards learning, helps sustain and self-built education, positively enables students to think critically; facilitates learning involvement; and supports the creation of social and cognitive skills (Hamari et al., 2016). Recently, gamification has been questioned a lot (Sung & Hwang, 2013). Gamification cannot, therefore, benefit consumers, or contribute to participation issues when fully incorporated into a program (Ninaus et al., 2019). Efficient resources to improve engagement and understanding are game components. The effect of game components on consumer interaction, however, depends on the various goals of gamification schemes (Hung et al., 2018). Khaleel et al. (2016) found out that the problems and challenges with the implementation of gamification are the absence of game elements with a complete description of the learning material, the representation of learning content that has an impact on the pace with which knowledge is understood.
Conclusion This study employed the tactile approach to language learning through the development of non-digital language games for middle school EFL students in KSA. The results confirmed the working hypothesis of this research in category that, participants had higher scores in the follow-up performance tests, and that they were more readily involved in their daily interactions as a result of the new idea. This shows that Face-to-face communication is still advantageous because it incorporates several forms of learning, such as publishing, reading, chatting, seminars, tasks, community activity, video clips, presentations, and activities.
146 Recommendations From the conclusions we arrived at, it may be recommended that language teachers be encouraged to design games (non-digital) in collaboration with learners so that the specific learning needs are to be met more efficiently. To begin with, commercially available off-the- shelf language games, such as Scrabble or Crossword, can act as a good starting point. Resource centers may be created across schools to provide teachers with a platform for the exchange of innovative ideas on tactile games for learners with varied needs. The researcher would like to conclude by citing the pertinent example of the British Council, the pioneer in training learners and trainers in the English language with minimal use of technology but the best results. Being great teachers is not about technological sophistication, but it is about innovating our learners to cover new milestones in language learning.
Limitations of the Study The researcher feels that longer duration and a more significant number of participants in the experiment would have yielded results with broader applicability, and more so with the small number of participants. Further, the research needs to be repeated with girls (this was an all- boys attempt), as the genders may perform differently with the same teaching aids. Likewise, it ought to be tried out with different age groups and proficiency levels of learners.
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152 A study of Pragmatic Failure among Jordanian EFL Learners
Murad Al Kayed Al-Balqa Applied University/ Ajloun University College/ Department of English language and literature [email protected]
Biodata: Murad Al Kayed holds a Ph.D. in linguistics from the University of Jordan. He is an assistant prefossor at Al Balqa Applied University/ Ajloun University College since 2019. He is interested in different fields in linguistics, such as pragmatics, sociolinguistics, EFL, psycholinguistics, and discourse analysis.
Abstract The aim of this study is to shed light on the phenomenon of pragmatic failure committed by Jordanian EFL learners in the production of language functions/speech acts. The sample of the study consists of 62 undergraduate students studying English language and literature at Al Balqa Applied University/Ajloun University College. The data were collected using a written Discourse Completion Task (DCT), which includes six situations that handle six language functions: accepting compliments, thanking, expressing sympathy, asking for permission, expressing condolence, and invitation. The findings of the study show that undergraduate students fail to use appropriate socio-pragmatic features concerning the production of language functions, which result in what is called "pragmatic failure". The results of the study showed that Jordanian undergraduates committed pragmatic failure with an average percentage of 36%. Besides, the study found out that cultural differences, pragmatic transfer, and lack of exposure to authentic data were the main sources of pragmatic failure committed by Jordanian undergraduate students.
Keywords: pragmatics; language functions; pragmatic failure, EFL, speech act
153 Introduction Overview A successful language learner should master linguistic knowledge of the foreign language as well as the ability to produce and understand utterances that are appropriate to the relevant context (Canale 1983). The mastery of linguistic knowledge does not guarantee that the language learner will succeed in using the language. Language learners with sufficient knowledge of English vocabulary and grammar may fail in communication with foreigners (Al-Ghamdi, Almansoob & Alrefaee, 2019). Their failure may not be due to mistakes on grammar or vocabulary, but it could be a result of the violation of certain pragmatic principles or deviation from the conventions of the target culture. This has been investigated by many linguists; for instance, Dash (2004) proposed that EFL learners should be sensitive to the culture of the target language, to communication failure. Thomas (1983) proposes the notion of “pragmatic failure” which often causes a serious problem in communication. Pragmatic failure is defined as “the inability to use language effectively and to understand what is meant by what is said” (Thomas 1983: 94). According to Thomas, pragmatic failure is classified into two groups: pragmalinguistic failure and socio-pragmatic failure. The former refers to the inability to use language functions appropriately, while the latter arises when learners use target language improperly within the context of the target language’s cultural background.
Questions of the study The current paper aims to answer the following questions: • What are the pragmatic failures that Jordanian undergraduate students commit when they convey some language functions? • What are the reasons behind such pragmatic failure?
Operational definitions: • EFL: undergraduate students who were studying English language and literature at Al Balqa Applied University/ Ajloun University College. • Language functions: include six speech acts: accepting compliments, thanking, expressing sympathy, asking for permission, expressing condolence, and invitation.
154 Literature Review Many studies have been conducted on pragmatic failure in cross-cultural communication. For example, Shi (2014) investigated the pragmatic failure committed by Chinese-English interpreters. The findings of the study showed that the knowledge of pragmatic differences between English and Chinese is essential for competent interpreters to achieve their goals. Consequently, interpreters need to be aware of such socio-pragmatic differences. For example, the typical Chinese saying of greeting: ‘where are you going’ is beyond understanding for the people from English-speaking countries, who think their privacy cannot be offended. In another study, Muir & Xu (2011) explored the pragmatic failure in the writing of EFL Chinese learners. The sample of the study consisted of 34 students’ short in-class compositions. The study found out that pragmatic failure occurred because of L1 pragmatic transfer and students’ limited language proficiency. Based on these results, several solutions were suggested, such as enhancement of awareness of distinguishing the target language with L1 and the appropriate in-class introduction of target language pragmatic knowledge and culture. Zheng & Huang (2010) studied the pragmatic competence of college English learners in China. This research tackled the pragmatic failures committed by English learners in cross-cultural communication. The data were collected using questionnaires and interviews. The study proposed four causes of the pragmatic failures: Foreigners’ tolerance towards Chinese speakers’ pragmatic failure, negative pragmatic transfer, teaching-induced errors, and cultural differences. The study also suggested improving the pragmatic competence of students by creating a culture-rich learning environment, designing a cultural syllabus, introducing pragmatic knowledge, developing teachers’ competence, and providing more authentic teaching materials. Farghel & Borini (1997) explored the pragma-religious failure in the translation of 10 Arabic religious politeness formulas into English. These formulas were taken from Mahfouz's novel Awlaad Haaritna. Twenty M.A. students translated these formulas to English, and six native speakers evaluated the translation of the participants and Stewart’s rendition of Mahfouz’s novel. The findings of the study showed that some Arabic religious formulas could be translated into the corresponding English religious formulas. However, many Arabic religious expressions do not have equivalent religious expressions in English. The study found out that literal translation and paraphrase were the main reasons for the failure of translating the Arabic religious formulas into English. The study recommended translators to use English formulaic expressions even if they do not bear religious meaning.
155 Al-Hindawi et al. (2015) examined the pragmatic failure committed by Iraqi EFL students. The study used a questionnaire, which consisted of twenty situations to collect data from first- year and fourth-year University EFL students. These situations were built to test the ability of students to use appropriate responses to real-life communicative situations. The study concluded that Iraqi EFL learners’ pragmatic performance is generally poor since the average pragmatic success they recorded amounts to only 55.75%. The study finds that cultural differences, syllabi problems, negative pragmatic transfer, and lack of exposure to native speakers of English were the main reasons behind such failures. Al Saidi & Rashid (2015) investigated the socio-pragmatic failure in the English/Arabic translation of different examples taken from many published works, such as Quranic and biblical translation and extracts from newspaper headlines and literature. The study found out that the socio-pragmatic failure occurs because translators depend on literal translation, forgetting the importance of the communicative function of utterance, which is implicit at the socio-pragmatic level. The paper concluded that translators should have adequate cultural, linguistic and pragmatic competences to overcome pragmatic failure. Althigafi (2017) explored pragmatic failure committed by Saudi Arabic speakers of English in performing the speech act of compliment response. The results of the study revealed that Saudi EFL learners committed pragmatic failure in many of the given situations because of using unacceptable sociocultural norms of the target language. The study also found out that literal translation from L1 into English was the main reason for pragmatic failure. The study suggested that exposure to authentic data like movies may help learners to increase their pragmatic awareness. Ghazzoul (2019) investigated pragmatic failure in polite requests and invitations committed by Arab participants. The sample of the study consisted of 16 participants divided into two groups: Eleven were Arab EFL students in the UK, and five were UK citizens. The results of the study showed that Arab EFL students did not produce target-like requests and invitations because of cultural differences between Arabic and British culture. In Arabic culture, speakers used directness to show generosity. However, British people depend on indirect strategies to express invitations and requests. The study found that EFL students saw indirectness as a lack of hospitality in invitations, so they tended to use direct strategies to perform invitations and requests, which cause pragmatic failure. Yasser, Anita & Najeeb (2020) investigated the speech act of refusals made by Yemeni EFL learners’ Arabic native speakers and English native speakers. The results of the study showed
156 an influence of Arabic language on EFL learners. For example, Yemeni EFL learners tended to use the cultural norms of their L1 pragmatic norms in cross cultural communicating. Based on the literature reviewed above, it is clear that many studies had addressed pragmatic failure committed by EFL. However, there are still numerous contexts to be explored. Thus, the present study attempts to investigate pragmatic failure committed by EFL learners in the Jordanian context. It also explores the main reasons for such pragmatic failures.
Methods Participants The participants were 62 students studying English language and literature at Al Balqa Applied University. The participants were selected randomly from second-year students from different social backgrounds.
Instruments The data for the present study were collected using a written Discourse Completion Test (DCT). A DCT consists of several items that typically include a description of speech act situations followed by incomplete discourse sequences that the participants are asked to complete. The present DCT is an open-ended one that includes six situations addressing six language functions: accepting compliments, thanking, expressing sympathy, asking for permission, expressing condolence, and invitation. Each situation that was written in English provides a real-life communicative context (see appendix 1). These DCTs were handed out at Al Balqa Applied University/ Ajloun University College on the 10th of December, 2018. It is worth noting that this method of collecting data was chosen because it is widely used in cross- cultural pragmatic studies, and it allows the researchers to collect a large amount of data in a short time (Beebe et al., 1990).
Procedure Before giving the DCT to the participants, the researcher told them that the current DCT tests their pragmatic competence. The researcher explained to the participants the meaning of pragmatic competence and asked them to write down the appropriate responses according to their understanding in English. Participants were given 5 to 10 minutes to complete the DCT. They were also allowed to ask questions for clarification. It is worth noting that the pragmatic competence tested in the DCT was not based on the content of any course in the program. Results and Discussion
157 This section provides the main results concerning the participants’ pragmatic failure in performing six types of language functions: accepting compliments, thanking, expressing sympathy, asking for permission, expressing condolence, and invitation. Moreover, this section analyzes these results in addition to the main reasons of the pragmatic failure.
Pragmatic failure in different language functions The results of the study showed that only four participants provided appropriate responses to all situations in the DCT. On the other hand, the other 58 participants committed different types of errors. The average percentage of pragmatic failure was around 36 %. This result indicated that their pragmatic competence is still emerging, and for some functions, the failure rate was higher. The analysis of pragmatic failure committed concerning the use of the six language functions (see table 1) is discussed below.
Table 1. Pragmatic failure committed by Jordanian EFL participants Language function type Number of participants percentage Accepting compliments 26 41.9% Thanking 14 22.6% Asking for permission 12 16.1% Expressing sympathy 4 6.5% Expressing condolence 32 51.6% Invitation 46 74.2%
Pragmatic failure in accepting compliments: The analysis of the responses of participants on the first situation which states that "Suppose that your friend admires your new car, you would respond to his/her compliment by saying______" revealed that 26 participants committed pragmatic failure with an average of 41.9%. Ten participants responded to this situation using "Please, you can take it". Four participants used "Your eyes are beautiful". Eight participants used "May God protect you". Four participants used the form "May God make you happy". The source of the pragmatic failure in the previous examples comes from cultural differences between Arabic and English and pragmatic transfer. Cultural differences are clear regarding the use of the form “Please, you can take it”. It is a convention among Jordanians if someone admires something you own, you would invite him or her to take it. Jordanians use "You can
158 take" as a symbol of generosity, and they know that it cannot be understood. However, this form leads to misunderstanding if it is said to a native speaker of English who usually accepts compliments by saying "thank you". If you accept a native English speaker compliment by saying "you can take it", he or she will understand it literally and will take it, something that causes embarrassment to the speaker and the addressee. Pragmatic transfer is the reason behind the use of such forms, such as “May God protect you” and “May God make you happy”. Pragmatic transfer occurs when speakers apply the conventions of their native language to a foreign language. In accepting compliments, Arabs and Jordanians use religious references and forms, and when they transfer these references to English pragmatic failure occurs. The analysis of the data also showed that 36 participants accepted compliments using pragmatically appropriate utterances, such as ‘Thanks!’, ‘thank you’, ‘Do you really think so?’, ‘How nice of you to say that’, and ‘Thanks for noticing!’. The data showed that the most frequent expression used by the participants was ‘thank you’.
Pragmatic failure in expressing thanks: The answers of the second situation which stated "Suppose that your friend gets you a scholarship, you would thank him by saying ______" showed that fourteen participants committed pragmatic failure with an average of 22.6%. Four participants used the form "It's a debt on me". Six participants used the form “I hope you are with me". Four participants used the utterance “I would like to invite you to eat Mansaf". The reason behind the use of "It's a debt on me" and “I hope that you are with me" is that these thanking forms are used in Arabic, and the participants translate these forms to English assuming that they are used in English. Also, cultural differences between Arabic and English are the source of pragmatic failure concerning the use of “I would like to invite you to eat “Mansaf”. It is a tradition in Jordan if you want to thank someone greatly, you would invite him/her to eat “Mansaf” (a traditional dish in Jordan). The data also showed that 48 participants expressed thanks using pragmatically appropriate utterances, such as ‘thanks a million’, ‘thank you so much’, ‘This was very kind of you’, ‘That’s very kind of you. Thank you’, ‘thanks’, ‘I really appreciate everything you’ve done’, and ‘I’m so grateful for your help’.
159 Pragmatic failure in inviting: Analysis of the participants' answers for the third situation, which stated “Suppose that your friend is having dinner at your home. You would invite him to finish his meal by saying______” showed that 46 participants committed pragmatic failure with an average of 74.2%. It is worth noting that the participants asked the researcher to clarify the situation more and he told them “if you invited your friend to lunch and you feel that your friend is not eating that much, you would invite him/her to eat or finish his/her meal by saying….” The data showed that the participants who committed pragmatic failure tended to use imperative structure and repetition. Twenty-eight participants used the form "Eat! Eat! Please”. Ten participants used "Take more! Take more!”. Eight participants used “Continue! Continue! Please". For Jordanians, food is a central part of their culture, and they try to show their hospitality by inviting others to feasts. Thus, when Jordanians invite others to eat, they show their generosity by repeating the invitation more than once, encouraging them to eat, and making sure that their guest is eating. It is a norm in Jordan to insist on the guest to eat more, and sometimes they refill his/her plate even though the guest does not want to eat. This explains why Jordanians committed pragmatic failure in the current situation. They use imperatives and repetition to urge their guest to eat as a sign of hospitality. So, they translate the invitation forms literally from their native language to English. The researcher asked ten native speakers of American English what they would say in this situation. The majority of Americans stated that food is not part of their culture. Americans generally do not encourage guests to eat, and they do not like to be pressured about eating. Besides, if they want to invite a friend to eat, they tended to use questions rather than an imperative statement. The data showed that sixteen participants used appropriate responses to the current situation. Two of the participants used questions, such as ‘do you like the food? Two participants used ‘is lunch ok?’ Ten participants stated that they do not feel it is necessary to say anything in this situation. Saying nothing in this context is considered pragmatically appropriate.
Pragmatic failure in asking for permission: The analysis of the responses of the fourth situation which stated “Suppose that you are sitting with your friend at the café and you want to leave, you would say ______” showed that twelve participants commit pragmatic failure with an average of 16.1%. These participants
160 used the form "After your permission". The incorrect use of this form comes from the literal translation of the Arabic formula baăd ʔiðnak ‘excuse me’. The analysis of data revealed that 50 participants used appropriate utterances to ask for permission, such as ‘anyway, I want to leave’, ‘I have to head off soon’, ‘I've had a lot of fun hanging out with you but I think I need to go home now.’, and ‘Hey, it was great seeing you, I'm going to head out now’.
Pragmatic failure in expressing sympathy: The data showed that only four participants pragmatically failed to respond appropriately to the fifth situation which stated: "Suppose that you visit your friend after recovery from surgery, you would say to him______". These participants used the form "You are like a horse". The meaning of this simile is that the patient is as strong as a horse. This simile is used frequently by Jordanians to reassure patients that they enjoy good health. On the other hand, native speakers of English use "As strong as horse/ox" to describe a healthy person, but they do not use it to express sympathy. The inappropriate use of this form by Jordanians causes pragmatic failure. It sounds awkward for native speakers of English to express sympathy by describing him or her as strong as a horse. The data also showed that the majority of participants (58 participants) used pragmatically appropriate utterances to express sympathy, such as ‘I hope you experience a rapid recovery’, ‘I was so sorry to hear about your surgery, but I’m relieved to hear that everything went well’, ‘Thank God that your surgery went successfully’, ‘I’m glad to hear your surgery went well’, and ‘I’m so glad you’re feeling better.’
Pragmatic failure in expressing condolence: Analysis of the participants’ responses for the sixth situation which stated "Suppose that your friend's father passed away, you would say to him ______” showed that 32 participants committed pragmatic failure with an average of 51.6%. Eight participants responded by saying "May God have mercy on him and God compensate you". Six participants used "God bless him”. Two participants used "May God reward". Four participants used the form “The age for you". Two participants used "God forgive him". Six participants used "The end of sadness". The reason for the pragmatic failure in the previous examples comes from the pragmatic transfer of Arabic conventions to English. Participants translated the Arabic forms expressing condolence literally into English. For example, the use of “may God compensate you” is a literal translation of the Arabic religious expression Allah yeăwad ăleakum.
161 The findings of the study showed that 30 participants expressed condolence using pragmatically appropriate utterances, including ‘So sorry to hear of the passing of your father’, ‘My condolences on the passing of your father.’, ‘My condolences to you and your family’, ‘May God give him eternal rest’, ‘I am truly sorry to hear of the loss of your father’, ‘I am truly sorry for your loss’ and ‘I am deeply saddened by the loss of your father’.
Analysis of main sources of pragmatic failure Cultural differences Cultural Differences between English and Arabic in social values, views, habits, and costumes may contribute to pragmatic failure. Thomas (1983) believes that the cultural differences between speakers affect the speakers' pragmatic competence negatively. It is a well-known phenomenon that speakers with different cultural backgrounds may depend on their cultural conventions when they produce L2, leading to misunderstanding and failure in conversation. For example, a large number of participants reply to the first situation “Suppose that you bought a new car, and your friend admires your car. You would say to him ______” with "Please, you can take it". The native English speakers usually accept compliments by saying "Thank you". However, In Jordan, when someone admires some of your belongings, you would return the compliment by saying “You can take it" as a sign of generosity. However, this utterance cannot be taken literally.
Negative pragmatic transfer Pragmatic transfer was defined by Kasper (1992:207) as “the influence exerted by learners’ pragmatic knowledge of languages and cultures other than L2 on their comprehension, production, and acquisition of L2 pragmatic information.” If this pragmatic transfer causes a breakdown in communication, it is called negative pragmatic transfer. While EFL learners communicate with foreigners, they may apply the rules of their source language to the target language. This transfer can lead to misunderstandings or even breakdowns in communication. For example, some participants respond to the third situation “Suppose that your friend is having dinner at your home. You would invite him to finish his meal by saying______” with "Eat! Eat!”. The use of "Eat! Eat!" is a pragmatic failure which is caused by the negative transfer of native cultural rules. In Jordan, it is a convention to insist on other people, especially guests, to eat more by using the imperative structure and repeating the invitation more than once and us. However, native English speakers do not use such a method.
162 Lack of exposure to authentic data Undergraduate students at Al Balqa Applied University do not have many chances to learn English in a natural environment or even to converse with native speakers of English. The knowledge of pragmatic competence and English culture is mainly restricted to English classes and textbooks. Even the textbooks used do not concentrate on the pragmatic and cultural knowledge of English. Moreover, some teaching methods used by some teachers may increase pragmatic failure. Lessons and the exams concentrate on linguistic knowledge (grammar and vocabulary) more than on the socio-pragmatic use of this knowledge. Consequently, students may get the highest marks in the exams, but they commit pragmatic failures in real-life conversation.
Conclusion The current study investigated pragmatic failure committed by Jordanian EFL learners in the production of six language functions: accepting compliments, thanking, expressing sympathy, asking for permission, expressing condolence, and invitation. The findings of the study revealed that Jordanian undergraduates committed pragmatic failure with an average percentage of 36%. The study concluded that cultural differences, pragmatic transfer, and lack of exposure to authentic data were the main sources of pragmatic failure committed by Jordanian undergraduate students. The study recommends teachers, materials and curriculum designers, program managers, etc. to incorporate a stronger focus on pragmatic competence.
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163 Althigafi, Kh. (2017). Pragmatic failure in compliment responses among Saudi speakers of English. Paper presented at the proceedings of 65th ISERD international conference, January 23r-24 in Mecca, Saudi Arabia Beebe, L., Takahashi, T, & Uliss-Weltz, R. (1990). Pragmatic Transfer in ESL Refusals. In Robin Scarcella, Elaine Anderson, & Stephen Krashen (Eds.), Developing Communicative Competence in a Second Language (pp.55–73). New York: Newbury House. Canale, M. (1983. From Communicative Competence to Communicative Language Pedagogy. In Jack Richards & Ritchards Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication (pp. 2- 27). London: Longman. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of the technology press. Dash, P. (2004). Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failure: A Definitional Analysis with Implications for Classroom Teaching. Asian EFL Journal 6(3), 1-17. Retrieved from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/september_04_pd.php Farghal, M. & Borini, A. (1997). Pragmareligious failure in translating Arabic politeness formulas into English: Evidence from Mahfouz’s Awlad Haritna. Multilingua Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 16(1), 77-100. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to language. Boston: Heinle. Ghazzoul, N. (2019). Linguistic and Pragmatic Failure of Arab Learners in Direct Polite Requests and Invitations: A Cross-cultural Study. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 9(2), 223-230 Hymes, D. (1972). On Communicative Competence. In Pride, Holmes, Janet. Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings (99. 269-293). Harmondsworth, Penguin press. Kasper, G. (1992). Pragmatic transfer. Second Language Research, 8 (3), 203-231. Muir, P. (2011). Exploring Pragmatic Failure into the Writing of Young EFL Learners: A Critical Analysis. English Language Teaching. 4(4), 254-261. Shi, X. (2014). On Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failures in C/E Interpretation. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4 (5), 1033-1037. Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 91-112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/4.2.91. Zheng, L. H. (2010). A Study of Chinese EFL Learners’ Pragmatic Failure and the Implications for College English Teaching. Polyglossia, 18, 41-54.
164 Appendix (1) Discourse Completion Task
1. "Suppose that your friend admires your new car, you would respond to his/her compliment by saying______" 2. "Suppose that your friend gets you a scholarship, you would thank him/her by saying ______" 3. “Suppose that your friend is having dinner at your home. You would invite him/her to finish his meal by saying______” 4. “Suppose that you are sitting with your friend at the café and you want to leave, you would say ______” 5. "Suppose that you visit your friend after recovery from surgery, you would say to him/her______". 6. "Suppose that your friend's father passed away, you would say to him/her ______”
165 Standardizing BIPA as an International Program of a Language Policy
Imroatus Solikhah [email protected]
Teguh Budiharso [email protected]
Biodata: Dr. Imroatus Solikhah is a senior lecturer in the English Language Education Program of the Faculty of Humanities and Language of the State Institute of Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Surakarta, Indonesia. Earning a doctorate degree in language education from Universitas Sebelas Maret (UNS) Surakarta, she has been teaching TEFL, EAP, Curriculum and Materials Development, Language Testing and Assessment and Research Methodology in language teaching. Her research interests include curriculum and pedagogy, EAP, Bahasa Indonesia for the Speakers of other Languages (BIPA), and TEFL. She is available in the email: [email protected]
Prof. Dr. Teguh Budiharso is a professor in English language education who has been involved in the English language teaching and research for more than 20 years. His post in the Faculty of Humanities and Language of State Institute of Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Surakarta, Indonesia has served him teaching courses on language teaching, curriculum development, teaching materials, intercultural studies, and research methodology. His recent interest of research includes TEFL, language curriculum, EAP, Teaching Bahasa Indonesia for Speakers of Other Languages (BIPA), academic writing, and intrercultural studies. He can be reached at [email protected].
166 Abstract This study axamines the implementation of Bahasa Indonesia for Speakers of Other Languages (BIPA) from the perspective of an international program. Three research questions to guide the research process are: (1) What features are indicated on the implementation of BIPA?, (2) How do students’ problems appear in the implementation of BIPA?, and (3) How is the readines of BIPA served as an international program?. This study assigned a case study design to which qualitative content analysis was applied to analyze data. This study recruited 17 participants and examined documents such as BIPA curriulum, BIPA textbook and research papers published in various journals as the sources of data. The first techniques to collect data were survey questionnaire and document analysis. To have an-indepth discussion, a 4-hour virtual Focus Group Discussion (FGD), involving foreign students not leaving Indonesia in the pandemic era, teachers, was implemented after the responses on qusetionnaire survey and results of document analysis were thematized by the researchers. Data were analyzed using content analysis and qualitative analysis. Three findings are revealed in this study. First, the general features according to students and teachers consist of seven categories: (1) the learners’ purposes of learning, (2) Teaching materials and teaching methods, (3) Learners problems, (4) Culture and attitude, (5) Basic Knowledge and Skills, (6) Assessment, and (7) Readiness of BIPA as an international program. Second, problems on the implementation of BIPA include: (1) leaners problems, (2) curriculum problems, (3) linguistic problems, and (4) culture and exposure problems. Third, BIPA is short of evidences to perform as an international program, so that revisitation is required to improve BIPA program.
Keywords: second language acquisition, revisitation, BIPA, culture.
Introduction Today, bahasa Indonesia (BI) posts its position as the world’s fourth most populous nation (Read, 2002), and it has been taught throughout the world as a second language (L2). In 2020, BI for the Speakers of Other Languages (henceforth, BIPA) has been served in 135 countries with 420 centers thoughout Asia, America, Australia, Europe and Africa (Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture's Center for Strategy Development and Language Diplomacy or PPSDK, 2018; Solikhah & Budiharso, 2020). It is estimated that there will be 300 million speakers of BI in 2020. At the same year, Indonesians as native speakers of BI who live abroad reach 4,463,950 people (PPSDK, 2020).
167 In the home country, BI has been taught to foreign students through a one-year scholarship program under the label of Darmasiswa (students dedication). Darmasiswa scholarship, is offered to foreign students whose countries have a diplomatic relation with Indonesia wanting to learn BI in Indonesian universities for a one-year stay (Hamied & Mustafa, 2019). Under the language policy BIPA Going Global, the PPSDK has extended BIPA program, assigning BIPA centers in famous universties in home country, and develop BIPA centers overseas (PPSDK, 2020; Hamied & Mustafa, 2019). It looks that with BI Going Global, in the current progress has received its status of BI as a true a foreign language and the approach to operate will indicate BI as an L2. This paper investigates how BIPA has been prepared its readiness in the area of Teaching Indonesian as a Foreign Language (TIFL). Being global, BIPA requires proficient instructors, codification of expertise in the BIPA, considerable research to developing BIPA training, and funding system (Hamied & Mustafa, 2019; Isik, 2008). In the implementation that follows, PPSDK has developed the syllabus, textbook, teaching training, and innovative learning experience fulfilness (PPSDK, 2020). However, the appropriateness of the contents and their goals of program to meet the learning outcomes of the learners seems problematic (Budiharso & Arbain, 2019; Solikhah, 2020a). Researches in the implementation of BIPA vary from the teaching attributes to the substance of TIFL as an international program. In general, the researches show that BIPA learners face problems on the limitation of vocabulary and grammar mastery that affect the fluency to use BI for oral and written purposes (Saddhono, 2018; Eriyanti, 2020; Solikhah, 2020b). Obstacles also exist of learners’ understanding of culture incurred in the teaching materials. The culture scopes in the course-books of BIPA is too general different from the specific culture in the practical uses in the classroom and the environment society (Pauuw, 2012). Indonesia has varieties of culture as manifested in the 700 vernaculairs (Pauuw, 2012) that make BIPA learners to have the cultural shocks to use BI for the social purposes (Hamied & Mustafa, 2019; Saddhono, 2018). In addition, the goals and motivations of the BIPA learners studying in various universities in Indonesia indicate disgreements with as what to expect as an academic purpose and that teaching properties to serve do not well approve the requisires of an L2 teaching. Research by Suyitno (2007) and Read (2002) seems to suggest the objectives of learning BI by foreign speakers are twofold: academic and culture. The learners want to increase knowledge of Indonesian language and literature, practical goals directed at school, college needs, research, knowing Indonesian culture, work needs in Indonesia, and others. In addition,
168 BIPA teaching is also intended to the tool of soft diplomacy (PPSDK, 2019). BIPA learning material generally revolves the spoken BI, tailored to the needs of speakers based on their level of ability. Examples of BIPA learning materials are simple dialogues, greeting greetings, asking for information, asking for time, rejecting and accepting invitations, each of which is practical (Widhayani, 2019; Suparsa, et al, 2017). In addition, written materials to serve writing ability has not been prepared to the academic discourse. However, testimony from some students and teachers do not support this indication fully. Drawing from the perspective of a curriculum planning that includes learning outcomes, teaching materials, teaching methodology, and assessment (Richards & Renandya, 2002), the actual evidences show different conditions that encourage an overhaul program or at least updated programs of BIPA need revisitation. Academically, revisitation needs to address on the needs assessment of the students, appropriateness of teaching materials, and teaching scopes. If BIPA has been targeted to prepare students with competency as defined in the Europe Certificate, an overhaul evaluation may take into account. Officially, a standardized program that specify BIPA is served as an international L2 teaching is one that PPSDK and every university must define as the first priority. The conduct of BIPA in context of an international program needs rethinking focusing on how BIPA has been prepared to define its standard as an international program. Solikhah (2017) asserts that the inclusion of academic literacy especially in reading and writing for BIPA learners is not well designed. In addition, the readiness condition of BIPA to support the learning of a foreign language for the students preparing their study abroad are not served satisfactorily (Fauzan & Nadia, 2019). As indicated in students writing and reading formatuve test, the writing quality is beyond the expectation the grammar and sentence variety appearing in the essay, nor students comprehension on Indonesian texts is not satisfied (Solikhah, 2015). For the purposes of oral and interaction discourses, the goals of speaking practice and their settings that involve discourse analysis topics are restricted (Fauzan, 2018). As Krashen (1988) points out BIPA offers a teaching program for foreign learners, theories underlying the second language acquisition should be based on the curriculum design. Specifically, characteristics of learners that come from various ethnics and different cultural background should take into account as the input of needs assessment and teaching materials development. Researches on needs assessment of BIPA students has been conducted by Suyitno (2007), however, the results indicate that the textbook available and the students needs are different. Consequently, teachers teaching for BIPA should conduct a need analysis on their own.
169 Saddhono (2018) finds that the great interest of foreign speakers in learning BI is not accompanied by textbooks appropriate to the goals of the foreign learners. The inclusion of culture in the textbook of BIPA does not fully match actual needs (Budiana, et al, 2018; Widhayani, 2019). The concept of kinship, giving and receiving praise, apologizing, candor, criticism, and others, are problems that students encounter in the daily learning process in BIPA (Suparsa, et al, 2017). In some, the implementation of BIPA in the foreign countries is served in trivialities. Dwi, Datil & Sukma (2019) find that teaching components are not well defined, the fecilities are limited, even the internet links to prepare teaching materials are not served. In the home countries, some universties servging BIPA do not support BIPA teachers with satisfied treatments (Azizah, Widodo & Lestari, 2012). How much does BIPA promote its program for an international program? Drawing from the long experience of BIPA implementation, the answer to this question seems far from proper. Therefore, this study attepmts to define revisiting investigation searching conditions that BIPA can be served as an international program. Research Questions Deriving from the backrgound of the study, this study defined two research questions as the guide of the research process. They are: 1) What features are indicated on the implementation of BIPA? 2) How do students’ problems appear in the implementation of BIPA? 3) How is the readines of BIPA served as an international program?
Review of Literature Second Language Acquisition of BI BI in the perspective of L2 has its characteristics as English as the Second Language Acquisition (SLA). In his regards, theory of natural order hypothesis by Krashen (1988) is considered relevant to see the application of BIPA. SLA has an established theories of which learners are learned from various aspects. Krashen (1988) for instance, defines English as an L2 was processed through acquisition to show that learners naturally learn a language, and learning to indicate formal learning process at schooling system. The natural approach theory by Krashen (1988) define five hypotheses in SLA, including: (1) acquisition and learning hypothesis, (2) the natural order hypothesis, (3) the monitor hypothesis, (4) the input hypothesis, and (5) the affective filter hypothesis.
170 Krashen (1988) emphasize an L2 can be achieved through 'the acquired system' or acquisition as the product of subconscious process as children undergo to acquire L1, it is a natural communication where speakers focus on the communicative act; or ‘learned system’, or "learning" as a conscious process produced by a formal instruction. Acquisition is an inductive student-centered approach, and learning is a deductive teacher-centered approach. In the natural order hypothesis, according to Krashen (1988) learners acquire the grammatical features of a language in a fixed order, and that this is not affected by instruction. The monitor hypothesis describe that the knowledge of grammar affects the acquisition. According to Krashen (1988), the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, and the learning system acts as the 'monitor' or the 'editor' that functions in a planning, editing and correcting function. The monitor takes a minor role to correct deviations from "normal" speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. In the input hypothesis, Krashen (1988) describe how an SLA occurs. Input hypothesis is applicable only for learning not for the acquisition. These regards learners receive L2 input that is one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence. The comprehensible input can happen at i+1, i = input, 1 = level, suggesting the learners will accept the input if the degrees of difficulty is one level above the learners’ linguistics competence. Finally, the affective filter hypothesis according to Krashen (1988) defines that the affective variables play a facilitative role in SLA. Learners with high motivation, self- confidence, a good self-image, low anxiety and extroversion are better in L2.
The role of Vocabulary in Learning BI As the general characteristics of a language universal, BI has its system of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and ortography (McCarten, 2007). In addition, BI also has its own system in the language skills that comprise of listening, speaking, reading and writing (McCarten, 2007). Nation & Newton (2009) define that learning goals of a language consist of general goals and specific goals as seen in table 1.
Table 1. Goals of learning L2 No General goal Specific goal 1 Language items Pronunciation Vocabulary Grammatical construction 2 Skills Listening, speaking, reading, writing
171 Accuracy Fluency Strategies 3 Discourse Conversational discourse patterns and Text schemata or topic type scales
The role of SLA vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar are central to the L2 learning process (Pan & Xu 2011). To achieve the language skills, listening, speaking, reading and writing that indicate the communicative competence, vocabulary undergoes the central function (Naeem, 2019). Without vocabulary learning, any language skills are difficult to attain. Students with the low vocabulary knowledge will face the severe problems in language skills (Alqahtani, 2015). Unless its lexis with unlimited meaning shifts caused by different context variables is learnt, language acquisition can not be done. Schimtt (2008 ) argues that vocabulary plays a crucial role in L2 as lexical knowledge is crucial to effective communication. The students will be deprived of language without vocabulary (Richards & Renandya, 2002). The grammatical development depends heavily on the vocabulary's size the students achieve (Alqahtani, 2015; Naeem, 2019). Currently around English 600,000 words available are used in everyday conversations by educated adults who are proficient in 2,000 words. There are more than 14,000 meanings in the 500 most commonly used words (Schmitt, 2010). From 1950 to 2000, the lexicon of English grew by 70% with an annual increase of around 8,500 new words. It is estimated that between 12,000 and 20,000 Native speakers vary depending on their education level. Learners with a frequent knowledge of 2,000 word should be able in average text to understand nearly 80% of the words, and knowledge of 5,000 words should reach 88.7% (Nation & Newton, 2009; McCarten, 2007). The first step in L2 is to learn vocabulary. Evidently, the most frequent 2,000 to 5,000 vocabulary items are required to teach to students. To know 3,000 word families and 5,000 most common words make you understand of 95% word use, and you will understad up 99.9% if you know 5,000 word families (McCarten, 2007).
Review of Previous Studies Dwi, Datil & Sukma (2019) analysize the BIPA textbook Lentera Indonesia. The results show exercises in the book could not train the communication of foreign speakers because the integration of speaking and listening skills was limited to comprehension exercises. In
172 addition, all introductory exercises are presented in English. She also analizes another book developed by the Professional Program of the Faculty of Letters, University Indonesia. The results show that the use of illustrations that are lacking and the provision of long texts makes foreign speakers quickly bored to learn them. Suparsa, et al, (2017) found through his research problems of both students and textbook. The problems are: (1) the utterances are still separate words or phrases, (2) do not have communicative skills, (3) the speech consists of more than two or three words with accompanied by long pauses and repetition of words uttered by the participants (listeners), (4) the speaker experiences many difficulties in producing even simple speeches, and (5) the speech can be understood by the participants with high difficulty. Pratiwi (2020) finds that BIPA in some foreign countries indicate various barriers. The barriers include: (1) low motivation of students, (2) low learning standards, (3) infrastructure and facilities of teaching, (4) teachers do not understand local language other than English, (5) learning exposure and environment, (6) weak commitment of the institution on BIPA, (7) foreign administration, and (8) low coordination between the institution and BIPA agency. The abive studies show that BIPA has some problems pertaining to the teaching materials, students’ needs and the use of textbook. The studies do not indicate how gaps are approached and initiative to improve BIPA program is not defined. This current study, howoever, promotes a thorough examination of the BIPA programs in various sites and identify the core problems in all aspects of the teaching. As the novelty, resviting BIPA program is promoted defining the components for the readiness of BIPA as an international service program.
Methods Design This study used a case study as the research design (Yin, 2014), aimed to investigate a phenomenon within its real-life context. As the research strategy, this case study is based on an in-depth investigation of a single event to explore the implementation of BIPA in the contemporary contexts. This study concerns with multiple sites of the implementation of BIPA at IAIN Surakarta, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta (UMS), and Universitas Sebelas Maret (UNS) Surakarta, Central Java Indonesia (Yin, 2014). Qualitative approach is used to anayze data of this study (Yazan, 2015). As BIPA is designed to serve foreigners to learn BI and Indonesian culture (Okitasari, 2019) the inclusion of academic starndard in the teaching process, syllabus and teaching materials are focused in this study (Solikhah, 2017; Hamied &
173 Mustafa, 2019) not only for the classroom conversation but also in the level of discourse analysis (Fauzan, 2018).
Document Sources The documents utilized for this study comprised curricula, teaching programs, textbooks, and articles on BIPA published various journals available in three sites of this study. The documents were found though the websites, email and WhatsApp. Other documents that the researchers included came from PPSDK’s websites.
Participants The participants for this study were BIPA students, BIPA teachers, and BIPA staffs in IAIN Surakarta, UMS and UNS. Totally, the participants were 17, distributed into 6 students, 8 teachers, and 3 staffs. The students came from Thailand (3 students), America (2 students) and Turkey (1 student). The participants were recruited using purposive sampling techniques via an email and WhatsApps (Lawrence, 2011). The purposive sampling was used mainly because face to face communication involving a massive community was not permitted during the pandemic period, so the researchers only selected available participants when this research was carried out. For details, see Table 2.
Table 2. Participants of this study Kind of participants Sites Total % IAIN UMS UNS Students 3 2 1 6 35.3 Teachers 3 3 2 8 47.1 Staffs 1 1 1 3 17.6 Total 7 6 4 17 100
Research Instrument This study employed a survey questionnaire designed in a Likert scale to collect data. This questionnaire had 14 items wuth four options strongly agree, agree, neutral and disagree. These items were developed based on the analysis of the website contents and the results of subsequent discussions with BIPA staff and teachers. The items on the questionnaire specifically asked the readiness of BIPA for the TIFL. Prior to distribution, the questionnaire
174 was evaluated by one expert in BIPA teaching for the appropriateness of the indicators. To see the validity of items Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) analysis was made. To find out whether an indicator is valid or not through the loading factor value, we use the loading factor value > 0.4 to determine that an item is valid. Results of KMO test showed that the KMO coefficient of a 14-item survey questionnaire is .874. The reliability of the questionnaire has been tested using Cronbach Alpha test. Cronbach's alpha is the most common metric to assess the internal accuracy of an instrument that has several Likert questions in a survey questionnaire. Reliability was expressed by the use of the Cronbach alpha coefficient at 0.7 or higher to imply reasonable internal consistency. In this analysis, result of Cronbach Alpha indicated .887 showing that the items have a high internal consistency.
Data-Collection Procedure Data of this study were collected in three strategies. The primary data were collected through the survey questionnaire and the virtual interview individually and through a virtual Focus Group Discussion (FGD) as suggested by Yin (2009). The survey questionnaire was sent to 17 participants through email and Whatsapp. Fortunately, all 17 participants replied the the questionnaire properly. In addition, the interview was done two weeks after the documents had been analyzed through a virtual meeting with the 17 participants (Solikhah, 2020; Fauzan, 2018). The schedule of the meeting was made after the agreement from overseas students was confirmed. The interview questions were based on the items specified in the questionnaire. To prove more focused problems, a 4-hour FGD was conducted. The FGD was attended by all 17 participants. Of 6 foreign students, 2 were staying in Indonesia during the pandemic era. Themes of the FGD were focused more on the standard operation of FGD as an international program, the existing condition of the teaching services, weaknesses of the operation, needs analysis of the foreign students to have comfortable stay and learning during their study and standardized teaching materials that are deemed to confirm with students needs that came from various ethnic background from different countries. Through the FGD, the researchers explored more reasons and insights through oral interactions from which elaboration in more details topics was possibly developed. The secondary data that were the documents were downloaded from the wbsites, email and Whatsapp to soliciting answers to the questionnaire. The researchers downloaded information from the BIPA webpages of 3 universities and the PPSDK website.
175 Trustworthiness of Data To ensure that the data were not biased, ther researchers triangulate the collected data by reporting to the interviewed participants (Patton, 2002). The researchers used sources triangulation and methods triangulation by confirming the data to the teachers only because of restricted access on the pandemic cases. The main objective of the triangulation was the researchers performed honestly their data so that the results were objective, professionally developed and accountable (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2016). The results of triangulation showed that some data needed to revise because their descriptions were not fully appropriate.
Data-Analysis Techniques Data analysis is an activity to provide meaning to data by arranging, sorting, grouping, coding or marking, and categorizing them into parts based on certain groupings so that a finding is obtained on the formulation of the problem posed (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). Data for this study were inductively analyzed (Patton, 2002) by applying content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2016) combined with general qualitative data analysis. Initially, the researcher analyzed quantitative data before moving onto to the qualitative data that focused on themes and inferences for the entire data. The content analysis process comprised six steps: (1) transforming any data into written text; (2) identifying units of analysis in line with the research questions; (3) defining rules for the coding system; (4) coding all units of analysis; (5) testing the consistency of each coding and theme, so that fixed data were obtained. If a coding was not consistent, revisions to the messages or themes were made before (6) drawing conclusions to determine the final data. The analyses were performed as follows. Data obtained from the websites and the responses to the checklist were narrated. Units of analysis were classified into categories and defined in the checklist and themes for students’ responses. Each unit of analysis was coded, tested, and verified. Thematic analysis was used to answer the research questions, including for the teaching purposes of BIPA, its attributes, and problems when conducting BIPA teaching. In general, the qualitative data analysis worked as follows: (1) The researchers read the entire transcript of interview, record of the answers of the checklist and results of he document analysis to obtain general information from each transcript; (2) the general messages were compiled to retrieve specific messages; (3) the researchers defined the general patterns generated from the specific messages; (4) the researchers identified evidences to answer each resecearch questions of this study.
176 Results and Discussion RQ1: What features are indicated on the implementation of BIPA? Answers of the checklist and open-ended interview indicate general features on the implementation of BIPA. The general features according to students and teachers consist of seven categories: (1) the learners’ purposes of learning, (2) Teaching materials and teaching methods, (3) Learners problems, (4) Culture and attitude, (5) Basic Knowledge and Skills, (6) Assessment, and (7) Readiness of BIPA as an international program. In general, the features of the conduct of BIPA show the attainment of the program as well as its weaknesses to which a future perspective needs attention. The description of the features indicates that the most purposes of learners to joint with BIPA are not the academic putposes. The first feature is the purposes of learning defined by the learners. The learners claim that their purposes to learn BI are more on recreation for free and learning Indonesian culture. The inventory of the learning purpose appears in table 3.
Table 3. Learner’ purposes of learning No Kind of purposes 1 The goals of learning are more on recreation rather than on learning BI 2 To stay in Indonesia for one year freely is considered the opportunity to journey 3 Academic purposes are not the main objective 4 To see culture of Indonesia is another goal of learning
The second feature of BIPA is teaching materials and teaching methods appearing in table 4. From the interview the researchers find that learners focus more on teaching materials rather than teaching methods. Teaching materials are considered less to confirm learners needs and the implementation of the teaching materials is not proper.
Table 4. Teaching materials and teaching methods of BIPA No Kind of purposes 1 Teaching materials are not suitable to students’ needs 2 Needs analysis is required before teaching start by each teacher 3 Needs analysis does not inform comprehensively students needs other than teaching materials 4 Textbook is too high level
177 5 Supplementary teaching materials are not well-developed 6 Textbook contains too many topics and learning activities 7 Teaching methods are not well graded suitable to students’ psychological background 8 Teaching materials sources are limited 9 Online teaching materials and methods are not well-accessible 10 The coherence among teaching goal of vocabulary, grammar and BI skills is not condensed 11 Teachers are not-well prepared to serve any teaching topic
The third feature is the learner’s problem. It deals with the motivation and students attitude to learn BI. As table 5 suggests student’s problem define the low motivation, attitude and competence in BI.
Table 5. Learners’ problems to join in BIPA No Kind of purposes 1 Low motivation of learners 2 Low mastery on vocabulary 3 Low mastery on grammar 4 Obstacles to pronounce BI words 5 Diversity of students competences and goals 6 Students attitude are not positive
Features of basic knowledge of a language and language skills appear in table 6. In the learning process, basic knowledge and language skills are components that should present in the teaching process and enhance the proficiency input of the materials.
Table 6. Features on the implementation of basic knowledge and language skills No Kind of purposes 1 Vocabulary items are not well specified nor graded to indicate the word size 2 Grammar items are too problematic, not well-graded their level of difficulty 3 Listening skills are not fully appropriate 4 Speaking skills are developed naturally
178 5 Reading skills are too high level 6 Writing skills are not well-phased
The features of assessment indicate how students’ achievement and competence are assessed. Students perceive the assessment include formative test, summative test and proficiency test. Table 7 describes how the assessment is implemented in BIPA. Table 7. Perception on the assessment of BIPA No Kind of purposes 1 Assessment is not encouraged students to challenge 2 Formative assessment is not well-developed 3 Summative assessment is not challenging 4 Standardized test is not well introduced through the teaching sessions
The last features of the implementation of BIPA as per table 8 describe the readiness of BIPA as an international program. The features indicate that BIPA yet is not ready to perform as the international program.
Table 8. Readiness of BIPA as an international program No Kind of purposes 1 Exposures of both society and online to use BI are limited 2 BIPA as an L2 program is not well prepared 3 BI for the research purposes are not well perceived 4 Teachers do not understand the learners’ language other than English
Addressing the findings on general features of the implementation of BIPA that characterize teaching conditions of EFL, an effort to improve the program should be taken into account. Learners’ purposes indicate learning targets that require less struggle to compete, teaching materials and methods are not fully appropriate, and leners problems that indicate low motivation and perseverance. Other evidences that confirm general condition of EFL are the impact of culture in understanding the target language, vocabulary and grammar problems, acquisition of language skills and the assessment problems. Basically, the problems conform to the linguistics factor and non-linguiatic factors. This finding is in agreement with the studies of Suyitno (2007), Pratiwi (2019) and Krashen (1988). The novice learners of an L2
179 will experience that any aspect of L2 are new to adapt and an extra perseverance is required to achieve a certain level of proficiency. Okitasari (2019) emphasizes that BIPA program is designed for foreigners to study the Indonesian language and culture. However, the academic standard should be defined to standardize the academic literacy of the program (Solikhah, 2017). This study emphasizes that BIPA program is not the ultimate goal to achieve academic proficiency in BI. The learners are not in their ideas that learning BI is a tool to improve their academic attainment or to have a research about Indonesia. Their main goal to learn BI is to benefit the opportunity to have a recreation in other country for free. Though the learners claim that they are interested to learn Indonesian culture, the motivation to achieve high proficiency in BI is not their ultimate goal. Unfortunately, the conditions concerning teaching learning process, such as syllabus, teaching materials, teaching methods and the assessment process do not fully meet their needs. Referring to Krashen (1988), this study confirms that teaching materials that do not fix to i+1 will be ignored by the students. In context of FL, the development of BIPA depends upon on the credibility of TIFL. Therefore, an update curriculum, syllabus and teaching materials that are based on a considerable needs analysis is required (Read, 2002). The last finding in this area is the readiness of BIPA to serve an international program. This current study confirms that a foreign language program should be based on the standard teaching materials. The materials are included in a credible syllabus and high proficiency of the teachers (Richards & Renandya, 2002). Evidences show, however, that this study has not been designed for the international program. Textbook has been prepared, but the contents are not appropriate. As a result, the teacher should identify students’ needs before teaching starts (Suyitno, 2007; Pratiwi, 2019). In facts, the appropriate textbook is not the sole need, facilities and infrastructure of teaching are other obvious needs. BIPA program has not been served to fill the international settings, learning media, exposures, online materials and variery of teaching methods are in limitation (Suparsa, et al, 2017; Saddhono, 2018; Pratiwi, 2019). It implies that the implementation of BIPA requires the update of the curriculum, textbook, and teaching program to achieve an international standard.
RQ2: How do students’ problems appear in the implementation of BIPA? Results of interview and answers of checklist are defined and their themes are classified in accordance with the research questions. The evidences identify that problems on the implementation of BIPA are classified into (1) leaners problems, (2) curriculum problems, (3) linguistic problems, and (4) culture and exposure problems.
180 1. Learners Problems Learners’ problems specifically concern with learner’s motivation, attitudes, goals and academic problems. Learners’ motivation is categorized not satisfied as indicated by the class attendances. Of 6 students 50% stated that they normally came late to the class because they are not encouraged to joint with the class. During the class activities, they less participate and do not work any assignments in the full motivation. Results of interview regarding students’ motivation have been testified from three respondents show that learners came late to the class because of their wish and they did not participate at the maximum efforst. Other students mention that he was not so interetested to learn in a formal setting in the classroom, but they prefer to learn outside the class through field trip or cultural performance. Finally, a student points out that his objective to stay in Indonesia for free is because of a recreational need. No academic target is defined. See excerpts (1), (2) and (3) for the examples.
(1) I am not motivated to attend the class. There is no academic sanction if I did not achieve a good academic record in BIPa (S-1-T).
(2) Formal learning in the classroom is not interesting for me. I prefer to learn through field learning or a culture performance (S-2-A).
(3) My main objective is to have a recreation, staying in Indonesia for free and see different culture. I have no academic goal except I can speak Indonesian for the recreational purposes.
Another problem pertaining to learners is the student’s attitude. Of 6 students, 4 assert that they tend to joint with their friends from the simlar country everdyday. They did not work woth their classmates from different countries, and work for their homework with the same country colleagues. When they are together, they communicate on their native language. BI and English are not spoken for their interaction. 2. Curriculum Problems Curriculum problems indicate that the curriculoum dimension is not determined appropriately. The curriculum dimension includes input, process, output. Input can be seen from the syllabus; process is identified from teaching methods and output is viewed from the learning outcomes of the students. Results of interview and checklist show that in general the
181 syllabus has indicated teaching materials that are based on communicative approach. The teaching activities have been prepared as follows: a. Grammar topics are served but the gradation does not indicate overall scopes of grammar that include lower to complex level of achievement. The order of difficulty is not defined properly. b. Vocabulary items are served but not on a consistent description on which each section or book chapter is graded. Not all vocabulary activities indicate exercises of pronunciation and the items of words c. Reading passages are developed but the contents are not specified to reading skills, i.e. textual, inferential, evaluative skills, and the topics do not indicate the culture that is at the same level of students’ proficiency. d. Speaking topics are developed but most are higher than students’ proficiency and out of students’ interest. e. Listening materials are appropriate but they are not encouraged students’ motivation since they are presented using tape recorder. f. Writing skills are too complex, most students who have low vocabulary are demotivated. Specifically, the items to which writing level are served are not well defined.
The class runs 5 day per week, from Monday to Friday from 8.00 am to 4.00 pm. The regular classroom meeting has matched the proportion of the program. The weaknesses are the teaching techniques are not actually proper to the needs. Teaching techniques are not well developed at the same model by each instructor. Facilities to support the teaching process such as IT, google classroom, blended learning, the online materials are not available properly. Finally, the assessments are not served very well. The formative tests on each BI skill is about the same and the summative tests do not properly measure the whole teaching materials the students already learned. As the tests are all teacher-made tests, validity and reliability of tests vary. The learning standards included in the BIPA curriculum and syllabus do not yet conform to the student need. The textbook available is not yet proper to the learning outcomes, characteristics and needs of students, the number of learning support, level of difficulty, and time allotment.
182 3. Linguistic Problems Linguitic problems are obstacles the students encounter because of the linguistic properties of BI. This way, students assert that they have four problems they usually find in everyday classroom interactions: limited vocabulary, difficulties to pronounce BI words, problems to follow BI accents, and problems to follow tutor’s accents. Limited vocabulary is the main problems in all classes of BIPA. Each class consists of between 6-10 students whose entry level behavior in BI varies in high discrepancies. One being elementary level, and the other ones are intermediate. The limited vocabulary achievement affects teaching process do not run smoothly, so that the instructors provide more drills on pronunciation and the word items. Problems of pronounciation and developing proper accents make students not being confidence to perform BI in the classroom either on speaking and reading. Words having the syllable of E, NG, NY and R are those that make learners got problems to pronounce and spell the words. Teacher’s accents are in some cases problematic for the learners because of the inclusion of culture and Javanese attitude that is embedded in the accent. The class therefore is being passive and students do not participate in the full efforts. Instructors have their own problems to explain such a discourse if the native language of the learners is not English. The instructors do not understand the learners’ native language expect English. In the overall teaching process, linguistic problems encountered by the learners need specific strategies the instructors should employ appropriate to the contexts. In addition, linguistic problems are also related to certain materials such as the social, political, and Indonesian culture which is not comprehensively understood by students.
4. Culture and Exposure Problems Culture elicits problems on defining the meaning of an utterance and attitude expressed beyond the utterance. Cultural problems are indicated in some points: attitude to a speaking act, word choice to say an expression that indicate a honesty, pronoun to indicate elder speaking partner, gesture when performing an act, and terms that Javanese language is embedded. Culture problems also appear in reading passages and listening to Indonesian native speakers. The expression of the Indonesian native has an inherent culture embedded in the acts, so that learners are confused to understand the goal of the Indonesian native speakers the learners talk to. The next problem on the exposure, the learners get problems to selecting proper use of BI for their objectives. The learners speak formal BI they obtained in the classroom but they found
183 in their community that people speak in different grammar and style of BI. The people speak Javanese or BI mixed with Javanese. This way, the learners have limited exposure to apply BI properly. The impacts of the culture and limited exposure are obvious, in that the learners have cultural clashes with the instructors in the classroom. In addition, the improper understanding of the instructors to the culture of learners makes severe interpretation and confused teaching activities. The learners come from very different enthnic background and culture some of whom do not understand English. As the instructors do not understand the native language of the learners, cross cultural misunderstanding occurs. Culture also affects students’ attitude psychologically. In general, the student's psychological condition is fluctuating due to competition, stress with tasks, tiredness, and homesickness. The second findings of this study address improvement on the linguistic factor and the non- linguistic factors. Particularly, a discussion is focused on the BI features that make the learners encounter variety of problems. First of all, as the novice BI learners, the students have low BI vocabulary, improper sentence patterns and low comprehension of Indonesian cultures. In addition, exposure that facilitates the fast process of using BI in the social community is restricted. Learners find the communication is conducted using Javanese language and BI is restricted in use for the formal settings at campus. This finding confirms Krashen’s (1988) theory in that linguistic aspect will affect the progress of students’ achievement. Viewed from McCarten’s (2007) theory, the role of vocabulary mastery is pivotal in development of grammar and other language skills. Evidences show that the learners face high problems in pronouncing certain words having N, R, NG syllables where the syllables are not present in the leaners’ native language. To overcome this problem, errors analysis, contrastive analysis, and interlanguage theory will be beneficial to adapt (Krashen, 1988; McCarten, 2007). In Byram’s (2007) perspective, learning a language should include the learning of culture. Language learners should be proficient as an interlanguage competence. The implication is the revisitation of BIPA program should plan considerably SLA theories underpinning initial problems that occur at the beginning of the learning including error analysis, contrastive analysis and interlanguage analysis. In addition, the language planning should attach culture to prepare students as the intercultural learners. The culture is embedded in the textbooks, teaching activities, classroom communication and texts that provide students with insights of BI.
184 RQ3: How is the readines of BIPA served as an international program? In all, position of BI served as TIFL is now evaluated. The vidences indicate that implementation of BI into TIFL reveive weaknesses in the planning and implementation. An evaluation through curriculum planning that include the purposes, teaching materials, teaching methods and evaluation show that TIFL is not yet defined properly. The objective of BIPA has been defined as to serve the academic purposes. Curriculum and syllabus have been defined, textbook is supplied by both PPSDK and university team. In addition, teaching methods are also provided of which the inclusion of culture has been properly prepared. In addition, the formative and summative assessments are considered unsatisfied to measure the learners’ progress. Specifically, the proportion of language contents does not indicate fluent degree for the purposes of both basic knowledge of BI, that are vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and the BI skills, including listening, speaking, reading and writing. Results of interview and answers to the checklist asking the readiness of BIPA into TIFL appear in table 9.
Table 9. Readiness of BIPA into TIFL Descriptions F % N=14 1. Goal of program is to achieve communicative competence 2 14.3 2. Level of program has been properly graded into elementary, 14 100 intermediate, advanced 3. Vocabulary items are graded into 3,000 to 5,000 words properly 0 0 4. Vocabulary building serves the learners to confidently speak and 2 14.3 write appropriate for their purposes 5. Syllabus has been developed properly 4 28.6 6. Level of difficulty of the teaching materials is considerably defined 3 21.4 in heirarcy and procedures 7. Textbook contains basic knowledge and skills that are proper to the 5 35.7 learning program 8. Teaching materials are graded properly 10 71.2 9. Exercises in the textbook provide the opportunities of the learners to 6 42.9 improve their skills
185 10. Teaching materials in the textbook provides self-authonomous 2 14.3 learning 11. Exposures to practice BI are available and easy to access 3 21.4 12. Teaching facilities and infrastructure meet the international student 4 28.6 needs 13. Access to implement BI to the global community, e.g. seminar, are 4 28.6 available 14. BI has been designed as the EAP program 0 0 Total 421.3 Mean 30.1
As table 9 suggests the readiness of BIPA served as an international program achieve 30.1% in average. It is very low category to indicate that BIPA is not well-designed to lauch as an international program. There are two perceptions that appreciate a high degree of BIPA. They are (1) Level of program has been properly graded into elementary, intermediate, advanced (100%), and (2) Teaching materials are graded properly (71.2%). The evidences of the third finding of the currect study emphasize on the readiness of BIPA provided it is prepared for an international program. The 14 aspects of BIPA are perceived inappropriate to promote it as an international teaching learning program. As all indicators are improper, BIPA needs an overhaul revisitation. This finding essentially indicates that the standardized attributes of an international program should be designed. Nation & Newton (2009) assert the general goal and the specific goal of learning L2. Specific attention should be put to the standardized teaching of the basic knowledge and language skills. Definitely, vocabulary as the central role to learn L2 is developed into general words of 3,000 to 5,000 and the academic words. The language skills are graded proportionally with appropriate exercise that possibly make the students become autonomous learners (Solikhah, 2020b). To make BIPA more credible, an idea to adapt EAP for the BIPA practices are initiated. It implies that the readiness should start from the standardized learning outcomes, teaching materials, teaching methods and evaluation. The standardized profiency of BI needs to intensively solicide in context of BI for the academic purposes (Solikhah, 2020a). In addition, the awareness of foreign speakers towards Indonesian culture can help foreign speakers to actualize themselves appropriately in Indonesian. The cultural aspect supports foreign speakers in speaking Indonesian according to the situation and condition of
186 Indonesian society (Byram, 2009). In addition, introducing Indonesian multiculturalism to foreign speakers can also foster a positive and appreciative attitude for foreign speakers towards the richness of Indonesian culture (Hamid and Mustafa, 2019; Solikhah & Budiharso, 2020). There are conditions that must be met by a language in order to become an international language. Phillipson (2008) states that in order to become a world language, a language must be used in the fields of diplomacy, trade relations, and the dissemination of knowledge. These conditions are also emphasized by Phillipson (2008) which states that English can become an international language today because it is the main liaison language in the fields of politics, trade, science, technology, military alliances, entertainment and tourism (Pauuw, 2009).
Conclusion This study has examined the general features of the implementation of BIPA, problems existed with students, and readiness of BIPA to serve as an international program. In general, BIPA program does not match to the learner’s needs and goals, reorientation to standardize BIPA is required. The features of the implementation of BIPA are characterized with the lack accuracy of the curriculum planning. Input that refers to the syllabus where teaching contents are covered, indicate inappropriateness. Process to show learning experiences are partly proper to the goal but activities that provide learners materials appropriate to their learning styles and automous learneras is not yet well-operated. The learning outcomes of the student, are not well defined indicating the rigorious asseement to measure student’ actual proficiency in the basic knowledge of BI and the skills in BI. Internally, students’ entry level behaviors and their etchni background are not addressed in the recruitment process. The students tend to define their goal for the recreation for free. Intetntion to learn Indonesian culture is not strongly defined, not academic purposes to learn BI are determined. As of the lack preparation in running the program, BIPA is not yet ready to launch for an international program. It implies that revisitation is needed to rethink BIPA operation. This study is by no means perfect. Limited number of participants and strategies to collect data possibly restricts its in-depth and the breadth of this study. Future research is suggested to enlarge the number of participants and try to conduct a face to face interview.
Pedagogical Implications This study has proved that SLA theories apply to novice learners of BI as an L2. Accordingly, the implementation of BIPA strongly requires theoretical underpinning in the main SLA
187 theories, such as Krashen’s (1988) theory, error analysis, contrastive analysis, interlanguage theory, and curriculum and materials development theory. The basic insights of the SLA theories should be shared with the BIPA designers and teachers of BIPA. In context of general program, BIPA has much relevance to EAP so that the inclusion of EAP design in the BIPA program is an obvious issue.
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190 Elevating the Speaking Ability through a Culture Talk in a Video: Evidence from Universitas Tulungagung, Indonesia
Dwi Ima Herminingsih University of Tulungagung (UNITA), Tulungagung, Indonesia [email protected]
Mohamad Jazeri State Institute of Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Tulungagung, Indonesia [email protected]
Biodata: Dwi Ima Herminingsih lectures English as a Foreign Language (EFL) at the University of Tulungagung. She obtained her doctoral degree in English Teaching from Malang State University, and she is now in charge of the Research Department at the University of Tulungagung. She may be contacted at [email protected].
Mohamad Jazeri lectures Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics at the Indonesian Department of the State Islamic Institute (IAIN), Tulungagung, He graduated a postgraduate program at Malang State University. He is interested in studying Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics. Since 2012, he is been in charge of foster fathers for hundreds of Pattani Students on his campus. He can be contacted at [email protected].
Abstract This research looks at how spoken English is taught through project-based learning (Project- Based Learning). This research used a case study design to which data were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The sample for the study comprised students who were learning social and political sciences at the Universitas Tulungagung. The researcher applied various instruments to collect this data, namely a document review, a test, and a questionnaire. To
191 collect data, the teacher asked the students to compile a video where they talk about the culture they grew up in, such as traditional games, dances, or other elements of cultural heritage. The research was guided by checking documentation for student’s achievement in spoken English, interviewing the students, and administering a test to measure the students’ speaking ability shortly after compiling their videos. Results show that the mean score for the speaking test was higher after applying PBL than the score in the documentation, which predated the PBL. Results of questionnaire revealed that 90% of the students said they “agree” or “strongly agree” that creating a video where they talk about their culture made learning easier and more attractive, because it is more authentic.
Keywords: video creation, language elevation, speaking skills, culture.
Introduction Having the competence to speak English fluently is a goal of English teaching and learning. It is no simple task, however, to realize this goal. For their part, teachers must work hard to establish the teaching strategies that promote their students’ speaking abilities. There are therefore some necessary preparations for teachers to complete. They should be precise in designing classroom activities and tasks that will leverage their students’ interests (Tarman & Kılınç, 2018). In addition, they must be smart in choosing teaching strategies and media that will accommodate and improve students and encourage them to get more involved in the teaching–learning process. English teachers can also decide to apply form-focused or meaning- focused speaking, and many practice drills can be directed through questions and answers (Fitriana, Suhatmady, & Setiawan, 2016; Budiharso & Arbain, 2019; Aniq, Annisa, & Kristina, 2020) . The existing curriculum in Indonesian universities, including Universitas Tulungagung (henceforth, Unita), mandates that productive English skills must be learned by semester I students in every faculty. The main reason for learning English speaking is that it should act as an instrument for conducting interactions (Kayi, 2006), because through language, people can share and receive opinions, information, and feelings with people from other cultures, so it is highly desirable to be fluent in English speaking (Nunan, 1991; Solikhah & Budiharso, 2019). Unfortunately, the data shows that most first semester students experience difficulty in speaking English. Documents for the students’ speaking abilities reveal that the average score is 60. This low level of achievement came about because, according to their
192 opinions, they feel scared and nervous and lack confidence when they want to say something or agree and disagree, making them annoyed and disappointed. They admit that it is hard work to express their feelings and ideas in English. They were not brave enough to speak, and they worried about making grammatical mistakes and using inappropriate words (Solikhah, 2020). This inability to speak English was becoming worse because they had limited opportunities to practice, either in the classroom or outside in society, where English is not a widely spoken language. English is generally only learned for academic purposes, and most people speak either the national Bahasa Indonesia or one of the local languages in daily activities, such in the home, markets, shopping malls, and other public areas. The students’ genuine problems relate to the opinion of Brown (1994), who theorized that not actively practicing English enough can lead to a lack of fluency (Brown, 1994). Data for this preliminary study were obtained through interviews with the students, and this found that the students’ poor English-speaking abilities were due to various factors. In essence, they were being linguistically and culturally obstructed, and this made it hard for the students to become fluent English speakers. They were anxious when performing tasks in front of the class, and they lacked confidence. They also had poor levels of attainment in language aspects, such as mastering a limited vocabulary and knowing the rules for how to arrange a word in a grammatically correct way. A similar situation was identified in the research of Al-Hosni (2014) for the Middle Eastern country Oman. The failure to become a fluent speaker also happens because students rarely use English, either in daily life or in the classroom. They are less exposed to opportunities to practice English, because daily communication for domestic purposes is done either in the native tongue or the national language. This absence of family and community support for speaking English is cited as the major cause for why English learners in an academic environment do not excel in it. They are merely passive learners of English, and this often leads to a poor level of English proficiency (Al-Hosni, 2014). In short, students learning English will generally only achieve communicative competence by engaging in sufficient practice (Davis, 2003). For the English teacher, the use of interesting media, made possible by the Internet and other technologies, can be integrated into the teaching–learning process, but this is not universally done due to a lack of devices and Internet/Wi-Fi access. What is more, not all students have sufficient knowledge and skills to use high-tech appliances and the Internet (Solikhah & Wirawati, 2020). Well aware of the students’ difficulties in mastering English, the teacher is motivated to apply
193 authentic materials in addition to technological tools, such as leveraging the students’ understanding of culture as a vehicle for teaching and learning spoken English. Asking the students to use the culture and custom they grew up with as a material for learning to speak English is a form of project-based learning (PBL). This strategy involves learning techniques based on assigning students some task. This approach is believed to help students practice spoken English, so that it becomes more practical and familiar. This technique trains English learners to design a plan and implement it, so they can produce, publish, and present a finished product. Instructing the students to talk about their cultures means they gain an opportunity to apply the English language in a context they understand well. What is more, the students can converse with each other and discuss the topic together (Patton, 2012). Previous research by Gaer (998), Darini (2013), and Febriawati (2012) proved that opportunities for practice are needed for English learners to develop speaking ability. The study by Gaer (1998) looked at the teaching experiences of a beginner-level speaking class for refugees in Southeast Asia. Darini, meanwhile, established that following a PBL strategy is effective (Darini, 2013). Likewise, the study of Febriawati also indicated that students who were assigned speaking exercises attain a better achievement than those were taught with the traditional method. They could pronounce words more appropriately and did not exhibit long stops and pauses when they conversed in English (Febriawati, 2012). Considering the benefits of using this untypical technique for learning how to articulate English words, sentences, and texts smoothly, the researcher is motivated to study this strategy when it is based on the students’ understanding of their native cultures (Tarman, 2016). Barrows (2001) theorized that project-based learning (PBL) is a teaching technique where students engage more in learning activities, so it is student-centered rather than teacher- centered, and the students’ problem-solving experience is used as a source of learning. It offers students a way to be creative in solving problems, learning autonomously, and developing meaningful and helpful collaboration skills (Barrows, 2001). Furthermore, Barrows discusses some components of PBL: 1) The learning activities are directed toward sources of learning that are available in the students’ environment. This approach allows students to explore and maximize their language output in terms of producing utterances. At the same time, feedback is given to help the students make revisions. Through this review, students and the teacher can identify how good the work is and its level of improvement. 2) The teacher collaborates in training students to work together in making decisions and correcting each other. 3) The content and the teaching goals are combined with attention to standards, so they will result in a successful process and language output. 4) The
194 use of authentic tasks that relate to the real world and the students’ own lives and backgrounds can make it easier for them to communicate with the world outside the classroom. This can be facilitated with the use of media like the Internet. 5) There is an ability to encourage reflection. 6) There is assessment, which can vary, such as teacher assessments, peer assessments, self- assessments, and reflection. Finally, time management builds upon opportunities for learners to plan, revise, and reflect on their learning experiences. Some experts have documented the advantages of PBL. Boss et al. (1995) list the benefits of using PBL as follows: The use of project-based learning motivates students, because they have the opportunity to select a topic they understand in the preparation. In addition, students are encouraged to engage in the learning process and find solutions to problems. The students can then collaborate and discuss potential solutions (Boss, 1995), and the training process can be further improved with the use of media skills. In addition, Fragoulis (2009) and Dornyei (2001) argue that the advantages of using project-based learning (PBL) when teaching speaking skills include (1) students being provided with contextual and meaningful learning; (2) speaking practice that is inspired by the environment; (3) greater student participation; (4) enhanced student interest, motivation, engagement, and enjoyment; (5) more collaboration among students; and (6) improved student language skills (Fragoulis, 2009:92; Dörnyei, 2001:100). The objectives of this study are to (1) establish whether creating a video where students talk about their culture can improve speaking skills for first semester students at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Politics at Unita and (2) learn about these students’ reactions to this approach.
Methods This study used a case study design and applied a qualitative approach to analyze the data (Mileas and Huberman, 1994). The aims of this study are to investigate a means for elevating the English speaking ability of EFL students at Unita. The study used document, test and questionnaire to collect primary and secondary data. Documentation was defined in the form of syllabus information and the lecturers’ handbook. The test, meanwhile, was used to assign scores for the students’ English-speaking ability before and after being taught using problem- based learning. Next, the questionnaire was applied to solicit the students’ opinions about the task of creating video where they talk about their culture and their satisfaction with PBL. The data were analyzed quantitatively using an interactive model for qualitative data analysis that was adopted based on the work of Miles and Huberman (2014). The data were interactively analyzed following data gathering, data reduction, data display, verification, and conclusion.
195 Results and Discussion The data and subsequent findings were derived from the student’s speaking scores before and after being taught using PBL and their responses to the questionnaire.
Creating a Video where students talk about culture can improve speaking skills To establish whether the students’ speaking ability in English had been elevated, researchers administered a speaking test after the implementation of PBL. In contrast, the score for speaking ability before the PBL implementation was obtained from existing documentation. Table 1 shows the students’ score before engaging with PBL.
Table 1 Students’ Speaking Scores before Being Exposed to PBL No Name Score 1 Etik Flourensya Serlin 75 2 Nanik Mutoharoh 70 3 Yanuar Krisma K. D. 85 4 Septiani Kurnia Ningsih 80 5 Trimina Sari Priyana 75 6 Weni Agustin 70 7 Muhamad Choirico 75 8 Arin Noviana 70 9 Pinda Anggelina 70 10 Maulana Rahmad R. 75 11 Risma Rizky P. 75 12 Ratih Rachma Kurnia 70 13 Mochammad Abidin 70 14 Anang Suhariyadi 70 15 Lyna Yullyana 75 16 Nurul Kamaliya 70 17 Erma Purwati 75 18 Galih Cahyo Santiko 75 19 Ferdian Ariyashira 70 20 Dewa Brata H. 70
196 21 Mochammad Abidin 75 22 Cesarrio Widya P. 70 Sum Up 1610 Mean 73.18
Table 2 Students’ Speaking Scores after Being Exposed to PBL No Name Score 1 Etik Flourensya Serlin 80 2 Nanik Mutoharoh 75 3 Yanuar Krisma K. D. 85 4 Septiani Kurnia Ningsih 80 5 Trimina Sari Priyana 75 6 Wen Muhamad Choirico 75 7 Muhamad Choirico 75 8 Arin Noviana 75 9 Pinda Anggelina 80 10 Maulana Rahmad R. 80 11 Risma Rizky P. 75 12 Ratih Rachma Kurnia 75 13 Mochammad Abidin 70 14 Anang Suhariyadi 70 15 Lyna Yullyana 75 16 Nurul Kamaliya 75 17 Erma Purwati 75 18 Galih Cahyo Santiko 70 19 Ferdian Ariyashira 80 20 Dewa Brata H. 80 21 Mochammad Abidin 75 22 Cesarrio Widya P. 75 Sum up 1675
197 Mean Score 76.14
The data in tables 1 and 2 indicates that there is a different level of achievement for the students’ English-speaking abilities. The average speaking score before being taught through PBL was 73.18, but after the students were asked to make a video where they talked about their culture, this improved to 76.14. This indicates a modest improvement in the students’ English-speaking skills.
The Students’ Responses toward Creating Video where They Talk about Culture Questionnaires were distributed to the 22 students to solicit their opinions about the use of video through “Yes” or “No” questions. The results reveal that all 22 students believed the approach made them feel motivated, provided them with more opportunities to speak, made them more involved in the learning process, and stimulated them to collaborate and discuss with their peers. The students clearly showed a positive response to the technique used by the teacher. This accords with the work of Prensky (2012), who notes that since the development of the World Wide Web, instructional strategies and approaches have progressed. Indeed, many second language learners have become digital natives that are well aware of the benefits of using the Internet (Prensky, 2012). In a similar vein, Seimens (2005) talks about knowledge or information obtained by learners through Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). This was instrumental in connecting with L2 learners, especially with the integration of Web 2.0. In addition, this innovative process for learning a second language differs from that used in the typical classroom setting, and it is a motivational factor when learning a second or foreign language (Siemens, 2005).
The Students’ Responses toward the PBL Implementation Questionnaires were distributed to the 22 students to solicit their opinions toward the implementation of the PBL approach. They were asked to answer questions about their level of agreement. Some 15 students said they “strongly agree” and 7 said they “agree” that asking them to talk about culture in a video made them feel motivated, provided them with more opportunities to speak, made them more involved in the learning process, and stimulated them to collaborate and discuss with their friends. This indicates the students expressed a broadly positive response to the teacher’s approach. Spoken language is commonly employed as a tool to transfer ideas from one person to another.
198 Sounds have therefore been created to denote the names of objects. This theory was underpinned by Balch (2006), who posited that the person who hears these verbalized forms gets a description of the thing being signified. In Balch’s ideas, objects that are familiar to the speaker are easier to speak about, because he or she is expressing something that already exists in the mind. A similar principle applies to the listener, with him or her interpreting the sounds according to known facts. The implementation of the strategy involved asking the students to video record a monologue where they talked about popular topics from their cultural heritages, such as art, traditional dance, games, foods, and costumes. This technique is based on the basic steps of PBL established by Bell (Bell, 2010) and Stoller (Stoller, 1997), who opine that project-based learning is oriented toward process and output. First, the teacher allows the students to freely choose a topic related to their culture, one that they understand well. Second, the teacher arranges how the activities will take place in the case of a group formation, what his or her teaching role will be, and the format of the discussion. Third, the students’ work is presented once they are able to address their problems and create an end product. Aside from the positive aspects, there are also barriers to implementing PBL, such as time constraints (project tasks need more time), classroom management, difficulties incorporating technology into the classroom, the development of students’ critical thinking as a cognitive tool, and assessment. Hence, the teacher needs the students to express their understanding. Astawa et al. (2017) also undertook a study on implementing PBL to teach productive English skills. They investigated the effect of PBL on students’ English Skills and how such activities influence the teaching–learning process at a public junior high school in Bali- Indonesia. The results revealed that PBL had a significant effect on the students’ productive English skills. The students also expressed that PBL improved their enthusiasm, creativity, confidence, self-directed learning, and collaborative learning skills. The teacher, meanwhile, expressed that PBL enhanced motivation and the satisfaction with teaching. The authors therefore recommend implementing PBL in EFL settings, particularly for improving students’ ability to speak and write English as a foreign language (Astawa, Artini and Nitiasih, 2017). Marwan (2015) and Healey (2018) also report results for implementing PBL in conjunction with information and communication technology (ICT) in an English-teaching classroom. He conducted the project over a six-week period of PBL implementation. He reported that students experienced a more interesting and meaningful learning process in a PBL-based English class. They also became highly motivated to use English more intensively. This
199 demonstrates that PBL combined with ICT can yield positive gains according to a teacher’s pedagogical and technological beliefs (Marwan, 2015; Healey, 2018). Shih (2010), meanwhile, investigated the teaching of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) for public speaking using a combined model of online and face-to-face instruction. The results reveal that this blended model for teaching English can contribute to learning effectiveness and student satisfaction. Most importantly, peers’ and the instructor’s feedback, the freely accessible blog, the ease of revision, and interesting learning material were major factors that enhanced the students’ learning satisfaction (Shih, 2010; Lam, 2011). PBL for teaching English was also delivered to Thai students by Poonpon (2017). He concluded that an interdisciplinary-based project should be implemented within English classes to enhance the learners’ skills (Poonpon, 2017). This research contributes to the context of theory and practice, and its findings may enrich theories for the teaching and learning of speaking skills for university students. From a practical standpoint, the findings affirm that asking students to talk about their native culture in a video can improve their speaking skills.
Conclusion Based on the results of this research and the discussion of previous studies, we can conclude that asking the students to talk about their customs and culture through a video can improve students’ ability to speak English. The students are more motivated to participate, and they get more opportunities to be more creative and innovative as they practice speaking in English. They can also explore their capacity to apply the English language both individually and within a group. They find it easier to express themselves in English because they are highly familiar with the topic being discussed. A theoretical discussion and empirical data provide evidence that the students’ speaking fluency was improved, and this achievement is likely due, at least in some part, to the choice of topic being discussed in the video. This strategy can increase students’ enthusiasm, provide them with more opportunities to practice, and encourage them to participate in classroom activities. In short, it can be concluded that project-based learning strategies are recommended to enable students to speak English fluently.
Pedagogical Implication This study has proved that the inclusion of culture in the speaking class has increase students’ interest and motivation. Student’ performance in recorded through video indicates the
200 speaking class is more attractive. This result implies that speaking ability should include teaching culture, the ability to speak should increase the students to achieve an intercultural ability. In addition, the use of technology has motivated students’ performance and fluency of the speaking mastery. In all, culture and technology should be used in teaching speaking.
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203 Rhetorical Moves and Linguistic Complexity of Research Article Abstracts in International Applied Linguistics Journals
Umar Fauzan Institut Agama Islam Negeri Samarinda, Indonesia
Arif Husein Lubis Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
Eri Kurniawan Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
Biodata: Umar Fauzan is an English lecturer at IAIN Samarinda, Indonesia. His main research agenda focuses on the discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis, discourse teaching, and teaching English as a Foreign Language. He is available in [email protected]
Arif Husein Lubis is currently working as a lecturer at Language and Arts Education Faculty, Indonesia University of Education, Bandung, Indonesia. His research interests and publications center on Teaching English as a Foreign Language, ICT Integration, and English for Academic Purposes. He can be reached in e-mail: [email protected]
Eri Kurniawan is a professor candidate and currently working as a lecturer and Head of English Language and Literature study program, Indonesia University of Education, Bandung, Indonesia. His research interests and publications revolve around Linguistics, Sundanese Grammar, and Second Language Acquisition. He can be contacted in [email protected]
Abstract This study examines rhetorical moves and their linguistic realizations including linguistic
204 complexity in applied linguistics abstracts. Informed by a genre-approach move analysis, this study analyzed 112 abstracts from four international journals. The clauses and phrases were examined, not only the sentences to reach more fine-grained results. A top-down approach was carried out to analyze the rhetorical moves. Afterward, a bottom-up approach was applied to scrutinize the linguistic realizations. The findings demonstrated that the rhetorical moves and their constituent steps of the abstracts influenced the conformities of some linguistic features such as verb tense, verb type, verb function, and sentence voice. However, rhetorical moves considerably exemplified a variety of grammatical complexity, i.e. noun modifications in complex noun phrases as sentence subjects and objects. Communicative functions of the moves and steps also influenced lexical density level typically caused by more complex noun phrases than complex clauses. This study concludes that applied linguistics abstracts from international journals have typical conventions to adhere. Implication to materials development in corpus- driven genre pedagogy of English for research publication purposes and recommendations for future research are also presented.
Keywords: Rhetorical move, linguistic realization, linguistic complexity, applied linguistics abstracts, international journals
Introduction The importance of quality abstract of research article has been definitive. This sub-genre serves as the main shortcut for international readers to review its relevance with their studies (Kafes, 2012). It is corroborated by the guide from Elsevier (2017) that one of the main criteria to measure the quality of research articles is the abstract content. The quality of abstracts can, therefore, increase the acceptance rate from the editors and the citations of the articles as an accurate indicator of active contribution to the expansion of knowledge in the field. On the other hand, the exponential number of NNES writers engaging with international publications might generate diversity in organizing the abstracts along with its linguistic realizations (Solikhah & Budiharso, 2019). Hence, further investigations of research article (RA) abstracts are still worth-taking to comprehend the complexity of RA abstract writing for the purpose of the development of genre pedagogy of English for research publication purposes. The diverse abstract templates across disciplines and journals can cause difficulties among the NNES writers in constructing the intended abstracts. Contrastingly, the unification of both the language use and the information organization receives first concern to be applied (Stotesbury, 2003). The writers, therefore, perceive the abstract writing as a daunting and very competitive
205 task (Can, Karabacak, & Qin, 2016), even for experienced writers. The issue arises from a personal lack of authorial voice to unfamiliarity of the different rhetorical conventions across journals (Flowerdew, 2001; Budiharso & Tarman, 2020). In response, the genre-analytical approach to discourse analysis through move analysis on the RA abstracts is therefore employed in the present study. In line with the technology development allowing the investigation of big data, corpus-based move analysis has shed light on a wide range of rhetorical conventions of the RA abstracts (Swales, 1990). The manifestation of rhetorical moves in RA abstracts has been extensively and intensively examined. Previous research in the last five years has delineated the typical conventions of RA abstracts and the variations including the linguistic realizations of the moves and steps (Amnuai, 2019; Can, Karabacak, & Qin, 2016; Kurniawan, Lubis, Suherdi, & Arifin, 2019; Tankó, 2017) and the linguistic complexity (Omidian, Shahriari, & Siyanova-Chanturia, 2018; Pho, 2008; Ruan, 2018). Additionally, previous research has examined the rhetorical aspects across disciplines (Chalak & Norouzi, 2013; Pho, 2008; Samraj, 2005) and across cultural identities such as L1 background of the authors (Martín-Martín, 2002) and quartile of the journals indexed by Scopus (Kurniawan et al., 2019). Despite the milestone of research on genre analysis of RA abstracts, little attention has been devoted to examining the interplay between rhetorical moves and their linguistic complexity such as noun modifications and lexical density. The reason is that there is word limit in writing RA abstracts, which might influence the authors’ strategy to convey the content effectively and efficiently. Although the respective journal is not compared in this study, the description of any various manifestation of the rhetorical aspects refers to the individual journal. The present study aims to address two research questions as follows. 1. How are the abstracts rhetorically organized and linguistically realized? 2. How are the linguistic complexity of the moves manifested?
Literature Review The Abstract Section as a Sub-genre of a Research Article Some recent studies have been well-documented to unveil the consensus about the salience of rhetorical moves in the RA abstracts. The salience of rhetorical moves can be affected by discipline. From the soft science, previous research (Amnuai, 2019; Can et al., 2016) regards the research purpose, methodology, and findings as obligatory/conventional. From the hard science, previous research reveals that there are no significant differences in rhetorical moves manifestation between international reputable and local journals in the field of Dentistry
206 (Vathanalaoha & Tangkiengsirisin, 2018). Both groups perform three moves mentioned before. The salience of rhetorical moves can also be influenced by Scopus journal quartile. Kurniawan et al. (2019) revealed that the top-tier Applied Linguistics journal exhibits a considerable number of abstracts featuring the statement of gap in introduction move and the statement of research significance in conclusion move. However, whether international journals exemplify highly densed sentences based on the moves and steps is still under-explored. The longitudinal inquiry of the rhetorical structure has also demonstrated a diversity among scholars. The Purpose-Method-Results configuration is preferable. It warrants that the abstracts composed of less than three moves generate the vagueness of meaning for the international readership. Consequently, the possibility to appeal to the readers’ interests to read and cite the paper can be diminished. Saeeaw and Tangkiengsirisin (2014) do not found non- conformities in the abstracts written by Environmental Science and Applied Linguistics scholars. I-P-M-Pr-C and P-M-Pr-C configurations are most prevalent in both cohorts, which is confirmed by other researchers as well. From the contrastive approach perspective (e.g., Chalak & Norouzi, 2013), the three-move configuration becomes obligatory in American and Iranian abstracts. It implies that disciplines and the L1 background of the authors also do not necessarily generate non-conformities of the rhetorical structure of the RA abstracts. This triggers a further inquiry on the characteristics of the journals, which might exemplify differences.
Linguistic Realizations of the Abstracts The present study defines linguistic realizations as the term comprising linguistic characteristics and features attached to the moves. Meanwhile, linguistic complexity focuses on the syntactic structure of the sentence or clause. At least, there are three significant categories of analysis, i.e. grammatical features (tense, voice, types of subject, certain expressions, lexico-grammatical patterns, lexical density, lexical bundles), linguistic characteristics (position of the moves, referencing style, sentence length) and grammatical complexity (complex noun phrase, noun modification, phrasal complexity, clausal complexity). Concerning grammatical features, it is commented that the L1 background of the authors and the nature of the disciplines affect the manifestation of this aspect. Pho (2008) presents the unique language features of each move from the selection of sentence subject to the use of authorial voice by employing references and modality. The tendency of abstracts written by NESs or published in international reputable journals to employ simple present tense in
207 presenting the research purpose and findings becomes a distinguished point. The interplay between lexical density (hereafter LD) and rhetorical moves has been set out by Tankó (2017). Focusing on the field of literature, he argues that the RA abstracts are typically denser than other types of academic writing like essays or academic summaries (i.e., indices were above .50 on average). It conforms to Biber and Gray’s (2016) parameter of academic and non-academic registers. Research articles are on the very right side of the ‘informational’ axis (69). To the best of my knowledge, however, the academic exploration on this issue still receives little attention in other disciplines, allowing further research to obtain a diverse portrait of LD values in the discipline-specific RA abstracts (Solikhah, 2020). Some empirical studies have delved into the grammatical complexity of the RA abstracts. According to Biber and Gray (2016, p. 62), syntactic complexity ranges from clausal to phrasal complexity. Informed by a second-language acquisition perspective, Biber, Gray, and Poonpon (2011) and Tarman & Kuran (2015) describe that the cognitive development of grammatical complexity among higher-level academic writers comprises five stages from the learning of clause complexes to the manifestation of complex noun modifications. The level of lexical density is determined by the occurrence of grammatical complexity (D Biber, Gray, & Poonpon, 2013). As mentioned earlier, the highly-dense information through the combination of pre- and post-modification of nouns packaged in a single sentence or ranking clause inextricably involves more content words from the SFL perspective. Friginal and Mustafa (2017) also found that the analyzed abstracts depicted its informational characteristics, such as frequent use of nouns and noun-modifiers. A comprehensive outlook of the patterns of structure compression using complex noun phrases is presented in Ruan’s (2018) study. He concludes that there is varying evidence about the types of complex noun modifiers in between the sub-corpora of NESs’ and Chinese abstracts in which the former cohort tends to employ the prepositional of phrase, while attributive adjective by the latter cohort. Omidian, Shahriari, and Siyanova-Chanturia (2018, p. 3) later on argued, “what is largely missing…is a systematic analysis of the link between rhetorical moves and their linguistic realizations across different disciplines.” Through a mixed-method approach, their analysis of lexical bundles in their one-million-word corpus shows that the authors prefer the conventionality of using research-oriented bundles in the field of hard sciences. Meanwhile, the argument-oriented bundles are manifested more in the soft-science abstracts. Given the circumstances, the interplay between rhetorical moves and linguistic complexity is therefore valuable, albeit not intensively investigated yet. The previous abstracts corpora are
208 mainly from international top-tier and local journals in their fields, including Applied Linguistics. Because the genre consists of a set of situated linguistic behaviors, it is essential to unveil the void in an AL abstracts corpus from international top-tier and non-top-tier journals to obtain a bigger picture. Moreover, the exploration of the patterns of complex noun phrases does not associate them with the rhetorical moves of the abstracts.
Methods The Corpus and Data Collection Process A corpus of 112 RA abstracts in the field of applied linguistics was compiled from four journals, i.e., Applied Linguistics (AL), Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics (IJAL), International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature (IJALEL), and Journal of Research in Applied Linguistics (RALs). The criteria for the journal selection include 1) indexed; 2) similar coverage; 3) different affiliations one another; 4) and still active. Twenty- eight abstracts were selected purposively from each journal. Due to the hand-coding process involving highly intensive time to finish, the use of larger corpus is considerably difficult (Ansarifar, Shahriari, & Pishghadam, 2018; Lubis, 2019). Thus, the number of abstracts from each journal is based on the minimum requirement for an in-depth analysis proposed by Corder and Foreman (2009), as much 20-30 RAs. The selection focuses on the research-based or data- based abstracts since the typology and linguistic realizations of the review or theoretical articles may have a differing rhetorical moves (Pho, 2008).
Table 1. Background information of the corpus Journal Word- No. Publication Total Range of Range of Range of count of year words entire average portion limit RA sentences words per of each sentence sentence AL 28 2012-2018 4.891 4-9 19-36 11%- 175 25% IJAL 300 28 6.055 4-13 21-35 8%-25% IJALEL 250 28 5.258 4-13 16-35 8%-25% RALs 100-150 28 4.904 4-11 15-34 9%-25% Total 112 21.108
209 This study is designed as a corpus-based move analysis (Baker, 2010; Hyland, 2009). Data collection procedure started from segmenting each abstract into sentences. Although the sentences became the unit of study, the clauses and phrases were also analyzed to obtain more fine-grained results of the move-step occurrences.
Top-down Approach to the Analysis of Rhetorical Moves The top-down-approach analysis aims to address the first research question about the rhetorical moves and its linguistic realizations. The analysis process involved three stages. The abstracts segmented into sentences were firstly labeled with a move, then scrutinized into clauses and phrases to reach better results particularly about the move embeddings. Each move was reanalyzed results in the redefinition of certain moves into steps. The pilot analysis unveiled some possible sub-communicative functions in realizing Move 1, 3, and 5 (see Table 4. The identified patterns generally conformed to the Hyland’s (2000) model. Hence, the model was chosen as the analysis guideline in the subsequent labeling process, albeit not blindly referred to it considering the nature of the corpus-based move analysis procedure (Kanoksilapatham, 2007, p. 34). This manual coding is, on the one hand, beneficial because, to the best of my knowledge, no software is available to obtain as accurate results as the manual coding, as also stated by Ansarifar, Shahriari, and Pishghadam (2018). The final analysis generated the occurrence of a new step (labeled Step 3 Stating limitation) in Move 5, albeit manifested only in one RA (see Table 2). While the study was not initially designed to support trainers in their professional development [….] [RA1, S3, AL]
Table 2. The current version of rhetorical structure in the corpus Move Step M1 Introduction S1 Arguing for topic significance S2 Making topic generalization S3 Defining the key term(s) S4 Identifying gap M2 Purpose M3 Method S1 Describing participants S2 Describing instrument(s) S3 Describing procedure and context
210 of analysis M4 Findings M5 Conclusion S1 Deducing conclusion/interpretation S2 Evaluating the significance of the research S3 Stating limitation S4 Presenting recommendation or implication
Last but not least, seven abstracts from each journal (28 in total or 25% of the entire corpus) were randomly taken and administered to an inter-coder whose expertise is in discourse analysis to decrease subjectivity level upon the results (Kanoksilapatham, 2013). The detailed description of inter-coder reliability is presented later. After achieving good agreement between my coding results and the inter coder’s using Cohen’s kappa value, the remaining 75% of the abstracts were independently labeled by the researcher.
Bottom-up Approach to the Analysis of Linguistic Realizations and Linguistic Complexity This bottom-up analysis aims to address the second and third research questions about the linguistic realizations and complexity of the moves. The linguistic realizations encompassed grammatical features, i.e., grammatical subjects, verb tense and voice, the syntactic function of the subject, function and syntactic structure of the verb. The last two features were derived from the analysis results. The analysis of grammatical complexity refers to (D Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad, & Finegan, 1999) classification, particularly on complex noun phrases as the subjects or after the verbs. Based on the results, four additional categories were discovered in this case: mn, madj, mpp, and med-c (see Table 3 for the complete description). Table 3. Description of the syntactic conventions Grammatical structure with grammatical complexity subject Grammatical Description subject the of function syntactic The Description verb* structure of the syntactic The Description modifications noun of Category Description
C1 Object of n noun v.n verb plus n noun
211 the research noun C2 Self- np noun phrase v.np verb plus adj attributive reference noun phrase adjective or person participial modifier (ing or ed) C3 Previous dp demonstrati v.adj modal plus pp prepositiona literature/st ve pronoun verb plus l phrase udies adjective C4 Audience d.n demonstrati v.pp verb plus app appositives ve pronoun prepositional (i.e. in- plus noun phrase brackets abbreviation s) C5 Writer’s 3rd.(a) 3rd-person v.pn verb plus ing-c ing-clause macro pro (animate) p prepositional work, i.e. pronoun noun phrase this study/article C6 Writer’s 3rd.(ia 3rd-person v.to- verb plus to- ed-c ed-clause micro work, )pro (inanimate) inf infinitive i.e. the pronoun findings/ana lysis C7 Anticipator v.n.t verb plus mn multiple y it and o-inf noun plus to- nouns existential infinitive there w-h Noun clause madj multiple adjectives v.th- verb plus mpp Multiple c that-clause prepositiona l phrases
212 med- Multiple c past participial clauses v.wh verb plus -c noun clause *(.) denotes followed by
Later on, before the lexical density of the moves and steps was calculated, several previous formulae were reviewed, resulting in the selection of Halliday’s (2008) method. According to him, the lexical density level is determined by the number of content words in a ranking clause. It best fitted with his conception of ranking clauses and was previously proved to be more stable with the readability index (To, 2018). Since the embedded clauses are in the lower position than the ranking clauses, only paratactic (independent) and hypotactic (dependent) clauses were analyzed (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014; To, 2018). The process continued with the consultation about the labels of the content words and grammatical words with an expert in SFL-based textual analysis. Afterward, the lexical density level of each abstract was calculated using Excel.
Data Trustworthiness In conformity with the research ethics, all background information of the abstracts is made pseudonyms (e.g., RA1). Furthermore, the coder triangulation method was undertaken by conducting an inter-coder reliability test to reduce the subjectivity level of the author upon the analysis results (Lubis, 2019). Cohen’s kappa (k) value becomes the benchmark of the agreement level (Biber et al., 2007; Moreno & Swales, 2018). Orwin’s (1994) classification was adopted to interpret the Kappa value. The average Kappa value is 0.90 indicating an excellent level of agreement.
Findings RQ 1: Between the Manifestation of Rhetorical Moves and Their Linguistic Realizations This sub-section sequentially explains the move-step salience and the rhetorical moves and their linguistic realizations. All excerpts are quoted verbatim. The data about the sentence length were obtained by calculating the number of words of the moves and steps in each abstract. The calculation results were then categorized into three codes, i.e., long (>28%),
213 standard (20-25%), and short (<18%). As depicted in Table 4, overall, there were 956 moves identified in the corpus. Table 4 presents the occurrences of the moves and steps.
Table 4. Moves occurrences Move f % Averag Featurin Step f % Averag Featurin e g e g abstracts abstracts Move 1 124 13 1.1 53% Step 1 40 32% 0.3 29% Introductio % Topic n Significance Step 2 46 37% 0.4 30% Generalizatio n Step 3 6 5% 0.05 4% Definition Step 4 32 26% 0.2 24% Gap Move 2 138 14 1.2 97% Purpose % Move 3 356 37 3.2 100% Step 1 10 31% 0.9 88% Method % Participant 9 Step 2 71 20% 0.6 54% Instrument Step 3 17 49% 1.5 76% Procedure 6 Move 4 224 23 2 73% Findings % Move 5 114 12 1 73% Step 1 52 46% 0.4 38% Conclusion % Conclusion Step 2 22 19% 0.2 19% Research significance Step 3 1 1% 0.01 1%
214 Limitation Step 4 39 34% 0.33 31% Implication Total 956
Table 5. Linguistic characteristics of the moves Introduction M1 Purpose M2 Method M3 Findings M4 Conclusion M5 Move type
Move feature average 24% 19% 31% 28% 18% portion of words long +o +i +o +o +o standard +o +i +i +o +o short +o +o +i +i +i with reference +i +i +i +i - opens abstract +o +o +i - - close abstract - - - +i +f *position(s) 1f, 2i 1o, 2o, 3i 1i, 2o, 3o 2i, 3o, 4o 3i, 4o, 5o Independent +f +ob +f +f +f partially +i - +i +i +i embedded fully - - +i - - embedded (+)=occur; (-)=did not occur i=infrequent; o=occasional; f=frequent; ob=obligatory independent=sentence/independent clause; partially embedded=dependent clause; fully embedded=phrase *M4: position 4 is in 4-move configuration without M5; M5: position 4 is in 4-move
215 configuration with M4
Table 6. Linguistic characteristics of the steps Step type M1 – Introduction M3 - Method M5 – Conclusion nificance Introduction In Introduction sig Introduction Introduction Topic S1 Generalization S2 Definition S3 Gap S4 Participant S1 Instrument S2 Procedure S3 Conclusion S1 significance Research S2 Limitation S3* Implication S4 troduction
Step
feature average 44% 46% 24% 42% 37% 39% 53% 48% 53% 33% 48% portion of words Long +f +f +o +f +o +o +f +ob +ob - +ob standard +i +i +o +i +i +i +i - - +ob - Short +i +i +o +i +o +o +i - - - - opens +f +f +ob - +f +o +o +ob +i - +i move close move +o +i - +ob +i +f +f - +f +ob +f **position 1f, 2i, 3i 1f, 2o 1o, 2f 2f, 3i 1f, 2i, 1i, 2o, 1o, 1ob 1i, 2f 1ob 1i, 2f, 3i 3i 2o, 3i 3i Independe +f +f +ob +ob +o +f +f +f +ob - +f nt partially +i +i - - +i +i +i +i - +ob +i embedded fully - - - - +o +i +i - - - - embedded *The obligatory status in all features cannot be generalized because it only occurs once **The position is as orderly as the original sequence in 2- or 3-step configuration
Move 1 Introduction The introduction move was featured in 53% of the entire corpus. This move typically consisted of one or two steps (46% and 41% respectively) and reached 24% of the average portion in the abstracts. The 2Ss configuration varied but indicated a general tendency to the S1-S2, S1-S3,
216 and S2-S3 patterns. When present, this move was occasionally manifested in a long, standard, or short length of words, infrequently included references, opened the abstract, was infrequently in the second position, and was never in the form of phrases (i.e., not fully embedded). Concerning its constituent steps, determining their length of words in Move 1 also employs the same benchmark: long (>28%), standard (20-25%), short (<18%). No steps were manifested in a short length of words. If realized by more than one step, Step 4 never opened the move indicating its function as the transitional point to Move 2. This step was frequently in the second position within the two-step configuration.
Move 2 Purpose The purpose move was featured in 97% RA abstracts. This move got the second least average portion of words because this move only expresses the point of departure of the study. It was infrequently in a long or standard length, rarely included references, never closed the abstract while occasionally opened it, and must be a sentence. The position of this move to open the RA abstract has been a collective sense. The function of this move as the starting point of the abstract is infrequently manifested in non-top-tier journals (2 in IJALEL, 3 in RALs).
Move 3 Method A different benchmark was employed to determine the category of sentence length of the Move-3 steps, i.e., long (>38%), standard (28-38%), short (<28%). All abstracts manifested the method move. Not surprisingly, the authors devoted 31% of the total words of the abstracts on average to this move. Therefore, it was occasionally long, rarely with references, and frequently in the form of a sentence. Interestingly, this move opened the abstract, albeit infrequently. The authors preferably organized this move by providing two steps (61 abstracts=56%) with the combination of Step 1 describing the participants and Step 3 representing the procedure. Another 34% abstracts manifested all steps, while 10% abstracts were still not concerned with the clarity of method move, informing one sub-communicative function only. Among the three steps, a description of the procedure and context of analysis obtained the highest percentage of the average portion of words leading to the frequently long manifestation of its sentence length. Meanwhile, a description of the participants or research data was occasionally embedded in Move 2 and 4, to mention a few. In terms of the sequence, this step frequently opened Move 3, while Step 3 repeatedly closed the move.
217 Move 4 Findings The findings move reached 73% of occurrence. The average portion of this move surprisingly reached a lower percentage than the method move. Linguistically, it was characterized by the infrequent inclusion of references, short sentence length, no identified opening position, and the frequent form of independent sentence, not as a dependent clause or a phrase. As referred to Table 5, the position of this move was dependent on the position of the conclusion move. It was placed at the end of the abstract if there was no conclusion move afterwards.
Move 5 Conclusion In determining the categories of sentence length, the benchmark refers to the introduction move. Similar to the findings move, the conclusion move was featured in 73% of the entire corpus. The average portion of words spent for this move was 18%, although the sentence was occasionally long and standard in an independent form frequently. In terms of positioning in the abstract, it never opened the abstract, which is considered normal, but ever placed not in the last position. Moreover, it became the only move without references.
Regarding the rhetorical structure, the one-step configuration was also preferred (63 abstracts=78%) by providing either the conclusion of the results, the significance of the study, or the recommendations for wider audiences. On the other hand, a two-step configuration was identified in 17 (21%) abstracts only, and a three-step configuration was manifested in one abstract. It might be caused by the obligatory characteristic of all steps to be realized in long sentences under limited word-count circumstances. Therefore, the authors typically manifest the most important step or the most selling point for international readers. The steps of Move 5 seems partially contrasting to the varying characteristics of the constituent steps of Move 1 and 3, projecting more unified characteristics. First, the obligatory status of length was attached to the long and standard categories only. Second, the conclusion of or interpretation of the findings always opened the move, while implication as the closing point became a must. However, the evidence of no fully steps embeddings conformed to that in the introduction move.
RQ 2: Linguistic Complexity of the Moves and Steps This sub-section unveils certain linguistic complexity of the moves, including the grammatical structure of the subjects and verbs, the phrasal complexity manifested in the forms of complex noun phrases, and the realization of sentence voice of the moves and steps. The underline
218 symbol represents the complex noun phrases; bold symbol indicates the subjects and verbs, and italic symbol represents the tense and the sentence voice. Moreover, the higher-ranking clauses (i.e., parataxis and hypotaxis) became the units of analysis, excluding the embedded clauses to obtain more fine-grained and well-defined results of the subject and verb occurrences. The overall analysis results can be seen in Appendix A. With respect to the grammatical feature of the subject, the use of C1 (e.g., the participants, the formulaic expressions) appeared in all moves and their constituent steps. However, it was frequently used only in defining the key terms and describing the participants, while occasionally used in topic generalization, identifying the gap, describing research procedure, and deducing conclusion or interpretation of the results. In addition, six abstracts made use of C4 (e.g., language educators, tourism employees) to directly convince the broader audiences in arguing for the significance of the study and recommendation or implication. Those lexical choices influence the syntactic function of the subjects in which noun and noun phrases were generally dominant. Even, the manifestation of nouns was infrequent in Step 1 and 4 of Move 1, Step 1 and 2 of Move 3, and Step 4 of Move 5. The linguistic focus of the interventions was epistemic stance, which has rarely been studied in research on instructed SLA within the field of interlanguage pragmatics. [RA3, M1, S4, AL] Implications for writing instruction and research on readability will be discussed. [RA85, M5, S4, RALs]
Demonstrative pronouns also appeared once in the statement of topic generalization. Moreover, some authorial voice was manifested in the forms of first-person, second-person, or third-person pronouns. In recent years, there has been a lot of progress English listening teaching in China, and studies on application of schema theory [….] [RA47, M1, S2, IJAL] [….] we show that they are another key element of metadiscourse, [….] [RA27, M4, AL]
Regarding the realization of complex noun phrases as subjects, the use of nouns or noun phrases leads to a considerable number of occurrences of those phrases. In terms of pre- modifiers, attributive adjectives (e.g., frequent use) (37.18%) including participial as pre- modifiers (e.g., the analyzed texts) were most dominant, followed by another noun (10.7%), multiple adjectives (8.67%), and multiple nouns (3%) in average. Adjectives and nouns as the
219 two most frequently appeared pre-modifiers and prepositional phrases (e.g. the results of qualitative analysis) (32.83%) as the most commonly occurred post-modifiers, followed by multiple prepositional phrases (9.4%), ed-clause (4.67%), appositives (3.16), and ing-clause (3.12%). The following excerpts depict the patterns. Twenty-four learners of English as a foreign language and eight English NSs participated in the study. [RA15, M3, S1, AL] Then, it can be drawn a conclusion that the use of developed task-based materials brings significant effects toward writing performance. [RA63, M5, S1, IJALEL]
Furthermore, the realization of tense varied across moves and steps. As envisaged, the dominance of simple present tense was identified in Move 1, 2, and 5, while simple past tense was dominant in Move 3 and 4. Interestingly, future tense in conveying the research procedure, findings, and implication and present perfect tense in informing the research procedure and conclusion or general interpretation of the results were not identified in the abstracts from AL Journal (Q1). The non-conformities of linguistic realization was, however, not identified in the other features, i.e., verb function, verb type, and sentence voice. As depicted in Appendix A, the conformities of the use of base, transitive verbs in almost all moves and steps might be following the higher frequency of noun and noun phrase occurrences. Meanwhile, the realization of auxiliary, copular verbs in Step 1 of Move 1 was caused by its nature to strengthen the audiences by employing adjectives after the verbs. This study reports a mixed methods design investigation into language teachers’ conception of research. [RA89, M2, RALs] This is important to understanding student motivation in the language classroom, since beliefs form one of the important pillars behind motivation and language learning goals. [RA35, M1, S1, IJAL]
The linguistic complexity also pertains to the strategy used by the authors to realize the syntactic structure of the verbs in each ranking clause in their abstracts. The findings describe a similar fashion to the realization of the subject structure with noun phrases dominantly proceeded with the verbs. Distinguished points were also documented. Some authors from the non-Q1 journals manifested adjectives after the verbs in the statement of research aim, the description of the research participants, the research procedure, and the pedagogical implication.
220 Therefore, the purpose of this study was twofold [….] [RA90, M2, RALs] Some other abstracts preferred the use of clauses like noun clause (v.wh-c) in describing the conclusion of the study or that-clause (v.th-c) in stating the research aim. They clearly show how the contexts of use and socio-cultural dynamics constrain educated Nigerians to deploy the extant morphemic and lexico-semantic rules of the language to produce lexical variations. [RA65, M5, S1, IJALEL] Some other abstracts preferred the use of clauses like noun clause (v.wh-c) in describing the conclusion of the study or that-clause (v.th-c) in stating the research aim. They clearly show how the contexts of use and socio-cultural dynamics constrain educated Nigerians to deploy the extant morphemic and lexico-semantic rules of the language to produce lexical variations. [RA65, M5, S1, IJALEL]
The combination of a passive transitive verb with to-infinitive (v.to-inf) was identified in two abstracts below concerning the statement of participants’ selection. 49 were found to be reflective, from among which 25 participated in the semi-structured interviews. [RA98, M3, S1, RALs] [….], 62 participants in 3 groups were selected to take part in this study. [RA100, RALs]
Such non-conformities reinforce a more information-oriented fashion of abstract writing from top-tier journals by employing more phrasal combination, rather than the clausal combination. Regarding the complex noun phrases as the objects of the verbs, by percentage, attributive adjectives including in the forms of participial were also dominant (27.08%), followed by another noun (11.67%), multiple adjectives (11.33%), and multiple nouns (3.83%). While, prepositional phrase exhibited the highest average frequency of occurrence as in the complex noun phrases as subjects (23.33%), followed by mpp (18.58%), ing-c (6.33%), and ed-c (4.27%). The analysis also noted the realization of multiple ed-c in describing the participants and providing specific findings. The study finds that Target Culture is more salient and disseminated in the textbooks, while Local Culture when present is presented in the form of, among others, names chosen for the characters, places and locations discussed in reading passage, and rituals. [RA43, M4, IJAL] In the interest of space, the paper will present the data obtained from six texts written by 6 students, representing low, mid, and high achievers. [RA55, M3, S1, IJAL] Last but not least is the lexical density of the abstracts (see Table 7). The findings highlight the
221 differing level of lexical richness in which Move 3 undeniably reached the first rank, followed by Move 4 and Move 1. Notwithstanding, Move 2 and 5 were denser than Move 4.
Table 7. Lexical density values Lexical 푿̅ 푿̅ 푿̅ 푿̅ 푿̅ Num. 푿̅ density Content Num. Lexical Context of Lexical words of density words clause density Move-step clause type Move 1 25.5 2.7 10.4 Step 1 17.5 1.7 11.9 Step 2 15.4 1.7 9.8 Step 3 12.6 1.6 8.2 Step 4 13.3 1.5 9.9 Move 2 19.2 1.4 14.9 Move 3 30.1 3.1 11.1 Step 1 12 1.2 10.2 Step 2 13.2 1.3 10.6 Step 3 23.5 2.5 10.6 Move 4 27.5 3.3 9.1 Move 5 18.4 2.1 10.3 Step 1 16.7 2.1 9.4 Step 2 14.4 1.3 12.3 Step 3* 7 1 7 Step 4 14 1.6 9.5 *The results cannot be generalized since it only occurs once
Most steps in the introduction, method, and conclusion moves reached above-seven lexical density values. Although the differing average number of content words and clauses among all steps of Move 1 seemed not considerably distant, the LD values were somewhat different between Step 1 and 2 (11.9:9.8) or between Step 3 and 4 (8.2:9.9), as what Step 2 and 4 of Move 5 also displayed. Contrastingly, Step 2 and 3 in Move 3 reached the same LD value each other with the distant gap of the number of content words.
222 Discussion The findings indicate the tendency of applied linguistics abstracts in international journals to project the indicative-informative typology within the abstracts. They typically consist of purpose, method, and findings. Meanwhile, the introduction move is optional, and the conclusion move is conventional as the findings move. It conforms to the consensus about the preference of RA writers on this typology, which also states the novelty of the study (Çandarlı, 2012; Hardjanto, 2017; San & Tan, 2012) through I-P-M-Pr-C or P-M-Pr-C configurations (Amnuai, 2019; Kafes, 2012; Kurniawan, et al., 2019; Saeeaw & Tangkiengsirisin, 2014; Vathanalaoha & Tangkiengsirisin, 2018). Furthermore, no steps are obligatory. The abstracts conventionally exemplify the description of the research participants and the research procedure. However, definitions of the main variables and statements of the limitations are rare in the corpus. This might be caused by the word limit of the abstracts. This sub-genre of research articles also functions as a place to convince the readers of the research value and novelty. Hence, stating the limitations of the research will greatly affect the students’ interest to keep reading the entire article. Regarding the linguistic realizations of the moves and steps, no steps in the introduction move are manifested in a short length of words, as also revealed by Tankó (2017, p. 49). The position of purpose move to open the abstract has been a collective sense as justified by previous research conducted by Amnuai (2019), Can, Karabacak, and Qin (2016), Kurniawan et al. (2019), and Saeeaw and Tangkiengsirisin (2014) to mention a few. It is not surprising then that the manifestation of purpose move does not require long sentences. The function of this move as the starting point of the abstract is infrequently manifested in non-top-tier journals (2 in IJALEL, 3 in RALs). This indicates a tendency of the writers in AL international reputable journals to highlight the novelty of their research through the convincing combination of findings and conclusion moves. Furthermore, the findings about linguistic complexity of the abstracts show that the manifestation of the noun modifications as the sentence subject or object adhere to the communicative functions of the sentences. The findings conform to Pho’s (2008) argument that each move projects typical linguistic features, mainly in the types of sentence subjects. It reflects the nature of international RAs regardless of the status of the journals (top-tier or non- top-tier) in setting the standards of language use in the abstracts. Adjectives and nouns as the two most frequently appeared pre-modifiers and prepositional phrases (e.g. the results of qualitative analysis) (32.83%) as the most commonly occurred post-modifiers, followed by mpp (9.4%), ed-c (4.67%), app (3.16), and ing-c (3.12%) are also justified by Ansarifar,
223 Shahriari, and Pishghadam (2018) and Ruan (2018). The frequently used prepositional phrases in stating the research significance may be caused by the natural tendency to combine the attributes of the study in beginning the sentences. Meanwhile, the appearances of all types of noun modification indicate a motive to bring about a highly condensed information packed in just certain words instead of a complex clause in writing an RA abstract for general publication purposes. The results conform to Biber and Gray’s (2016) cline of grammatical complexity and Friginal and Mustafa’s (2017) study highlighting the informational nature of abstract writing, which automatically influences the use of more complex noun phrases. The analysis also notes the realization of multiple ed-clause in describing the participants and providing specific findings. The authors using such patterns are Indonesian. Hence, the authors’ L1 background or their repertoire of grammatical complexity may contribute to such non-conformities regarding the manifestation of the highly complex pattern of noun modification. In terms of lexical density, the fact that the purpose move obtains the highest mean score and the the conclusion move exhibits the lowest mean score is no surprise. This might be caused by the word-limit circumstance to package some information to state the research intents. Contrastingly, the authors’ intention to provide easy-to-digest information about the main findings for the sake of gaining interest from international readers can be a contributing factor of the lowest mean score of lexical density. The average LD values in the present study reinforce the higher position of RA abstracts in terms of informational density compared to other works of academic prose (Biber & Gray, 2016; Tankó, 2017). This indicates the interconnection between the high number of content words and the less amount of clauses since structural compression as in complex noun phrases to convey more than one information can represent not only a completely coherent meaning but also the authors’ cognitive processing level of noun modifications as the characteristic of RA abstract writing (Ruan, 2018).
Conclusion This study sets out to delineate the interplay between the rhetorical moves and their linguistic realizations, including linguistic complexity. The findings reach a general conclusion that the writing of an RA abstract is highly dynamic and complex. The RA abstract typology manifested in the corpus tends to be indicative-informative. The authors not only elucidate the research methodology and the main findings but also underscore the research novelty. This study also posits that the lexical characteristics of RA abstracts as a type of academic prose and the word- limit circumstance from the journals coinfluence the authors to share certain conformities in realizing some moves. Furthermore, this study has demonstrated a comprehensive portrait of
224 the realization of complex noun phrases associated with the rhetorical moves. Three contributing conditions can be implied from the findings. The level of the linguistic repertoire of the writers in constructing the RA abstracts possibly determines the tendency to perform more complex noun phrases as an indicator of higher-level academic writing. Situational influence from the word-limit rule of the journal also triggers the realization of complex noun phrases. The communicative functions of the moves and steps become another crucial factor to take into account due to the dilemma between the clarity of the information intended to convey and the word-limit circumstance. Hence, the combination of data-driven learning can mediate the pedagogy of ERPP in abstract writing. The present study suggests the preparation of corpora as the learning resources, which involves several descriptions of how rhetorical moves and their linguistic realizations, including linguistic complexity influence one another. The provision of conformities and non- conformities in those three rhetorical aspects can develop the students’ genre knowledge. Last but not least, considering the limitation of mono-disciplinary approach of genre analysis, applying a cross-disciplinary and contrastive approach involving larger corpora of RA abstracts can be an insightful continuum. Also, a narrative inquiry approach to genre analysis of RA abstracts regarding the interplay between rhetorical moves and linguistic complexity from the journal writers might shed promising light because of the incapability of textual analysis approach to unveil and construe the trajectory of the writers’ cognition and attitudes in this realm.
Pedagogical Implication Pedagogical implication of this study appears through the teaching academic writing and developing styles of the argumentative essay. Rhetoric of an abstract of an international journal shows two conerns of the language teaching: the style of a written text and writing academic text. Linguistically, the rhetoric appears in terms of words choice for an argument. This study implies that teaching argumentative essay should highlight the rhetoric in the academic writing. In teaching academic publication, rhetoric should be emphasized on its fluency on the academid discourse.
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Appendix A. The typical linguistic realizations and linguistic complexity in the corpus Step M1 Introduction M2 M3 Method M4 M5 Conclusion type Purp Findi ose ngs Topic significance S1 Generalization S2 Definition S3 Gap S4 orGeneral purposespecific Participant S1 Instrument S2 Procedure and context S3 findings main of description or Outline Conclusion or interpretation S1 Research significance S2 Limitation S3* recommendation Implication S4
Step
realiz and/or
ation o o f o o o o Subje C1 , C3 C5 C1 , C6 C1 , C6 ct per C6o move
o f o f f o o o Subje C3 C1 C1 C1 N/A* C1 C6 C1 , N/A* C1 , C6 C1 Except o o o o ct per , , * C6 * C6 , C2
229 step C3 C3o C5 o o
Subje npf no, no, npo npo, npf no, no, no, no, no, nob npo ct npo npo, d.no npo npf npo npo npo struct 3rd( ure ia)p roo
Types ni, ni, adji ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, adj — ni, of adjo, adj , adjo adjf, adji, adji adjo, adjo, adji, o, adjo, noun ppi, o, ppf, , ppi, ppo, , ppo, ppo, ppi, ppf, ppi, modifi appi, ppi, ppo, ed-ci, ing- ppi, appi, appi, ed-ci, ed- ing-ci, cation ed-ci, ing ing mni, ci, app ing- ing- mni, ci mni, s in mni, -ci, -ci, madji ed- i, ci, ci, madji madji, the madji mni ed- ci, ing ed-ci, ed-ci, , mppi senten , , ci, ma -ci, mni, mni, mppi ce mppi ma mp dji, ed- madji madji subjec dji, pi mp ci, , , ts mp pi ma mppi mppi pi dji, mp pi
Verb pro, pfo pro, paf paf prf tense pao per move
Verb prf prf prob pro N/A* paf paf paf N/A* prf prf pao prf tense * * b per step
230
Verb bvf, bvf bvf bvf, bvf bvf bvf bvf bvf bvf bvf bvo bvf functi auxo aux b on o verb to, co to if tf tf to tf tf tf tf tf tob tf type
Verb v.npo v.n v.n v.n v.npo v.np v,p v.npo, v.npo, v.npo, v.n v.to v.npo struct po po po o, npo v,pnp v.th- v.th- po, - ure v,pn o co co v,p info po npo b
Types ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, ni, — ni, of adjo, adj adjo adjo adji, adji, adji adji, adjo, adjo, adji adjo, noun ppo, o, , , ppi, ppi, , ppi, ppi, ppo, , ppi, modifi ed-ci, ppi, ppo, ppo, appi, ing- ppo appi, appi, ing- ppi, ed-ci, cation mni, app ing ed- ing- ci, , ing- ing- ci, ing madji, s in madji i, -ci, ci, ci, ed- ed- ing ci, ci, ed-ci, -ci, mppi the , ed- ma mp ci, ci, -ci, ed-ci, ed-ci, mni, ed- object mppi ci, dji po mni, ma ed- mni, mni, madji ci, s after mni madji dji, ci, madji madji , mp the , , mp ma , , mppi pi verbs ma mppo pi, dji, mppi mppi, dji, me mp med- mp d-ci pi ci pi
Voice acf, pao acf aco, pao acf acf per move
231 Voice acf, acf, paf acf, N/A acf, aco, aco, N/A acf acf pao aco, per pao pao pao ** pao paf paf ** b pao step verb function= bv (base verb); aux (auxiliary) verb type= t (transitive); i (intransitive); c (copular) *The obligatory status in all features cannot be generalized because it only occurs once **N/A indicates the similar results in the moves linguistic realizations (.) denotes followed by
232 Media and Communal Guidance: An Analytical Study of Corona-Campaigns
Dr. Abdullah H. Alfauzan Department of Arabic Language and Literature, College of Arabic and Social Studies, Buraidah, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Dr. Mohammad Shariq Department of English Language, College of Arts and Sciences, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Biodata: Dr. Abdullah Alfauzan, an alumnus of Leeds University, UK and a former Vice-Dean of Scientific Research Deanship, is currently an Associate Professor of Comparative Literature at the College of Arabic Language and Social Studies, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. Apart from his being an Editorial Board member of different journals, he has examined a number of dissertations and theses. He is also both a Head and a member of many academic Committees at both the University and *Ministry* levels. With a keen interest in the intricacies of the literature of both Arabic and English, he tries in his research work to find a meeting point in both literatures, in the interest of scholars in this fertile area of research. Dr. Alfauzan has also published widely in journals of great fame and name some of which are Scopus-indexed.
Dr. Mohammad Shariq is an Assistant Professor of Linguistics, College of Sciences and Arts, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD in Linguistics form Aligarh Muslim University which is one of the most reputed Universities in India. He has reviewed and published many research papers in International journals. He has taught several linguistic courses like; Historical Linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Applied Linguistics, Discourse Analysis,
233 Second Language Acquisition, Semantics, Psycholinguistics, Phonetics and Phonology and Lexicography and Terminology.
Abstract The fundamental purpose of this paper is to interpret the range of challenges that the outbreak of Corona (COVID-19) has presented as depicted on the social media. It is expected to unveil the meanings, and stigmatic language attached to COVID-19. The proposed study employed a qualitative-textual analysis research design, and is a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication to determine the objectives of the communication. During times of crises, especially on the scale of a pandemic, polarization of communities is sometimes the outcome of collective anxiety. Historically, this was seen in the case of Spanish Flu outbreak, a flu that actually did not originate in Spain. So is also Corona virus and the associations that have become indivisible part of it. With this concern, adequately analyzed, we hope to offer a framework of proper and healthy expression of human thoughts and feelings through the media guided with a sense of social competence and tolerance.
Keywords: COVID-19, Corona Virus, Media, Community Guidance
Introduction One of the most common conditions associated with any communicable disease is the stigma associated with it and the fear of the disease spread from one person to another. Stigma establishes a gap between the suffering and the wider community that prohibits them from acting on their instinctive urge to seek curative care which will allow them to re-enter their daily social activities. According to Mak (2006), "Stigma" is a classical Greek word coined for a permanent mark, which distinguishes someone as a criminal, for instance, a traitor. The risk of being stigmatised greatly outweighs the urge to rehabilitate their lifestyle for these ailing individuals. In addition, social stigma associated with infectious disease threatens society's public wellbeing and the efficacy of collective efforts to provide unabridged healthcare programs to diagnose and prevent the spread of communicable diseases. Our analysis finds a connection which is clinically meaningful for the spectrum linking communicable diseases to social stigma. They also define the role of the media in exaggerating this dilemma, and discussing the preliminary consequences of policy in mitigating these issues for the world. Cogan et al (1998) specify four conditions in which illnesses are more likely to be stigmatized:
234 ➢ When a sick person is blamed or assumed to be responsible for cause of disease; ➢ When the disease is assumed fatal and degenerative; ➢ When the disease is believed to be hereditary; ➢ If the illness turns up physically.
When one or more of these conditions occur, communal behaviour tends to associate stigma with the disease, a natural rationalization to preserve community health and power. Infectious diseases in particular are connected with stigma and discrimination, and are discussed in detail by Williams (2011).
Nonetheless, this situation will lead to students and teachers being demotivated. Despite the long establishment of English as a foreign lingua franca, the enthusiasm of English learning among EFL students is still a challenge in some contexts particularly during this COVID 19 Pandemic. The growing interest in English reflects an unrivaled appetite for effective English teaching methods. New approaches for language acquisition based on the latest developments in computer and internet technologies have been discussed (Al-Ahdal, & Alkhalaf, 2020; Al- Ahdal, 2020; Alkhudiry & Al-Ahdal, 2020; Almakrob & Al-Ahdal, 2020; Almansour & Al- Ahdal, 2020). Hence, the need for the language learners to be trained to the proper use of language through various media that contribute to truthful expression and communication.
Communal guidance is a means of communication, ensuring that there is a method of transmitting a message from someone (the source of the message) to someone else or a group of people (the message's recipient(s)). Since media is the integral part of communication, any communication either effective or otherwise is supported by means of different media channels, or the social media, which is one of the strongest and fastest modes of communication nowadays. Information sharing within the scope of community/communal guidance is an absolute necessity, as this guidance method itself is a means of communication.
Kinds of communal guidance (Equatora, 2019): ➢ Direct communication method demands that the process of community counseling be carried out by direct (face-to-face) contact with the counselor, both individually and collaboratively.
235 ➢ Indirect communication method needs media assistance as a means of communication in the community guidance process, whether it is done individually, in groups, or in mass.
Corona virus is a pandemic with tremendous adverse community and economic effects. According to World Health Organization (WHO) on 13 April 2020, statistics were available of approximately 1,77 million confirmed cases; 1,11,000 deaths and 211 countries affected by Coronavirus Disease (COVID 19. Today, even several months on, the number is escalating day by day, infected patient count is multiplying, and death rate graph is touching its peak. In this disastrous situation it is unfortunate that the media is not playing its role with responsibility. Transparency in communicating Corona related information is conspicuously absent, leading to worrisome outcomes for the community.
Statement of the Problem The uncritical replication of rhetorical constructions, such as the ‘Chinese Virus’, has led to misunderstandings towards all Chinese products, in a repeat of the Spanish Flu hysteria, which was also the cause of the blacklisting of particular races and communities. The media has always been an instrument for furthering the grip of dominant discourses and interests at the expense of truth, knowledge, and broader sections of humanity. A critical investigation of the media, and its role and language, are even more a pressing need today than ever before. While not originating in Spain, the influenza pandemic of 1918, widely recognized as the “Spanish flu”, began a trend represented by a propensity in the history of public health to equate emerging infectious diseases with foreign citizens and nations.
Significance of the Study This study addresses the social stigma vacuum identified with COVID-19. The victims of COVID are strongly stigmatised and discriminated against by the people and the press. COVID-19 is a modern infectious disease, which broke out in China, and spread to the rest of the world. Nevertheless, there is little information about the cultural problem of stigmatization and bigotry against victims of COVID-19 and, far less so, how stigma associated with COVID- 19 plays out in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, there is a need to understand how the social and cultural context would affect stigma creation in the analysis of disease-associated shame (Mak et al., 2006). A perceived disparity in guidelines has been described as a key issue to non- compliance during the flu pandemic. Exaggeration of vulnerabilities frequently occurs on
236 social media, where highly emotional and often false data regarding diseases and people suffering from these diseases, are shared. Due to the gap in the current literature, this study offers new insights on how the ongoing COVID-19 stigma in Saudi Arabia during and after COVID-19 could provoke wider social issues of long-lasting effects and consequences.
Research Objectives The fundamental purpose of this paper is to interpret the range of challenges that the outbreak of Corona (COVID-19) has presented through the media regarding the meanings, and stigmatic language attached to COVID-19. With this concern, adequately analyzed, it hopes to offer a framework of proper and healthy expression of human thoughts and feelings through the media guided with the virtue of socio-cultural competence and global understanding. In short, our objective is to meticulously analyze the impact of the media as an agent of social awareness in a circumstance as special as a pandemic.
Research Questions The present study aims to consider the lines of inquiry stated below. 1. What are the primary sources and channels of racist discrimination inherent to the English language? 2. What are the meanings conveyed by the media regarding the COVID-19? 3. How is the positive and stigmatic language attached to COVID-19, or ‘Chinese Virus', presented in the media?
Literature Review 'You are Coronavirus'! Social media early in March was rife with scenes of how an Asian man and woman were chased and threatened by a crowd in Nairobi. It was pure luck that they escaped unhurt physically, but not without mental trauma that may last a lifetime. Applebaum in his book in 2010 raised the issue against color racism. What was even more shocking was the fact that Kenya had yet to record a single case of the infection when this incident was reported. The same social media post warned that, if nationals from a particular country were not quarantined by the government, the masses would stone and chase them away. Stigma certainly is much more than an abusive and unfair use of language; it is a manifestation of palpable fear and the psychosis that accompanies it. Stigma related to particular color, religion, or country threatens humanity on a larger scale all over the world. Walter D. Mignolo (2011) discusses the darker side of modern society, exposing the Eurocentric root causes of dominant
237 biases and prejudices the world-over, and calling for stepping outside the hegemonic modes of thinking and living. Serhan and McLaughlin (2020) point out that, apart from understandable fear, a certain amount of xenophobia creeps into the society when stigmatic language or behaviors are propagated, primarily through the mass reach of the social media. Like Mignolo, Liu (2020) rightly states disease and selective naming of the same have had a long history of being used to justify xenophobia. The case of the 'Spanish Flu' though more than a little over one hundred years old is one reminder of how for decades the Spanish people faced social ostracism for the historical mistake of the flu being named after them though it did not even originate in Spain. Similarly, Hope (2018) points out that history is replete with examples of new infectious diseases being named after foreign nationals and countries, a device to remove the epicentre of tension to distant places. While not originating in Spain, the influenza pandemic of 1918 is widely recognized as the “Spanish flu”. While communicable infections like COVID-19 definitely present a continuing danger to human civilization and when modern, life-threatening transmissible infections start to emerge in different areas of the world, anthropological influences that concentrate a comprehensive population analysis would undoubtedly allow healthcare to classify the disease- related stigma in the post-epidemic outbreak. Yet, exaggeration of vulnerabilities frequently occurs on the social media, where highly emotional and often false data regarding disease and person suffering from that disease tend to get shared. Media plays an important role in spreading news regarding any pandemic. Recently, Syed (2020) has discussed social responsibility in regard of Covid-19. Other interesting studies such as Sooknanan (2020) and Abhilasha (2018) also discusses the role of the media in timesof crisis.
Methodology The paper is a qualitative-textual analysis research. By ‘textual’, we mean a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication to determine the objectives of the communication. It will be based on a critical analysis of the media's reiteration of racist phrases, in particular, the ‘Chinese Virus’, in a set of newspapers and TV channels. It is a close, textual analysis of the media's language and images. The study, then, moves on to an examination of the extent to which the political deployment of the 'Chinese Virus' by key social and political actors to a consideration of the broader implications of such racist language in the context of a world already torn by wars and conflicts. The study concludes with a set of suggestions for future research, particularly in relation to the domain language and communication, media studies, and cultural studies.
238 In this study, a fifty-item questionnaire was preliminarily designed to gather primary data from the target sample of 95 employees at Qassim University. This was validated by three senior professors, who eliminated ten items. The final questionnaire carried twelve demographic and general information items, and twenty-eight pertaining to the respondents’ exposure to different media with respect to information on Covid 19 providing a gist of their socio- linguistic attitudes. 62.5% of the respondents were male, and 37.5% were female. All the respondents had a minimum of a master’s degree and highest of PhD, and at least 64 of the 95 respondents were settled in urban areas of the country. The entire sample fell in the age group of 36-58 years. As COVID19 is a communicable disease and people are keeping themselves very much locked in their homes and keeping social distancing, 100% of sample population confirmed they do not have any interactions with any of the COVID19 patients. They also confirmed none of them nor their family members were infected though they were afraid of getting infected, and that was the only reason they kept themselves self-quarantined at their homes. Thus, by the time of the data collection, none of the respondents had any exposure to a Corvid patient, nor were any of their relatives or acquaintances infected by it. A large majority (more than 62%) reported accessing news on the pandemic, though the media used varied.
Data Analysis and Discussion of Results Out of the total population, 37.5% confirmed that they had adequate knowledge about the disease and its impacts on the human body. While the rest 62.5% were informed about COVID19 in bits and pieces which is really not a good awareness percentile for any infectious diseases. Since the outbreak of the pandemic, news consumption in the KSA was reported to have seen a spike. Where earlier figures showed an average of twenty minutes of news access per day per adult, random informal surveys revealed that, during the first four weeks of the lockdown period, this figure went up by six times with an adult spending an average of two hours scouring the news. When asked about the preferred medium for news access, the highest preference was given to the social media by 87.5% of the respondents, followed by television, social interaction, and others, in that order. This is a significant finding, as it clearly places the social media way ahead of other news platforms, and establishes its value amongst the users. Figure 1 below graphically depicts this data set.
239 Figure 1: Medium preference for news access
Others
Social interaction
Social media
Television
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Figure 2: Time of news access
Out of the total population sample 87.5% of people prefer to discuss the political view with their friends and colleagues (Figure 3).
Figure 3: News sharing patterns
while only 12.5% of the population discuss such controversial topics with the family and close relatives. In their daily connect 50% of population get their thoughts influenced with the social media while the rest 50% do not (Figure 4).
240 Figure 4: Influence of news on thought process
Also as per the survey we can conclude that, only 37.5% of population trust news from news brands while 25% of the population follows the journalist and the rest 37.5% (Figure 5), out of this sample 87.5% agree. Very surprisingly, internet and electronic media share 37.5% of population each so far as viewership goes, to get news about World/Corona, however 25% of population voted for newspaper as the best medium for news.
Figure 5 :Trustednews medium
These are significant findings and reflect profoundly on the image of local media as a reliable and trustworthy source of correct information When asked if they used the term Chinese Virus 87.5% of population sample confirms that, it is not appropriate to use this term, only 12.5% of population went in favour of using it. positive and only 12.5% acquisced that they did not feel right about using such a loaded term When asked if the media showed actual facts, at least 25% of the respondents showed doubt and stated thatthe fact content in news was in fact very little (Figure 6)
241 Figure 6: Fact content of news
,However, with the next question which clearly identifies Chinese Virus as a racist comment when the respondents are asked again if it is acceptable to use such langauge in communication, 62.5% expressed doubt by reporting that sometimes such language may be used Out of the total, 62.5% and 37.5% of the respondents opined that the social media and television helped respectively create stigmatic language while the press or print media are, by default, given a clean chit. This is depicted in Figure 7 below.
Figure 7: Creation of stigma by media
To another question on the correctness of blaming any specific country, or race, for causing a disease and in fact, naming the disease after them, a large majority of 62.5% disagreed which shows the collective conscience recognises the poor logic behind such an action. The respondents appeared rather well-informed on the negative outcomes of stigmatising a medical condition such as Covid 19 as more than 87% reported it can be harmful for the infected individual as well as the society; possibly because, the fear generated by the stigma prevents them from seeking medical intervention, and perhaps even spreading it unwittingly in the process (Figure 8).
242 Figure 8: Effects of stigmatising
As a corolloary to this, the respondents seemed aware that social media languagetends to corrupt real and useful news, giving it color, and a large majority also agreed that merely ,sharing a disease with another community or race has led to their being unfairly labelled discriminated against, treated differently with all of these leading to loss of prior status. A huge number (87.5%) also thought that this kind of discrimination leads to negative impact on the patient's mental health (Figure 9)
9 Figure: Stigma and mental health
Moreover, another 75% of the respondents agree that people who may not be infected but happen to share other features with this cluster are also likely to struggle due to the stigma and shame. That nothing has shaken the world like Covid 19 in year 2020, is borne out bythe fact that only 12.5% of the sampledisagree with the statement. ^2.5% ofthe respondents report in the positive opining that it is the fear ofthe social stigma that drives infected people to hide their illness, while another 87.5% agree that the disease and not the patient needs to be fought against. The sensitivity of the respondents even in the face of all the negative news is reflected in response to the next question about their reaction if theyare to meet an infected person, with reporting that they would not be caught treating such a person badly %62.5
243 Conclusions The study concludes that the extent of the awareness of the Saudi people as to the loaded language used in the different media outlets is reasonably good, as they realise that the media may sometimes employ unfair language in order to increase their TRPs or ratings amongst the viewers. This explains why international news channels, or media, are seen as being more reliable in their reporting of the pandemic. Print media yet enjoys its conventional place as the more trustworthy source of news; however, it is the social media that really attracts the people. Therefore, it would be in place to devise mechanisms that may ensure reliability of news. People need to be generally cautioned against news that cause communal disparities and divide the world along racial lines as these can prove harmful to all in the long run. A judiciously- considered examination of the language deployment in a wide spectrum of media outlets is the urgency of the hour; because, it contributes significantly to bringing together the politically fragmented sections of humanity.
Recommendations ➢ Sharing of information related to corona without reliable sources like WHO website should be seriously checked. ➢ Information which breeds hatred should be shunned. ➢ During the early stages of an outbreak, priority must be paid to fostering the social standing of primary health care providers, and making sure their immediate families are healthy. ➢ Governing accountability needs to be defined right from the start. Official silence only promotes rumors and propaganda mistrust to the public. Without relevant data which is clear and reliable, identified infection risks can worsen stigma, and set up undue alarm. ➢ The extent to which policymakers and healthcare professionals discussed local health concerns before disease crises greatly affects community support. It is only when these circumstances are re-established that it is realistic to expect cooperation from affected populations with services like contact tracing and identifying steps of separation from the past quarantine specter. ➢ Government, Media and individual should understand the importance of building a surge capacity for public trust in such a major crisis to avoid any mishap just because of wrong communication. ➢ The degree to which policymakers and medical professionals discussed local health concerns before disease crises greatly affects community trust. Only when these
244 conditions are pre-established, it can be practical to expect affected communities to comply with programs such as communication tracing and separate isolation steps from the historical quarantine specter. ➢ Sensible regulation needs to take into account the economic effects of stigma related to COVID-19.
Measures for preventive cure ➢ Social distancing: No new vaccines and therapies have yet been licensed, so the only way to avoid disease at the moment is to minimize exposure to this virus, and to strictly comply with travel, communication, or large gatherings prohibitions. ➢ All who practice social isolation, or quarantine, may feel anxious and miserable. They should keep themselves busy and creative with a workout, do something fun, and take a regular approach to learning something new. ➢ Individuals should monitor themselves for related signs, and remain vigilant.
Limitations of the study ➢ Use of online panelsand studies restricts the involvement of many significant demographic groups, including the aged (COVID-19 risk group) and vulnerable groups, such as migrants, refugees, young people under 18, elderly and other disadvantaged groups. ➢ As these results relating to the general community may not extend to particular vulnerable community, this limits the generalizability of the results of the research. ➢ Another drawback of the analysis is that, while validated for certain scales and well- founded in comprehensive conduct research, the items were not validated through a robust COVID-19 method specially. ➢ Since this corona virus has never been seen before and must be considered as a restriction in the analysis of results. ➢ Considering mind limits, self-reported characteristics are identified to differ from current behavior, not least because of the impact on social acceptability, so the behavioral findings should be analyzed with this validity. ➢ Not all data, or results, obtained with this method can be correlated for future assessment purposes across nations, as each nation adapts different strategies. ➢ Cross country comparisons should be conducted to get best results, which are a tough task to get real data from different nations.
245 Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge Qassim University represented by the Deanship of Scientific Research, on the financial support for this research under the number asc-as-2020- 1-1-L-9960 during the academic year 1441AH/2020AD.
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246 10. Green, J., & Thorogood, N. (2004). Qualitative methods for health research. London: Sage 11. Mak, W. W. S., Mo, P. K. H., Cheung, R. Y. M., Woo, J., Cheung, F. M., & Lee, D. (2006). Comparative stigma of HIV/AIDS, SARS, and tuberculosis in Hong Kong. Social Science and Medicine 63, 1912-1922. 12. Mignolo, W. D. The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, Decolonial Options. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2011. 13. Moore-Gilbert, t.(1997.) Postcolonial Theory: Contexts, Practices, Politics. London and New York: Verso, 14. Said, Edward William. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. London: Vintage, 1997. 15. Sooknanan, J & Comissiong, D. (2020). Trending on Social Media: Integrating Social Media into Infectious Disease Dynamics. Bulletin of Mathematical Biology. 82. 10.1007/s11538-020-00757-4. 16. Syed, E & Mahmood, S. E. (2020). INFECTIOUS DISEASES | MINI REVIEW NOVEL CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC: SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND CONTROL. 17. Trevor, H. (2018).: Spanish Flu": When infectious disease names blur origins and stigmatize those infected, American Journal of Public Health, (Nov). 18. Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). The Qualitative Debate. Research Methods Knowledge Base. http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualmeth.php 19. WHO. Corona virus disease pandemic. https://www.who. int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019 ( Last accessed on April 13 2020) 20. Williams, J & Gonzalez-Medina, D & Le, Q. (2011). Infectious diseases and social stigma. Applied Technologies & Innovations. 7. 10.15208/mhsj.2011.127. 21. Yasmeen, S & McLaughlin, T. (2020). The other problematic outbreak. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/03/coronavirus-covid19- xenophobia-racism/607816/ Accessed 31 March 2020, 0429 hrs.
247 A Syntactic Approach to Verb Movement in Arabic
Ameen Alahdal Department of English and Translation College of Science and Arts at Uglat Asugour Qassim University, Saudi Arabia [email protected]
Bio-data:
Ameen Alahdal is an Assistant Professor in Department of English and Translation, College of Science and Arts at Uglat Asugour, Qassim University. He is both a Syntactician and a Phonetician at the same time who works on different dialects with great zeal and zest. He has published in Scopus and WOS-indexed journals, including Lingua. With above 6 years of teaching experience at tertiary level institutions in Yemen and Saudi Arabia, he is interested in Second Language Acquisition, with an inclination towards investigating primary language acquisition. He also has to his credit the experience of teaching Advanced Syntax to post- graduates in India. He has also received many grants for conducting research in the interest of Qassim University research community. His research interests include comparative syntax, syntax-phonology interface and language acquisition.
Abstract
This paper looks at the controversial issue of head movement in linguistic theory, with special reference to V-to-T movement in Arabic. It attempts to answer two questions: Where does head movement take place? And what triggers head movement. It is argued that V-to-T movement takes place in narrow syntax rather than in PF. It is also argued that V-to-T movement is triggered by an EPP on a sub-feature in T, namely a valued [tense Past]. The paper supports a syntactic framework where not only heads but also features and sub-features can have their own syntactic behavior.
Keywords: Arabic; head movement; V-to-T movement; sub-feature; minimalism
248 1. Introduction Head movement has always been a controversial issue in linguistic theory. There are generally two questions that arise in this context: where head movement takes place; and what triggers the movement. In this paper I look at head movement, manifested in V-to-T movement in Arabic1. The paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 traces the historical development of head movement as a syntactic operation and the conditions regulating it from GB through the Minimalist Program MP. In section 3, I examine Chomsky’s (2000) claim that head movement is a phonological, rather than a syntactic operation. Section 4 is a review of the previous approaches to V-to-T movement. Section 5 proposes an account to V-to-T movement in Arabic. In particular, it is argued that V-movement (at least in Arabic) is triggered by an EPP (Extended Projection Principle) on a [tense] feature on T in its temporal deictic sense. That is, only a valued T for [tense Past] can have an EPP. Section 6 concludes the paper.
2. Head Movement: a historical sketch
Head movement2 has been always a topic of controversy in generative linguistics. It has been mainly invoked to account for certain morphological cases. For instance, in the pre-GB generative tradition, Chomsky (1957) proposed Affix Hopping, a head movement, though a downward operation, to account for verbal morphology in English. However, it was only in the GB era that head-movement was formally characterized– particularly Travis (1984), Koopman (1984), and Baker (1985, 1988). (1) Head Movement Constraint (Travis 1984: 131) An X0 may only move into the Y0 which properly governs it.
Generally, head movement in the GB approach was a case of Move α, where α is an X0, typically the head of an XP in the X-bar theory, where terminal lexical items could be inserted. And as a Move operation, head movement was subject to well-formedness conditions. These conditions were of three types: structure preservation, locality and well-formedness of traces. The first (e.g., Chomsky 1986) regulates the landing site of the movement: heads can move
1 The standard assumption is that V-to-v movement is universal. See (Gallego (2010), Baker (1988), Hale & Keyser (2002), Marantz (1997) et seq., and Rizzi (2006). 2 Discussion of the development of head movement in the text borrows heavily from Roberts (2011).
249 only to head positions, XPs to XP positions. With respect to locality, the condition on head movement, formulated first in Travis (1984) as HMC, is given above, and rephrased below.
(2) Head Movement Constraint Head movement of X to Y cannot skip an “intervening” head Z. (Roberts 2001: 113) Intervention here is understood in terms of (asymmetric) c-command. To illustrate, consider the following structure (A, B and C are all heads).
(3) A > B >C
In (3), A asymmetrically c-commands B (represented by the symbol >), and B asymmetrically c-commands C. In this structure, according to HMC (and any formulation of intervention for that matter), A cannot enter into a relation with C across B. Hence, C cannot undergo a head movement to A crossing B.3 Finally, the trace of head movement had to observe general conditions on traces, primarily ECP (Empty Category Principle). According to this principle, traces (of head movement and NP-movement) have to be properly governed. Roberts (2011) shows that ECP imposed three requirements on head movement. First, for X to move to Y, XP (i.e., the maximal projection of X) has to be the sister of Y. If this condition does not hold, the trace of X cannot be governed. This has actually explained why head movement out of subjects and adjuncts is impossible. Second, downward movement is not allowed. By ECP, an antecedent has to c- command its trace. Now if a head X moves downward, it will not be able to c-command its trace. Finally, the ECP features a sort of relativized minimality (Rizzi 1990) and therefore can derive the HMC. In brief, head-movement in the GB conception was a (narrow) syntactic operation of movement of a head X to a governing head Y. The conception of head movement did not change much in the early days of minimalism (Chomsky1993; 1995). But it acquired more explanatory power. For example, Chomsky (1993)
3 In fact, it seems that because of the pervasive intervention effects attested in natural language, a formal condition regulating intervention effects seems to be an inevitably primitive in linguistic theory (see the different works of Luigi Rizzi, which emphasize the existence of locality as a UG principle). This perhaps explains why some form of such a constraint has survived all formulations of the minimalist program. Consider in this respect Chomsky’s recent Activity Condition in the phases framework, and Rizzi’s ‘relativized minimality’ in its different formulations: in terms of positions (Rizzi 1990), in terms of features (Rizzi 2004) and in terms of lexical distinctness (Rizzi 2013).
250 suggests that in addition to deriving verbal morphology, V-movement – a case of head movement – creates what he calls equidistance, which could explain the derivation of a clause in the checking theory, where the object moves across the subject (to Spec,AgrP or, alternatively, to Spec,vP), and then the subject moves across the object trace (on the way to Spec,TP),4 incurring, quite unexpectedly, no minimality effects. More precisely, movement of the verb made the subject and object ‘equidistant’; either can move. Moreover, V-movement could also explain phenomena like Holmberg’s generalization of Object Shift in Scandinavian.5 What matters for us here is that Chomsky continued to conceive of head movement as a syntactic operation. Chomsky (2001), however, marks a breakthrough in the issue of head movement. Here, Chomsky (p.37-38) claims that head-movement, apart from Baker’s cases of incorporation, is a phonological or morphological operation. This claim of Chomsky’s has attracted a hot debate in the literature,6 as we will see below. Many problems have been raised against the PF-based approach to head movement. For instance, conceptually, Donati (2006) remarks that pushing head movement to the phonology would post a ‘second syntax’, as it were. She also points out that this view of head movement raises a technical problem, especially in the recent framework of phase theory. To illustrate, consider V-to-T movement, discussed by Donati. The idea is that V has to move to T to check some feature. Following the derivation-by-phase system, the complement of the vP phase, namely VP, is spelled out as the vP phase is completed. Now, v, the edge of the phase, and T, the landing site of the respective movement are not accessible to phonology. Thus, for V to interact with T in the PF interface, Donati rightly points out, the computation has to involve two phases, the vP phase as well as the CP phase. This clearly goes against the potential goal of the phases framework, namely, to reduce the burden on the computational system.
3. Head Movement as a PF Operation In this section, we review Chomsky’s (2001) arguments for pushing head movement to the PF component. First, Chomsky claims that head-movement does not exhibit any LF (semantic) properties. This argument is mainly based on Chomsky’s assumption of “near-uniformity of
4 See Chomsky (1995) for how derivations proceed in the checking theory. 5 Generally, Holmberg observes that object shift takes place only when the verb (in addition to every phonologically realized material) moves out of VP. I will not get into the working of the analysis here. 6 Linguists started looking for evidence for a PF head movement (Boeckx and Stjepanović 2001; Matushansky 2006), or proposing alternatives for this approach, such as remnant movement. See Roberts (2011) for a detailed discussion).
251 LF interface representations”, which he takes to be a compelling methodological principle. According to this LF uniformity, verbs are interpreted the same whether they remain in situ, or they move to T; whether they are English verbs or Arabic verbs. A minimalist advantage of LF uniformity is that the interpretive burden is reduced. Thus, Chomsky claims that since verbs are interpreted the same in different positions in different languages (e.g. in T in French and v in English), they do not show any LF properties related to scope or reconstruction effects. However, Donati (2006: 25) argues that Chomsky does not see any semantic effects for head movement, because he does not look at movement of quantificational heads such as modals or negative markers. She, alternatively, offers a narrow-syntactic account of head movement of the relative pronoun in free relatives to C. That this operation carries a semantic effect, Donati argues, is evident from the fact that the structure gets a DP interpretation. T-to- C movement in English causing an interrogative interpretation of the sentence is another relevant case here showing that head movement triggers some semantic interpretation. Second, Chomsky claims that head movement violates the Extension Condition7 (syntactic operations should target the root of the phrase marker, (Chomsky’s 1993), since it does not extend the syntactic tree already formed. However, Donati (2006) shows that this holds only under the traditional view of head movement as adjunction (4a). Donati (2006), however, argues that, in principle, there is nothing that bans deriving head movement as in (4b). In fact, Donati claims that by minimal principles of movement,8 head movement should be the default result of the pied piping operation, as long as feature movement is not available. Thus, to abide by the Extension Condition, head movement may target the root of the tree, the Spec position, along (4b)9. In the same vein, Vicente (2007) also proposes that head movement always targets a specifier position. The traditional observation of the two heads conflating, forming a ‘derived head’, according to Vicente, can be captured by a morphological merger operation (borrowed from Matushansky 2006), which takes place under adjacency, fusing two heads.
7 In his recent work, Chomsky (e.g. 2007; 2008) proposes another computational principle, No Tampering Condition NTC, to the effect that Merge of X and Y should not change either X or Y. 8 A principle that Donati (2006) discusses in this connection relates to economy of the amount of materials triggered for movement. 9 Jayaseelan (2008) puts forward a system where every movement targets the root of the tree, dispensing with the notion of specifier. Other linguists have argued for head-to-sepc movement (e.g., Fukui and Takano (1998), Goto 2017; Toyoshima (2001).
252 (4) a. b.
XP
0 Y XP X0 YP X0 YP 0 Y X0 0 Y Y0 Donati (2006: 24), however, proposes that “[s]eparating head movement from affixation is a good idea in light of several empirical facts”.10 The idea Donati puts forward is that the difference between head movement and XP-movement boils down to a projection issue. More precisely, we know that phrase-structure difference between heads and phrases is that a head projects, whereas a phrase does not. Accordingly, if X moves, it projects; if, on the other hand, XP moves, it does not. What regulates the amount of material that moves, i.e., whether a head or a phrase, is “convergence at LF”. To illustrate, consider the following scenario, which Donati discusses. Suppose that in (5), C has a wh-feature. The first option to check [wh], by movement 11 minimal principles, Donati claims, that the computational system CHL goes for is head movement of just a wh-word.12 However, if this takes place, then features of this head, the categorical D-feature in particular, will project, and the system will end up deriving a DP rather than the required CP (5a). In such a scenario, the system resorts to the costly operation of phrasal movement. Since a phrase does not project, the structure will continue to have the projection of the C head (5b). Donati argues that this is how free relatives and comparatives are derived.
10 See Donati (2006) for details. 11 Which would roughly read: Move as minimal material as is necessary for the convergence of a derivation. 12 In (5), wh0 and whP stand for a wh-word as a head and a wh-phrase, respectively, Just for ease of exposition.
253 (5) . a. b.
DP CP
0 wh CP whP CP
C[wh] TP C[wh] TP
wh wh
X 0 Moves, D Projects XP Moves, C projects
Third, Chomsky draws on a clear difference between phrasal movement and head movement with respect to iteration of movement: phrasal movement is clearly iterated; head movement proceeds in a “roll-up” fashion. Movement of a head to another head creates a “complex” head that behaves as a single unit. No element of the complex head can move further, a phenomenon known as excorporation.13 Another problem raised in this connection is that of Abels’s (2003), which concerns anti-locality. Abel’s claims that head movement does not create any checking configurations, an operation violating last resort. More specifically, after head movement, the two heads are merged twice without any checking gains. A solution to this problem, proposed in Gallego (2010), is that the resulting structure after head movement of, say, X to Y is a new category, ‘X-Y’, which is neither X nor Y. After scrutinizing the claims advanced by Chomsky (2001), Donati (2006:26) concludes that “there is no principled way to exclude head movement from narrow syntax”.
13 Roberts (2010a) develops an Agree-based account of head movement, to the effect that head movement reduces to Agree. Accordingly, HMC (Head Movement Constraint) simply does not exist, and head movement is now regulated by the Agree and PIC (Phase Impenetrability Condition). In this system, HM is similar to XP movement in that HM is cyclic rather than ‘roll-up’. In other words, the excorporation argument raised by Chomsky and others against HM is resolved. Roberts (2010) argues that cases like Germanic V2 constructions, English QI (Quotational Inversion) constructions and Romance clitic climbing should be analyzed as cases of long distance HM, i.e., cases of excorporation, where a head moves across another potential intervening host-head. This type of movement, Roberts argues, is okay as long as general conditions of Agree and Internal Merge, such as feature Match and Activity condition are met.
254 4. Previous Approaches to Head Movement Generally, after the emergence of checking theory, all syntactic operations, movement in particular, are triggered by the need to value some feature. V-to-T movement is no different in this respect.14 What distinguishes the different approaches to V-movement is the nature of the feature involved. Approaches to V-movement can be categorized into three general types. One approach attributes V-movement to checking a D-feature on T. Comes under this category the traditional approach of attributing V-movement to ‘rich’ verbal inflection (Roberts 1985; Fassi Fehri 1993; Alexiadou and Anagnastopoulou 1998; Koeneman and Neeleman 2001). Another approach suggests that V-movement takes place to check a categorial [V] feature on T (Chomsky 1995; Benmamoun 2000, among others). A third view claims that v-movement can be triggered by a feature in C (Gallego 2010). There is also a morphological approach that attributes the trigger of head movement to the internal composition of the verb, rather than a feature on T (Biberauer and Roberts 2010).15 According to this latter view, it is the tense features that make it move (‘reproject’ in their words). The internal structure turns out to be dependent on the tense inflection in the respective language. That is, Biberauer and Roberts here attribute V-movement to tense inflection (to be defined below) rather than to agreement inflection.
4.1 D-based Accounts
Strength of verbal inflection was assumed to be responsible for licensing null subjects, known as Taraldsen’s (1978) generalization. The idea here is that only if a language exhibits ‘strong’16 agreement inflection can it allow its subjects to be dropped. This conjecture was then extended to V-movement. More precisely advocates in this direction assume that strong (or rich) verbal inflection lies behind V-movement (Roberts 1985, 1993, 1999; Rohrbacher 1999; Bobaljik and Thrainsson 1998; among others). Koeneman and Neeleman (2001) suggest the following typology of languages in terms of richness or otherwise of verbal inflection.
14 There are morphology-based approaches to V-movement that do not impose this requirement. See below for more discussion. 15 Sola (1996) also proposes a similar morphological account for V-movement. Donati (2006), Surányi (2007, 2008) also propose a similar ‘reprojective’ approach to V-movement. 16 Strength of inflection typically involves all phi-features.
255 (6) Typology of Inflectional richness in languages a. the rich: V-to-T and null subjects (Italian); b. the middle class: enough ‘wealth’ for V-to-T but not enough for null subjects (French); c. the impoverished: neither V-to-T nor null subjects (Modern English).
In the same vein, Alexiadou and Anagnastopoulou (1998) claim that in null subject languages such as Arabic, which manifest VSO word order (in addition to SVO), the well-known EPP on T is satisfied by V-movement. The justification they give is that since there is no bare form of the verb, and since these languages do not manifest SVO word order, obligatorily, (agreement) inflection on the verb serves to check EPP, a nominal or D-feature.17
Apart from the problem of the relative nature of rich, middle class and impoverished, class (6b) raises a serious conceptual problem for proponents of this approach. In particular, though verbal inflection is ‘wealthy’ in languages belonging to the second class, e.g. French, it still cannot license null subjects. If so, then strength of inflection cannot be responsible for the two phenomena. Biberauer and Roberts (2010: 265) argue that facts from French rule out any approach that directly relates V-movement to licensing null subjects. This criticism should also extend to Alexiadou and Anagnastopoulou’s account, for it has the same implicature: V-movement is connected to rich verbal φ-inflection. Further, we will see below that Arabic does not show consistent V-movement, even though the verb is always inflected. Assuming Alexiadou and Anagnastopoulou’s view, T’s EPP in these constructions will not be checked (at least by V-movement) and hence some operation has to be designed to do the job – a non-minimalist situation.
4.2 V-driven V-movement In early minimalism, checking theory in particular (Chomsky 1993; 1995), in addition to introducing feature checking, Chomsky also introduces the strong-weak feature dichotomy to account for variation cross-linguistically. That is, if a feature on some head in a particular language is strong, checking that feature (by movement to a Spec-head configuration, or head adjunction, as we will see below in the case of V-movement) is done overtly; if weak, checking
17 Interestingly, Chomsky (2013; 2015) eliminates EPP altogether, and instead explains EPP-driven movement in terms of labeling. Surprisingly, however, he entertains the rich-poor parameter of T to differentiate between NSLs and non-NSLs.
256 has to be done covertly.18 In simplified terms, an overt operation has a morphophonological realization. A classic example in this connection is the phenomenon of wh-movement. In checking terms, if the feature [wh] in a language, e.g. Standard and Yemeni Arabic, is strong, this [wh] feature has to be checked overtly, realized morphologically as a wh-phrase moving to the initial position of the sentence. If weak, as in, Sudanese Arabic or Japanese, for instance, checking can be covert, interpreted as an LF-movement. V-to-T movement is no different in this regard. It has been assumed (Chomsky 1995; Benmamoun 2000; Biberauer and Roberts 2010, among others) that T has a categorical [V] feature. Now, V-to-T movement depends on the strength or otherwise of [V]. For instance, T’s [V] is strong in French but weak in English, hence overt movement in French but a covert one in English. Benmamoun (2000) adopts the checking theory framework, and offers an account for V-to-T movement in Arabic. Benmamoun’s point of departure is the interesting observation that in Arabic, the VSO word order is preferred in past tense constructions, while non-past constructions are associated more with SVO word order. Benmamoun interprets these facts so as to mean that in the VSO word order, the verb moves to T. Built on this, Benmamoun claims that T’s [V] is strong in past (and future) tense, but weak in non-past contexts.19 Hence, checking T’s [V] is done overtly in the first case, but covertly in the second. Below, I will develop a minimalist account for V-to-T movement in Arabic, drawing on Benmamoun (2000). However, Benmamoun’s account cannot be adopted, for it resorts to categorical features, which, as indicated above, should be eliminated.20
4.3.3 V-movement as Reprojection: Biberauer and Roberts (2010)21 As indicated above, Biberauer and Roberts (B&R) (2010) argue that the rich inflection based view cannot be true, for French, for example, is a clearly non-null subject language which, nevertheless, exhibits consistent V-to-T movement. Alternatively, B&R propose a distinction between two types of inflection on T: agreement inflection and tense inflection. Agreement inflection refers to phi-features. Tense inflection includes marking notional tense, mood, aspect, etc. Either of these two types can be ‘rich’. For B&R, richness of the former is
18 The formal condition that regulated the overt vs. covert operations is dubbed ‘Procrastinate’. 19 See also Baker (2003). 20 This is a standard view in Distributed Morphology (Marantz 1997 et seq.), and has been adopted in minimalism (Chomsky 2001). 21 B&R’s analysis is similar to that of Sola (1996). Sola also proposes that to insert a multi-categorial word in a syntactic structure, “Insert a copy of this word in each of the positions it contains features of.
257 responsible for licensing null subjects, and perhaps subject movement. It is the richness of tense inflection that takes care of V-to-T movement; thus, dissociating the two phenomena of null subject licensing and V-movement. In particular, B&R claim that tense features relate T and V. Movement of V to T is conceived of as a case of reprojection. They claim that tensed verbs (i.e., verbs inflected for tense, aspect, mood, etc) are actually compounds, formed in the lexicon.22 Being compound, the verb is first merged with the internal argument DP to form VP, thanks to the verbal/categorial features the lexical item has. But since this lexical element still has (tense) features to be checked, it remerges again with VP to form TP, thanks to the lexical presence of tense features. This process can be looked at as a case of ‘reprojection’, where the same item projects again (to satisfy different lexical features). There are certain issues that this analysis of B&R raises. We will consider these after we sketch out the mechanism of V-to-T movement. B&R refer to the possibility of the availability of an EPP on T, associated with inflectional richness, which triggers V-movement. Nevertheless, they reject this option, since in the Agree model, they say that there is no longer any specific reason to assume such correlation. Alternatively, they propose a morphological approach. They interpret a tensed verb as a (categorially) compound lexical item, which consists of V and a fully-specified T. This compound is formed in the Numeration. Such a compound element must merge with both the V-complement in order to form a VP, and with T-complement to form TP. By collapsing head movement to a morphological issue, B&R’s aim is to avoid the problems raised against head movement. An interesting minimalist idea in the approach is that feature valuation between T and v is done via Agree. But the morphological analysis proposed will turn out to be non-minimalist. See how. First, B&R may be right in assuming that postulating EPP on T is a stipulation. After all, EPP has been suspect since its first formulation (e.g. Martin 1999). However, the obligatory presence of expletive subjects, filling Spec,TP in English being one case, is standardly accounted for by invoking EPP on T. This analysis becomes more appealing in the context of Agree, where there is nothing that triggers such movement. Secondly, at first glance (specifically, before reading about B&R’s conception of the Numeration), the approach they propose appears similar to that of Survive Minimalism (Stroik 1999; Putnam 2009). For one thing, a common idea is that a lexical item undergoes as many
22 We refer to the lexicon here for simplicity, as this is not accurate. B&R claim that these compounds are formed in the Numeration. See the text below for presentation and critique of B&R’s view of Numeration.
258 operations of Merge as necessary (usually more than one) until all its features have been checked. For instance, consider the case of a tensed verb that presumably carries v- and T- features. The verb is first merged with V-complement. This process satisfies its V-features. But V still survives, in Stroik’s terms, since its T-feature has not been checked. Therefore, it undergoes another operation of Merge for this to happen, this time with T-complement. Thus, it has to undergo (at least) two operations to satisfy its V- and T-features. In fact, this is exactly what B&R propose. However, a crucial difference between B&R’s reprojection approach on the one hand and Stroik’s Survive Minimalism, on the other, relates to the conception of Numeration: it is presyntactic for B&R (p. 267) but syntactic in Stroik’s system.23 The concept of Numeration yet raises another issue. In Chomsky’s framework24, Numeration has been considered as a pre-syntactic process of ‘selecting’ lexical items needed for the derivation of a syntactic object. This view has been criticized for postulating ‘syntax before syntax’, as it were, although, strictly speaking, no syntactic operations are assumed to take place there. Interestingly, B&R’s conception of Numeration seems to be designed to receive this critique. See how. Compounding has traditionally been considered a lexical operation. Distributed Morphology, however, has recently argued that not only phrases and clauses but even words are built in syntax (cf. Marantz 1997; Siddiqi 2009, among others). Assuming the latter, Numeration for B&R appears to be a proper pre-syntactic module – a non-minimalist conclusion. Moreover, this conception of Numeration bears a contradictory empirical consequence. We will see that applying B&R’s reasoning will lead us to a Romance English. Specifically, we know, since Pollock (1989), that English lacks (overt) V-to-T movement. However, extending B&R’s analysis to English irregular verbs, we will end up with an overt V-to-T English. Consider how. Recall the two ingredients of B&R’s analysis. (7) Ingredients of B&R’s analysis (i) Tensed verbs are compounds (specified for v-and T-features. (ii) morphological operations like compounding takes place in Numeration
23 We will not get into Stroik’s critique for Numeration as a presyntactic process. 24 In his recent work, Chomsky does away with the Numeration. See e.g. Chomsky (2007; 2008).
259 Let us apply these to English irregular verbs, say went. Since went is specified for (past) tense, it is a compound by (7i). Further, by their definition of ‘compounds’,25 i.e., a lexical item that encodes more than one categorial feature, as it were, suppletives will turn out to be typical compounds, and therefore have to be formed in the Numeration. Thus, went in English passes the two tests above, and so should be analyzed in terms of B&R’s reprojection. That is, went is first merged with V-complement, and then raises to merge with T-complement to satisfy its T-features. Notice that English, at least so far as irregular verbs are concerned, patterns with Romance languages, characterized by overt V-to-T movement – an undesirable result! Third, if the analysis is generalized to include all morphologically complex lexical items, a problem may arise when we consider affixes that usually encode functional information like aspect, mood, etc. Languages with agglutinating morphology stand out as a different story, of course! The problem actually concerns the order of affixes and the syntax of the lexical items that carries them. Another conceptual problem that B&R’s approach raises is that it assigns more importance to categorial features, which, as indicated above, we are trying to eliminate. I think the problem gets clearer when we consider words with multiple categorial features, such as talk in English, which can be used either as a noun or as a verb. The idea proposed in Distributed Morphology, and is now incorporated in minimalism, to derive the two ‘types’ of talk is that the lexicon has a-categorial items, called roots. Depending on what these roots combine/ merge with in the syntax, they acquire their categorial status. To illustrate, consider talk again. According to Distributed Morphology, if talk merges with a verb-categorizing head, v, it becomes a verb; if, however, it attaches to a nominalizing head, n, it surfaces as a noun. The issue comes to the fore when we consider Semitic morphology – Arabic being a typical example. In Arabic, there are only roots in the lexicon, from which all other words, with their distinct categorial features, are derived. That is, all derivatives of a word, including the verb, noun, adjective, deverbal noun, etc, are derived/formed generally from a three consonantal root. For instance, we get kitaab ‘book’, katab ‘wrote’, kaatib ‘writer/writing’ from the same root. The question that arises in this context is: what is a ‘complex’, multicategorial lexical item? Until this question is answered, we can, rightly I think, conclude that B&R’s approach will not work (for Arabic and similar languages, at least).
25Compounding here is not used in its technical morphological sense, i.e., a morphological operation of word formation, whereby two or more words combine to form a new word. Rather, a compound, in the plain sense used in the text, refers to a lexical item that contains, as a lexical property, more than a categorical feature. See also Sola (1996).
260 Another issue that B&R’s analysis provokes is: How do we guarantee which feature projects when? Suppose that a lexical item, say a verb, carries also tense and aspect features. We need to insure that at the point of AspP, only the aspectual feature can project. Why not tense (or any other feature for that matter)? Hence, again for the system to work, we need a condition regulating where each feature projects. Crucially, such a condition cannot be something like Baker’s (1988) Mirror Principle. For one thing, Arabic shows a discontinuous agreement morpheme in the imperfective. Consider the following. (8) ya-ktub-n 3.write.fp “He writes.” In (8) the prefix y- realizes Person, while the suffix -n manifests Gender and Number. Now assume that yaktubn is a multicategorial lexical item, in B&R’s sense, specified for phi- features. Capturing the derivation of phi-features by cyclic ‘roll up’ of the whole lexical item is, in the best case, not straightforward. Further, the example above also raises another complication. The prefix y- also encodes aspectual interpretation, namely imperfectivity. The question, which B&R cannot answer, I believe, is: Where does y- project? The question is particularly significant, since we know that AspP is ‘far away’ from AgrP/PersonP. A last problem I would like to raise here relates to null functional categories. How can we capture the fact that the perfective verb in Arabic reprojects? A significant fact here is that though the verb does encode past tense (cf. Fassi Fehri 1993; Benmamoun 2000, and the discussion above), there is no overt morphological marker that indicates that the verb is multicategorial. To conclude, an undesirable consequence of B&R’s approach, as I understand it, is that affixes that usually encode functional information create compounds and are therefore formed in the Numeration. For instance, the affixal -ed in English makes a verb a compound lexical item. In standard minimalist approaches, affixes are independent items selected from the lexicon that have their own syntactic life: they can be merged and (head) moved like other lexical items. Their phonological realization is purely a PF issue.
261 4.3.4 Gallego’s Leapfrog Gallego (2010) suggests that C, T and v share a T-feature26, [tense]. This [tense] is unvalued on C, valued on T and v. As an unvalued feature, the [utense] feature on C has to be valued and deleted. And this, Gallego claims, can only be done by v. According to Gallego, In the structure in (9a), C’s [utense] cannot probe v as T (more accurately T’s [v tense]) intervenes. Therefore, in order for C’s [utense] to be valued, Gallego reasons, v has to ‘leapfrog’, a movement he borrows from Boeckx (2008). This derives the configuration in (9b), with v left-adjoined to T. In the present structure, nothing intervenes between C and v, and so Agree takes place, valuing [utense] on C. Thus, according to Gallego, valuation of the unvalued [tense] feature of C triggers v-to-T movement by a mediating operation leapfrog.
(9) V-movement in Gallego’s framework a. b.
C C [utense] [utense] T
T [vtense] v v T t v [vtense] [vtense] [vtense]
Gallego’s proposal is appealing. For one thing, it establishes a formal connection between C, T and v, the theme of the present thesis. However, the mechanism Gallego posits to account for V-to-T movement raises some problems. Consider again the representation under (9). The question to be asked now is: What triggers v-movement to T and not to C? Under standard minimalist assumptions, movement must be triggered as a consequence of some Agree. Further, under Agree, feature checking might take place at a distance; that is, movement can be triggered only by an EPP on (some feature on) the probe. In the case at hand, and since Gallego does not assume feature inheritance (of [tense] at least), with the consequence that C
26 Gallego’s T-feature, however, is different from the T-feature proposed by Pesetsky and Torrego (2001; 2007). For Gallego, [T] refers to (deictic) tense with its values as past, present and future. Pesetsky and Torrego’s [T], by contrast, is what is traditionally called Case.
262 and T are two independent probes, movement of v to T should indicate that v and T have undergone an Agree relation, followed by Move. But this might not be on track because Tense on T is valued and does not need to be valued. (It is C’s [utense] that has to be checked.) Now, Gallego claims that v is the goal that should value C’s [tense]. But Gallego’s account does not tell why T cannot do the valuation? In fact, Gallego notes that there is an intervention effect caused by the valued [tense] feature on T, and v-movement, called leapfrog, is just to “destroy the minimality effect created by Ts”27 (Gallego 2010: 104). Moreover, I do not think that Gallego’s analysis even succeeds in destroying the minimality effect. Notice that v is closer to C only in linear terms. In c-command terms, the hierarchical structure that syntax is sensitive to, T is still closer, as T still carries the label of the complex head. In fact, if we take head movement to be real adjunction, as traditionally conceived of, then v in its new position is not available for syntax. This is traditionally known as ‘excorporation’, moved heads cannot be extracted out of its hosting head.28 Recall that Chomsky proposes another Merge operation, ‘Pair Merge’ to derive adjunction, since adjuncts are said to be on a different plane. Based on the discussion above, ‘Leapfrog’, then, seems to be a sheer stipulation. This obtains for the simple reason that under any mechanism of feature checking, if C probes, it will be valued by T. Further, leapfrog seems to raise a look-ahead problem. Specifically, v has to move before C launches its probe, otherwise an intervention effect arises. But if we assume, as Gallego seems to do, that T and C are two probes, how can v ‘know’ that its movement will be needed later. Thus, an alternative is called for.
5. The Alternative To develop an alternative, I will look at the morphosyntax of Arabic. In particular I will look at the two types of inflection proposed by Biberaurer and Roberts (2010), namely agreement inflection and tense inflection. The following is the typology proposed by these linguists (p.267). (10) Typology of inflection and its relevance to V-movement and null subjects a. Rich agreement and rich tense inflection: hence V-to-T and null subjects, e.g. Italian. b. Poor agreement but rich tense: hence V-to-T, but no null subjects, e.g.
27 Gallego (2010) postulates two T’s in the clausal spine, Ts and To. I will not consider this view, as it is irrelevant for the present discussion. 28 See footnote (13) above for the possibility of excorporation along the lines in Roberts (2011).
263 French. c. Poor tense and poor agreement: hence no V-to-T and no null subjects, e.g. Modern English. d. Rich agreement and poor tense: null subjects, but no V-to-T; no clear example. In this connection, it will be shown that Arabic does not seem to fit in the typology proposed above. More precisely, Arabic appears to exhibit ‘rich’ agreement inflection and rich tense inflection, but arguably does not show consistent V-movement, contra Biberauer and Roberts.
5.1 (Rich) Agreement Inflection in Arabic With respect to agreement inflection (φ/D-related features), Arabic29 verbal (perfective and imperfective) morphology manifests Person, Number and Gender. Arabic displays a three-way Person distinction: 1, 2 and 3; three-way Number distinction: Singular, Dual and Plural; and a two-way Gender distinction: Masculine and Feminine.
The following examples instantiate the morphological system.
(11) a. al-aTfalu la’ib-uu kurah the-kids played-3pm football “The boys played football.”
b. al-banatu shahad-na al-tilfaz the-girls watched-3pf the-TV “The girls played football.”
As is obvious from the examples above, the verb (more precisely T) agrees with the subject DP in Person, Number and Gender: 3rd plural masculine in the first example and 3rd plural feminine in the second.
29 Modern dialects of Arabic display impoverished morphological systems.
264 A remark about a well-known agreement asymmetry in Arabic is in order here.30’ The above sentences, manifesting strong subject-verb agreement, show SVO word order. There is another word order, VSO, which is presumably the default word order in Standard Arabic (Fassi Fehri 1993), where subject-verb agreement is ‘partial’/’poor’ or ‘incomplete’, in that it lacks Number. The above sentences in this particular word order would read.
(12) a. la’ib-a al-atfalu kurah played-3sm the-kids football “The boys played football.”
b. shaahad-at al-banatu al-tilfaza watched-3sf the-girls the-TV “The girls watched TV.”
However, that the agreement inflection in Arabic is ‘rich’ becomes very obvious in two contexts. The first relates to considering Arabic as a consistent Null Subject Language (NSL), in which subjects can be dropped. As the paradigm below shows, when the subject is null, the verb/T carries full φ-specification.
(13) ðahab-tu ðahab-naa went-1s went-1p ðahab-at ðahab-na went-3sf went-3pf
The other context that brings agreement inflection to the fore concerns using pronominal subjects.31 If the subject is a pronominal, the verb, again, must carry full φ-specification.
(14) hunna ud-na/*aada 3fpl returned-3pf/3sm “They (females) returned.”
30 Since the present work is not an account of agreement asymmetry in Arabic, we will leave this issue aside. However, see below for a possibility along the research line developed here. See Soltan (2007) for a review of the different approaches to the agreement asymmetry problem in Arabic. 31 It should be noted here that using pronominal subjects is a marked option in Arabic, usually for emphatic purposes: morphological agreement markers and a pronominal subject seem redundant.
265 Thus, we conclude from the above discussion that Arabic has ‘rich’ agreement inflection. There remains the issue of ‘richness’ (or otherwise) of tense inflection in Arabic. This is the topic of the next section. 4.4.2 (Rich) Tense Inflection in Arabic Having looked at agreement inflection in Arabic, which seems to be ‘rich’, we now turn to consider tense inflection. I follow B&R’s (2010: 266) idea that tense inflection ‘include[s] the marking of notional mood and aspect, as in the Romance subjunctive, futures, conditionals and imperfect forms. According to B&R, ‘richness’ of tense inflection, i.e., the features from the set in the quote above is responsible for v-movement. It has been argued that verbal morphology32 in Arabic encodes Tense, Aspect, Voice, Mood (Fassi Fehri 1993). To illustrate, consider the following paradigm.
(15)
I will add the following paradigm to the one from Ouhalla. e. yaktub-u ‘imperfective indicative’ f. yaktub-a ‘imperfective subjunctive’ g. yaktub-Ø ‘jussive/conditional’ h. ktub ‘imperative’ i. yaktuba-nna ‘energetic’
The paradigm in (15) above clearly shows that Arabic has rich tense inflection. Thus a label for Arabic along the lines of Biberauer and Roberts would look like the following.
32 The discussion in this section is sketchy. See Fassi Fehri (1993) for a detailed overview.
266 Arabic: kataba33 (past/perfective indicative), yaktub-u (imperfective indicative), yaktub-a (subjunctive), yaktub (jussive, conditional), ktub (imperfective), yaktub-ann (energetic), kutib (passive perfective), yuktab (passive imperfective).
This seems to be ‘rich’ enough, compared to Romance.
4.4.3 Motivating V-movement in Arabic Amidst the controversy in Arabic linguistics about a satisfactory account of the free word order (mainly VSO and SVO) manifested in Arabic, Benmamoun (2000) makes an interesting observation about clause structure in Arabic. He shows that in past tense constructions, VSO is the preferred word order, while SVO is more dominant in non-past constructions. To illustrate, consider the following (from Benmamoun 2000: 57 (16-18)).
(16) a. raHim-u llah bless.past.3ms-him God “May God bless him.” b. llah y-raHm-u God 3m-bless-him “May God bless him.” (17) a. jaza-k llah reward.past.3ms-you God “May God reward you!” b. llah y-jazi-k God 3m-reward-you “May God reward you!” (18) a. baraka llahu fii-k bless.past.3ms God in-you “May God bless you!” b. llah y-barik fii-k God 3m-bless in-you “May God bless you!”
33 Because there are no bare forms (every verb form is inflected), the forms here are in the default third person singular masculine.
267 These are idiomatic expressions from Moroccan Arabic, which can be reproduced in other dialects of Arabic with the same judgment results. Notice that the (a) sentences display VSO word order, while the (b) sentences are in the SVO word order. Notice, further, that the (a) sentences are all in the past tense whereas the (b) ones are all non-past; hence, the correlation. Since Arabic tense system is assumed to exhibit past/non-past dichotomy (Fassi Fehri 1993), Benmamoun (2000) and Ouhalla (2011) propose that T in past tense constructions carries a strong [V] feature. Being strong, [V] on T has to be satisfied before Spell Out, hence V-to-T movement. T in non-past constructions, on the other hand, has a weak V-feature. Following Procrastinate (Chomsky 1995), checking [V] has to be delayed till LF. With the advent of the Probe-Goal system (Chomsky 2000 et seq.), adopted in the present thesis, whereby checking/valuation of features is carried out at a distance by an operation Agree, arguably a primitive in linguistic theory, movement is no longer a prerequisite for feature checking.34 Rather, movement is now triggered by an EPP on (some feature on) the Probe.35 I will try, in the next section to recruit Benmamoun’s intuition in current minimalist terms.
4.4.4 EPP on [tense] Assuming that Benmamoun (2000) and Ouhalla (2011) are right, I propose that V- movement is triggered by an EPP on a feature on T, namely [tense]. [tense] here is to be understood in its temporal deictic sense. And since the tense system in Arabic shows a past/non-past dichotomy, as we have seen, I conclude that EPP is especially associated with the feature or value Past (to be clarified below). Thus, only if T is specified as [tensePast], can it trigger verb movement. A note on the EPP36 used here is in order. Originally, EPP was postulated to account for the fact that in languages like English, Spec,TP position has to be filled. Accordingly, EPP is formally seen as a feature on T, requiring that its Spec be filled. In this sense, EPP is not, strictly speaking, a formal feature, like, say, phi-features, which enter into a checking relation. Universality of EPP, however, has remained a controversial issue, particularly considering languages which exhibit VSO as their default word order, such as Arabic. Linguists have
34 This should also entail elimination of Spec-Head feature checking. 35 See Richards (2012), among others for arguments that Agree is conceptually and empirically superior to the Spec-Head checking configurations. See, however, Koopman (2006) for a recent defense of Spec-head configuration checking. 36This EPP is called OCC(urence) in Chomsky (2000).
268 suggested parametrizing EPP. More precisely, if EPP is a universal property of T, then satisfying this property is open to parametrization. For instance, Alexiadou and Anagnostopoulou (1998) argue that in NSL, EPP is satisfied by V-movement, and not by an XP-movement to Spec,TP. Pesetsky and Torrego (2001) propose that EPP should be understood as a feature/property associated with a feature rather than a feature of the functional head itself. In fact, I think that that this makes sense, since it is features that constitute the atoms of lexical items, and that enter into checking relations. This idea becomes more appealing when we consider the fact that features seem to exhibit their own ‘syntaxes’.37 For instance, Sigurðsson and Holmberg (2008) argue that Person and Number are separate probes, implying that each one heads its own projection, and therefore has its own syntax. Discussing feature inheritance in Celtic, Biberauer and Roberts (2010) propose that not only features but ‘sub-features’ can have their own system of C-T feature interaction. For instance, they show that in Irish, the past tense has a different system to that of other tenses. This is evident from the fact that Irish has past-tensed complementizers. Past tense in this case also appears on the verb (which moves to T). B&R analyze this as a case where a sub-feature acts independently with respect to feature inheritance. “So here we see SHARE of the T[Past] feature between C and T” (in Ouali’s 2008 sense), B&R (2010: 291) suggest. This approach becomes more interesting when we consider Arabic. As indicated above, the tense system in Arabic shows a past/non-past distinction. Thus, it comes as no surprise, I think, that the past tense in Arabic behaves differently. Let us get back to our main issue, namely, V-to-T movement. It is tempting to extend B&R’s idea to Arabic. That is, V-to-T movement seems to be triggered by the (sub-)feature [Past] on T. This analysis raises a serious problem with respect to the nature of formal features and their valuation. More precisely, is [Past] a feature? If so, what are its values? The potential scenarios are clear. If [Past] turns out to be a feature, say with +/- values, then the analysis is theoretically fine. However, we lose sight of the general feature related to tense, in its deictic sense, subsuming past, present, and future. Further, this situation will lead to a proliferation of features, and ambiguity of values. For instance, compare a system which has just one feature, [tense], with its three temporal values mentioned above, with another that postulates three independent features. Further, what is a [-Past]? A [-Past] may be [+present] or [+Future], etc.
37 This is what made linguists postulate a projection for each feature. Consider in this connection the cartographic approach to syntax as well as the nano-syntax framework.
269 That is, all the features in a paradigm will have to be involved every time a (value of) feature is mentioned. Economically, the former system, the one with just one feature, is preferable. The other scenario assumes that [Past] is not a feature but a value. On this view, the analysis proposed by B&R immediately fails, as a value is just not available for the computational system; it does not have a syntax on its own. It is simply an interface construct. Here, I would like to reconcile these two scenarios. There are two possibilities here. The first is to say that there are two (or more) ‘types’ of T, such as T[Past], T[Present], T[Future]. Among these, one may claim, only T[Past] has an EPP. This approach, however, seems to be no more than a rephrasing of the second scenario above, with all its problems, of course. However, I would like to propose an alternative approach, mostly in line with Biberauer and Roberts (2010), and especially Pesetsky and Torrego (2001). At the outset, I will claim that B&R’s intuition that features (and, maybe, sub-features, if they turn out to be features) have their own syntactic behavior is right. The syntactic behavior38 in our case here is specification for EPP (P&T’s proposal). I will argue here that in the case at hand, V-to-T movement is triggered by an EPP on the feature [tense], rather than on [Past], which I take to be a value rather than a feature. The idea is that only a valued [tense] carries EPP. Accordingly, if [tense] on T is valued, say as past, then V moves. Arabic makes the point clearer. Since Arabic shows past/non-past distinction, T is, strictly speaking, valued only in the past tense constructions. In non-past, the imperfective form in particular, T is not specified for tense, and accordingly, is not associated with EPP.39 Though an analysis along this line seems to be descriptive at first sight, it goes a long way in current minimalist syntactic theory. First, the present approach adopts Agree (Chomsky 2000 et seq.) as the feature valuation operation. Thus, Agree holds between T and v to value their features. Second, movement takes place only if necessitated (by an EPP), as standardly assumed. Third, EPP is understood as a feature of a feature rather than a feature on a functional
38 See Biberauer and Roberts (2010), for more on the syntactic behavior of the independent features, particularly in terms of feature inheritance. 39 A potential problem that the present analysis may encounter relates to valuation of [tense] on T. More precisely, if T’s [tense] is unvalued in non-past constructions, as the present analysis implies, the derivation is doomed to crash at the SEM interface. Though the problem is apparently serious (and maybe forces me to adopt the [Past]- as-a-feature analysis, the analysis rejected above), I would assume that only unvalued uninterpretable features cause a crash, if they do not get valued before SEM. Interpretable features need not be valued for the sake of SEM. This view is compliant with Brody’s (1997) radical interpretability thesis: an uninterpretable feature must have at least one interpretable instance. Accordingly, interpretable features, [tense] on T being one example, will not cause a crash.
270 head (Pesetsky and Torrego 20001). It comes then as no surprise that it is [tense Past] that is associated with EPP. Hence a past tense sentence like the following will have the structure below. (19) akal-a al-walad-u tuffahatan-an ate-3sm the-boy-nom apple-acc ‘The boy ate an apple.’
As (20s), Agree takes place between T and v. Valuation of the respective features occurs in situ. In (20b), v-to-T movement happens, thanks to the EPP on T[tense Past].
(20) a.
TP
T vP [tensePast, EPP
VP v Agree
V EAT
b.
TP
vP T ate
VP v
V
The question that arises at this moment is: What about non-past constructions that exhibit VSO word order (after all, tense/word order correspondence is not rigid)? Here, I assume, following Benmamoun (2000) and Ouhalla (2011) that the verb is not in T but rather in some Asp(ect) head. Support for this comes from that fact that the imperfective form of the verb (i.e., non- past) carries aspectual information. For instance, the following sentences can have either a progressive reading or a habitual one.
271 (21) ali yaktub Ali 3.write.imprf “Ali is writing/writes.”
4.5 Conclusion In this paper, I have looked at V-to-T movement. After reviewing the previous analyses, showing their problems and, more importantly, their inadequacy to account for the data in Arabic, I have argued for a syntactic approach to account for the phenomenon. More precisely, I have argued that V-movement is triggered by an EPP on a [tense] feature in T in its deictic sense. That is, only a valued [tense] on T, i.e., a T specified for temporal tense can trigger V- to-T movement. Since Arabic shows a past/non-past temporal distinction, then only T[tense Past] can trigger V-movement. This seems to be supported by the fact that the verb in Arabic moves only in past tense constructions. If this account proves on track, then it will help offer a new approach (perhaps partially) to the syntax of the different word orders in Arabic, mainly SVO and VSO.
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