Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 1979 Activities NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 1979 Activities

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D.C. 20546 Table of Contents

Page Page I . Summary of the US. Aeronautics and VI . Department of the Interior ...... 78 Space Activities of 1979 ...... 1 Introduction ...... 78 Introduction ...... 1 Earth Resources Observation Communications ...... 1 Systems Program ...... 78 Earth’s Resources ...... 4 Monitoring the Environment ...... 80 Space Science ...... 10 Geology ...... 81 Transportation ...... I3 Cartography ...... 82 Space Energy ...... 18 International Activities ...... 82 I1. National Aeronautics and Space VI1 . Department of Transportation ...... 83 Administration ...... 20 Introduction ...... 83 Introduction ...... 20 Aviation Safety ...... 83 Applications to Earth ...... 20 Air Traffic Control and Air Science ...... 28 Navigation ...... 85 Space Transportation ...... 35 Space Research and Technology . . 39 Space Data Services ...... 42 Appendixes Aeronautical Research and Technology ...... 43 A-1 1J.S. Spacecraft Record ...... 87 111. Department of Defense ...... 48 A-2 World Record of Space Launchings Introduction ...... 48 Successful in Attaining Earth Space Activities ...... 48 Orbit or Beyond ...... 87 Aeronautical Activities ...... 54 A-3 Successful U.S. Launchings-I979 ...... 88 Relationships with NASA ...... 59 B-1 U.S. Applications Satellites, 1975-1979 .... 92 IV. Department of Commerce ...... 62 B-2 US-Launched Scientific Payloads. Introduction ...... 62 1975-1979 ...... 93 Space Systems ...... 62 B-3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes. 1975-1979 .... 94 Other Uses of Satellites and Space .... 69 C History of United States and Soviet Space Support Activities ...... 71 Manned Space Flights ...... 95 Space and Atmospheric Support ...... 72 D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ...... 98 Aeronautical Programs ...... 72 E-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government V. Department of Energy ...... 74 Historical Budget Summary-Budget Introduction ...... 74 Authority ...... 99 Progress in Space Applications E-2 Space Activities Budget ...... 100 of Nuclear Power ...... 74 Aeronautics Budget ...... 100 Advances in Supporting Technology . . 75 Status of Prior Missions ...... 76 F White House Statement on Management Satellite Power System ...... 76 of U.S. Civilian Remote Sensing Nuclear Waste Disposal ...... 76 Activities ...... 101 Remote Sensing of Earth ...... 76 G The United Nations Moon Treaty- Nuclear Test Detection ...... 76 Text and 1J.S. Analysis ...... 103

iii cal flight characteristics at all speeds.

V Summary of United States Aeronautics I and Space Activities in 1978

Introduction -Joint or coordinated civil/military activities where both parties’ objectives can be best In 1979 the United States programs in aeronautics met through this approach. and space made substantial technological and sci- -Separate defense activities which have no entific progress. In aeronautics, improvements in civilian counterpart.” The text of this an- engine components and systems promised reductions nouncement is reprinted as Appendix F. in fuel consumption, while improved computational Also in November, the United Nations completed and design techniques would provide aircraft de- action on a proposed treaty governing activities on signers with better design criteria. In space pro- the moon and other celestial bodies. The text of the grams, the Space Shuttle moved closer to its first treaty, together with United States commentary on orbital test flight, even as Voyager spacecraft flew some of its provisos, is given in Appendix G. past Jupiter and its spectacular moons and Pioneer In this summary chapter, highlights of 1979 in 11 became Earth’s first spacecraft to visit Saturn the national aeronautics and space programs are and its rings. United States expendable launch ve- organized topically across the government rather hicles attempted 16 launches; all were successful, than by agencies responsible for particular activities. placing a total of 18 payloads into orbit. The Na- Subsequent chapters further describe the activities tional Aeronautics and Space Administration of the agencies with the largest programs in aero- (NASA) in 8 launches orbited 8 payloads, includ- nautics and space. ing 2 for the Department of Defense (DoD) and 3 for its own program. DoD in 8 launches orbited 10 payloads, including a new Tiros-N-series meteoro- Communications logical satellite built by NASA for the Department of Commerce. Among the NASA satellites launched were the third and last of the big high-energy as- Communication satellites are among the most tronomy satellites and a satellite designed to survey profitable space systems to result from the nation’s the Earth’s magnetic field. investment in space activity. In Bern, Switzerland, and Vienna, Austria, the United States participated in the second and third Operational Space Systems sessions of talks with the Soviet Union on limita- tion of anti-satellite activity. The joint communique Intelsat. The internationally owned INTELSAT issued at the Vienna summit meeting stated that global communication satellite system now consists President Carter and President Brezhnev “agreed to of three active Intelsat IV-A satellites in the At- continue actively searching for mutually acceptable lantic Ocean region and two in the Indian Ocean agreement in the ongoing negotiations on anti- region. The Pacific Ocean region is served by space- satellite systems.” craft from the Intelsat IV series. Development of a follow-on generation, the Intelsat V, progressed, In November the President implemented a por- with launch of the first flight model projected for tion of the space policy decisions announced in mid-1980. Intelsat V will operate in both the 6-4 he designated the National Oceanic and 1978: gigahertz (GHz) and 11-14 GHz bands along with Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the De- the added flexibility of a “crowstrap” mode of partment of Commerce to be manager of all opera- operation (signal sent up to satellite on 6 GHz and tional civilian remote sensing activities from space. returned down from satellite on 11 GHz; and up on The decision provides three paths for the nation’s 14 GHz and down on GHz). Of the eight Intelsat space-based remote sensing: 4 V satellites under procurement, four will provide “-Integration of civilian operational activities maritime services. Those four satellites can be under NOAA. launched by any one of three vehicles: the Atlas-

1 Centaur, the NASA Space Shuttle, and the Euro- lation of Earth stations. The number of all Earth pean Space Agency’s Ariane. stations that have been authorized to date is in ex- Domestic Commercial Communication Satellites. cess of 2300. Westar 3, launched in September, brought the total Military Communications Satellites. Three broad number of domestic communication satellites to 8. categories of space communications are identified for These operate in the 4 and 6 GHz bands. Two are the defense establishment: part of RCA Americom’s SATCOM system, 3 are 0 worldwide point-to-point communications for in Western Union Telegraph’s WESTAR system, fixed users with high capacity and high data and 3 are in AT&T’s COMSTAR system. These rate satellites provide message toll service, television communications for mobile users, with moder- distribution, and single channel per carrier or mul- ate capacity and low data rate tiple channels per carrier for transmission of voice, 0 command and control of strategic nuclear data, television, and digital data. In July 1979, the forces. three-year ban on commercial usage of the AT&T DoD progressed in all three categories in 1979 COMSTAR system expired. Satellite Business Sys- with ( 1) the successful launch of Defense Satellite tems (SBS) continued its development efforts to- Communications System (DSCS) I1 satellites 13 and ward a two-satellite system. It plans to use the 12 14, (2) the successful launch of the second Fleet and 14 GHz bands and 5- and 7-meter Earth sta- Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) satellite, tions to provide voice, data, and television transmis- and (3) the achievement in May of the initial op- sion services to large industrial and government erating capability of the Air Force Satellite Com- users. The matter of construction of the SBS satel- munications system (AFSATCOM). The FCC is lite system is still before the U.S. Court of Appeals reviewing an application filed by Hughes Com- for the District of Columbia. Applications have been munication Services, Inc., to construct a satellite received from Western Union Space Communica- system known as LEASAT which will replace the tions, Inc. (SPACECOM) for an advanced Westar existing Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSAT- using both the 4-6 and 12-13 GHz bands. In COM), providing the Navy and other military serv- December 1979, applications were received to ices with a nearly global communications capacity. launch the third and fourth Satcom satellites, and The LEASAT system is scheduled to begin opera- the third SBS satellite. tion in October 1981. Previous decisions by the Federal Communica- Marisat. Commercial satellite service to shipping tions Commission (FCC) , authorizing more flexibil- continued to develop and expand. Service is cur- ity in the design of receive-only Earth stations for rently provided through Marisat in the Atlantic, cable television and other types of television and Pacific, and Indian oceans to approximately 300 audio distribution systems, have led to the authori- ships. Eventually up to 8000 ships are expected to zation of over 1800 receive-only Earth stations for be fitted for satellite communications. the distribution of these services. The Corporation On February 15, 1979, the United States, pur- for Public Broadcasting (CPB) and National Pub- suant to the International Maritime Satellite Com- lic Radio (NPR) have begun to construct their munications Act of 1978, signed the convention on Earth stations as part of the satellite distribution of the International Maritime Satellite Organization multiple audio programming to NPR radio stations (INMARSAT) in London. INMARSAT will pro- and are looking toward an operational date early vide global telecommunications services for mari- in 1980. Several applications for authorization of time commercial and safety purposes. Since 1972, new systems have been received, including those the United States has been working with other coun- from the Mutual Broadcasting Company’s audio tries to improve maritime communications through distribution network, the Appalachian Regional a global satellite communications system that meets Commission’s television distribution system, and the requirements of merchant fleets. The new or- from both the Associated Press and the United ganization, which will be headquartered in London, Press International wanting to establish their own came into existence on July 16, 1979, when the satellite distribution networks. The FCC has also required number of investment shares had been received a proposal by the Western Union Telegraph taken up by signatories. Patterned closely after Company to make available transponder capacity in INTELSAT (the International Telecommunications the WESTAR satellite system for television trans- Satellite Organization), INMARSAT is expected to mission solely within Mexico. begin operations in the early 1980s, relying pri- Late in January 1979, the FCC released a Notice marily on Intelsat V spacecraft, equipped with mari- of Inquiry designed to explore legal, technical, and time communications payloads, for its first genera- policy questions associated with the possible deregu- tion of satellites.

2 Military Navigation Satellites. The new military range. A developmental test model of a laser com- navigation satellite system is the NAVSTAR Global munication device was completed and testing was Positioning System. It is a joint-service system to begun. Laser communications would allow trans- provide high-accuracy, global position fixing in mission of high data rates and protection against three dimensions. Field testing of the NAVSTAR jamming. Global Positioning System user equipments with the Communications Negotiarion. The year 1979 was four GPS satellites launched in 1978 demonstrated an active one for the United States in international the required accuracies, and the program began deliberations on space communications. full-scale engineering development in August. WORLD ADMINISTRATIVERADIO CONFERENCE. Once every 20 years the International Telecom- Space Communication Experiments munications Union convenes a General World Ad- ministrative Radio Conference to review and adjust Experimental Satellites. Satellite experiments as- the world-wide allocation of radio frequencies. Since sociated with the United States-Canadian Communi- the United States is a major communications user cation Technology Satellite (CTS) in the 11.7-1 2.2 and since this was the first such conference in which GHz band began winding down in 1979 after three international space activities were a major considera- years of operation. With notification of termination tion, substantia1 effort went into preparation for and at mid-year, most American experimenters are com- participation in the conference. This conference met pleting their projects, In some of the experiments for ten weeks, addressing the many issues of fre- dealing with program delivery, experimenters are quency allocation with an intensity that reflected making plans to use proposed or existing domestic the rapidly growing pressure on the existing fre- satellites in the 6-4 GHz bands to continue opera- quency spectrum. At the conclusion of the confer- tion. Similar projects are being completed in the ence, the United States delegation reported general 2.2-2.69 GHz band associated with the Applica- satisfaction with the results; some 95 percent of the tion Technology Satellite (ATS 6) which was ter- United States positions had been accepted. minated in the last quarter of 1979. DIRECTBROADCAST SATELLITES. The United Na- Emergency and operational communication pro- tions, in the Legal Subcommittee of the Committee vided through the operation of ATS 1 and ATS 3 on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, made progress has grown somewhat. These satellites have narrow- on elaborating principles for use of artificial Earth band VHF transponders and are basically being satellites for direct television broadcasting. Only used by experimenters to send narrow-band voice two issues appear to be blocking consensus-the and data communications to 37 fixed and portable principles on consultation and on agreement between receiving stations. Messages deal with medical emer- countries. Both involve the concept of prior consent. gency, state government operations, and church ad- Much of the background on this subject dates to ministration. Two new areas of VHF satellite op- 1977, when a World Administrative Radio Confer- erations have begun this year; one experiment uses ence was held under the auspices of the Interna- satellite data telemetry to control the flow of natural tional Telecommunications Union (ITU). The con- gas in cross-country pipe lines; another experi- ference adopted a plan of national assignments of ment assesses the role of satellite communications in frequencies and orbital slots for direct television search and rescue operations in remote areas of the satellite broadcasting for Regions 1 and 3, which United States. comprise the world’s surface except for North and Communications Research. NASA identified the South America (Region 2). The same conference two areas in satellite communications that need im- also treated the problem of “spillover.” Broadcast provement. They are (a) multiplying the use of satellites transmit a wide beam. Although the beam existing frequencies and (b) extending the usable can be shaped somewhat by the antennas aboard frequency spectrum. The multiplication of frequency the satellite, it is impossible to shape the beam to use depends on the development of spaceborne mul- conform with national boundaries. Hence there is tibeam antennas; several frequency ranges and a 15- inevitably spillover of the beam into neighboring beam antenna began range testing. The second prob- countries. The 1977 conference established limits, lem was being examined in a prototype system that based on technological realities, on this unavoidable could greatly reduce the bandwidth used by digitized spillover, seeking to reduce it to a minimum. television signals. Although ITU’s technical regulations impose in DoD was also researching means of using higher effect a prior consent rtgime for direct broadcast frequency bands, partly to avoid the congestion in satellites in Regions 1 and 3, in the United Nations the lower frequencies and partly to lessen the effect discussions the Soviet Union and the Eastern-bloc of jamming. In 1979 new components were de- countries insist that there ought to be United Na- veloped that could operate in the EHF frequency tions principles for direct broadcast satellites which establish politically a requirement that direct broad- program of research, development, evaluation, and cast signals cannot cross national borders without application of aerospace remote sensing for agri- the prior consent and agreement of the neighboring culture and renewable resources. It is a cooperative country. effort of the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, A large group of delegations would exclude the and Interior; NASA; and the Agency for Interna- requirement for prior consent in the case of unin- tional Development. The goal of the AgRISTARS tentional spillover but would apply it to the case program is to determine the usefulness, cost, and ex- where a country intends to broadcast its signal into tent to which aerospace remote sensing data can be some country other than its own. integrated into existing or future agricultural meas- The United States and a very small number of urement systems to improve the objectivity, reliabil- other delegations view the present language of the ity, timeliness, and adequacy of data for resource proposed principle on consultation and agreement management as well as commodity production between countries as limiting and as eroding the information. principle of free flow of information, a fundamental All participating agencies are closely linked in a human right recognized in such international in- joint program. Within AgRISTARS USDA has the struments as the Universal Declaration of Human responsibility for defining the overall information Rights in Article 19 of the United Nations Charter, requirements, performing research related to devel- which declares the right of people “to seek, receive, opment of yield models and their applications, de- and impart information and ideas through any velopment of an agronomic data base and collection media and regardless of frontiers”; this has been re- of ground data, and evaluation of technology for its affirmed in Resolution 331’115 of the General As- utility and affordability. NASA is responsible for sembly and most recently in the UNESCO Declara- research, development, and testing for foreign crop- tion on the Mass Media. The United States fully area estimation, Landsat data acquisition, and supports a principle providing for full consultations spectral inputs to various research activities. NOAA prior to the establishment of any international di- of the Department of Commerce provides the mete- rect broadcast satellite by a country- consultations orological data that supports research work on yield which could include the subject of program con- models. The Department of the Interior is charged tent-but not that they must end with an explicit with Landsat data storage, retrieval, and dissemina- agreement or the prior consent of a receiving sta- tion. The Agency for International Development will tion before such broadcasting may begin. evaluate the utility of research, development, The issue obviously is ideological and political and testing results for application in developing and may be difficult to resolve. It remains to be countries. seen whether consensus will ever be reached. Landsat data, combined with extensive ground- gathered data, improved the official 1978 year-end Earth’s Resources estimates of Iowa’s planted corn and sorghum acre- ages. This was the first time that researchers of the Department of Agriculture had analyzed data The remote sensing of Earth’s surface and atmos- from Landsat for an entire state for regularly sched- phere from spacecraft and aircraft continued in uled reports of crop acreage. The satellite data 1979. Some of these sensing systems were tentative helped reduce sampling errors and demonstrated and experimental, others were semi-operational, and that Landsat data can be used to improve crop a few were fully operational. acreage estimates at the state and sub-state level. However, resource efficiencies and timely acquisition Znventorying and Monitoring of Landsat data must be achieved before this ap- proach can be used in operating programs. A vital Earth Resources. The most significant activity in part of the statistical estimation procedure is de- land observations was in agriculture. Analysis of velopment of sampling frames; remotely sensed data data from the three-year Large Area Crop Inven- are particularly useful for the development of im- tory Experiment (LACIE) an experimental use of , proved frames. Satellite imagery is now being used remotely sensed data for crop measurement and as a basic source for establishing homogeneous prediction, had shown that it is possible to distin- guish wheat from similar crops and to obtain re- strata and for providing a basis for the digitizing of liable yield estimates. entire frames to improve area measurement accu- To build on the LACIE experience, AgRISTARS racy. Initial activity is now under way with AID to (Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys provide sampling frame procedures and techniques Through Aerospace Remote Sensing) officially be- to cooperating host countries at their request and gan on October l, 1979. AgRISTARS is a 6-year to extend the use of satellite imagery to get better

4 land-use stratification within individual states of the In control of water resources, Landsat data were United States. used in a demonstration project in Florida to define During 1979 USDA employees assigned to an the land cover in the basin of the Apalachicola AID project completed a schematic soil survey of River to better predict the effects of existing and Saudi Arabia using Landsat imagery. Under a co- planned agricultural and industrial developments. operative agreement with the Treasury Department, Along the Gulf of Mexico, Landsat data are being a schematic soils map was prepared for publication used to study Choctawhatchee Bay for the effect of on a Landsat mosaic. On the domestic scene Land- urban development on water shortages in the Ft. sat digital data were used as an aid in the National Walton area. Cooperative Soil Survey. The Department continued In longer term development of methods for using its cooperative effort with NASA under the nation- remotely sensed information in prospecting for min- wide Forestry Application Program to identify and eral deposits, NASA has been working closely with investigate new remote sensing methods, with spe- university and industry scientists to evaluate the use- cial emphasis in the application of inventory pro- fulness of satellite data in geological reconnaissance. cedures for renewable resources and to application At 12 test sites with known deposits of copper, of remote sensing technology to the management of uranium, or petroleum Landsat data were examined forest and range lands. Specific project areas in- for broad area possibilities and aircraft flew more cluded detection, classification, and measurement of detailed sensing missions over the most promising disturbances, including forest, insect, and disease locations. At Copper Mountain, Utah, a multispec- damage; classification and mensuration of forest and tral scanner in an aircraft detected patterns of iron range land resources; regional and large area renew- oxide stains over known uranium deposits. When a able resource inventories including timber manage- similar pattern was detected nearby in supposedly ment surveys; environmental monitoring and the barren land, a ground check by geologists was con- land management planning process; and vegetation ducted and the company owning the mineral rights classification with topographic data. staked a claim. International interest in Landsat data continued A new tool in geologic assessment was put into to mount. With the coming into operation of the operation in 1979 with the launch of Magsat in Landsat station in India in August, the total of October. The first satellite designed to survey the foreign Landsat stations rose to 7; 3 more were Earth’s vector magnetic field and orbiting at a much under way, and discussions were in progress on 2 lower altitude than previous satellites measuring the more. In addition to foreign Landsat stations, for- magnetic field, Magsat is intended to return much eign requests for Landsat coverage grew rapidly. more detailed information about the magnetic Requests for coverage from United States users anomolies within the Earth’s crust, thus defining also grew. Other uses included US. Coast Guard, crustal structure in large-scale models for mineral NOAA, and USGS monitoring of the oil spill off the assessment in remote areas. Yucatan coast. Beginning in June, NASA provided At the United Nations, work on principles to gov- Landsat coverage of the Gulf of Mexico to these ern remote sensing of the Earth’s natural resources agencies and to the Mexican government; it deline- and environment continued into its fourth year. The ated the spread and movement of the huge oil slick. United States does not see the slow pace of negotia- The development of geobased information sys- tions as a basis of pessimism. Growing experience tems continued to grow in popularity. In these, with Landsat programs is educating all nations to Landsat data are put in a computer along with ter- the potential and possible modes of operation for rain data and soil map data; as subsequent Landsat remote sensing systems. data reveals changes in land use the data bank can Access to and the dissemination of remote sens- be used to predict problem areas for drainage and ing data or information derived therefrom still raises erosion, pinpointing the needed field inspections. a diversity of views despite extensive discussion Success with experiments of this type led the Iowa over the last four or five years. In very early dis- legislature to appropriate funds for purchase of a cussions, the right of a nation to sense the territory state-owned system for Landsat applications; Florida of another nation without the latter’s prior consent is planning to develop a statewide Landsat-based was questioned. With more and more nations hav- information system. ing this capability and recognizing the potential In forestry, the California Department of Forestry value of this space application, this argument has chose Landsat technology over other methods to largely disappeared and in its stead many delega- meet a requirement by the legislature for a state- tions now seek to impose prior consent on the dis- wide inventory of forest lands by August 1, 1979, semination of data or information. Other delega- with updates to follow at five-year intervals. tions, including the United States, support the right

5 of a nation operating a sensor or of a nation with a heavy precipitation from storms at sea. The con- receiving ground station to disseminate remote clusion was that imaging radars on satellites are sensing data openly without the prior consent of the very effective in both atmospheric and ocean-surface observed nation. The Soviet Union has proposed measurements. In the ability of satellite instruments that data having a resolution of no better than 50 to measure waveheight and mean sea level, NOAA meters be openly disseminated while data better compared satellite data with surface-truth data and than 50 meters resolution be subject to the prior found agreement for waves with heights up to 30 consent of the observed nation. centimeters. The United States believes that Landsat-type sys- In March NOAA, NASA, and DoD completed tems can continue to provide significant national, a study on possible development of a National regional, and international benefits that far exceed Oceanic Satellite System. The joint study explored the slight risk of injury to the economic, political, the operational needs for oceanographic informa- or national security of any country. tion in civil and defense agencies and the technical If the principle of prior consent were adopted, requirements in the space and ground segments of the international cooperative program under which such a system. the Landsat ground stations have been located NOAA continued monitoring with its Goes abroad would have to be ended since data are held spacecraft the position, warm and cold eddies, and not only by the country controlling the spacecraft thermal boundaries of the Gulf Stream. These data, but also by the ground-receiving-station countries. published in weekly maps, are used by fishermen In response to the Soviet proposal, the United to locate productive fishing grounds. In 1979, for States and other delegations pointed out that from the first time NOAA began issuing surface tempera- a technical standpoint spatial resolution was not a ture maps of the waters adjacent to Alaska; these reliable or standard reference, a conclusion sup- should be of use to fishermen and researchers in ported by the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee correlating fish catches to temperature factors. All as well as by COSPAR (the Committee on Space 22 of NOAA’s data buoys located in waters around Research of the International Council of Scientific the world were converted to transmit environmental Unions). and communications data through the Goes satellites. Another arena of Earth observation has been the study of the dynamic processes within the Earth Environmental Analysis and Protection through the measurement of tectonic plate move- One of the early successes of the United States ment and the resulting deformations and shifts of space program was the weather satellite. For more the crustal surface. NASA has for four years used than a decade complex systems of weather satellites satellite ranging systems along the San Andreas have been operational in weather forecasting. In Fault in California and has measured slippage be- the last few years, research has started on the less- tween the Pacific and North American plates of from discernible trends of world climate and changes in 6 to 12 centimeters per year. A fourth data phase Earth’s upper environment caused by man-gener- was completed early in 1979 and the data are now ated pollutants. being analyzed. Weather Satellite Operations. During 1979 NOAA Mobile lasers have been installed at four stations operated a two-satellite polar-orbiting weather satel- and a second-generation laser installed on a truck lite system. During the first half of the year the by the University of Texas will take measurements former Improved Tiros Operational Satellite from 25 sites in the western United States. Other (ITOS) system was being-replaced by the new mobile and fixed lasers are operating overseas in a Tiros-N system. In October 1978 NASA’s experi- number of countries in an international network. mental prototype, Tiros-N, had been launched and United States participation, in addition to NASA, replaced one of the two ITOS satellites in the op- involves the National Science Foundation (NSF), erational network. On June 27, 1979, NOAA’s National Geodetic Survey, USGS, and the Defense first satellite in the new series, Noaa 6, was orbited Mapping Agency. and in a few weeks it replaced Noaa 5, complet- Monitoring the Sea State. The 99-day operational ing the new network. phase, followed by the abrupt premature failure, of The Tiros-N satellites are in near-polar, Sun- NASA’s Seasat 1 satellite in 1978 was pursued in synchronous orbits, crossing the equator some 12 1979 by extensive evaluation of the quality and hours apart. Each satellite has four primary sensors: validity of data from Seasat and from Nimbus satel- a very-high-resolution radiometer, a vertical sounder lites that had employed oceanographic sensors. comprised of three complementary sounding instru- NOAA convened a workshop on the usefulness of ments, a data collection and location system, and a Seasat data in measuring the high winds, waves, and space environment monitor. With improved visual and infrared imagery, they will also measure tem- presence of a low-pressure area, an intense moisture perature and moisture and at stratospheric levels front with convectively unstable air, and strong will monitor proton and electron flux. A new ground divergence of the upper-level jet over the area. system was accepted in February 1979 to handle Tiros-N had indeed flagged the percursor conditions the extremely large volume of digital data gen- of development of severe storms and made advance erated by the Tiros-N system. warning possible. NOAA’s other system of satellites is the Geo- The improved radiometer on Tiros-N and the stationary Operational Environmental Satellites Earth Radiation Budget experiment on Nimbus 7 (GOES). In 1979 this system supported the inter- enabled more comprehensive study in 1979 of the national Global Weather Experiment and the opera- Earth’s radiation budget. Not only is the radiation tional utility of GOES imagery was improved in budget important for meteorological forecasting, it is March 1979 by the introduction of a new interactive also of interest to students of fluctuations in climate. computer system which provides better accuracy and Data from eight narrow-field-of-view channels are faster response time in gridding of GOES images. being used to develop computer programs for DoD’s weather satellite systems is the Defense angular models, which will improve accuracy of Meteorological Satellite Program, supporting military readings of radiation outgoing from Earth. operations with high-quality visual and infrared im- A trnospheric and Magneto.rp1ieric Research. For agery and other specialized weather data; it also some years several Federal agencies have been mak- furnishes NOAA with data supplementary to its ing space-based, air-based, and ground-based meas- satellite systems. From polar orbit DoD’s two urements of constituent gases and particles in the weather satellites acquire data on the world’s various layers of the Earth’s outer environment. The weather four times each day, store it, and later range of interests has grown from concern over transmit it to the Air Force and Navy weather cen- charged-particle effects on radio communications, to trals in Nebraska and California respectively. The the pass-through effects on weather, to effects of data are also transmitted in real time to mobile man-made pollution on the ozone layer, to the effect readout stations in key locations around the world on Earth’s climate, and most recently to charged- to support tactical operations. In 1979 the fourth particle effects on electric charging of geosyn- Block 5D satellite was launched and became opera- chronous spacecraft. tional in July. In addition to providing cloud ima- NOAA continued research on several aspects of gery, this satellite has a new microwave sensor that atmospheric clouds and moisture content. Evalua- takes a vertical temperature profile as well as sev- tion continued of microwave-derived temperature, eral special sensors that read ionospheric data into water-vapor, and thermal wind measurements made forecasts of ionospheric electron counts. Design was by NASA’s Nimbus 6 satellite with its Scanning completed and a contract awarded for a passive Microwave Spectrometer. The satellite soundings microwave imager to measure precipitation, cloud proved to be as good or better than ground-based and liquid water content of the atmosphere, ocean soundings down to the 700-millibar pressure level surface wind, and sea ice distribution. over water and down to 500 millibars over land. Weather Research. In December 1978 the World Other studies of microwave data sought to improve Meteorological Organization opened its long-awaited the accuracy of temperature measurements by cor- Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) . recting errors induced by heavy precipitation. The first phase was a year-long Global Weather Ex- In research into hurricanes and convective cloud periment. Several United States agencies are involved, systems, NOAA continued to use satellite-derived with a special role for NOAA and NASA environ- data and to compare it with aircraft-derived data. mental satellites. In conjunction with weather satel- In 1979 this technique was used to study Hurricanes lites from other nations and extensive ground-truth David and Frederic as these storms moved up the data collection, they should provide a high-density Carribean to their landfalls in Hispaniola, Cuba, data bank; systems and instruments also will bene- and then the United States. The satellite and aircraft fit from intercalibration. NOAA began comparing data may provide information on the degree to its satellite data with those from Japanese and which cloud motion represents wind speed and di- European Space Agency satellites and found the rection at the lower levels, and the accuracy of data to be quite compatible. Comparison periods satellite estimates of storm intensity. will be continued indefinitely at the rate of twice a Several approaches were taken to extend and im- year. prove the data base for forecasting of weather over One of NOAA’s case studies involved a Tiros-N the northern Pacific Ocean, where Alaska’s weather orbit across the United States on May 2, 1979, 12 originates. Since numerical forecasting over oceans hours before tornadoes struck along the border of has serious limitations, NOAA performed opera- Oklahoma and Kansas. The study revealed the tional tests on a new technique using satellite data 7 to locate and track developing systems in the mid- remote sensing. As part of this effort, the hardware Pacific through estimates of central pressure. Data and software needed for processing remotely sensed from geostationary satellites were used to determine digital data were transferred to EPA. The EPA Data low-level cloud movements over the Pacific; this is and Analysis System can handle data from EPA’s in addition to previous use of such data for high- present remote sensing systems and from current- level winds in global forecast models. The Pacific ly available and proposed satellite multispectral weather data base was extended even farther west scanner systems. in 1979 by regular acquisition of cloud images over The EPA-NASA remote sensing capability has the western Pacific from Japan’s geostationary been used for such purposes as showing the impact meteorological satellite; this area is beyond the of land use activities on water quality in Apalachi- range of United States geostationary satellites. cola Bay, Florida; assessing the damage to hard- During 1979 the Environmental Protection wood trees from sulfur dioxide emissions; and meas- Agency (EPA) worked with NASA to use the high uring turbidity and sediment concentrations in water technology developed for space exploration to ad- bodies. All results evaluated thus far are very en- dress the problems of pollution. EPA and NASA couraging. They demonstrate the feasibility of us- have entered into a joint research program to im- ing satellite and aircraft-acquired multispectral prove the usefulness of satellite imagery for study- scanner data for monitoring the effects of energy ing the dynamics of large-scale pollution episodes. resources development. The development and movement of such episodes The next step in expanding the EPA‘s remote were first identified through visibility isopleths de- sensing is the development of a Geo-Referenced In- rived from routine National Weather Service visi- teractive Data Base System (GRIDS). This system bility distance measurements. Areas with low visi- would handle various types of digitized environ- bility show up on satellite images as hazy areas mental data and provide graphical displays of the which can be differentiated from clouds. Occurring overlaid data sets, producing, in effect, an analog in the summer and early fall in the eastern United model of the geographical environment under study. States, these low visibility episodes have been in- The environmental analog becomes dynamic when creasing in severity and geographic extent over the data sets from different periods are compared. Fur- last 20 years. The reduction in visibility has been ther steps in developing this system would in- associated statistically with high concentrations of corporate various models (e.g., air and water qual- sulfate particles and other pollutants; together these ity), thereby permitting a graphical and dynamic may affect both health and ecology. presentation of the impact from an undesirable en- The dimensions of hazy air masses are on the vironmental action. order of hundreds of kilometers, with travel dis- A third EPA-NASA cooperative effort is the de- tances of thousands of kilometers. Because of the velopment of better instrumentation for measure- large dimensions, satellite observations offer an ex- ment of airborne sulfur dioxide. During the past cellent means for observation of their formation, ex- year, a mobile ground-based ultraviolet (UV) lidar tent, travel, and dissipation. This information, which system was developed for measurement of sulfur can be obtained from existing satellite imagery, will dioxide and aerosols in stack plumes. This system be used to determine meteorological conditions as- consists of a unique laser, developed at NASA’s sociated with the haze masses so that their forma- Langley Research Center, which produces two in- tion and movement may be predicted. Also the data dependently tunable UV wavelengths that are sepa- will enable us to associate periods of intense pollu- rated in time by 100 microseconds. The laser is tion with health effects. combined with a dual-channel receiver for simul- A second EPA-NASA joint effort is the remote taneous detection of the backscattered light in the sensing of accelerated energy-fuel development and UV and visible portions of the spectrum. The mo- the associated environmental impacts. In anticipa- bile UV lidar system was demonstrated in a joint tion of increased energy requirements of the next field experiment conducted in cooperation with the quarter century, the Federal government is promot- Maryland Power Plant Siting Program and EPA at ing the development of untapped national energy the Morgantown generating plant of the Potomac resources such as low-sulfur coal reserves, oil shale, Electric Power Company. and geothermal resources, all of which are located The lidar system used two UV wavelengths near in abundance in the western United States. Their 300 nanometers in the measurement of sulfur diox- development will usually involve greatly increased ide concentrations in the power plant plume and the strip mining, along with the construction of large 532-nanometer wavelength of the pump laser for conventional power and coal gasification plants in measurement of particulate distribution in the presently pristine areas of the West. EPA and NASA plume. In addition to the lidar system, several other are obtaining essential baseline and trend data by instruments obtained corroborating and supporting data, both in the stack and in the plume. UV lidar studies were supplemented with the launch of the measurements were made both day and night. In- Scatha payload-some 12 experiments designed to stack measurements compare well with the lidar- measure, analyze, and define the amounts and causes determined concentrations of sulfur dioxide. The re- of the charging. Data from the Scatha satellite com- sults indicate that a UV lidar system can measure bined with other data from theoretical and empirical the extent and average sulfur dioxide concentration studies are being made available in a handbook and in power plant plumes. With increased power, a updated models. UV lidar in an aircraft can measure sulfur dioxide An experimental radar, designed to provide new at long ranges downwind of the stack to near-am- knowledge of winds, turbulence, and waves in the bient concentration levels. Development is nearly atmosphere between about one and 100 kilometers, complete of an airborne UV lidar system to meas- is being constructed in Fairbanks, Alaska. The radar ure sulfur dioxide, ozone, and aerosols. The system transmits a 50-megahertz signal at a peak power of was flown to measure ozone and sulfur dioxide in 6.4 megawatts from a phased dipole array of 40,000 the fall of 1979. square meters. A fourth application of space expertise to pollu- The device measures the downward scattered tion problems is the validation of plume models. radiation arising from variations in the radio refrac- Verification studies of plume rise and dispersion tive index; at the highest elevations, the returned models, using the lidar data base from a previous scattered radiation arises from free electrons. The lidar plume dispersion experiment, were completed scattered radiation, when suitably processed, can be in 1979. Comparisons were made between measured used to infer air motions along the local vertical, and predicted values for the standard deviation of and this can be done about every four minutes. Con- the particulate distribution in the plume in the ver- ventional balloon techniques, by contrast, permit tical and the cross-wind direction. The lidar system such measurements only twice a day, rockets even has been demonstrated to be effective in obtaining less frequently. Thus the motion of the atmosphere plume dispersion parameters that cannot be meas- can be measured in much greater detail. Such in- ured with passive techniques. formation is vital for an understanding of weather The study of climate was officially mandated in systems, atmospheric composition and chemistry, the National Climate Program Act of 1977. This led radio propagation, and atmospheric wave motions. to the establishment of NOAA’s National Climate The facility is being constructed by scientists from Program Office, engaged in the long term and spa- NOAA’s Aeronomy Laboratory in Boulder, Colo- tially extended collection and analysis of all the en- rado, with support from NSF. vironmental variables studied in connection with Although the near-Earth magnetic field has a sim- the weather and the oceans. In I979 NASA sup- ple dipole character, its more distant structure is ported the NOAA program with studies and meas- severely distorted by interaction with hot solar urements of aerosols in the atmosphere. With the plasma (ionized gas) that continuously blows out launch of the SAGE (Stratospheric Aerosol and from the Sun. The outer reaches of the Earth’s Gas Experiment) payload, NASA was well situated magnetic field cause a “magnetospheric” cavity in to gather remotely sensed data on the violent erup- this “solar wind” some tens of Earth radii across tions of the volcano La Soufriere in the Caribbean and stretching away from the Sun past the distance in April. Combinations of airborne instrument read- of the moon’s orbit. ings and SAGE data agreed that heavy concentra- An important cause is the motion, in the high- tions of aerosols rose to and traveled at the 18- latitude ionosphere, of magnetic field lines that trace kilometer altitude. This was the first time a remote to great distances into the magnetosphere. Plasma sensing capability was in place to measure such a tracing these trajectories can move at speeds of phenomenon quantitatively and to map the spread kilometers per second, corresponding to driving elec- of the aerosols around the globe. These data will tric fields tens of kilovolts across the dawn-dusk also suggest how pollutants might be transported ionospheric polar cap. A qualitatively new capability around the world, with implications for the siting is now available to measure plasma velocities (and of industrial complexes that exhaust large quantities derived electric fields) continuously over the entire of airborne wastes. band from 60” to 75” magnetic latitude. With sup- A phenomenon in the magnetosphere that has port of the NSF a 50-meter-diameter fully steerable been of concern to both the military and civil sides antenna has been added to the Millstone Hill radar of the national space program has been spacecraft at Westford, Massachusetts. Data collected to date charging-the buildup of excessive electrical charges with this newly upgraded facility are already ex- on spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit, posing a tending the understanding of both solar control and threat to spacecraft electronics. DoD has taken the atmospheric effects of these circulation patterns. lead in research on this problem. In 1979 theoretical Magnetically quiet days have been found to have a

9 plasma flow pattern consistent with expectations in 1978, is positioned farther out (some 1.6-million from present idealized models. while increasingly kilometers from Earth) at the Sun-Earth libration disturbed days show subtle to dramatic departures point. As a sentinel between Sun and Earth, it re- from this pattern. ports on events in the solar wind about one hour At the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, before these same effects reach the Earth’s mag- analysis of the 1976 gravitational redshift experi- netosphere. Over a period of time, the flow of data ment, in which an extremely precise hydrogen maser from this triangle of satellites will tell us much about clock sent into space was compared with an identi- the fluctuations of the magnetosphere in response to cal clock on the ground, was completed in 1979. A the aberrations in the solar wind, in addition to giv- recalculation of all systematic errors and the formal ing reliable short-term warning of imminent dis- statistical errors has led to a final result: the rela- turbances in the magnetosphere and ionosphere. tionship between the observed redshift and the pre- With the approach of the point in the Sun’s 11- diction from the equivalence principle is verified to year cycle known as the “solar maximum”-featur- within 143 parts per million. ing maximum activity on the solar surface-the in- A second test of the equivalence principle with ternational scientific community has joined together clocks involved comparison of hydrogen-maser and in an International Solar Maximum Year. This be- superconducting-cavity clocks at Stanford Univer- gan in August 1979, and will continue through sity to search for a possible nonmetric behavior of February 1981. The ISEE satellites will play an im- gravitation. Evidence for this behavior would be portant reporting role in the effort. A major new that the frequency difference between clocks operat- initiative from the United States in support of this ing on different physical principles would be affected international effort will be the launch of a Solar by changes in the Sun’s gravity potential owing to Maximum Mission (SMM) early in 1980. This the laboratory’s motion during the period of meas- satellite is instrumented for meticulous reporting of urement. No effect was seen at the 1 percent level flares and other disturbances on the solar surface; of sensitivity. its data will be supplemented from an array of other During 1979, a hydrogen maser was successfully satellites and ground-based telescopes. operated at a temperature of 25 K, made possible The next major foray toward the Sun after the by a new type of gaseous wall coating material solar maximum is the International Solar Polar frozen in place. The stability available from the new Mission. Its two spacecraft will be the first solar cold maser is at the lo-’: level and work is in mission to approach the Sun from outside the eclip- progress to demonstrate this tenfold improvement tic plane and will report on the complex polar re- over present technology. gions on the Sun. In 1979 the United States space- craft and experiments were contracted; the other spacecraft is being developed by the European Space Science Space Agency. Space science can be considered to begin in the region of interactions between the Earth’s magnetic Study of the Planets field and the incoming solar wind. Beyond that. it encompasses the solar system and the entire detect- Few if any years in the history of the United able Universe. States space program have seen such activity and dramatic new vistas in planetary exploration as 1979. Our unmanned spacecraft visited Venus, Jupiter, Sun-Earth Studies and Saturn; in their passages of Jupiter Voyager 1 Much remains to be learned about the Sun, the and 2 brought us the first views of the striking di- sole source of Earth’s light, life, and energy; and versity of the four large Galilean moons-all of about the interactions between solar emissions and them big enough to qualify in the rapidly growing the layers of Earth’s environmental shell. new science of comparative planetology. The Sun. In 1979 the International Sun-Earth Mars. At the end of 1979, almost four years after Explorer (ISEE) satellites marked their first full the arrival of the Viking spacecraft in the vicinity year of operation as a complete three-satellite sys- of Mars, one of the two Viking orbiters still had a tem. This system, a collaboration between NASA supply of control gas and was returning high-quality and the European Space Agency (ESA), has two imagery of the Martian surface. Both of the landers satellites (ISEE 1 and 2) traveling in highly ellip- sent imagery and meteorological and radio science tical orbits in and out of the Earth’s magnetic field, data during the year. The lander nearer the equator reporting on a cross section of the Earth’s mag- has been programmed for periodic interrogation netosphere; the third ISEE satellite, launched late during the next decade. Venus. In the closing weeks of 1978 the Pioneer- magnetospheric boundaries and tail and bow shock Venus orbiter and five probes arrived at Venus; the wave-but surprising in other respects, such as a orbiter circled the cloud-enshrouded planet through strong magnetic flux tube arching between Jupi- 1979. The probes descended through the atmos- ter and Io, perhaps contributing energy to Io’s phere, sending back a large volume of data that will volcanism. require several years of intensive analysis. Two Now headed across the solar system, Voyager 1 items have been of early interest: the trace elements is expected to arrive at Saturn in November 1980; of the rare gases, argon and neon, in the atmosphere Voyager 2 will follow in September 1981 and per- of Venus were an order-of-magnitude less in quan- haps fly on to Uranus. tity than in Earth’s atmosphere and another order- Satunz. For the first time, a spacecraft from Earth of-magnitude less than in Mars’ atmosphere. Since flew past the big distant planet Saturn whose spec- these gases do not enter into chemical compounds, tacular rings have long tantalized viewers through they provide relatively direct information about the their telescopes. Pioneer 11, launched in April original materials from which the planets were 1973, had followed its sister spacecraft Pioneer 10 formed. The other item of interest is the large around Jupiter in December 1974 and then had amount of sulfur that the probes encountered in the sailed across the solar system to its encounter in lower atmosphere of Venus. 1979 with Saturn. Its measurements of Saturn’s Meanwhile the Pioneer orbiter probed the geog- strong magnetic field confirmed that Saturn, like raphy of the surface of Venus with its radar altim- Jupiter, radiates more heat than it receives from the eter, sketching out at least some of the major Sun. Though it did not penetrate the famous rings, features. Especially interesting is a large plateau, it did find two more faint rings outside of those rising some 6 kilometers above its surroundings and visible from Earth; also it confirmed that the rings spreading about 100 kilometers across. Such fea- absorb the energetic particles trapped by the mag- tures are found on Earth but not on the other inner netosphere, so that passage near them should be safe planets; it would seem to have been created by for Voyager 2 as it flies past Saturn on a course large-scale crustal forces. toward Uranus. Saturn’s moon Titan is an object of Jupiter. The dramatic highlight of 1979 in ’the much speculation because it is known to have an United States space program was the flights of atmosphere; Pioneer 1 I passed no closer than 350,- Voyager 1 and 2 past Jupiter and its four Galilean 000 kilometers from Titan, so the rather fuzzy pic- moons. The more than 30,000 images returned by tures revealed little. Both Pioneer 10 and 11 will the two spacecraft depicted in detail the violent, not make further planetary encounters but will de- colorful weather patterns in the atmosphere of the part the solar system. They will continue to be in- solar system’s largest planet: rapidly shifting anti- terrogated for several years for data on the compo- cyclonic winds swirling around the edges of the sition of the interplanetary medium. Great Red Spot-the huge, long-lived storm twice Ground-based Research and Analysis. Teams of as large as the Earth; banded polar weather sys- researchers continued to sift the vast amounts of tems propelled by strong east-west winds rather than data from the Viking missions, the Venus probes by thermal convection as previously thought; winds and orbiter, the Voyager data on Jupiter and the as strong as 260 kilometers, twice the force of hur- Galilean moons, and the new data on Saturn. ricane winds on Earth; extensive auroral displays; Ground-based astronomy acquired a powerful new and cloud-top lightning discharges of much greater tool in 1979 when the Infrared Telescope Facility power than any on Earth. was completed on the summit of Mauna Kea in Even more impressive was the diversity of the Hawaii. The new telescope supported the Voyager Galilean moons, all four of them near enough to the encounter with Jupiter; all planets will be studied size of Mercury to qualify as planet-type satellites: by observations of the thermal emissions of their bright-orange Io, pockmarked with several erupting surfaces and atmospheres. When the planets are not volcanoes spewing sulfurous material over the sur- in position for study, the telescope will be used as a face; white-faced Europa, laced with thousands of national facility for stellar astronomy. intersecting fracture lines; Ganymede, larger than Mercury yet light enough in weight to be half water, Study of the Universe with a heavily cratered surface alternating with grooved terrain; and brooding Callisto, darkest in Answers to the most profound questions about albedo and with concentric ring remnants surround- physical existence, the nature of matter, and the ing ancient huge impact basins long since filled in range of physical processes may well be found in by flow of the icy crust. study of the complexities of the Universe. The massive Jovian magnetosphere proved to be Research with Spacecraft. HEAO (High Energy similar to Earth’s in some respects-well defined Astronomy Observatories) satellites are the largest

11 and heaviest automated spacecraft yet launched by these intensities is important in understanding the the United States space program. The series of three energy balance in star-forming regions. satellites has been instrumented to inventory and Sounding rockets won a place in 1979 in the study the high-energy sources in the Universe. Space Shuttle program; approval was given for a HEAO 1, launched in August 1977, was highly suc- development flight in 1981-1982 to demonstrate cessful in surveying the entire sky to map the x-ray the concept of flying sounding rocket payloads off sources. When it reentered the atmosphere in March the orbiting Shuttle, to be recovered and returned by 1979, it had increased by four times the count of the Shuttle. known x-ray sources. One of its findings was that a Research from the Ground. A unique double class of stars exhibiting strong x-ray emissions has quasar has been discovered by research sponsored very hot, active atmospheres, or coronae. HEAO 2, by the NSF. The quasar was first detected at the launched in November 1978, was designed to study Jodrell Bank Radio observatory in England. At that in detail the most interesting of the x-ray sources time the object appeared to be an ordinary quasar. identified by its predecessor. It confirmed HEAO 1’s Then on March 29, 1979, the Kitt Peak National findings about the hot-surface stars but extended Observatory’s 2. I-meter optical telescope found that those findings to show that a much larger class of the object was in fact two images separated by an stars, in a range of sizes, ages, and temperatures, angle of 5.7 arc-seconds. This finding was later con- are unexpectedly bright x-ray sources. This finding firmed by the University of Arizona’s 2.3-meter tele- challenges most of the existing theories on stellar scope on Kitt Peak and the new Multiple-Mirror atmospheres. HEAO 1 and 2 have also raised ques- Telescope operated by the University of Arizona and tions about the diffuse x-ray background in the Uni- the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. verse; this could have direct bearing on the ultimate Although binary in appearance, the two images question of how the Universe began and how it will may be the result of light from a single quasar be- end. Their finding indicates a widespread diffusion ing split by what amounts to a gravitational lens. of x-ray sources; if the diffusion is many x-ray stars, This would require the presence somewhere between the required mass will not exist to “close” the Uni- the quasar and Earth of either a supermassive black verse, end its expansion, and turn it back inward hole or a large galaxy with trillions of solar masses. toward eventual implosion; if the x-ray readings are More recently the double quasar’s radio-wave truly diffused in enormous, very hot gas clouds, image was observed on the Very Large Array inter- there might indeed be enough mass to close the Uni- ferometer radio telescope in New Mexico. Again verse. HEAO 3, launched in September 1979, is in- the double image appeared. But more interestingly, strumented to study gamma-ray and cosmic-ray one of the two quasars is actively expelling jets of emissions in the Universe. AI1 instruments are per- matter into space. Because no similar matter is as- forming well and the data are expected to supply sociated with its twin, the radio-wave observations many pieces for the Universe puzzle. indicate a genuine double quasar; perhaps no gravi- The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), tational lens need be postulated. The near-identical satellite, launched in 1978, performed well through redshifts and optical features of the two quasars do 1979, its data exciting much scientific interest. With suggest a common origin. instruments from NASA, the United Kingdom, and In December 1978 three astronomers at the Uni- the European Space Agency, IUE has studied the versity of Massachusetts announced the first ex- spectral lines associated with atomic radiation in perimental evidence directly supporting the exis- the atmosphere of stars and in the interplanetary tence of gravational waves. Such waves, long hypoth- medium. It confirmed the existence of a galactic esized but never directly observed, are in some halo-rarefied, high-temperature gas extending far ways similar to radio waves, but are based on the above and below the plane of the Milky Way. forces of gravity rather than on those of electricity Research from Suborbital Vehicles. Returns from and magnetism. The existence of gravity waves is balloons, aircraft, and sounding rockets continued one of the longstanding but heretofore untested to make meaningful contributions to technology and predictions of Einstein’s general theory of relativity. scientific knowledge. NASA’s balloon program The discovery came out of a four-year observing lofted a far-infrared telescope that measured the program to measure the general relativistic effects in portion of the total luminosity of the Milky Way a binary pulsar. The pulsar, located some 15,000 contributed by dust; this offers information on the light years from Earth, was observed with the 300- rate at which stars form. In the NASA airborne re- meter-diameter radiotelescope antenna operated by search program, the Kuiper Airborne Observatory the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center. detected for the first time a major output of far- Discovered in 1974 by the same research group, the infrared molecular lines from carbon monoxide in pulsar is known to be orbiting another massive ob- a region where stars are forming; measurement of ject-perhaps another pulsar, or perhaps a black

12 hole-because its repetitive pulses of emission speed in solar-type stars, using data obtained with the 4- up and slow down over a period lasting a little less meter Mayall telescope at Kitt Peak National than 8 hours. Observatory. Einstein’s theory predicts that such a system should emit gravitational waves that slowly extract Study of the Life Sciences energy from the orbit, thereby causing the pulsar and its companion to move closer together. As the Work with the Soviet Union included flying United size of the orbit decreases, the length of time re- States biological experiments on Soviet spacecraft quired for the pulsar to complete an orbit also de- plus joint ground-based clinical studies. This year’s creases. Relativity theory predicts that the orbital study has concentrated on finding a more authentic period should decrease at a rate of one ten-thou- experimental model for the effects of weightlessness sandth of a second per year. The measured amount on the human cardiovascular system; an additional is almost precisely this value, or about four ten- benefit has been standardizing test procedures that thousandths of a second since late 1974. Thus an are applied to American astronauts and Soviet important prediction has been verified by an appli- cosmonauts. In two sets of tests in 1979 10 subjects cation of Einstein’s theory that could not have been were studied intensively by teams of American and foreseen when he developed the theory 60 years ago. Soviet investigators. The data proved to be similar, Solar flares and other manifestations of solar ac- despite the many differences in procedure. tivity are intimately connected with magnetic fields. Studies continued on means to maintain the health A central objective of contemporary solar physics is and safety of Space Shuttle crew members. To mini- to study how these fields are generated and how they mize any adverse effects suffered when crew mem- produce the spectacular phenomena associated with bers reenter Earth’s gravity, NASA has been con- solar activity. The proximity of the Sun allows these ducting tests with anti-gravity suits that inflate auto- problems to be studied in great detail, providing a matically during reentry when the flow of blood to firm foundation for hypotheses concerning similar the head decreases. Water-cooled suits and blood- processes in more remote objects. volume replenishment have been developed for use Analogs of solar activity are found on many other on longer missions or for more susceptible passen- stars. Flare stars, for example, exhibit violent out- gers. The recurring problem of space motion sick- bursts similar in many respects to solar flares, but ness has been the subject of extensive study, and involving as much as a thousand times more drug screening has identified several medications energy. Most stars, like the Sun, have chromospheres that relieve the symptoms with minimal side effects. and coronae, some much more pronounced than the Sun’s. Recent work at Hale Observatories has shown Transportation that the activity of stellar chromospheres waxes and wanes over periods of years in a manner strongly In aeronautics and space the United States car- suggestive of the solar activity cycle. It has been ries on extensive research and development for new supposed that all these phenomena are caused by transportation systems and for improving the op- stellar magnetic fields, but until recently there was erations and flexibility of existing systems. no way to directly detect and measure magnetic fields on solar-type stars. Space Transportation System Now, Sacramento Peak Observatory has devised a way to directly measure the strengths and areas of The Space Transportation System represents the stellar magnetic fields. The method relies on the maturing of the Space Age-an integrated approach Zeeman effect: the shape of a spectral line formed to space travel and exploration. It encompasses in a gas containing a magnetic field depends on flight and ground operations, logistics, and future the strength and direction of the field. A magnetic mission planning. The flight component is the Space field was easily detected for the first time on the Shuttle. Scheduled to make its first orbital test flight dwarf star Xi Bootis A. The field strength was 2900 in late 1980 or early 1981, the Shuttle is composed gauss, covering about 45 percent of the stellar sur- of: face. By comparison, the solar field strength is about e the airplane-like orbiter, which houses the crew 1500 gauss, covering about 1 percent of the surface. of from 3 to 7 persons and the payload and Since Xi Bootis A is a young star exhibiting much can maneuver in space, reenter from orbit and more prominent chromospheric activity than the land on a runway, to be refurbished and fly Sun, this observation provides direct confirmation of again; an intimate connection between stellar magnetic e two solid-fuel rocket boosters that fire during fields and stellar activity. The new method is now the ascent phase and then fall away to be re- being systematically applied to study magnetic fields covered from the ocean and used again;

13 and the external tank, which provides liquid fication firings have taken place, with one more to hydrogen and oxygen to the three engines on come. Most of the rocket segments for the boosters the orbiter during the launch phase. to be used on the first orbital flight have already In April 1979 the Space Shuttle configuration been delivered to Kennedy Space Center. passed its design certificate review and most of the The big external tank-7.5 meters in diameter by qualification of flight-configured elements. 47 meters long-is the fuel tank (liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen) for the orbiter’s three main en- The Space Shuttle will be diversified by several gines during launch and ascent phases. As orbital supplemental systems. Spacelab, funded and devel- altitude approaches, the main engines cut off and oped by the European Space Agency, is a variable the empty tank separates and descends to a landing set of modules that can house payloads and crew in a remote ocean area. The first flight tank has al- members in a shirtsleeve environment, or expose in- ready been delivered to Kennedy Space Center; struments to the space environment from pallets. To three more flight tanks are under construction for the lift payloads out of and into the orbiter’s cargo bay other flights in the orbital flight-test program. while in orbit, a remotely operated loader-unloader Ground Facilities. At the Kennedy Space Center, arm is being funded and developed by Canada. To all launch facilities are completed and in place for boost payloads from the orbiter’s low orbit to the first orbital flight. Ground support equipment higher orbits, DoD is building the Inertial Upper and the computerized launch-processing installations Stage, a three-configuration set of upper stages. are in the final stages of completion, with software Smaller boosters, to lift smaller payloads into higher being validated. At NASA’s Johnson Space Center, orbits from the orbiter, are being funded and built DoD was completing design of facilities and equip- by United States aerospace industries as commercial ment for providing training and operational control ventures. of classified DoD missions on the Shuttle. At Van- Space Shuttlc. The orbiter has been the pacing denberg Air Force Base, California, DoD began item of the Space Shuttle. Its cluster of three high- construction in 1979 of the nation’s second Shuttle pressure, throttleable engines and its sheathing of launch and landing site, this one to be used by both thermal-protective tiles have had stubborn prob- civil and military missions that require polar orbit. lems that have only slowly yielded to step-by-step Work neared completion on the design of unique engineering solutions. At NASA’s Kennedy Space equipment and installations and acquisition of Center the first flight orbiter, Columbia, was slowly launch processing and computer software. being clad in its shielding of protective thermal tiles Planning for Operations. When the Space Trans- during 1979. The second orbital vehicle, Challenger, portation System completes its orbital test flights is nearing the end of structural testing, after which and becomes operational, many new activities will it will be converted to flight hardware. Two more become possible in space. Payloads can be placed orbiters are in production. into orbit and serviced there or returned to Earth The orbiter’s main engine progressed slowly for refurbishment and reorbiting. Experimenters through its extensive program of test firings, de- can accompany their experiments into space and layed a number of times during the year by small operate them in a shirtsleeve environment or con- anomalies that called for the test engine to be pulled trol them remotely while the instruments are di- off the test stand and partially disassembled for in- rectly exposed to the space environment. Small, dis- spection and repair. Much more is being asked of it crete experiments will be possible as well as large than of any previous large rocket engine: it is to payloads. The first few years of Shuttle operations operate at high internal pressures to produce a are fully booked by a wide range of civilian and superior thrust-to-weight ratio; it is to be throttle- military agencies of the United States government able; it is to last much longer than previous engines; and by domestic and foreign governments and coni- and it is to be reusable for many flights. This year mercial organizations. An additional nine commer- the engine passed the mark of 50,000 seconds of cial and foreign users made payments or deposits test-firing time toward the goal of 80,000 seconds on reservations this year. prior to orbital flight. NASA published in the Federal Registiv the Two 3.7-meter-diameter solid rockets will fire policies on user charges that will be in effect for along with the cluster of three main engines during the first few years of Shuttle operations. They de- launch and ascent. As their burn is completed, they scribe the price structure and conditions under which will separate from the orbiter, descend on parachutes NASA will furnish launch services and flight hard- to ocean landings, after which they will be recov- ware. The program begun in 1977 to provide Shuttle ered, reworked, and reloaded with propellant for services for small, self-contained payloads con- another firing. The developmental firings of these tinued to attract much interest in 1979. By the end motors have been completed and two of the quali- of the year more than 300 individual payloads had

14 been approved and confirmed by advance payments. of the two-stage version will be the launch of the Individuals, educational institutions, and industries Tracking and Data Relay Satellite in 1982. First use can fly these small payloads that require minimal of the three-stage version will be the launch of support from the Shuttle or the crew. NASA’s International Solar Polar Mission. Spacelab. Funded, designed. and developed by the Spitining Solid Upper Stagc~. Spinning Solid European Space Agency, Spacelab is a significant Upper Stages (SSUS) are being developed by contribution to the versatility of the Space Trans- American aerospace companies at their own expense portation System. Built to fit into the cargo bay of for sale to users who need to launch smaller satel- the orbiter in any of several modular combinations, lites into geosynchronous orbit. SSUS-D is sized for Spacelab will provide access to space for experi- payloads that would use the Delta expendable menters from many nations in disciplines such as booster, the SSUS-A for somewhat larger ones that space technology, meteorology, biology ’medicine, would use the Atlas-Centaur. Design for the two communication !‘navigation, space processing, and classes was completed in 1979 and qualification pro- material science. The Spacelab module offers experi- grams began. Most hardware has been manufactured menters a shirtsleeve environment in which to work; and is ready for assembly. SSUS-As have been or- the Spacelab pallets expose experiments directly to dered by NASA for launch of Comsat’s Intelsat V the space environment. The normal Spacelab mis- communication satellites. SSUS-Ds will be used for sion will last 7 days, though it can remain in orbit NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental as long as 30 days. Satellites and for most commercial users. Under terms of the agreement between NASA and ESA, ESA will deliver the first Spacelab flight Skjmlnh unit, an engineering model, two sets of ground sup- port equipment, and spares to support the first two Skylab had been in orbit since May 1973 as the missions. NASA will provide the connective itims first orbiting laboratory of the United States. Ex- such as the tunnel between the Shuttle cabin and pected to stay in orbit until about 1983, Skylab en- Spacelab and will be in operational control. In 1979 countered several years of greater atmospheric den- ESA delivered the second engineering model of the sity than expected-caused by an increase in sun- pallet to Kennedy Space Center. In Germany, the spot activity-which shortened its orbital lifetime Spacelab engineering model hardware is being proc- to 1979-1980. Ground controllers succeeded in re- essed, while the flight module is being assembled. activating Skylab systems and trimming its attitude Subsystem testing is more than 80 percent com- but an attempt to modify its orbit by flying a tele- pleted. operator booster rocket up to it was abandoned in Progress was made on the first Spacelab payloads 1978. Because of Skylab’s large size. there was during 1979. NASA received the instruments to be some international concern about danger from de- carried on the first Shuttle payload missions and scending debris following its breakup upon reentry. began their integration into Spacelab pallets. OSTA Jn the last few orbits NASA controllers made minor adjustments to Skylab’s orientation and it reentered 1, the first mission, will be instrumented to collect Earth resources and environmental data. The second on July 11, 1979. Although some debris from the mission, OSS 1, will gather solar physics data, breakup landed in rural parts of Australia, there evaluate the ambient and induced Shuttle environ- were no reports of personal injury. Some pieces ment, and collect data on payload thermal control. were recovered for study. An experiment in plant growth will be carried in the orbiter cabin. The major tests of the Spacelab mod- Experidable Launch Vehicles ule will come on the Spacelab 1 and 2 missions; The United States space program had a total of 16 these moved into final design in 1979 and manu- launches in 1979; all were successful, launching 18 facture of hardware was begun. All instruments payloads. Atlas-Centaur, Atlas F, Delta, Scout, have been approved and most experimenters are Thor, and Titan I11 launch vehicles were used for well into fabrication of their flight hardware. space launches this year. Inertial Upper Stage. DoD continued the full- scale development of the Inertial Upper Stage Research for Spacecraft Improveme?it (IUS), begun in April 1978. Intended to carry larger DoD payloads and NASA’s geosynchronous A number of research projects in materials and and planetary missions from the Space Shuttle to structures, electronics, and propulsion were con- higher orbital altitudes, IUS will also be used with ducted in 1979. the Titan I11 booster during the period of transition Materials and Structures. During 1979 two new to the Space Shuttle. The first DoD launch of Titan insulation materials were developed for use on por- 111-IUS is scheduled for 1982; the first NASA use tions of the Space Shuttle orbiter. For use in areas

15 of moderate reentry heating, there is a silica-based, ing in upgrading software rather than the expen- quilted-felt material that is flexible and reusable. sive hardware systems. Over 430 of the total order For use in areas of higher heating, there is a fiber- of 729 had been delivered to the Air Force. Delivery reinforced composite insulation which is twice as of the C and D models began in June; these feature strong and has greater heating resistance than pres- a 1000-kilogram increase in fuel capacity. The re- ent reusable insulation. In composite structures, a mainder of the aircraft produced will be the C and composite aft body flap for the orbiter was fabri- D models. F/A-18 fighters were approved for full- cated and tested; if adopted, it would lighten fu- scale development, with 11 test aircraft on order. ture orbiters by 160 kilograms, mostly because it Designed to provide the commander at sea with a would not require thermal insulation. high-performance, agile strike fighter, the F/A-18 Electronics. A “multi-layer magnetic lattice file” will replace the remaining Navy and Marine F-4 was successfully demonstrated in 1979 by NASA. Phantom fighters, and later will replace the A-7 Building on technology for the magnetic bubble light attack aircraft. memory, it promises space data recorders up to SO BOMBERAIRCRAFT. A series of improvements are times the storage capacity as those in today’s re- under way to update and improve the effectiveness corders. Fundamental research on radiation dam- of the B-52 fleet. The navigation system is being age to silicon solar cells in space showed that modernized with nuclear-hardened digital systems in thermal annealing (heating) of the damaged cells place of obsolete vacuum-tube systems. All avionics can restore 90 percent of the power loss. are being hardened to withstand electromagnetic DoD continued development of a fault-tolerant pulse from nuclear explosions. Also the bombers spaceborne computer that would minimize satellite are being fitted to carry the air-launched cruise mis- dependence on ground stations and used magnetic sile. Other bomber-related activity is limited pro- bubble memory technology in progressing toward duction of the EF-I 1IA, designed to provide de- a solid-state spaceborne memory that will provide fense radar jamming in support of United States and hardened, non-volatile data storage. allied air operations. Propulsion. In 1979 NASA neared completion of TRANSPORTAIRCRAFT. By the end of 1979, 19 verification testing of ion propulsion. With this en- E-3A airborne warning and control (AWAC) air- tirely new form of propulsion, missions to comets craft had been delivered to the Tactical Air Com- and other difficult interplanetary destinations could mand out of the 34 on order. NATO has also or- become realities. In FY 1979 a 12-kilowatt deploy- dered 18 of the aircraft, together with an improved able solar array underwent simulated acoustic and computer to increase the tracking capability. thermal tests prior to a test on an early Shuttle HELICOPTERS.Modernization of the large CH-47 flight. helicopter fleet continued, to update and standardize all CH-47s and provide a medium-lift helicopter Aeroizautical Transportation capability beyond the year 2000. Seven systems are in development for modernization; in 1980 they will Like space transportation, aeronautical transpor- be tested in three prototype helicopters. The full- tation comprises military as well as civilian systems scale engineering development of the advanced at- and those that are operational as well as those that tack helicopter continued, with the prototype heli- are in development. copters being modified to accept updated target- Operational Airborne Systetns. In the United acquisition and night-vision systems. Airborne fir- States national system of aeronautical transportation, ings of the Hellfire ballistic missile from the heli- DoD has responsibility for operational airborne copters began in 1979, progressing through guided systems. launch to autonomously designated launch. FIGHTERAIRCRAFT. In January 1979 the first CRUISEMISSILES. The AGM-86B and AGM-109 production F-16 multimission fighter aircraft were air-launched cruise missiles made 10 flights each in received by the United States and Belgium; the 1979 in a competitive “flyoff.” Source selection is Netherlands received its first aircraft in June. Den- expected in March 1980. A production rate of 40 mark and Norway, the remaining partners in the per month is planned, complementing the B-52 development of the F-16, will begin receiving air- modification rate. The ground-launched cruise mis- craft in 1980. Delivery of A-10 close-air-support sile, intended to bolster theater nuclear firepower, aircraft to tactical forces in the United States and is being procured in an amount of 560 for deploy- Europe continued. By the end of 1979, over 300 of ment in Europe. Essentially this puts the Tomahawk the approved 627 aircraft had been produced. Re- cruise missile into a system with an air-transport- liability and maintainability have been demonstrated able, mobile ground component. The advanced to be favorable, promising low operating costs. Im- strategic air-launched missile, designed for use with provements in existing F-15 fighters are concentrat- the present and future strategic bomber force, is a

16 long-range supersonic missile that can neutralize national air network with a universal system that the Soviet interceptor threat against United States can handle civil and military air traffic for the re- warning and control aircraft as well as take out mainder of this century. defenses and primary targets. A flight-test program The same deficiencies in the existing Instrument was begun in 1979 to validate the ramjet propulsion Landing System (ILS) that motivated the United system. States to develop a new landing system also affect Operational Airway Syster?is. The Federal Avia- the other nations of the world and generated wide tion Administration (FAA) of the Department of support for a new international standard. The In- Transportation is responsible for maintaining and ternational Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) set operating the National Aviation System. NASA as- out to select and standardize an international sys- sists with research and development for the airborne tem. Several competing systems were studied and portions of the system. given field tests. In April 1978, the United States AIR SAFETY.With studies, research, and tests, entry, the Time Reference Scanning Beam, was se- FAA continued to improve aircraft equipment and lected by the ICAO as the new international stand- to improve the competence to handle safety-related ardized system. Of the three versions of MLS to be problems for aircraft on the ground, on takeoff. and developed, the basic narrow aperture and the small on landing. community systems have been tested and evaluated. As a result of research into problems of con- The third system, the basic wide system, designed trolling aircraft traffic on the surface area of air- for major airports, began testing in 1979 at NASA’s ports-runways, taxiways, etc.-particularly in bad Wallops Flight Center. Meanwhile small community weather, a new radar has been developed. The systems will be installed at Philadelphia Interna- ASDE-3 (Airport Surface Detection Equipment) is tional Airport, Washington National Airport, and better able to detect stationary aircraft and track Bader Field (Atlantic City) early in 1980; a basic taxiing aircraft in all weather conditions. A proto- narrow system has already been installed at Wash- type ASDE-3 began testing in August at the Na- ington National Airport. These will provide opera- tional Facilities Experimental Center. tional data for incorporation into handbooks and To provide warning of potential wind-shear prob- other regulatory material. lems during takeoffs or landings, the FAA has de- Another system being evaluated is the Discrete veloped and tested the Low-Level Wind Shear Alert Address Beacon System; the last of three prototypes System. Remoted anemometers are mounted 6 to 12 was received in 1979 and joined the other two in meters above the ground in the approach and de- parture corridors at busy airports. When a wind the vicinity of FAA’s National Aviation Facilities vector difference of as much as 28 kilometers per Experimental Center. The new beacon system pro- hour develops between any of the remoted anemom- vides discrete identification of individual aircraft by eters and the centerfield anemometer, air traffic use of code-numbered transponders in the aircraft. controllers relay the information to all aircraft in This automatic identification is increasingly impor- the airport traffic pattern. The system is now opera- tant as the national airway network becomes more tional in 24 airports. automated. A wind problem generated by large aircraft has AIRWAYMODERNIZATION. As part of the automat- been of increasing concern : wake vortices-strong ing of the 20 air traffic control centers, FAA in 1979 rotational wind gusts-trail behind large jet air- let a contract for development of an engineering craft as they approach and land. Aircraft following model of an Electronic Tabular Display System. It them, especially smaller ones, are endangered. For is to provide more efficient display and update of their protection, the separation distance between flight plan data than the current. largely manual, landing aircraft has been enlarged; this reduces the paper flight-progress strips. In 1980 the engineering airport’s traffic capacity. A prototype Vortex Ad- model will be installed at the National Aviation Fa- visory System was evaluated in 1979 at Chicago’s cilities Experimental Center for test and evaluation. O’Hare International Airport and is expected to be commissioned early in 1980. Its network of anemom- Similar automation is in process for the air con- eters in the runway approach zones assesses wind trollers at airport terminals. The Terminal Informa- conditions; decision can then be made when air- tion Processing System (TIPS) uses computers and craft separation can be set at 5 kilometers. associated electronic displays to process and display AIR TRAFFICCONTROL. Since 1971, DoD, DOT, flight data automatically. A prototype TIPS system and NASA have jointly worked to develop a micro- is in development; in 1980 it will be installed at the wave landing system (MLS). Operational and eco- National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center nomic advantages argue in favor of equipping the for test and evaluation. 17 Research for Aeronautics lmprouement ondary structures, NASA completed its DC-10 rudder tests in 1979, and the structure was accepted Essential to a competitive national aviation estab- by FAA for airline service. Airline service began lishment is a continuing flow of innovations and re- for five shipsets of B-727 elevators. For medium finements. While FAA develops improvements in the sized primary-structure components, the design National Aviation System, NASA and DoD seek phase was completed. The primary B-737 stabilizer improvements in present and future aircraft. components passed static, fatigue, and fail-safe tests Engines. For current transport aircraft, NASA’s and the first full-scale B-737 stabilizer was fabri- research focused on improving the technology of in- cated. dividual components to make them save fuel and be DoD was testing in wind tunnels large-scale more durable. In fundamental research with ce- models of the forward-swept wing, the feasibility of ramics, NASA tested an abradable ceramic seal which derives from the characteristics of advanced for turbine engines which could reduce the wear composite materials. Also under test were adhesive of turbine blade tips by a factor of 10, with a 2 bonding as a replacement for riveting of primary percent saving in fuel consumption. From its list structures in aircraft, as well as the use of cast of 16 improvable components, NASA completed aluminum for primary structures. work on 7, of which 4 are already in production in Itnpro19ernent of Long, ‘Short-Haul A ircraf 1. the aircraft engine industry. DoD pursued two pro- NASA’s research on technology for future long-haul grams; one assessed core components of engines un- supersonic aircraft centered on propulsion, aero- der realistic test conditions, searching for improved dynamics, and structures that would make possible reliability and maintainability. This year the pro- a cost-effective, environmentally acceptable aircraft. gram conducted tests of a new generation of gas In 1979 two engine concepts were tested, high-lift generators and of variable-area, high-temperature devices improved the low-speed efticiency of swept turbines that used advanced materials. The other wings, and research in titanium structures led to de- program studied the interaction of high-pressure sign and fabrication of a titanium tail for a small engine components, such as turbine engine cores, supersonic aircraft. In research on quiet short-haul with low-pressure fans, compressors, and fan tur- aircraft, NASA continued flight testing the research bines in a full-scale technology demonstrator engine. aircraft. By the end of the year it was apparent that A erodynarnics. NASA continued research on re- the aircraft was performing very close to design pre- ducing energy use in transport aircraft. In funda- dictions, particularly the very low noise character- mental research, NASA achieved the first computa- istics necessary for short takeoff and landing tional solution predicting and explaining the un- operations. steady flow of air over wings and other lifting sur- Aircraft Fir(. Safety. FAA used a C-133 fuselage faces at transonic speeds. In a joint Air Force-NASA to simulate a wide-body jet in a series of fire ex- test, a KC-135 tanker aircraft was flown in 1979 periments to determine survivability patterns from with winglets; when completed in 1980. the test pro- post-crash fires fed by spilled fuel outside the fuse- gram is expected to show the winglets decrease drag lage. Since many of the worst fires arise from fire by 6-8 percent. Wind tunnels have tested a new balls, caused by spilled fuel forming fine, mist-like wing flap configuration that increases maximum lift particles, FAA experimented with additives that by 30 percent. In research on removing the turbulent would inhibit such combustion. air flow over wing surfaces, NASA built wing panels A lliation Sccirrity. FAA research and development in 1979 with slots and porous surfaces to remove on means of deterring air-travel terrorism and sabo- air turbulence. tage concentrated in 1979 on improved techniques Structures. In recent years NASA and DoD re- for detecting explosives in baggage and other items. search on aircraft structures has concentrated on A transportable bomb detector was constructed and composite structures-structures fabricated from the prepared for testing in airports. Authorities were family of synthetic materials that are stronger, or provided with vapor characteristics for a broad lighter, or more heat resistant than conventional range of explosives; these can be used for evaluating materials. In 1979 NASA identified newer, tougher screening devices in an airport environment. graphite ‘epoxy materials that withstood impact tests to almost twice the strain that presently used com- posites can tolerate. Since much remains to be Space Energy learned about the lifetime performance of these new materials, the testing approach has been conserva- The accepted means of producing or storing elec- tive, beginning with small, less stressed portions of tric energy in space have been solar cells, batteries, larger structures, and building up a design data base fuel cells, and radioisotope thermoelectric genera- from static, fatigue, and sonic experience. For sec- tors. Space missions now being envisioned by DoD

18 and NASA will call for much higher energy levels chosen for further development, with expected e% extending over mission profiles of several years. ciencies in the range of 18-25 percent. Studies also continued on the possibility of collect- Reactor Power Systerns. Studies by DoD and ing large quantities of solar energy in space and DOE predict that DoD space missions in the late beaming it to Earth as a supplemental power source. 1980s will have electric power requirements of 10- 100 kilowatts. Consequently, a technology develop- Energy for Use in Space ment program for a space reactor was begun in 1979. In five years it is to develop component tech- Radioisotope Generators. The Department of nology that merits further funding by the user Energy (DOE) has been developing a new form of agency. Civil applications that might need this order radioisotope thermoelectric generator for NASA’s of electric power include satellite power systems, Galileo planetary mission. During 1979, the version electronic mail, and advanced television coverage. of the generator that has been very effective in DoD’s Lincoln Experimental Satellites and NASA’s Energy for Use on Earth Voyager 1 and 2 planetary missions was upgraded with an improved alloy for the fuel capsules and use Satellite Pobtser System. The concept of beaming of composite materials in the heat-source aeroshell. solar energy from a point in space to receiving The International Solar Polar Mission, operated antennas on Earth has been studied since 1968. In jointly by NASA and the European Space Agency, 1977, DOE and NASA began a broad study in plans to launch two spacecraft in 1985, each with a which DOE was to set the basic ground rules and power requirement of 275 watts two years after investigate the many areas of potential effects; launch. This requirement is expected to be met with NASA was to investigate the technology demands thermoelectric generators comprising 18 heat sources. and opportunities. DOE has identified and is study- Dynamic PoMw Systerns. For electric power in ing some 40 generic systems-radars, satellites, com- space greater than 500 watts, dynamic power sys- puters, etc.-that could be affected; sciences and tems are expected to take over from the static sele- humanistic effects are also being studied, as well as nide conversion systems because they offer improved preliminary estimates of cost, health and safety, and endurance, efficiency, weight ratio, and reliability. land requirements. The joint study made good In tests in 1978, the Organic Rankine Cycle was progress toward its reporting date in 1980.

19 National Aeronautics II and Space Administration

Introduction public service communications, advanced applica- tions of satellite communications techniques, and The mission of the National Aeronautics and technical consultation and support. Space Administration (NASA) is the planning, di- Advanced Research arid Development. Intensive rection, and conduct of civil research and develop- interaction with suppliers and users of satellite com- ment in space and aeronautics. These activities are munications identified the highest priority items for shared or joined by a number of other agencies of future applications-items enhancing the communi- governments-foreign, Federal, state, and local- cations capacity of each location along the geosta- with research or operational interests in these fields. tionary arc 33,000 kilometers out from Earth. That Space activities that are solely military are con- enhancement will come from multiplying the use of ducted by the Department of Defense (DoD); in presently employed frequency bands and the open- aeronautics, NASA supports DoD with research and ing of new bands. The multiplying effect will come test data to improve performance and safety of cur- from on-board switching systems, while the new rent and future military aircraft. bands are obtained by developing new components NASA’s long-standing goals in space have been and techniques. the development of technology and techniques that To guide the communications R&D effort, make space operations more effective; development NASA’s Lewis Research Center contracted with two and demonstration of an enlarging range of practi- major communications common carriers to project cal applications of space technology and data; and predictions of satellite communications traflic scientific investigations of the Earth and its imme- through the year 2000. Their results showed traffic diate surroundings, of the natural bodies in our demands exceeding the capacity of conventional solar system, and of the origins, entities, and physi- satellites in the early 1990s. Technology appropriate cal processes of the Universe. In aeronautics, the to a new generation of satellites is being defined to goals have been improvement in aerodynamics, meet these demands. structures, engines, and overall performance of air- Multibeam antenna research is proceeding in craft, to make them more efficient, more compatible three frequency bands: at 30-20 GHz, 1.5 GHz, and with the environment. and safer. 14-12 GHz. The 30-20 GHz band has five times the allocated bandwidth of the more conventional 6-4 GHz or 14-12 GHz bands but is hampered by Applications to Earth more severe propagation effects. Means to counter- act such effects will be a major element of NASA’s In applying space research and technology to investigations over the next few years. The 1.5- specific needs of the nation and the world, NASA GHz activity is an adaptive multibeam phased array programs made substantial progress in 1979. Em- under development, managed by the Lewis Research phasis continued on improving technology for space Center. The 14-12 GHz research is being per- communications, observing Earth to assess its en- formed under contract to Langley Research Center. vironment and resources, and experimenting in A remarkable 15-beam antenna, with a capability to space to acquire new knowledge about materials. provide a theoretical frequency reuse rate of 7.5 times, is presently undergoing antenna range tests. Communications Work is also continuing on more efficient uses of the spectrum. Under way at Ames Research Cen- NASA has carefully mapped a path for a new ter is laboratory work on a prototype system that phase of satellite communications research and de- can greatly reduce the bandwidth of digitized tele- velopment. The program has four distinct and re- vision signals. Using inexpensive integrated circuits, lated facets: advanced research and development, the prototype provides viewer-perceived quality al-

20 most identical to that obtained with conventional sissippi, used the ambulance mobile unit to call systems employing 6 to 10 times as much bandwidth. through ATS 3 for a shipment of parts for the local Public Service Communications. In 1979 NASA hospital’s emergency generator and to inform the completed two of the most successful and significant civil defense headquarters in Jackson about prob- programs in the development of satellite communi- lems of water supply. A portable base station was cations-NASA’s Applications Technology Satellite used in Pascagoula for backup communications 6 (ATS 6) and the Communications Technology when primary power was lost and a leaning micro- Satellite (CTS), developed jointly with Canada. wave tower carried emergency communications Both greatly exceeded all mission objectives. Mean- traffic. The portable stations were supported by while ATS 1, launched in 1966, and ATS 3, primary and backup emergency ATS 3 base stations launched in 1967, continue to provide important established in Hattiesburg and Jackson, Mississippi; communications service after more than a decade Malabar, Florida; and at General Electric in Sche- in orbit. ATS 1 serves the Pacific Basin, largely nectady, New York. through the Peacesat program, delivering educa- NASA is also helping the Public Service Satellite tional, health-care, and even life-saving information. Consortium and the Appalachian Regional Commis- ATS 6 demonstrated the feasibility of large space- sion in changing over from NASA experimental deployabJe antennas, three-axis stabilization in geo- satellites to self-sustaining operations on commercial stationary orbit, and television broadcasting from satellites. space. CTS pioneered the use of new frequencies in NASA is also assisting the recently formed Na- the 14-12 GHz range, and was the first high-pow- tional Telecommunications and Information Ad- ered broadcasting satellite-a model for things to ministration of the Department of Commerce. God- come in many parts of the world. Opening this new dard Space Flight Center has contracted for the de- frequency paved the way for the Japanese BSE, the velopment of a computer model of costs for public Canadian Anik-B, Intelsat V, and the SBS satel- services traffic. The model permits analysis of vari- lites-all built in the United States. The CTS satel- ous combinations of uplink and downlink satellite lite further provided the operational basis for fu- configurations, Earth terminals, terrestrial links, ture broadcast and fixed-service satellites to be used end user costs, studio costs, and transponder types, in Canada, Europe, the Mid-East, and Asia in the as well as administrative, operations, and mainte- 1980s. These satellites may now be built in Canada, nance costs. The public service user learns the ini- Europe, or Japan as foreign industry gains strength. tial, recurring, and amortized costs, as well as in- In international cooperation in space, CTS termediate (city-by-city ) and summary (total sys- demonstrated how two nations can share in the de- tem) results. The computer model will be a valuable velopment of operations to meet regional needs. tool in analyzing the economic feasibility of future Canada designed and built the CTS; NASA’s Lewis public service communication systems. Research Center supplied the key component, a Goddard Space Flight Center has contracted for transmitting tube ten to twenty times more powerful development of a low-cost (approximately $10.000) than those on other such satellites. The powerful video receive-only terminal at 12 GHz for public transmitter made possible much smaller, less expen- service applications. One of the subsystems in the sive, and more portable ground receiving equipment. terminal, the solid-state receiver, is a unique low- Most importantly, ATS 6 and CTS demonstrated cost unit developed earlier. The terminal will be a the value and significance of user-oriented applica- benchmark in the development of low-cost U.S.-built tions of space technology. By delivering improved instrumentation for public service users. Activities health services in Alaska; teacher education in Ap- such as those so successfully proven in the ATS 6 palachia; classroom enrichment in the Rocky Moun- and CTS programs will be expanded to thousands of tain states; emergency communication in many re- users as private industry adapts NASA-developed mote areas; video teleconferencing and educational technology to its needs. television in India, Puerto Rico, and elsewhere, the Advanced Applications of Satellite Communica- satellites pioneered entirely new services and proved tions Techniques. The communications techniques the value of satellite communications to and for originating in ATS 6 and CTS activities also have vast groups of people. other applications such as search and rescue, navi- The most recent practical demonstrations of the gation, and position location. The satellite-aided value of such systems occurred in September 1979 Search and Rescue (SAR) project is proceeding on when state and local authorities in Mississippi, Ala- schedule toward a projected first launch in the bama, and Louisiana requested the use of ATS 3 spring of 1982. The Memorandum of Understanding for communications from emergency medical serv- among the U.S. Coast Guard, NOAA, Air Force, ices during hurricanes David and Frederic. During and NASA was signed in December 1978; the one Hurricane Frederic, the township of Richton, Mis- among Canada, France, and the United States in

21 August 1979; and, subject to confirmation, the one which the users will require access are major chal- between the SARSAT parties (Canada, France, and lenges of the future. the U.S.) and the U.S.S.R. in November 1979. NASA is conducting a feasibility study for an ap- Navigation-related applications studies, involving plications data service to examine protocol stand- Loran-C and the Global Positioning System, were ardization, a transportable software system for data conducted in cooperation with the Coast Guard, base management. and data format compatibility NOAA, and the Maritime Administration. Convinc- among data bases and networks. The first steps to be ing study results and a low-cost experiment con- taken are the identification of suitable pilot projects ducted in the Chesapeake Bay showed present tech- upon which the data service can be overlaid. nology to be adequate for an operational system. As a result, costly field experiments are unnecessary, Emironmental Observations permitting instead advanced studies of the relevance of advanced technology to navigational applications. Upper Atmosphere. Nimbus 7, launched in Octo- Technical Consultation and Support. Approxi- ber 1978, provided extremely useful data through- mately every 20 years a general World Administra- out 1979. Its Total Ozone Monitoring System pro- tive Radio Conference (WARC) is held in Geneva vided the first global maps of total ozone with high to reassess international radio regulations. The most spatial and temporal resolution. This is the first recent conference was held in late 1979; it included time one has been able to study short-period dy- a review of frequency allocation, technical stand- namic effects in ozone distribution; a series of these ards, frequency-sharing criteria, and coordination measurements will help provide the information procedures for space and terrestrial telecommunica- needed to detect long-term, globally averaged ozone tions and remote sensing. changes in the atmosphere, whether natural or man- NASA completed more than 100 technical studies made. Decisions involving freon refrigerants or high- and papers, conducted extensive propagation and flying aircraft may hinge on how well we can under- radio frequency interference measurements, and stand their effects on the ozone layer. participated in or chaired many WARC preparatory The final total ozone results from Nimbus 4’s committees and working groups. Backscatter Ultraviolet (BUV) instrument have The propagation studie? performed in support of been compiled for the first two years of operation WARC have led to several major accomplishments: and vertical profiles of ozone in the stratosphere (a) a global rain attenuation model for frequen- were being made available in late 1979. These data, cies above 10 GHz; (b) the first long-term con- plus results being obtained from the Nimbus 7 BUV, tinuous (three-year) data base for the develop- are complemented by the measurements of tem- ment of 12-GHz systems; (c) a propagation-effects perature, nitrogen-containing species, water vapor, predictive model for 10 GHz through 100 GHz (at- and ozone from the Nimbus 7 Limb Infrared Moni- tenuation, depolarization, and diversity) ; (d) the tor of the Stratosphere experiment. This informa- first model of antenna-gain degradation caused by tion fills in another part of the puzzle of ozone pro- adverse propagation effects from 2 GHz to 30 GHz: duction and destruction. and (e) the first cross-polarization degradation Aerosols in the stratosphere also play an impor- model for 12-GHz satellite systems. tant role in chemistry and in the amount and spec- trum of solar radiation that drives the photochemi- Data System cal processes. On February 18, 1979, NASA launched the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experi- The demand for combinations of data has fostered ment (SAGE) aboard a Scout rocket from Wallops awareness of the rapidly changing relationship of Flight Center, Virginia. The preliminary results on spacecraft instruments to data users. Tn the early aerosol and ozone profiles agree well with results years, and in a few limited examples today, a single from soundings or aircraft underflights. The strato- principal investigator would be concerned with the spheric Aerosol Measurement experiment aboard data produced by an instrument (a one-to-one re- Nimbus 7 has also provided information on aerosol lationship). As instruments-such as the Multi- extinction as a function of altitude. Repetitive ob- spectral Scanner on Landsat-have become more servations over a longer period will enable us to powerful, one instrument has come to serve the determine the effects, if any, of aerosols on climate. needs of numerous users (a one-to-many relation- Lower Atiiio.rplicrc. Through an agreement with ship). In the future, many users will each require the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- the data from many instruments (a many-to-many tion (NOAA), NASA provides research and devel- relationship). The differing needs of the various opment support for weather satellites. Tn the past users, the differing characteristics of the various in- fourteen months the prototype and the second of a struments, and the widely disparate data bases to new series of near-polar-orbiting satellites, Tiros-N

22 and NOAA-A, have been launched. They have pro- Ocean Surfaces duced a combined total of twenty months of im- proved meteorological data. Despite rapid developments in electronics, com- NASA continues to participate with NOAA, the puters, and miniaturization over the past decade, National Science Foundation (NSF), and others in the realization that ships, aircraft, and buoys will the Global Weather Experiment as part of the never be numerous enough to provide a synoptic Global Atmospheric Research Program (CARP) view of the oceans’ surfaces has been a major ob- involving more than 140 nations. The results rep- stacle to oceanographers. Remote sensing of the resent the most comprehensive data base ever com- oceans has been proved by several techniques tested piled on the limits of predictability for satellites in on Nimbus 7, earlier Nimbus satellites, and Goes 3 weather forecasting. This set of coordinated global as well as Seasat. The complement of microwave in- weather data should increase our knowledge and en- struments flown on Seasat demonstrated the opera- able improved weather predictions. tional potential of ocean remote sensing. Seasat re- sults, primarily from the Gulf of Alaska Seasat Theoretical programs are continuing work on Ground-truth Experiment, proved that measurement understanding the limits of forecasting and the objectives can be met: surface wind accuracies of sensitivity of the forecasting process to the kind of 22 meters per second surface, topography with a data provided by satellites. As part of this activity precision of -+ 10 centimeters, and significant wave NASA is investigating advanced temperature and height of ? 10 percent. pressure sounders and wind-measuring techniques. If satellites can observe these characteristics glo- Climate. Climate involves the long-term and spa- bally, then modelling of the atmosphere can begin tially extended collection of all the environmental to predict its future state and motion. Studies show variables studied in the atmosphere and oceans. these are the areas offering the greatest potential NASA has given special attention to assisting payoff in weather forecasting. NOAA’s National Climate Program Office in de- veloping a long-range program responsive to the Improved prediction of severe storms is of major National Climate Program Act of 1978. NASA’s concern to weather forecasters. NASA, NOAA, and evolving program emphasizes the application of NSF conducted an experiment last spring in Okla- space observations to improved understanding of homa, the Severe Environmental Storms and Meso- climate influences and trends. scale Experiment (SESAME). The first day of the observing period was April 10, 1979, when severe This year NASA initiated a special study of aero- weather was predicted-but not necessarily torna- sol effects on climate, including theoretical studies does. As it happened, this was the day of the Red and measurements of aerosols in the atmosphere. River Valley (Wichita Falls) tornado outbreak. Theories predict a large volcanic eruption can inject The intensive data collected that day will provide enough material into the atmosphere to cause critical information on events that precede small- changes in the Earth’s surface temperature. scale severe storms. SAGE, whose launch was mentioned earlier, ob- The study group of the NASA-Space Activities served the violent eruptions of the volcano La Sou- Commission of Japan completed its deliberations in friere in the Caribbean in April 1979. An aerial 1979. It recommended steps toward a number of photograph of the eruption and two profiles com- projects in space applications and science, includ- bining data obtained from an airborne laser instru- ing use of the Goes-A satellite and Japan’s geosta- ment and a preliminary inversion of SAGE data tionary meteorological satellite in an attempt at showed heavy aerosol concentrations at 18 kilo- stereographic measurement of cloud heights over meters altitude in both profiles. A number of such the Pacific-cloud heights offer clues to the be- events have been documented in the past, but SAGE, havior of the storms they accompany. Other near- in conjunction with similar measurements acquired term prospects include a study of ocean winds and by Nimbus 7, offers the first remote sensing capabil- waves, using existing satellite and surface-truth data. ity to measure quantitatively such phenomena and Other environmental observation techniques un- globally map the spreading volcanic veil. der way or under study include using a camera for observing lightning phenomena from space; use of Tracking aerosol dispersion from such well- satellite imagery to track air pollution from space, characterized events as the La Soufrier eruptions and aircraft-based lidar to measure pollutant ozone gives a useful insight as to how pollutants might and particulates, both as part of a multi-year agree- also be transported globally. Thus, planners in the ment with the EPA; and the Measurement of Air future may be able to site industrial centers with Pollution from Satellites experiment to measure car- high air-waste by-products so as to minimize the bon monoxide in the troposphere. effects on other geographic areas. The Sun’s total energy output is the most critical the first step by requesting construction bids for a external force affecting Earth’s climate. Until re- station. Negotiations were conducted with the Peo- cently the assumption has been that the sun’s energy ple’s Republic of China, which is to purchase a output is constant-indeed, the quantity of energy Landsat-D ground station from United States in- passing through a unit area at the mean Earth orbit, dustry under the United States-China Understanding per unit of time, is called the “solar constant.” Re- of January 31, 1979. Chile, Kenya, New Zealand, cent measurements have provided the first direct Romania, South Africa, and Upper Volta have ex- evidence that this quantity may vary. A comparison pressed interest in establishing a data-receiving of NASA sounding-rocket measurements of the capability. Requests for coverage from other coun- solar constant made in June 1976 and again in No- tries continue at an unprecedented level. Among vember 1978 revealed a 0.4 percent increase in the users in the United States, the largest demand is solar constant over two and a half years. Initial for agricultural studies, especially during the grow- data analysis and our present understanding of ing season when repetitive coverage in nine-day climatic models indicate that such an increase could cycles and rapid data delivery offer successful crop produce a one-half degree Celsius change in Earth’s monitoring and yield prediction. surface temperatures, with an impact on crop pro- In June, at the request of the U.S. Coast Guard, duction, ice coverage, and global precipitation NASA began regular Landsat coverage of the oil patterns. spill off the Yucatan coast. Imagery of the entire Gulf of Mexico was supplied on a rapid delivery Resource Observations basis to the Coast Guard, NOAA, and USGS teams dealing with this disaster. Copies of all images of the The most significant gains in land observations spill were sent to the Mexican government on re- were in agriculture. It was clearly demonstrated that quest. The Coast Guard used the Landsat data for remotely sensed data can be used to distinguish be- broad, synoptic surveillance and to determine di- tween spring wheat and barley as well as between rection of movement of the spill. corn and soybeans. Renenwhle Rcsoiircrs. The emphasis in space- AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resources Inven- data research for renewable resources has been on tory Surveys Through Aerospace Remote Sensing), developing and testing of techniques for extracting the long-term agriculture research program initiated from remotely sensed data information which could on October 1, 1979, went through a detailed plan- improve the management of the nation’s agricul- ning phase during the past year. This comprehensive tural, forestry, rangeland, and water resources. interagency program was developed by a task force Landsat data are greatly increasing the utility of led by the Department of Agriculture (USDA). geobased information systems for agricultural Eight teams representing the participating agencies studies. A regional program demonstration with the will carry out research and testing. In addition to state of Iowa addressed the increased soil erosion overall leadership, the USDA will provide direct that sometimes follows the conversion of pasture leadership of five of the teams: Early Warning, land to row crops-for example, on high slope ter- Domestic Crops and Land Use, Renewable Re- rain with unstable soils. Landsat-derived agricul- sources, Soil Moisture, and Conservation Pollution. tural land-use changes were combined with digitized NOAA will lead the Crop Yield activities and soil maps and terrain data in a georeferenced infor- NASA the Supporting Research and Foreign Com- mation system to calculate expected erosion and to modity Production Forecasting. The USDA will identify potential problems, thus focusing the field provide an independent user evaluation group to inspection program. This success and related proj- expedite implementation of the appropriate tech- ects were instrumental in passage of a state legisla- nology in routine operation5 and assess its value. tive appropriation of $125,000 for the Iowa Geo- A major portion of this past year’s effort has been logical Survey to purchase a state system for con- devoted to ensuring continuity of remotely sensed tinuing Landsat applications work. In Florida, data for researchers and operational users. Landsat inventories of agricultural land and water Requests for Landsat data during 1979 reflect in- resources are providing data for assessing the im- creasing worldwide interest in applying the tech- pact of planned industrial development. Florida is nology to environmental and resource-management also planning to develop a statewide Landsat-geo- problems. The Landsat ground stations in India and based information system. Australia began receiving test data in 1979 and will An example of efforts in transferring the use of become operational in 1980, bringing the number of remote sensing for crop identification and acreage foreign stations to eight in seven countries. Argen- assessments to the private agribusiness community tina’s station is under construction and scheduled to was the initiation of an Applications Pilot Test with become operational in 1980. Thailand has taken Cotton Incorporated, a private research and market- ing organization supported and funded by U.S. cot- rine sanctuary. In the Choctawhatchee Bay an exist- ton growers. Test sites in California, Mississippi, ing hydrologic model containing Landsat data is be- Alabama, Arizona, Texas, and Brazil will be used to ing used to determine the extent to which urban develop an automated cotton-acreage inventory sys- development has caused water shortages in the Ft. tem using Landsat data. Walton area. A Landsat-derived basic vegetation Cooperative forest inventory demonstration proj- inventory is part of an impact assessment for a pro- ects have been completed in California, Montana, posed superport at Port St. Joe. Hawaii, North Carolina, South Carolina, and A water management and control verification Florida. test in cooperation with the Corps of Engineers has The California Department of Forestry was re- been completed. It shows a savings of 50 to 80 per- quired by state legislation to produce a total in- cent in survey costs per watershed. As a result of ventory of forest lands in the state by August I, the test, the Corps of Engineers plans to implement 1979, with updates every five years. The depart- Landsat techniques operationally. ment selected Landsat technology because of lower Non-Renewable Resources. Development con- overall costs and the relative ease of updating the tinued of a national long-range plan to address data. Land cover and forest classes were derived those problems in non-renewable resources to which from a digital Landsat mosaic of the entire state. space technology can be applied. This plan builds Commercial use of Landsat techniques by the on the results of the Applied Research and Data private sector has been adopted by the St. Regis Analysis program and, in particular, the Geosat Paper Company. The company is implementing a Test Case Project. In this project, NASA scientists digital Forest Resource Information System which are working closely with industry and university combines Landsat imagery with conventional map geologists to evaluate the usefulness of remote sens- graphics and tabular information, permitting rapid ing techniques in the reconnaissance phase of update of forest inventory and monitoring of ground-based exploration. Aerial and satellite data changes. have been obtained for twelve test sites in areas NASA has also begun development of an Auto- containing known deposits of copper, uranium, and mated Resources Inventory System in conjunction petroleum. The joint data analysis program is pro- with the Navajo Nation to assist them in assessing ceeding well. the potential of their land. A technique for inven- As part of the studies on uranium exploration. torying and monitoring vegetation using Landsat the test site at Copper Mountain, Wyoming, was data is being developed; results are independently overflown with an aircraft multispectral scanner. verified by the Navajos at random test sites. The Subtle patterns of iron oxide stains were detected method has proven to be 86 percent accurate. This over known uranium deposits, stains that are diffi- new information will be added to their digital data cult to identify in ground surveys or conventional base, along with soils and terrain data. Extensive aerial photos. A similar pattern was discerned in a familiarization of the Navajos with Landsat tech- nearby area which had previously been considered niques and the data base has been compieted; they barren, and a prediction of potential mineralization are implementing image analyses on a computer was made based on the aircraft multispectral data. facility at their community college. Independently, geologists from the Rocky Mountain Research in water resources is aimed at develop- Energy Company, which has mineral rights in the ing remote sensing techniques for monitoring soil area, had studied the area from the ground and and snow moisture. Exploratory experiments have found sufficient evidence of mineralization to stake been performed with visible, thermal infrared, and a claim. Efforts are now underway to investigate microwave sensors on the ground, in aircraft, and the relationship between the alteration staining on spacecraft. Concurrently NASA is developing phenomenon and the presence of uranium-enriched surface runoff and snowmelt hydrologic models rock. using remotely sensed data. Such models will im- These exploratory investigations demonstrate that prove water and irrigation management methods for remote sensing techniques may be used for geological planning the water supplies and irrigation and for reconnaissance surveys leading to the identification control of runoff and reservoir levels. of mineralized areas and, perhaps, significantly in- Water-related problems have been a major ele- crease the efficiency of exploration surveys. ment in a Florida demonstration project where Magsat, the first spacecraft specifically designed Landsat data are being used to delineate land cover to conduct a global survey of Earth’s vector mag- in the Apalachicola River Basin so as to under- netic field, was launched in October 1979. This stand the impact of current and planned agricul- satellite was placed into a significantly lower orbit tural and industrial activities on the river and for than previous magnetic field-measuring satellites to possible designation of the river as a national estua- provide more detailed and precise information about

25 the nature of magnetic anomalies within the Earth’s scale testing facilities for research in earthquake crust. These anomalies are directly related to structures and geotechnical engineering. A NSF crustal structure. Magnetic-anomaly mapping will workshop held in 1979 concluded that several help improve large-scale models of crustal geology, NASA test facilities could be used for these pur- enhancing the capability to conduct regional mineral poses and that some of the facilities, particularly for assessment studies in remote unexplored areas. full-scale testing of buildings, are unique in the Geodynamics. Space data are used in geodynamics world. Planning is underway to make these facilities to improve understanding of dynamic processes available for NSF-sponsored research. within the solid Earth, through observation of crustal movements and deformations. Laser rang- Materials Processing in Space ing to the moon and to artificial satellites, and very long baseline microwave interferometry (VLBI ) NASA is developing capabilities in the space en- techniques are being used to complement and ex- vironment for materials research and processing ap- tend ground based observations using conventional plications, so as to demonstrate these capabilities surveying techniques. to the scientific and industrial communities and to Since 1972 NASA has periodically used satellite provide opportunities for independently funded ranging systems to detect changes in the distance users to exploit the space environment for materials between selected points on opposite sides of the San processing applications related to their own needs. Andreas Fault, the boundary between the North NASA has encouraged industry’s early participation American and Pacific tectonic plates. The fourth in the development of materials processing tech- data phase was completed earlier this year and the nology to ensure that the program reflects industrial data are now being analyzed. Previous analyses in- needs. dicated the plates are sliding relative to each other To achieve these objectives, NASA is estab- at a rate of between six and twelve centimeters per lishing a research base for materials processing year. technology, both to explore the effects of gravity on processes and to allow extensions of current capa- Improvement in the measurement techniques is bilities into the environment of space. A range of continuing. Mobile lasers (Moblas) have been in- opportunities and hardware will be made available stalled at four VLBI stations for intercomparison to the scientific and industrial communities. of long baselines by VLBI and laser-ranging tech- NASA has been working with an advisory com- niques. A second-generation mobile laser ranging mittee of distinguished materials scientists, including unit mounted in a standard truck has been com- members of the National Academy of Sciences, to pleted by the University of Texas and will offer develop new approaches for materials processing in much greater mobility. This unit will be deployed space. The main feature of the new orientation is a by the end of the year and will be able to visit considerably increased emphasis on ground-based twenty-five sites per year in the western portion of research. As this emphasis has been made known, the United States. It and other units will be used to there has been a substantial rise in the number and map the deformation of the Earth’s crust by the quality of research proposals submitted and a notice- force generated by colliding plates. able increase in materials scientists’ willingness to Moblas units are now operating in Australia, participate in activities related to materials process- American Samoa, and Kwajalein Island. These and ing in space. Both trends reflect the scientific com- other fixed lasers at worldwide locations form an munity’s increasing confidence in the utility of international network for global observations of studying and performing materials processing in the tectonic plate stability and motion. Confirmation of space environment. the rates and direction of plate motion, which will Interest has also been fueled by new research re- take many years, will increase understanding of how sults showing that the force of gravity has important and why earthquakes occur. influences on some processes and that significant NASA’s activities are well coordinated with other new knowledge can be obtained on these processes federal agencies such as the National Science Foun- by experiments in weightlessness. dation (NSF), National Geodetic Survey, U.S. Geo- Fundamental studies of the interference with fluid logical Survey, and the Defense Mapping Agency. behavior by gravity-driven convection have been On the international scene NASA is engaging in performed. For example, basic differences in the talks with scientists of many other countries; project freezing of materials have been observed by care- agreements with Japan and Australia are being fully controlling the orientation of the experiments negotiated. in Earth gravity or by using the low gravity en- In a related activity NASA, in cooperation with vironment of sounding rockets. Casting structures the NSF, explored the possible use of NASA large- produced in low gravity are fundamentally different because of the reduction in thermal convection The Space Processing Applications Rocket flows. It will now be possible to design schemes for (SPAR) experiments continued to provide infor- controlling casting structures through the reduction mation valuable to the understanding of materials or enhancement of convection. The detailed nature processing in space. Two Spar V experiments on of such interactions is being explored for many dif- the freezing of ammonium chloride solutions simu- ferent materials processing systems, involving ex- lated the behavior of dendrites in metal casting. In tremely subtle and little understood phenomena in one experiment, bidirectional freezing formed no both heat- and mass-transfer effects. The solidifica- dendrite fragments; thus the freezing structure con- tion process for complex alloys, for example, has sisted completely of aligned dendrites with no zone been found to possess unstable time-dependent of random orientation normally found in earth cast- effects that cannot be avoided in one-g. Avoidance ings. Knowledge from such experiments is funda- of such convection effects-as in zero-g-is abso- mental in controlling the formation of composite lutely essential if controlled materials structures and materials. Spar VI was launched in October 1979, related properties are to be produced. and its data are being analyzed. NASA has made substantial progres4 this past year in the area of containerless processing. The Techologj’Transfer ability to study and prepare materials in the absence of solid containers has stimulated interest in the Technology transfer continues to play a major mechanisms by which solids can be formed from role in NASA’s efforts to broaden the base of tech- liquids under very high cooling rates. Space con- nology applications transfer begun in the R&D pro- ditions could mean the diffusionless transformation grams. of molten liquids to solids; these solids would have Emphasis in space applications remains in re- substantially higher compositional uniformity and mote sensing, where user interest in operational thus enhanced performance in extended operatins systems is growing into action, particularly at the conditions. Applications of such materials include state government level. Under a continuing coopera- jet-engine turbine blades or nuclear-reactor rod tive project, the National Conference of State Legis- sheaths. Interest has also been expressed in the latures (NCSL) has been responsible for legisla- ability to measure the properties of molten sub- tive hearings on Landsat in eight states over the stances at extremely high temperatures where solid past year and has supported NASA in two Execu- containers do not exist. These properties are of in- tive Agency workshops. Over 5000 copies of the terest in such applications as the fabrication of Conference’s “Legislators’ Guide to Landsat” have nuclear-reactor rod sheaths, nuclear reactor core de- been distributed to state governments, industry, sign, and magnetohydrodynamic power generation. and universities. NCSL’s Natural Resources Infor- Containerless processing plays a vital role in fu- mation System Task Force has been a major source sion power being investigated by the Department of of state “feedback” to the Administration and the Energy as a possible new source of energy. One ap- Congress on state interest and needs regarding proach is laser bombardment of a deuterium-tritium Landsat-both through formal recommendation and fuel mixture contained in precise ultra-thin-wall through testimony before the Congress. NCSL is glass microsphere shells. The shells must be per- also assisting NASA to understand how states could fect spheres with walls of uniform thickness. Thow use Landsat data through analysis of state imple- in use today are made by dropping particles of mentation of natural resources legislation. glass-forming materials through a high-temperature The parallel liaison effort with the National Gov- vertical-tube furnace where size is limited to a few ernors’ Association (NGA) is now fully operational. tenths of a millimeter in diameter at most. Shells An Earth Resources Data Council creates an effec- ten times as large, or larger, are needed. tive forum for communicating with and represent- During the past year NASA has been studying ing state interests in operational systems develop- fundamental processes involved in glass-shell for- ment for remote sensing. The Council has, on re- mation and investigating the possibility of making quest, provided state perspectives on open issues in larger shells. Theoretical work at the Jet Propulsion the Landsat-D program and a Federal multi-agency Laboratory (JPL) has shown that large shells can study on classification and inventories of natural be made in free fall where the surface tension of resources, as well as commenting on Administration the molten glass can hold it in a highly spherical studies of options for operational systems. Both shape. Experiments in zero-gravity aircraft flights NGA and NCSL representatives testified during have demonstrated that oscillations of a spherical Senate hearings this summer, giving state views on shell tend to make its wall thickness more uniform. an operational Landsat system. Close cooperation has been established between Specific technology transfer programs with state JPL and DOE’S Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. governments are carried out principally through the 27 three NASA Regional Centers. All three have news- an implementation plan approved this past year, letters to keep users informed on state activities, re- NASA began to expand and strengthen the involve- lated NASA programs, and technology develop- ment of the academic community in applications ments. programs by devoting a larger fraction of resources A number of major analysis programs have now to basic research. Today the major barriers to prog- been documented and made public and more are ress in many areas, including climate prediction, on the way. Analysis software is also being adapted weather forecasting, agricultural productivity assess- to run on a variety of computer systems and analysis ment, and location of mineral resources on the software has been installed on a national time shar- Earth’s surface, stem largely from lack of basic ing computer network (COMNET) to provide easy, knowledge about many of the geophysical, geo- low cost, interim access to analysis capabilities for chemical, and biological processes. Only strong ac- users still in the exploratory stage. Listings and tivity in basic research can provide the insight for technical summaries of commercially available design and development of an effective space ob- analysis software and geobased information systems servations program. have been published to help users find assistance in Under the new program, universities will be the private sector. funded to do independent basic research where the Through the Applications Systems Verification long-term objectives would be in consonance with and Transfer (ASVT) program, emerging applica- those of the program, but not necessarily directly tions technology is being verified and transferred related to a specific space mission. The first pro- to a variety of users. Users involved in the seven gram was started in FY 1979 in geodynamics, fo- current ASVT programs include eight federal agen- cusing on the nature of the mechanisms that drive cies, thirteen states, and two regional commissions. the tectonic plates and the way the plates deform NASA’s Ames Research Center is concluding an in response to the driving forces. extensive ASVT project with the Pacific Northwest Regional Commission and state ageixies in Wash- ington, Oregon, and Idaho to develop operational Science Landsat analysis capability. During FY 1979, the states and the Regional Commission assumed major Space science aims at an understanding of the financial responsibility for the continuing effort. origin and continuing evolution of the cosmic en- NASA will provide some continuing phase-over sup- vironment; the origin and evolution of the solar port, principally involving software and training. system; the origin and distribution of life in the For example, Landsat data processing software is universe; and the dynamic processes that shape the now operating on computers at Washington State terrestrial environment. Space science also uses University and the State Auditor’s computing facili- space technology and environment to further knowl- ties in Idaho. The states have assumed complete edge in medicine and biology. responsibility for the Landsat data application proj- ects. A self-sustaining Landsat processing and anal- Stitdy of the Sun and its Earth Eflects ysis capability is projected in these states in FY 1982. As our ultimate source of light and heat, the While the AVST programs are quite effectively Sun has profound effects on all parts of the Earth’s meeting a number of important immediate needs, environment. NASA studies the Sun, the solar wind, the key to future growth is building a strong tech- the Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere, and the nical base in the user community. Toward this end, complex interactions between these elements. the University Applications Program has developed Skylab Data Analysis. Fiscal Year 1979 was the remote sensing centers at universities in 25 states. final year of sustained postflight analysis of data for To broaden these benefits each year, one or two the Skylab experiment teams. During their relatively programs are phased out and moved to other uni- brief nine-month period of operation ( 1973-1974), versities in other states. Over the past few years, the instruments of Skylab’s Apollo Telescope Mount NASA support has been phased out at seven of revolutionized our perception of the Sun. The ob- these schools but, as planned, the remote sensing servations of the forms and evolution of coronal centers continue to be viable with funding from holes and their identification with high-speed solar other sources. In other words, they have become wind streams, the observation of large numbers of self-supporting institutions for research, education, coronal transient events and their connections with and expertise for problem solving-a continuing re- underlying activity on the solar surface, and the ob- source for the university and the state. servations that the hottest parts of solar flares oc- University applications are not limited to remote cur within very compact magnetic arches are only a sensing applications. In line with NASA policy and few of the major breakthroughs derived from this mission. The current cumulative total of ATM pub- and developed a large array of sequences for co- lications is 359, plus three book-length monographs ordinated observations of solar phenomena by all from Skylab workshops. of the SMM experiments. International Sun-Earth Explorer. The Interna- International Solar Polar Mixsioii. The Interna- tional Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE) program involves tional Solar Polar Mission (ISPM) will be the first three spacecraft, and is a collaboration with the space mission to explore interplanetary and solar European Space Agency (ESA). ISEE 1 and 2 are phenomena from the plane of the solar equator to in highly elliptical orbits, one following the other above the solar poles themselves. Two spacecraft- closely as they pass through different regions of the one European and one American-are expected to be Earth’s magnetosphere. On November 20, 1978, launched by the Shuttle in 1985; they will be boosted ISEE 3 was injected into a “halo” orbit about the by an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) to Jupiter, and will Earth-Sun libration point, which is about 1.6 mil- use gravitational swing-bys for acceleration out of lion kilometers from Earth (0.01 AU) on the the ecliptic plane, with passage over the poles of Earth-Sun line, from which point the solar wind can the Sun in 1988. The ISPM is a cooperative mission be observed an hour before it reaches the Earth’s with the European Space Agency (ESA), under a magnetosphere. This capability is useful for ad- Memorandum of Understanding signed in March vance warning of impending magnetospheric and 1979. Science approval of investigations was also ionospheric disturbances near Earth, which the completed in March 1979, and all United States ISEE 1 and 2 spacecraft then monitor. In addition, investigators are currently under contract for ex- ISEE 3 has seen a surprising number of particles periment development. The prime contractor for streaming away from the Earth toward the Sun. the United States spacecraft was selected in July These probably originate from the solar wind, and 1979. are reversed by a mechanism not yet understood. A Reusable Faci1itic.s jor Solar Rc..rrurch. The selec- similar phenomenon has been observed near Jupiter. tion of the first set of solar terrestrial instruments Such magnetospheric acceleration suggests a way in for follow-on Spacelab missions was completed in which low-energy cosmic rays may be produced. August 1979. Two multiuser instruments will be de- Project CAMEO. In Project CAMEO (Chemical- veloped: the solar optical telescope and the chemi- ly Active Material Ejected in Orbit), canisters con- cal release module. The telescope will be a 1.25- taining barium and lithium were carried on the meter diffraction-limited model with a variety of Delta vehicle that launched Nimbus 7. On October focal-plane spectrographs and imaging instruments. 29, 1978, four barium canisters were released by It will offer a ten-fold improvement in our ability telecommand at 40-second intervals. The barium to resolve fine detail on the Sun’s surface compared initially streaked upwards at speeds and to altitudes to that routinely possible with ground-based tele- that indicated that electric fields must have been scopes. The solar physics experiments will comple- present. This result provided direct evidence for ment the telescope’s temperature coverage in the one of the acceleration mechanisms suspected from ISEE and earlier data. Plasma instabilities then solar atmosphere. These experiments include an ex- broke the streaks up into striations, an effect not treme ultraviolet spectrograph, an imaging x-ray seen from rocket releases with lower injection veloc- telescope and spectrometer, a white-light corona- ities. Lithium was released a few days later and de- graph, and a coronagraph designed to measure tected with sensitive photometers in Scandinavia coronal temperatures and densities through observa- and by atmospheric laser probing from France. tions of scattered radiation from hydrogen atoms Solar Maximum Mission. Solar activity has been and 0+5ions. increasing rapidly, and the evidence indicates that The chemical release module will inject small the sunspot maximum for this solar cycle will be amounts of tracer elements into the Earth’s mag- high and should occur early in 1980. This maximum netosphere to map mass motions and electric fields period is ideal for the Solar Maximum Mission and to investigate ion acceleration processes. The (SMM) to observe active regions and flares, since tracers will be observed with sensitive TV systems the SMM is now scheduled for launch in early on Spacelab and on the ground, with mass spectrom- 1980. The slip from the original October 1979 eter systems on Spacelab, and with a remote spec- launch date was caused by minor technical prob- troscopic observatory on Spacelab. All the space lems, and by a need to fully develop the complex ground control and data handling facilities. The ex- plasma physics investigations will emphasize active periments were integrated with the SMM spacecraft, experiments from Spacelab-injecting particles or subjected to final environmental tests, and shipped to waves inio the magnetosphere and ionosphere and the Kennedy Space Center in January 1980. The In- then observing the effects of these injections at vary- vestigators Working Group met a number of times ing distances from Spacelab. Study of the Planets of the static and dynamic characteristics of the atmosphere and its complex cloud layers. The data The United States planetary exploration program are so extensive and the results so promising that made remarkable advances in several areas in 1979. analyses will continue for several years. The Soviet Large quantities of new data have been returned by Union also sent probes to Venus in late 1978. The unmanned spacecraft visiting Venus, Jupiter, and two nations are exchanging data and engaging in Saturn. A first look has been taken at the four large joint analyses, which will increase the value of each Galiliean (Jupiter) moons-moons big enough to nation’s mission. be important objects in the newly emerging science Viking. The active presence of United States of comparative planetology. The data returned from spacecraft at Mars continues, almost four years after the various spacecraft span a wide range of dis- the arrival of Viking at Mars. At the end of 1979, ciplines; the quality and quantity of those data have one orbiter still had supply of attitude control gas increased immeasurably since the beginning of a and was returning high-resolution imagery. The two planetary exploration almost two decades ago. landers returned imaging, meteorology, and radio Pioneer Venus. The Pioneer Venus multiprobe spacecraft and orbiter arrived at Venus toward the science data during the year. The more equatorially end of 1978. During 1979, over 100 scientists have located of the two landers has been programmed to allow periodic interrogation of the spacecraft for the worked both to analyze the data returned by the probes during their brief descent through the atmos- next decade. A substantial analysis team continues to study the several years’ worth of data returned by phere and to continue the operation of the orbiter which has now passed into a second Venusian year. the landers and the orbiters. The in .yitu probe measurements have provided basic Voyager I and 2. The two Voyager passages information about the nature of the Venusian atmo- through the Jupiter system were a fitting close to a sphere. Of great interest are the quantities of rare decade of United States planetary exploration that gases which are present in trace amounts: these brought new understanding of how the solar system gases do not enter into chemical compounds and was formed and in what ways the histories of the can therefore provide relatively direct information planets were similar or different. Like the inner about the nature of the original materials from planets-Mercury, Venus, and Mars-Jupiter had which the planets formed. Although the results are been examined by spacecraft before. The Voyager still subject to considerable uncertainties, compari- missions benefited from the earlier experience of sons with direct measurements of the Earth’s and Pioneer 10 and 11 ; they also gained capability from Mars’ atmospheres (the latter made by Viking) major improvements in the technological state of show that the proportion of such rare gases, rela- the art, both in spacecraft instrumentation and in tive to the total planetary mass, decreases in order- ground receiving equipment-a system improve- of-magnitude steps from Venus to Earth to Mars. ment, Science magazine asserted, “a factor of The reason for such a circumstance is as yet un- 150,000 times better than that used with the 1965 clear, but in time this information may lead to ini- Mariner mission to Mars.” portant insights into the nature of the primitive Voyager I, launched September 5, 1977, began solar system. measuring the Jovian system on January 6, 1979. Large concentrations of sulfur compounds were Its closest approach to Jupiter was 348,890 kilom- measured in the lower atmosphere of Venus; it is eters on March 5. During the 98-day period be- clear that sulfur is an important ingredient of the fore and after closest approach, the spacecraft re- pervasive Venusian clouds, apparently composed in turned more than 18,000 images of Jupiter and its part of sulfuric acid. Challenging problems remain four Galilean planets, as well as mapping the acces- in understanding the sulfur chemistry of the lower sible portion of Jupiter’s complex magnetosphere. atmosphere and the clouds; these problems will be In Jupiter’s atmosphere, some significant observa- the subject of future data analysis and synthesis. tions were: a belt-zone pattern of east-west winds Pioneer Venus, through its radar altimeter. has near the poles, where it previously was thought that added significantly to our meager knowledge of the the weather systems were driven by convection planet’s surface. A broad plateau has been identi- (upwelling and downwelling) ; much interaction fied; about 1000 kilometers across, it rises about around the fringes of the Great Red Spot-the mas- 6 kilometers above the surrounding plain. Com- sive storm that has been prominent for at least 400 parable topographic features are found on Earth, but years-including anticyclonic motion of material, not on the other inner planets. Its origin seems as- the impinging of smaller spots on the edges of the sociated with large-scale crustal forces. Great Red Spot and on each other, and substantially Much of the data analysis presently under way is colder atmosphere above the Great Red Spot; mas- involved with the many Pioneer Venus investigations sive cloud-top lighting bolts; auroral emissions in

30 the polar region in both ultraviolet and visible wave- about the temperature and mass of the rings ac- lengths; and uniform velocities of atmospheric forms quired on this flight will significantly constrain the quite different in scale, arguing that mass moxon range of possible explanations for the nature of rather than wave motion is being observed. In the these striking phenomena. While Pioneer 11 did not diverse satellites of Jupiter: 7 active volcanoes on penetrate the rings, it did come close enough to Io, with plumes reaching 250 kilometers above the demonstrate the safety of the environment just out- surface; a heavily cratered, ancient crust on Callisto, side the rings. This is important for Voyager 2, with ring remnants marking huge impact basins which must pass through the same region if it is to since filled in by flow of the icy crust; on Ganymede, continue on to Uranus after its Saturn encounter. It both grooved and cratered terrain, possibly from found that since the rings almost totally absorb the global tectonic stresses; on Europa, a surface criss- energetic particles trapped by the magnetic field, crossed with linear marks, possibly from tectonics there is a benign radiation environment beneath and or crustal lifting; and a planetary ring around Jupi- above the rings. ter, beginning some 100,000 kilometers out from Saturn’s large moon, Titan, was also observed the center of the planet and measuring some 30 and its temperature measured. Though this large kilometers thick. In the magnetosphere: well defined moon is especially tantalizing because of its signifi- bow shock wave and magnetospheric boundaries and cant atmosphere, Pioneer flew no closer to it than tail, similar to Earth; existence of a 5-million- 356,000 kilometers, so it remains a highly enigmatic ampere magnetic flux tube between Jupiter and Io. object. Voyager 2, launched 16 days earlier than Voy- Both Pioneer 10 and 11 will be tracked and in- ager 1 but arriving at Jupiter four months later, terrogated for several more years: no more planetary passed closest to Jupiter on July 9. Its 13,000 encounters will occur, but the spacecraft will be images naturally showed fewer discoveries than those reporting from unexplored regions of space. of Voyager 1, but did much to supplement and am- Reserrrcli and Analysis. Work continued on the plify them. Among its valuable coverages were: interpretation of data sent back from previous mis- four-month-later patterns of Jupiter’s atmosphere, sions, such as Viking, and on acquiring new infor- showing kinds and rates of change of structure; mation about the solar system by means of ground- high-resolution views of volcanoes eruptin? on IO based telescopes. A highlight of the year was the and additional views of the other Galilean satellites; completion of the Infrared Telescope Facility on the and clearer pictures of Jupiter’s ring, showing it to summit of Mauna Kea in Hawaii, the best observ- be more extensive and possibly more complex than ing site in the world. Many unique features provide it seemed on Voyager 1 imagery. the new telescope with exceptional performance in Safely past Jupiter, the two Voyager spacecraft collecting key information about planetary bodies used the planet’s gravity to bend their course across by observing the thermal emissions of their surfaces the solar system toward the second largest planet, and atmospheres. The new telescope supported the Saturn. Voyager 1 is to arrive at Saturn in Novem- Voyager 2 encounter with Jupiter and will be im- ber 1980, Voyager 2 in August 1981. If fuel portant for the success of the Voyager encounters remains, Voyager 2 may venture on to Uranus by with Saturn and for the Galileo mission. All the 1986. planets will be studied; at times when planetary ob- Pioneer 10 and 11. During the year Pioneer 10 jects are in unsuitable positions for studv. the tele- traveled another 410 million kilometers on its way scope will be operated as a nationally available fa- out of the solar system. It continues to return basic cility for stellar astronomy. information about the charged particles and elec- tromagnetic fields of interplanetary space in the re- Studies of the Universe gion where the Sun’s influence is fading. Pioneer 11, moving in the opposite direction to its sister The NASA program in astrophysics is directed ship, completed the first spacecraft journey to toward answering some of the most fundamental Saturn in September 1979. Though a relatively sim- questions that mankind has ever posed-what is the ple spacecraft in comparison to Voyager. Pioneer nature and origin of the universe? How will it end? 11 returned data that have added significantly to our What is the origin of the elements of which the understanding of the most vividly ringed planet in the Earth and our bodies are constructed? What is the solar system. The spacecraft measured the strong nature of exotic high energy physics occurring in magnetic field of Saturn and confirmed that the space? planet is radiating more heat than it receives from High Energv Astrononiy Obscr\wtories. After a the Sun. It discovered a new faint ring outside hi9hly successful operational lifetime of nearly one those famous ones visible from Earth. Information and one-half years, HEAO 1 reentered the atmo-

31 sphere in Mmarch 1979. HEAO 2 was launched in ries three instruments to study gamma ray emis- November 1978, and is continuing to function well. sions and cosmic-ray flux in the universe. The Both observatories have added diverse and com- cryogenically cooled gamma-ray spectrometer, sup- plementary data on a wide variety of x-ray emitting plied by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, is receiving objects. excellent data on gamma-ray source location and With regard to observations of stars, HEAO 1 nuclear line emissions. A cosmic-ray instrument, in- established that the class of stars known as RS CVn vestigating isotopic composition and supplied by a stars exhibit relatively strong x-ray emission, which consortium of French and Danish scientists, is op- presumably arises in the very hot, active atmos- erating well. The third instrument, supplied by three pheres, or coronae, of these stars. HEAO 2 con- American universities (Washington University, Uni- firmed this result, and further demonstrated that a versity of Minnesota, and the California Institute of considerably wider class of stars, ranging from very Technology) is designed to study heavy nuclei in massive, hot, young stars through less massive, space and is performing very well. cooler, evolved stars (some very similar to the Sun) Space Telescope (ST). The design and develop- are unexpectdly bright x-ray sources. These dis- ment of the ST is progressing on schedule and coveries indicate that earlier theories of stellar within budget toward a December 1983 launch by atmospheres must be discarded or seriously revised. the Space Shuttle. With its 2.4-meter (96-inch) HEAO 2 has provided the basis for a better un- primary mirror, the ST will be able to view celestial derstanding of the structure and generation of objects SO times fainter than large Earth-based tele- stellar atmospheres. scopes can and with a resolution improvement of a HEAO data on supernova such as the Crab factor of 10. Nebula indicate the presence of heavy elements, in The ST will have a long lifetime-of more than roughly the same abundances as in the solar sys- a decade. This is made possible by the Space Shuttle tem, in the expanding shell ejected during the ini- providing on-orbit repair, exchange of scientific tial supernova explosion. Interestingly most of the instruments, or return of the entire observatory to observed supernova remnants do not contain an ob- Earth for refurbishment and subsequent relaunch. servable compact object as expected. This implies Preliminary design reviews for the three major either that the compact object is not a conventional components of the ST (the support systems module, neutron star, or that a compact star was not pro- the optical telescope assembly, and the scientific in- duced by the explosion at all. In either case, a re- struments) were completed early in 1979, and the vision of theory of the origin of neutron stars, their scientific payload was confirmed. Grinding and structure, and the supernova phenomenon is clear- shaping of the two primary telescope mirror blanks ly required. Studies of the x-ray pulses and erratic were finished during the past year. In 1980 the de- fluctuation of the x-ray binaries are in progress, with sign phase of development for all components will the potential of detailing the internal structure of be completed and fabrication and assembly of the neutron stars and providing increased evidence for scientific instruments and the optical telescope as- the existence of black holes. sembly will begin. HEAO 1 and 2 have also provided data on the A new institute will be established to conduct the vast scale of the universe itself. In particular, the integrated science program of the ST, including se- nature of the diffuse x-ray background has a direct lection and support of telescope observers, science bearing on the ultimate fate of the universe. If this planning and scheduling, and data analysis. The re- background radiation is caused by a very hot, dif- quest for proposals for management and operation fuse gas distributed uniformly through space, this of the ST science institute was released in late 1979; could provide enough mass to “close” the universe. contract award is planned for late 1980. Alternatively, if the background arises from a large Explorer Satellites. Explorer satellites carry rela- number of discrete x-ray sources, there would be tively low-cost payloads designed to explore new insufficient mass to halt the expansion and the uni- fields of scientific research. The International Ultra- verse would expand forever. The data, from HEAO violet Explorer WE), launched on January 26. 1 and 2 give different answers to the questions. At 1978, into an eccentric geosynchronous orbit, is present, it is fair to say that a large fraction of the still operating well. The program is a joint under- low energy x-ray background seen by HEAO 2 is taking by NASA, the United Kingdom’s Science composed of distant, discrete sources, while some Research Council, and the European Space Agency fraction of the high energy x-ray component ob- (ESA). The IUE provides the capability to study servable by HEAO 1 is truly diffuse. the spectral lines associated with the transmission HEAO 3 was launched from Cape Canaveral by and absorption of atomic radiation in the atmos- an Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle into near-perfect phere of stars and in the innerstellar medium, as well orbit on September 20, 1979. The observatory car- as with object5 within the solar system. The IUE

32 has demonstrated the ubiquitous nature of stellar Orbiting Astronomical Observatories (OAO). winds, which represent substantial mass loss for all OAO-3, named Copernicus, is still operating suc- types of stars and significantly affect their evolu- cessfully more than seven years after launch. It con- tionary paths. It has produced the first evidence con- tinues to furnish valuable information on an ap- firming the existence of a galactic halo, consisting parent black hole detected in the constellation of high-temperature, rarified gas extending far above Scorpius. and below the plane of the Milky Way. Further, it Suborbital Vehicles. Sounding rockets, balloons, has proved useful in the study of flare stars, which and aircraft continue to make their contributions to undergo eruptions many times more violent than technology and science. For example, in the NASA have ever been observed on the Sun. balloon program, a far-infrared telescope has meas- The first observations with this satellite generated ured the contribution that dust in our Milky Way such excitement that over 180 proposals have al- galaxy makes to the total luminosity of our galaxy, ready been received for observing time on IUE dur- giving information on the rate at which stars form ing 1980, although only 120 observing programs throughout our own galaxy. can be accommodated. In the NASA airborne program, instruments Another international Explorer, the Infrared aboard the Kuiper Airborne Observatory have de- Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), is the first satellite tected, for the first time, a far-infrared molecular designed to study the cold infrared universe. This line from carbon monoxide in a region where stars cooperative project with the Netherlands and the are forming. Since the cooling of this region is United Kingdom is scheduled to place a “first of its caused mainly by carbon monoxide, and since most kind” cryogenically cooled telescope system in orbit of the radiation is coming out in the form of these in 1981. The primary mission is to produce an un- lines, measurement of their intensities plays an im- biased all-sky survey of discrete sources to identify portant role in understanding the energy balance of the location and variety of objects radiating in the star-forming regions. infrared. The telescope system is to be furnished The sounding rocket program became linked to by the United States and to be managed by the Jet scientific use of the Shuttle in 1979 when approval Propulsion Laboratory and the Ames Research was given for a development test flight in 1981- Center. The detectors for the telescope’s focal plane 1982 to demonstrate the concept of flying sounding were selected in September 1978. rocket payloads off the Shuttle in a 24-hour free- flyer mode, then to be recovered and returned by Development activity is proceeding on four other the Shuttle. The concept is a logical extension of Explorer projects. The Dynamics Explorer, which the sounding rocket program with the added capa- will investigate the interactions between the Earth’s bility of obtaining 24 hours of scientific data as op- magnetosphere and ionosphere, is in final develop- posed to the 10 minutes from a sounding rocket ment, leading to launch in 1981. Development work flight. continues on the Solar Mesospheric Explorer. Also A.rtrophy.5ic.r Spacelab Payloads. A significant to be launched in 1981, it will determine solar ultra- milestone has been reached with regard to scientific violet flux and study changes occurring in ozone and use of the Shuttle. Ten instruments for high-energy related chemistry as a result of that ozone radiation. astrophyiscs and astronomy have been selected for Development work continues on the Cosmic Ray development and flight on fully operational Shuttle Isotope Experiment to be launched on a DoD satel- Spacelab missions starting in 1983. These ten, plus lite in 1981 and again on the San Marco-D mis- approved reflight of two Spacelab 2 instruments and sions, a cooperative project with Italy having six new instruments approved for study, represent launches in 1981 and 1982. an intensive selection process that originally started Detailed study continues on three future Ex- with a total of 94 proposals. plorers. One is a joint NASA-German Federal Ministry for Research and Technology mission, the Life Sciences Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer. NASA will provide the Charge Composition Ex- The life sciences program concerns itself with the plorer, Germany the Ion Release Module. The physiology of man in space and more generally with Cosmic Background Explorer will measure the living or life-like processes in space, whether of residual three-degree-Kelvin background radiation terrestrial or extraterrestrial origin. believed to be associated with the “big bang” origin Medical Operations. Measures to maintain the of the universe. The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer health and safety of Space Shuttle crew members will survey the sky for very hot objects such as have continued to be of prime concern. To mitigate white dwarfs, opening up one of the few remaining any adverse effects of returning these crew members unexplored regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. to Earth’s gravity, tests have been conducted with

33 anti-g suits that can be inflated automatically dur- ing the month of May, and again at NASA’s Ames ing reentry when the flow of blood to the head is Research Center in August, ten subjects were stud- diminished. Other more sophisticated procedures ied intensively for five weeks by teams of Soviet employing water-cooled suits and blood volume re- and American investigators. The data obtained were plenishment have also been developed for longer reasonably similar despite the geographic separation missions and more susceptible non-astronaut pas- of the test centers and the diversity of investigators sengers. The prospect of some crew members en- and experimental subjects. countering motion sickness has necessitated a com- Space Biology. A study of the effect of gravity prehensive drug screening program to select those and other physical forces on the growth and de- medications that will be most effective and will have velopment of plants has pointed to the importance the least side effects. Several drug combinations of the hormone ethylene in these processes. Me- used on both men and women have been found to chanical stress accelerates production of this com- have these desirable characteristics. Better methods pound, which in turn causes dwarfing and the fail- of administering the drugs have also been studied; a ure of the plant’s gravity sensing. Studies of the re- procedure that permits the drug to be absorbed lationship of gravity to a broad spectrum of other through the skin appears to be most promising. biological processes has enabled refinement of an Biorm>dical HcJscvirch. Several laboratories have animal model system simulating certain aspects of participated in a concerted effort to understand weightlessness. The changes in a rat suspended with more about the structure and function of the human the longitudinal axis of its body pointed head-down vestibular apparatus and its neural interconnections. have faithfully mimicked many of the metabolic Using experimental animals, key anatomical fiber and 5tructural changes that occur in the absence of tracts have been located. Techniques for pinpoint- gravity. ing the involvement of specific parts of the nervous Exobiology. Research in planetary biology is system in the genesis of motion sickness have been focused on the origin, evolution, and distribution of developed, and experiments have been defined for life-related molecules on Earth and elsewhere. A employing these techniques in the Shuttle and new line of investigation this year emphasizes at- Space1ab. tempts to decipher the long series of evolutionary Substantial improvements have been made in the events that characterized early biological history. instrumentation and procedures for detecting of Recent discoveries from laboratory simulation, bone deterioration. These procedures, based on modeling, and ground-based observations all indi- computer-aided tomography, have demonstrated cate that comets may represent a unique reservoir subtle structural changes in the bones of human of information regarding precursors to life at the test subjects confined to bed. Similar changes are time of the formation of the solar system. In addi- believed to occur in spaceflight. Experiments are tion to providing further support for theories that being prepared for applying the new technology to chemical evolution occurs in locations beyond the Shuttle crew members. With bedrest as an analogue Earth, these findings have led to the theory that of space flight, a diphosphonate-containing drug, comets may, in fact, have played a major role in capable of partially protecting the integrity of the organic chemical evolution on the primitive Earth. bones, has been successfully tested. Several flight Calculations have shown that significant amounts of experiments have been selected to elucidate the important early forms of molecules could have been mechanisms underlying the loss of bone mass in deposited on the planet Earth during its earliest space. Some of these will be flown on Shuttle’ history by falling comets. Spacelab, while others are taking advantage of flight Simulation experiments have successfully dupli- opportunities offered to the United States in the cated data from one of the more controversial life Soviet Cosmos biosatellite program. detection experiments on the Viking Mars landers. Cooperative efforts with the Soviet Union have Specially prepared clays, when mixed with salts in included both the flight of United States biological amounts consistent with other Viking measurements, experiments on unmanned Soviet spacecraft. In catalyzed the release of carbon dioxide in a fashion 1979, the third such Soviet biosatellite carried 14 similar to that observed in the Viking labeled-re- United States experiments. Cooperation in this area lease experiment. Recently it has been shown that also includes joint ground-based clinical studies. Al- these same clay-salt mixtures can be inactivated by though the 1979 study has emphasized validation of heating at 160°C for 3 hours. The sensitivity to heat a more authentic experimental model for the effects observed in the labeled release experiment was the of weightlessness of the human cardiovascular sys- most biological-like response observed on Mars and tem, an additional dividend has been the standardi- the most difficult to simulate on Earth. zation of test procedures applied to American Flight Program. The Shuttle ’Spacelab life sci- astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts. In Moscow. dur- ences flight experiments program will provide ob- jective, quantifiable research data that will give quirements and capabilities involved in this com- NASA and the scientific community answers to the plex area. many problems raised in the Skylab programs. The The payload development has been progressing most immediate problem is space motion sickness, satisfactorily. In late 1979, the instruments that will which impaired the ability of the astronauts to per- be flown on the first Shuttle payload missions were form in the early hours of their exposure to space. delivered for integration into Spacelab pallets. The This nausea affected about half of the astronauts for first mission, OSTA 1, will carry instruments to be from one to four days. With the early Space Trans- used in gathering Earth resource and environmental portation System flights scheduled to last 7 to IO data that will help to deal with many problems in days, the STS crew and payload scientists could, if those areas. The Johnson Space Center has mission similarly affected, lose a substantial amount of pro- management responsibilities for OSTA 1. The other ductive time because of this discomfort. Additional mission, OSS I, is managed by the Goddard Space problems concern fluid and electrolyte balance. sen- Flight Center. The instruments on that mission will sory deprivation, diurnal rhythm changes, cardio- gather solar physics data, evaluate the ambient and vascular deconditioning, circulation impairment, and induced Shuttle space environment, and provide muscle atrophy. data on payload thermal control technology. An- Life Sciences experiments for Spacelab I. 2, and other experiment dealing with Life Sciences (plant 3 are in the hardware phase. During the past year, growth research) will be located in the Shuttle over 370 proposals for Life Sciences flight experi- cabin. ments onboard a dedicated mission were reviewed Significant progress was also made on the Space- and evaluated by 13 panels of non-NASA scientific lab missions 1 and 2, the first extensive operational peers. NASA analyzed the proposals for en&'meer- demonstrations of the Spacelab hardware being fur- ing, cost, and mission compatibility considerations. nished by the European Space Agency. During Ninety proposals were identified as scientifically 1979, the Spacelab 1 and 2 missions moved into and technically sound investigations and candidates the final design phase and manufacture of flight for flight experimentation. The majority of these in- hardware was begun. Final design and operations vestigations are being funded for an experiment reviews have been held for all instruments and most definition phase, after which the fiield will be fur- investigators are well into fabrication of their flight ther narrowed to 50-60 investigations. From this hardware. group, payloads for two dedicated missions will be About 140 investigations were selected during selected. 1979 for future Spacelab missions. As these activi- ties mature, and as we gain a clearer insight into future requirements, Spacelab mission planning will Spacelab Payloads focus on more effective and efficient use of Space- During 1979, responsibility for the planning, de- lab hardware and Space Transportation System velopment, and operation of all NASA Spacelab capabilities. missions was consolidated into the new Spacelab Mission Integration Division within the Office of Space Transportation Space Science (OSS). Comprised of functions and elements from both Space Science and the Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications (OSTA), this Space Shuttle division will provide a single focus for NASA Space- The Space Shuttle will be the first reusable Earth- lab mission management. Responsibility for plan- to-orbit vehicle, meeting the needs of NASA, DoD, ning and developing the NASA Spacelab payloads and other domestic and international users of space. or instruments themselves will remain in the dis- It will provide eficient, economical access to space cipline divisions of the program offices. In addition and will greatly enhance the flexibility and produc- to refining these management arrangements, other tion of space missions, producing savings in the cost steps have been taken to prepare for Spacelab op- of space operations which cannot be achieved with erations. In late 1978 the physical integration of today's expendable launch vehicle systems. instruments or experiments into Spacelab hardware In the Space Shuttle development program, all was assigned to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). major system elements are proceeding in test and During 1979, progress was made in arranging for manufacture, and major ground test programs are contractor support for that activity. In September, approaching completion. The design certification re- a draft statement of work for such a contract was view of the overall Space Shuttle configuration was circulated to industry for comment. The comments completed in April 1979. In general, development received will help NASA to better integrate the re- testing throughout the program has been completed or soon will be, and the program is now deeply in- first flight. Most of the rocket segments for the first volved in the qualification of flight-configured flight boosters have already been delivered to KSC. elements. Launch and Landing. All facilities at KSC are Space Shuttle Orbiter. The orbiter vehicle will complete and in place for the first manned orbital carry personnel and payloads to orbit, provide a flight. Although ground support equipment and the space base for performing their assigned tasks, and computerized launch-processing installations have return them to Earth. The orbiter’s large cargo bay been delayed, they are in the final stages of com- will be capable of carrying payloads weighing up to pletion, and software validation is in process. All 29,500 kilograms (65,000 pounds) into space. The hardware for the launch processing system has been orbiter will provide a habitable environment for the delivered, simulation support is continuing for de- crew and passengers, including scientists and engi- velopment of checkout procedures, and checkout neers. The structural-test article for the orbiter is software is being developed and validated. Integra- currently under subcontract for structural testing. tion of all the ground support equipment will con- This test article has a flightworthy airframe, and will tinue, and initial flight equipment is being checked be converted to become the second orbital vehicle, out and processed for launch. Challenger. Follow-On Production. A national fleet of Work on the first flight orbiter, Columbia, pro- orbiters must be produced to meet the needs ceeded at KSC at a slower pace than planned; much planned by the users of space for the 1980s. Fol- more work remains before the first flight, now lowing the test flights, the first operational Shuttle scheduled in late 1980. will be available in 1982 as an operational trans- Main Engine. Three high-pressure hydrogen/ portation capability for the many users of the Space oxygen main engines, each with a thrust of 2,000,- Shuttle. Three additional orbiters will be delivered 000 newtons (470,000 pounds) are located in the in later years, phased to accommodate increasing orbiter’s aft fuselage. The main engine represents a usage of the Space Transportation System. These major advance in propulsion technology. It has a additional orbiters (after Columbia) will be Chal- longer operating life, the ability to throttle the lenger in 1982; Discoverer in 1983; and Atlantis, thrust level over a wide range, and is the first large, now scheduled for late 1984. liquid-fuel rocket engine designed to be reusable. This highly advanced engine has experienced a Operation of the Space Transportation System number of development problems during its test program. Some difficulties still remain, but over When the Space Transportation System becomes 50,000 seconds of test time have already been ac- operational in 1982, a greatly expanded range of cumulated toward the goal of 80,000 seconds before space activities will be possible. A wide variety of the first orbital flight. users have already made firm commitments to use External Tank. The external tank contains the the system-civilian and military components of the propellants (liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen) for United States government, and domestic and foreign the Space Shuttle main engines. Just prior to orbital customers, both governmental and private. They will insertion, the main engines cut off, and the external be able to place a wide variety of payloads and ex- tank will separate from the orbiter and descend periments into Earth orbit. Payloads can be refur- through a ballistic trajectory over a predesignated bished in orbit or returned to Earth for repair. and remote ocean area. The first flight tank has already relaunch; space laboratories can be launched, op- been delivered, as have three test tanks. Three more erated, and returned to Earth for examination; sci- flight tanks are being manufactured for flight in the entists can fly along to operate their experiments; orbital flight test program. geosynchronous or planetary missions will be pos- Solid Rocket Booster. Two solid-rocket boosters, sible with the aid of supplemental upper stages. With attached to the external tank, will burn in parallel the art of the possible expanding so rapidly, and with the main engines to provide extra thrust dur- with flight hardware coming off the production line, ing ascent. At completion of burn, the solid-rocket NASA has placed major emphasis in 1979 on plan- boosters will separate, descend on parachutes, and ning and preparing for operations. land in the ocean approximately 280 kilometers Policies and Procedures. Policies on user charges downrange, to be recovered and returned for re- during the early years of operations have been pub- furbishment and reuse. Four development firings lished in the Federal Register, describing the price have been completed on this 3.7-meter-diameter structure and stipulating other conditions under booster, and the qualification firing program has which NASA will furnish launch services and flight been started. Two qualification motor firings have hardware to government and commercial users. A been made, and one more is scheduled before the reimbursement guide, which describes types and costs of standard and optional services, is expected module) and an unpressurized platform exposed to to be published in 1980. the space environment (the pallet). It also offers Following extensive negotiations during the past the experimenters standardized support services. year, nine commercial and foreign users, including The Spacelab’s normal mission lasts 7 days, al- Comsat, Western Union, RCA, Telesat,/Canada, though it can remain in orbit for up to 30 days. and the governments of India, Indonesia, and the Design life expectancy is 50 flights of 7-day dura- Federal Republic of Germany have made payments tion over a 10-year period. As many as four payload or deposits on STS flight reservations. Together with specialists can operate the experiments aboard the NASA’s own payloads, plus firm commitments for laboratory. The payload weights will range from DoD and other United States government agencies, 4800 to 8800 kilograms. the first few years of STS operations are fully The 1973 agreement between the European Space scheduled. Agency (ESA) and NASA calls for ESA to design, A program to provide for small, self-contained develop, and manufacture the first Spacelab flight payloads was begun by NASA in 1977. Individuals, unit and an engineering model, two sets of ground educational institutions, and industries can fly small support equipment, and initial spares to support the payloads, requiring minimal support from the first two missions. ESA’s current cost-to-completion Shuttle, on a space-available basis at very reason- estimate is approximately $800 million (FY 1979 able prices. Both in the United States and abroad, dollars). NASA’s responsibility is for operation of this program has been extremely successful in at- Spacelab; development of ancillary equipment, such tracting new users; by the end of 1979, advance as the tunnel between the Spacelab and the cabin of payments had been received for more than 300 in- the Shuttle; development of the mission verification dividual payloads, with a wide variety of ideas and equipment; and procurement of one additional experiments. The response from educational institu- Spacelab unit from ESA. tions has been particularly gratifying, since it indi- In 1979, ESA delivered the second of two engi- cates renewed interest from young people in space neering model pallets to KSC. These payload- research and exploration. Several universities are equipped pallets are scheduled to be flown on Space offering science scholarships or grants for students Shuttle orbital flight tests. to develop payloads. In Bremen, Germany, the prime contractor for DoD is developing STS launch and recovery fa- Spacelab development continues to process the en- cilities at Vandenberg AFB, California, to handle gineering model hardware. The initial flight unit is high-inclination missions. Maximum commonality being assembled; testing is expected to start in 1980. of ground equipment at KSC and Vandenberg is re- Spacelab subsystem qualification tests are over 80 ducing both acquisition and operating costs. percent complete at various subcontractor facili- Flight Crew. The 35 astronaut candidates, in- ties, with remaining tests scheduled for completion cluding six women, selected in 1978 continued in 1980. Manufacturing and qualification testing of training at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in the engineering model pointing system are nearing Houston, Texas, and have been designated full- completion. fledged astronauts in 1979. NASA has advertised The software to check out Spacelab on the for additional pilot and mission specialist candi- ground and operate it in orbit is nearing comple- dates. Selections of candidates will be made in 1980. tion. Preliminary issuance of this software has been Policies for the selection, responsibilities, duties, delivered to NASA and is currently being used dur- and training of “payload specialist” and the scien- ing integration and testing of the engineering model tific members of the crew were formulated in 1979 in Bremen. and published in the Federal Register. NASA continues preparing for ground and flight Spacelab operations for Spacelab flights. The critical design review for the verification equipment was com- Spacelab is an orbital laboratory being designed pleted. This equipment will be used to verify satis- and developed by the European Space Agency to be factory performance of the first Spacelab module carried in the cargo bay of the Shuttle. The major mission. The crew tunnel, which provides access objective of the Spacelab is to provide access to to Spacelab from the orbiter, underwent a success- space for a variety of experimenters from many na- ful preliminary design review and a crew walk- tions and in fields such as material science, space through. The hardware for the software develop- processing, biology/medicine, meteorology, com- ment facility was installed and checked out at munication/navigation, and space technology. MSFC. A critical design review for the experi- The Spacelab offers the experimenters two op- ment computer operating system was successfully tions, a pressurized shirtsleeve laboratory (the completed. Installation of the crew training simula-

37 tor is in process at Johnson Space Center. NASA’s planned for launch on SSUS-Ds, as are the launches resident office in Bremen, Germany, continues to of most commercial users, who are buying SSUS-DS monitor the integration and test activities on the en- directly from the developer. gineering model and flight unit, at the same time learning how to prepare for technical support of Skylab Reentry Spacelab processing at KSC. It also monitors the acceptance and qualification testing of the engineer- Skylab, launched in May 1973, was the first ing model and flight unit. United States orbiting laboratory. Operated by three The Operations and Checkout (O&C) building successive crews for a total of 171 days, it was left is now operational at KSC and the first two Space- dormant in February 1974, with an orbital life pro- lab pallets to be used for orbital flight tests are jected to about 1983. Sunspot activity had been being processed there for installation of payloads by greater than predicted, making the upper atmo- the users. The Spacelab orbital flight pallets are sphere more dense and accelerating Skylab’s rate of scheduled to be turned over to the users this year. orbital decay. Because of Skylab’s large size, there In July, NASA and ESA concluded a follow-on was some concern of danger from its debris; a pro- procurement letter contract for the second Spacelab gram to alter Skylab’s orbit was approved for an long-lead items. NASA also received ESA’s total early flight on the Space Shuttle of a teleoperator proposal for a second Spacelab and a contract with retrieval system. This program was reassessed in ESA was in preparation for signing early in 1980. November 1978 and dropped because of its limited chance of success. Upper Stages Skylab reentered and returned to Earth on July Inertial Upper Stuges. The Inertial Upper Stage 11, 1979. Although some debris from the breakup (IUS) system is being designed and developed by landed in Australia, there were no reports of per- DoD to extend the capability of the Space Shuttle sonal injury or property damage. into orbits beyond the capability of the Space Shuttle alone. The solid-propellant IUS and its pay- Advanced Programs load are deployed from the orbiter in low Earth orbit; the IUS is then ignited to boost its payload Studies and developments continued in 1979 to to a higher energy orbit. NASA will use a two-stage investigate concepts to improve the utility, flexibility, configuration of the IUS primarily to achieve geo- and effectiveness of the Space Transportation Sys- synchronous orbit and a three-stage version for tem, with special emphasis on the Shuttle orbiter. planetary orbits. Full scale development continues The definition and Shuttle interface studies were with NASA coordinating the NASA-unique and completed for the power extension package (PEP). other non-DoD requirements into the DoD IUS PEP would provide the orbiter additional electrical program to ensure its utility for other-than-DoD ap- power by means of a solar array deployed by plications. The DoD’s detailed design of the two- Shuttle’s remote manipulator. Design studies for a stage IUS configuration has been completed and space-storable 25-kilowatt power system for the subsystem hardware development is proceeding on a Shuttle and attached platforms were also completed. schedule that supports the first two-stage IUS Studies were initiated to define the nature, utility, and launch of the tracking and Data Relay Satellite in cost bcnefits of a number of automated space fa- 1982. Detailed design of the NASA three-stage con- cilities that promise to lower the cost of space ap- figuration has been initiated. plications and expand the user base. The science and Spinriing Solid Upper Stages. Two sizes of Spin- applications platform and materials experiment car- ning Solid Upper Stages (SSUS) are being devel- rier studies will define space platform concepts and oped by American aerospace industries at their own materials processing in space payloads to take ad- expense for launch of smaller spacecraft to geo- vantage of the 25-kilowat power system. Geosta- synchronous orbit. The SSUS-D is configured for tionary platform and geosynchronous mission stud- satellites that have been using the Delta expendable ies were continued. Proposals were received for the launch vehicle, the SSUS-A for those using the definition of the solar electric propulsion system Atlas-Centaur. SSUS designs have been completed planned to be used €or high-energy danetary and and the qualification program initiated. Production cometary missicns in the mid to late 1980s. Orbital is proceeding, with most flight hardware manufac- transfer vehicle concepts for missions beyond the tured and ready for assembly. NASA has ordered capability of planned STS upper stages continued SSUS-As for Comsat’s Tntelsat V communications with the selection of two vehicle contractors and satellite missions. NOAA’s Geostationary Opera- three engine contractors. The orbital transfer vehicle tional Environmental Satellite missions are now would be a reusable vehicle to transport Shuttle pay-

38 loads to Earth orbit, lunar orbit, and planetary The program is organized into two areas, the missions. first dealing with advances in the fundamental space Innovative equipment and tools to further the disciplines and the second with the systems tech- utility, effectiveness, and flexibility of the Shuttle, as nology necessary to demonstrate the readiness for well as reducing the cost of operations, are being fight of new capabilities generated in the funda- developed. Their functions include placement, re- mental area. trieval, and in-orbit maintenance and repair of satel- lites and retrieval of unstable satellites and space Fundamental Technology debris. EVA tools and support equipment studies are under way. The preliminary design was com- As the practical applications of space grow, the pleted for the open-cab “cherry picker.” need for high density, onboard information storage A large-structures space experiments and denion- capabilities becomes more pressing. During 1979 a stration plan was generated, involving such “end- novel concept called a “multi-layer magnetic lattice items” as a large deployable antenna and various file” was successfully demonstrated. This concept beams and structures. All of these aspects of large builds on magnetic bubble memory technology, structures will be needed for future space applica- which has now evolved to a stage of commercializa- tions and science activities. tion and provides increased data storage capability with minimum photolithographic dimensions. Future space recorders will have storage capacities up to Expendable Lunch Vehicles fifty times greater than those currently available for NASA conducted 8 launches during 1979 with the same size, weight, and power. its Expendable Launch Vehicles consisting of the In thermal protection, during 1979 two new in- all-solid-motor Scout, the Atlas-Ccntaur, and thc sulation materials were developed which will be used Delta. Of the 8 launches, 3 were for NASA scientific on selected portions of future Shuttle orbiters. The and application purposes and 5 were for a variety of advanced flexible reusable surface insulation is a other United States government and reimbursing silica, quilted-felt material that will be used on the customers. upper areas of the orbiter which experience moder- ate reentry heating replacing the current material at Scout. This vehicle was used to launch a NASA substantial cost savings. The fiber reinforced com- Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE), posite insulation is a silica reinforced insulation a NASA magnetic satellite (Magsat), and a reim- with 20 percent aluminum silicate fiber. This ma- bursable United Kingdom scientific satellite (Ariel terial is twice as strong and has higher temperature 6). capability than the current reusable surface insula- Atlas-Centaur. This vehicle was used to launch 2 tion. satellites during 1979; 1 was a DoD communication During the past year, the feasibility of mass-pro- satellite and the second was a NASA scientific satel- ducing very thin silicon solar cells and incorporating lite (HEAO 3). them into lightweight, high-performance solar arrays Delta. Three launches were conducted using this has been demonstrated. Since 1978, 5000 of these vehicle-one domestic communications satellite for cells have been manufactured, with half of them Western Union, another for RCA, and an experi- having energy-conversion efficiencies of about 12 mental satellite, called Scatha, for DoD. percent, a number approaching that of the best Atlas F. A weather satellite was launched on an individually made silicon cells. Atlas F by the Air Force for NASA and the Na- Space radiation damages solar cells and serious- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. All ly degrades their power output. Thermal annealing launches attempted were successful, another 100- (heating) of solar cells in space is one way to alle- percent year. viate this problem and increase the lifetime of a satellite. Annealing mechanisms for silicon and gal- lium arsenide solar cells are being studied. It has Space Research and Technology been found that annealing for one hour at 400- 450°C is sufficient to restore 90 percent of the The ability to explore and beneficially use the power lost by silicon solar cells that have received space environment is critically dependent on the radiation equivalent to 10 years in geosynchronous state of technology. The purpose of the space tech- orbit. Gallium arsenide cells also exhibit attractive nology program is to advance the frontiers of capa- annealing behavior, with nearly complete restora- bility in space by providing a sound technological tion possible at temperatures of only 250°C. basis for future missions. In so doing, this program One factor limiting the life of batteries in both also stimulates the generation of advanced concepts. space and terrestrial applications has been the dur-

39 ability of the separators used to prevent contact be- Continuing emphasis has been placed on the tween active materials. Separator material under in- NASA end-to-end data systems (NEEDS) program vestigation by NASA for a number of years has to define system configurations and develop enabling been improved in the past year so that the useful techniques and technology for NASA-wide informa- life of batteries using nickel, silver, and zinc as tion systems of the 1980s. During the past year an active materials can be tripled, and separators can optical data storage system successfully demon- be made using more environmentally acceptable strated the use of a laser to record and read data on materials. This promises to extend the life of satel- film at a density of over 7 million bits per square lites and spacecraft, and could contribute to prac- centimeter. With this performance, one optical stor- tical electric automobiles. age unit can replace up to 100 high-density mag- In the launch vehicle propulsion area, 1979 saw netic-tape storage devices. Also during 1979, a the successful initial testing of high-pressure pri- significant step toward very high-speed processing mary combustors and turbine-drive gas generators was taken with the completion of the design of a burning liquid oxygen and high-density fuels. Re- “massively parallel processor,” a 128 x 128 array generative cooling, with liquid oxygen in an op- of discrete processing units. This device can per- erating engine, was also demonstrated, thus con- form image processing computations at speeds of firming earlier heat transfer analyses and laboratory over 6 billion arithmetical operations per second, scale tests that predicted superior cooling capabili- thereby enabling the classification of an entire ties of liquid oxygen, compared to fuels of typical Landsat image in six milliseconds. density, such as RP-1. NASA has been continuing communications tech- Finally, the technology verification of ion propul- nology development to enable future spacecraft to sion neared completion. This entirely new form of operate efliciently with the new Tracking and Data propulsion capability will permit the consideration Relay Satellite System (TDRSS). During FY 1979, of missions to comets and other difficult inter- test demonstrations were completed on two different planetary destinations heretofore considered im- antenna configurations; the S ./Ku-band planar array practical. This work is expected to provide the and the electronically switched spherical array. The basis for future development of a solar electric S “Ku-band antenna was designed to handle high propulsion rocket stage. data rates in the megabit-to- 1.8-gigabit-per-second range. Both antennas were designed to point elec- tronically to TDRSS. Systems Research and Technology Spacecraft Systeriis. Spacecraft systems tech- nology contains the elements to provide future ad- In systems research and technology, emerging vances in spacecraft structures and their associated fundamental technologies are structured into inter- subsystem, including power generating systems, disciplinary programs leading to demonstration of control systems, onboard propulsion, and utility dis- technology readiness for advanced space systems. tribution systems. Such activities are organized into three main cate- NASA has continued the large space systems gories-information systems, spacecraft systems. technology (LSST) program to develop the tech- and transportation systems. nology for future spacecraft that may be assembled Znforr~iation systctiis. Tnformation system tech- in space through some combination of deployable nologies lead to advanced sensor and instrunienta- and erectable space assembly methods. This pro- tion systems to facilitate acquisition of data and to gram provides technology for two principal types processing and transmission systems to convert that of large space systems: support structures such as data for effective and timely user information platforms, trusses, and beams; and shaped structures exchange. such as antennas. Initial efforts have focused on de- Current NASA photographic imaging systems veloping fundamental understanding of the char- rely on silicon, charge-coupled device (CCD) tech- acteristics of such structures in space through nology to provide sensing capability in the visible ground simulation. As a result of truss assembly ex- and the near-infrared portion of the electromagnetic periments in the neutral buoyancy tank at Marshall spectrum. During this past year, NASA developed Space Flight Center, the time and capability limita- and tested technology for a new imaging system in- tions of man-assisted assembly methods were re- volving a 1 x 9 array of mercury-cadmium-telluride vealed; this caused NASA to increase program em- CCDs capable of extending this capability into the phasis on technology for assembly aids, deploy- thermal, far-infrared portion of the spectrum. Fu- ment, and automated assembly techniques. As one ture plans involve expanding the array size to 1 x example, several new concepts for structural joints 1000 elements for use in a solid-state, multi-spectral were developed to respond to high-speed, automated system for imaging the Earth and its resources. assembly procedures. Additionally, a deployable

40 truss constructed from very thin-wall aluminum tub- preparatory to release for fabrication; hardware for ing and very compact in packaging, was developed the tile gap heating experiment approached com- and tested. In the laboratory, this scale model per- pletion and is currently being readied for the second formed well in tests for extension and lock-up per- Shuttle mission; the Shuttle entry air data system, to formance. Future free-fall tests in a large vacuum measure aerodynamic pressure, completed prelimi- chamber will evaluate the adequacy of the deploy- nary design; and hardware was completed for the ment scheme. aerodynamic coefficient identification package, A 12-kilowatt deployable solar array is being which is being integrated into the orbiter for the readied for test demonstration on an early Shuttle first Shuttle launch. flight. This array design is intended for use by NASA in possible Shuttle power augmentation sys- NASA Energy Programs tems and the solar electric propulsion stage (SEPS). During 1979, this 32-by-4-meter lightweight wing NASA seeks to ensure the effective use of its ex- was successfully subjected to simulated acoustic perience and technology in support of national and thermal vacuum tests. Along with previous energy needs. Most of NASA activity in energy is simulated zero-g testing aboard a KC-135 aircraft, reimbursable support for the programs of the De- the tests provide confidence for the planned Shuttle partment of Energy (DOE). flights. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Systetns. NASA fuel Transportation Sy.stcin.s. Transportation system cell expertise and capabilities developed in space technologies provide data needed for both the de- applications have, for the past three years, been ap- velopment of future aerospace vehicle design con- plied to terrestrial fuel cell technology in support of cepts and the improvement of the current Space the national energy goals. Shuttle design. In support of DOE, NASA has completed tech- Continuing last year’s dynamics test program in a nology verification tests of an advanced cell stack number of NASA wind tunnel facilities. models of concept. This stack promises, through the reduction the mated Shuttle orbiter, external tank, and solid in electrolyte losses, a five-fold increase from 8000 rocket boosters were subjected to flutter and buffet hours to 40,000 hours of operational life. This loads. Ground-wind-load tests were conducted, longer life should allow for amortization of the simulating conditions for the ascent trajectory. In capital investment in a fuel cell system. In addition, all cases, the design characteristics of the Shuttle the new stack can be fabricated at a lower cost. were validated and there were no indications of Automotive Research and Development. In 1972, aerodynamics instabilities or other problems. NASA started providing technical consultation to NASA’s composites for advanced transportation the Environmental Protection Agency’s automotive systems (CASTS) program fabricated and tested a gas turbine program. With the growth and subse- wide variety of large graphite-polyimide structural quent transfer of the program to DOE, NASA’s panels. Included among these pieces of test struc- role has continued to grow. Currently, under the ture was an element of the Shuttle orbiter aft body programmatic direction of DOE, NASA is providing flap. As an example of the potential payoff of this technical management of the turbine development lightweight structures technology for future space project and the parallel Stirling engine project. transportation systems, this body flap, if fully de- The automotive gas turbine program saw the com- veloped, could save future orbiter vehicles 160 kilo- pletion of a development which improved the fuel grams in structure weight. More than 75 percent of efficiency of a Chrysler engine by 10 percent and this weight reauction derives from capability of identified directions for further improvements. In composite materials to function at higher tempera- another automotive gas turbine development, a tures than aluminum, thereby eliminating the need number of ceramic turbine parts have been success- for thermal protection. fully tested at a temperature of 1040°C. Two in- NASA plans to exploit the unique opportunity to dustry teams, General Motors Corp. and AiRe- extend entry research and improve its ability to em- search /Ford, were awarded 5-year contracts to de- ploy ground test facilities by conducting full-scale velop an advanced automotive gas turbine engine. testing on orbiter flights. Early orbiter flights will be The new engine should be available for road tests instrumented in the “Orbiter Experiments” pro- in mid-1983. gram (OEX) to provide lifting-entry experimental In the development of automotive Stirling en- data. OEX instrument packages have been designed, gines, 1979 saw the initiation of engine component and during 1979 the following progress occurred: development, and the successful integration of a the Shuttle infrared leeside temperature sensing ex- Stirling research engine into an American Motors periment, to measure upper surface temperatures on stock car to gain understanding of installation prob- the Shuttle, was subjected to a critical design review lems associated with this new type of engine.

41 At the request of DOE (then ERDA) in 1976, twice that power, became operational in 1977 and NASA assumed technical management for research 1978. and technology elements of the electric and hybrid On June 15, 1979, a third 200,000-watt wind vehicle program. In 1979, NASA took delivery of turbine having a 38-meter-long blade was dedicated the first electric car designed, using best available at Block Island, Rhode Island, and on July 11, components, for the evaluation of electric vehicle 1979, the largest wind turbine ever constructed was systems technology. In preliminary tests the GE/ dedicated at Boone, North Carolina. Its 60-meter- Chrysler-built car achieved a range of 14.5 kilom- diameter rotor can generate two million watts of eters at a cruising speed of 70 kilometers per hour, power, enough for 500 homes. An even larger tur- a SO percent improvement over electric vehicles pre- bine, using new technology to reduce cost, will be viously tested. operational in 1980. Industrial Gas Turbine Technology. Since FY In addition to managing these wind energy efforts 1977, NASA’s expertise and capabilities in aero- for the Department of Energy, NASA is now work- space power and propulsion systems have been ap- ing with the Department of the Interior’s Water and plied to the development of technology for large gas Power Resources Service to supervise construction turbine engines in direct support of DOE’S station- of a large wind turbine and to train operating per- ary power generation programs. sonnel. This machine, to be operational at Medicine NASA’s Lewis Research Center working with in- Bow, Wyoming, in 1981, may lead to construction dustry has initiated two efforts in turbine technology of a “Wind Energy Farm” at that site. to enable gas turbines to use coal-derived liquid fuels when they become available. The materials Space Data Services effort for turbine hot-section components is focused on the development of long-life ceramic coatings NASA tracks, receives telemetry from, and sends capable of surviving the hostile environment created commands to all NASA spacecraft by means of two by combustion of coal-derived liquid fuels. The worldwide tracking networks, one for deep space combustor work is directed toward the efficient missions and one for Earth orbital missions. Sup- burning of synthetic fuels while also satisfying fed- porting these networks are a cluster of mission con- eral emissions standards. Verification is to be done trol centers and a large data processing complex, with modified gas turbine engines. with the complete system tied together by a global Photovoltaic Conrversion (Solar Ccllc) . Although communications system. This system also provides NASA developed solar cells to power satellites over real-time data processing for mission control and 20 years ago. the first government program to apply orbit and trajectory determination, as well as rou- them to terrestrial use was begun jointly by the Na- tine processing of engineering and scientific telem- tional Science Foundation (NSF) and NASA in etry from the spacecraft. 1975. Management of this key element of the energy program was subsequently transferred to the DOE. Operxtions During 1979, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) was designated the lead center for photo- The tracking systeni provided continuing support voltaic technology development and applications by to about 30 NASA Earth-orbital missions in 1979, DOE. JPL will develop plans, establish budgets. including the newly launched HEAO 3 and Magsat and provide overall program management of the catellites, and the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas national photovoltaic program. Experiment. The system also provided launch sup- Two NASA-directed applications of photovoltaic port for several satellites launched by other govern- pomcr are now operational. At the Schuchuli Tn- ment agencies, commercial firms, and by foreign dian reservation in Arizona, solar cells are gen- governments, and provided backup capability for a crating 3.500 watts of electric power and the second few spacecraft controlled by other government agen- detmnstration, supported by the Agency for Tnter- cies. This was an extremely busy year for the Deep national Development, is in Upper Volta at the vil- Space Network, which supported 17 interplanetary lage of Tangaye where solar cells generate 1800 spacecraft. Some of their missions required signifi- watts of electric power. cant advancement in the capability of the network, such as the Voyager 1 and 2 encounters of Jupiter Wind Energy. NASA has been assigned respon- and the Pioneer I I encounter of Saturn. sibility for the technical management of large wind turbine development and demonstration efforts since Network Improziements 1973. The first large machine, capable of develop- ing 100.000 watts of electric power, was completed More sophisticated space missions, always press- in 1975. Two similar wind turbines, generating ing the boundaries of technology, continued to re-

42 quire extension of the capability of the network. In General World Administrative Radio Conference the Deep Space Network the conversion of the 26- (GIVARC) meter S-band antenna to 34-meter S- and X-band Every 20 years the GWARC convenes to revise units continued, allowing higher rates of data trans- the international regulations and frequency alloca- fer from deep space. Another innovation to pro- tions that govern the use of the radio spectrum. vide the capability required by the ever-increasinp With the tremendous increase in demand for these distances and improve the return data rates of frequencies that has resulted from the advances in planetary spacecraft was a technique called “array- communications technology, this subject is of great ing.” This consists of using two separate antennas interest to the United States and to NASA. The to collect data from the spacecraft and then elec- GWARC convened on September 27, 1979, with tronically adding the signals together. producing NASA supplying 4 of the 84 United States delegates. the effect of a single antenna of larger diameter. One hundred and forty-eight nations were repre- This technique was experimentally used during the sented by approximately 1700 delegates. NASA Voyager encounter with Jupiter and during the presented position papers on space research, land- Pioneer 11 encounter with Saturn. The experiments mobile satellites, a solar power satellite, and remote were successful and improved signal reception. sensing. Almost all space communication require- In addition to the difficulties in data reception ments were successfully negotiated during the and spacecraft command resulting from the great conference. distances of planetary spacecraft, these distances placed great demands on our navigation capability. This is particularly important when the missions re- Aeronautical Research and Technology quire a close flyby of a planet to get an assist from that planet’s gravity to alter trajectory and reduce NASA’s aeronautical research seeks improvements travel time. We have used a navigation technique in the pcrformance, efficiency, and safety of current called “differential very long baseline interferom- aircraft and a base of high technology that designers etry,” wherein two geographically distant antennas can use to improve aircraft of the next generation. collect data from a known radio source, such as a These objectives focus research onto: quasar, as well as the spacecraft. Integration of this establishing and maintaining a strong tech- information provides precise positioning and reduces nological base navigational uncertainties. rcducing energy consumption and undesirable The Earth-orbital tracking system was also be- effects of aircraft ing improved to meet demands that are increasing improving terminal area operations in difficulty. The Shuttle flights will require voice advancing long-haul and short-haul aircraft communications; the required modifications were providing technical support for the military. essentially completed. Preparations were begun for the very high data rates that will be experienced in Nnivitaining a Stroirg Technology Base Spacelab support. The fundamental aeronautics research and tech- nology program includes activities in all disciplines Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System and provides for the continued advancement of tech- (TDRSS) nology and the establishment of a strong aeronau- tics technology base. Significant accomplishments in The TDRSS is a system of four data-relay satel- 1979 include the development of new airframe and lites that will ultimately replace the ground track- cnginc component materials, improved computa- ing stations for support of low Earth-orbital mis- tional techniques, advances in flutter prediction and sions. NASA has contracted with Western Union control, and improved human-aircraft interface and for tbe lease of services from the system for ten air-system management. years. TRW is acting as the major subcontractor to The airframe materials research during 1979 con- Western Union in the spacecraft development por- tinued to focus on composite structures. New, tion of this system and that development is now tougher graphite/epoxy composite materials were moving along satisfactorily with the major subsystem identified. These composite laminates, based on four having been delivered for integration and test. The new epoxy formulations, have survived laboratory ground station at White Sands that will receive impact tests at a strain almost twice that of presently TDRSS data is nearing completion as is the net- used composite materials. Present composites permit work control center at Goddard Space Flight Center, a 25-percent weight reduction over aluminium struc- Greenbelt, Maryland. tures; doubling the maximum allowable design strain for composite structures will significantly increase symbology indicated that HUD-experienced pilots the potential weight savings. are able to simultaneously perceive both symbolic Materials research for propulsion systems has (HUD) and real-world information. A simulator continued to provide materials with the strength and study using dynamic HUD symbology is presently oxidation/corrosion resistance required for higher under way to quantify pilot responses. A generic dis- engine operating temperatures. A ceramic material, play concept was developed and experiments con- zirconium oxide, has been used in an abradable tur- ducted to provide a data base on crew perception of bine engine shroud seal. The shroud used a com- lateral separation, using CDTI. pliant layer between the ceramic surface and the metallic backing to relieve thermally induced strains Reducing Energy Consumption and Undesirable that might delaminate or crack the ceramic. The Eflects seal has successfully completed 1000 thermal cycles at 1300" without failure. Replacement of conven- NASA made progress in 1979 toward its goals of tional scals with ceramic seals can lead to a 10-fold developing technology that would reduce fuel con- reduction in the wear of turbine blade tips, with a sumption in derivative and future commercial sub- resulting reduction in specific fuel consumption by sonic transport aircraft by as much as 50 percent. about 2 percent. Engine Syrterns. Looking toward near-term fuel For the first time, an analytical computer code savings in current production and derivative JT8D, successfully described the flow characteristics JT9D, and CF6 turbofan engines, NASA selected through both stationary and rotating propulsion sys- 16 engine components for advanced technology im- tem components. The internal flow was modeled by provements. Work has been completed on 7 of these using a three-dimensional viscous analytical tech- and the demonstrated fuel savings have been very nique having high computation speed, and a large close to predictions. Four are already in production enough numbcr of mesh points to analyze the com- by the aircraft engine industry: an improved fan, a plex flow, including secondary cross flows and vor- iicw short-core nozzle, a more rigid front engine ticity. This model ha5 been verified by experimcntal mount for the CF6 engine, and an improved high- measurcmcnts in actual turbofan mixers. Knowledge pressure-turbine active clearance control system for of the dynamics of the mixing of the flow in the the JT9D engine. The new technology is particuarly engine will contribute to future improvements in timely, since new derivative engines are under de- cngine performance and jet noise reduction. velopment. The information generated by the NASA investi- During 1979, significant advances were made in gations to isolate and quantify the causes of per- computational aerodynamics research. For the first formance deterioration in engines and their resultant time, a computational solution was obtained which loss in fuel efficiency has been adopted by a number predicts and cxplains the details of the unsteady of airlines; results have been a one-percent improve- behavior of flow over wings and other lifting surfaces ment in cruise specific fuel consumption and a re- at transonic speeds. When compared with data ob- duction in costly unscheduled engine removal rates tained on a fighter aircraft, the solutions showcd of as much as 50 percent. If all the engine improve- that both the onset and magnitude of buffet effects mcnts and diagnostic techniques are adopted by the were as predicted. industry, a cumulative fuel savings of 33 billion liters The trend toward lighter, more flexible structures could be realized over the next 25 ycars that these for aircraft requires new methods of predicting and engines are produced and in service. avoiding flutter instability. During FY 1979, an Looking further into the future, NASA is develop- active control concept, based upon a computer- ing technology for a new generation of turbofan implementcd fcedback control system, was success- engines that will be extremely fuel-efficient, resistant fully tested in the wind tunnel. Twelve transducers to performance deterioration, and economical to on the airfoil surface sensed the onsct of flutter and opcrate and maintain. Engine aystcm designs were transmitted this to the computer; the computer acti- complctcd in 1979, and the major hardware phase vatcd existing flaperons to produce aerodynamic of the program was initiated. Overall estimates of forces that oppose flutter. The model airfoil with the engine system performance indicate that these new active controls was able to attain a velocity 50 per- energy-cfficient engines could reduce fuel consump- cent greater than the flutter onset without the con- tion by 14 to 22 percent depending on the flight trols. The technique is being tested currently in flight mission, reduce direct operating cost by 5 to 10 tests with a radio-controlled drone. percent, reduce performance deterioration by 50 In the joint NASA-FAA cockpit display of traffic percent, and decrease noise and emission levels information (CDTI) and heads-up display (HUD) below those of thc most advanced engines in service programs, results from laboratory studies using static today.

44 High-speed propeller technology is being devel- manufactured, all ground and flight testing com- oped for application to commercial transports and pleted, FAA certification obtained, and airline serv- short-haul commuter aircraft. Subscale model tests ice begun. The design phase of the L-1011 aileron have validated the design tools for modern, ad- was also completed and the first full-scale part vanced-technology propeller configurations that fabricated. could reduce fuel consumption by 15 to 20 percent The design phase for the medium-sized primary- over turbofan engines of the same technology level. structure components has been completed. The prin- The design was completed on the latest in a series of cipal B-737 stabilizer subcomponents (stub box) propeller models: a ten-bladed configuration with have successfully completed static, fatigue, and fail- low blade tip speeds to reduce propeller noise. This safe testing and the first full-scale B-737 stabilizer configuration is estimated to be about 20 decibels was fabricated. Skins and spars for a full-scale quieter and one percent more efficient than any L- IO 1 1 vertical fin have been fabricated, and DC-10 models previously tested. vertical-stabilizer fabrication has begun. Aerodynatiiic Systems. Aerodynamics research for Fiw1.Y. Aviation jet fuels research and technology reducing energy use in transport aircraft continued are directed at investigating variations in the prop- to make good progress in 1979. erties of futurc jet fuels dcrived from petroleum and In mid-1979, a KC-1 35 tanker aircraft, modified non-petroleum sources, and studying the potential to incorporate winglets, completed its first flight effects of these varying properties on performance under a joint NASA-USAF research program. To be of engines and fuel systems. Results to date indicate completed in 1980, the flight program is expected to that a major problem is the increasing amount of demonstrate a 6-8-percent reduction in cruise drag aromatic hydrocarbon compounds; these generally compared to the unmodified KC-1 35. burn with a smokey, luminous flame, because ex- Wind tunnel investigations of advanced high-lift cessivc soot forms in the combustion process. Thc systems for transport aircraft wings have led to new likely variations in the properties of future jet fuels flap configurations that are significantly better than have now been established and activities are under current devices, demonstrating 30-percent higher way to develop the combustor and fuel-system tech- maximum lift. Including this capability in advanced nologies needed so that these fuels can be used with wing design would provide improved operating effi- acceptable levels of emissions and durability. ciency in the takeoff, climb, and descent phases of Noise and Eniission Reduction. An extensive sys- flight. tematic study on effects of inlet geometry and flow Removal of the turbulent (high drag) air layer on the noise radiated from aircraft inlets has been that flows close to the wing surfaces could improve conducted. Test results from an advanced “scooped- the energy efficiency of transport aircraft by 20 to 40 inlet” concept show that the ground-measured noise percent depending on the extent of application and level could be reduced as much as 10 decibels, com- on aircraft range. In 1979, wing surface panels in- pared to that from a conventional symmetrical inlet. corporating the necessary slots and porous surfaces Experimental engine testing of an advanced com- to restore laminar flow were built and tested under bustor applicable to small engines was conducted simulated flight environments in preparation for during 1979, and reductions in carbon monoxide actual flight test of these state-of-the-art concepts on emissions of 50 perccnt and unburned hydrocarbon a wing leading edge next year. The design of an emissions of 80 percent were demonstrated. Pre- optimum airfoil, tailored to the specific requirements liminary design of several lean prevaporized/pre- for active removal of the turbulent boundary layer, mixed combustor concepts were analytically eval- has been completed, and testing will take place in uated and two of these concepts were selected for the near future. experimental evaluation. If successfully developed, Structural Systetm. A major effort is being ex- these would provide extremely low emission levels in pended to accelerate the acceptance of fiber-rein- both the airport environment during taxi, landing, forced composite structures for transport aircraft. and takeoff, as well as in the upper atmosphere dur- The potential benefit from this technology is struc- ing high-altitude cruise. tural weight savings up to 25 percent for fuel savings of 10-15 percent. The current program consists of lmproving Terminal Area Operatiom and Safety developing the technology for secondary structures Research on terminal area operations and safety and medium primary structures. is being pursued vigorously by NASA. In the secondary-structures program during 1979, Terminal Area Operations. In 1979, the NASA- the DC-10 rudder program was essentially com- FAA program to develop technology for advanced pleted, with FAA certification and planned airline airborne systems and for flight procedures for more service. Five shipsets of B-727 elevators have been efficient operations in the terminal area demon-

45 strated advanced airborne guidance, control, and could be economically attractive and environmen- display systems which aided flight crews operating tally acceptable. Two variable-cycle engine-compo- the NASA Terminal-Configured Vehicle (TCV) nent test rigs reached the stage of all-up testing in B-737 at Denver and an L-1011 at Dallas. These FY 1979. One concept, the double-bypass engine, tests were conducted under actual Air Traffic Con- successfully demonstrated noise reductions of 6-8 trol (ATC) conditions to fly minimum-fuel descents decibels, confirming small-scale model tests of the to fixed approach entry points within a few seconds co-annular noise principle. The other concept, a of assigned arrival times, as compared to two-minute variable stream control engine, demonstrated very variations using conventional systems, and were con- high duct burner efficiency, with low levels of ducted with the air traffic controller acting only in a exhaust emissions. High-lift devices have been tested monitoring capacity. The results have provided sup- which improved the low-speed efficiency of highly port to airlines and the aircraft industry for the in- swept arrow wings by 12 percent over the best corporation of such concepts in the development of achieved two years ago. Titanium design and manu- new aircraft; benefits include improved safety, fuel facturing process studies continued; with the Air efficiency, and system productivity. Force, NASA began the design and one-step fabrica- Safety. NASA's safety research included studies tion of a complete super-plastic-formed, diffusion- of new elastomeric material blends for tires meeting bonded, titanium horizontal tail for a small super- demands of high-performance aircraft. Flight tests sonic airplane. NASA's AD-1 oblique-wing research of tires based upon a NASA-developed formulation aircraft made its first flight on December 21 from showed improved wear, but exhibited chevron-cut Dryden Flight Research Center. Though the wing growth. In an cffort to avoid these undesirable ten- was in the usual position perpendicular to the fuse- dencies, tires are now being processed using ad- lage for this flight, it can be pivoted as much as 60" vanced blending and curing techniques and will be for investigation of handling characteristics. tested in the NASA Landing Loads Track at the Quiet Short-Haul Aircraft. NASA activity in pro- Langlcy Research Center. pulsive-lift short-takcoff and landing (STOL) air- The Aviation Safety Reporting System continues craft research has increasingly been concentrated in to be important to NASA's aircraft safety program flight testing. In 1979, research with the C-8 jet aug- by providing a flow of confidential safety informa- mentor wing and Twin Otter propeller STOL re- tion from the users of the National Aviation System. search aircraft was essentially completed in such Approximately 100 voluntary reports are received areas as control compensation following engine fail- by NASA each week, and arc used as a basis for ure in the landing approach, examination of the issuing alert bulletins and conducting special studies influence of night visual cues on pilot landing per- to analyze trends and recurring problems. One of formance, and automatic STOL landings using the thc special studies in 1979 involved the analysis of microwave landing system. cockpit distractions that led to hazards identified in Following completion early in 1979 of proof- reports. It was concluded that 33 percent of the of-concept flights on NASA's quiet short-haul re- distractions were non-operational in nature, such as search aircraft (QSRA) , flight-envelope documenta- requests over the company radio, the public address tion flights began. Takeoff ground rolls of less than system, and interruptions by flight attendants. The 203 meters, landing ground rolls less than 168 rernaindcr were distractions from operational ac- meters, and low turn (to 183-meter radius) capa- tivities, such as checklists, minor malfunctions, and bility have been demonstrated. Analysis of the latest watching traffic. The detailed analyses of the types test data indicates that the QSRA is performing very and cauSes of distractions provided an important close to preflight predictions from wind-tunnel data input to the air carriers to improve their crew train- and, in particular, has demonstrated the capability ing and operational procedures. of obtaining the very low noise characteristics neces- sary for STOL operations. Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircsaft Rotorcraft. In 1979. wind-tunnel tests determined Efforts continued to develop and prove the tech- means to improve airflow in rotor hub and pylon nology for long-range supersonic aircraft, very quiet areas with marked reduction in drag. Other wind- short-haul aircraft that operate at very low approach tunncl tests were started on a newly acquired full- speeds. and rotorcraft and general aviation aircraft, scale research rotor that incorporated some of the which are becoming incrcasingly important elements desirable foatures determined from scale-model test- of short haul transportation. ing and analysis. Supersonic Research. Research continued on pro- Full-scale tunnel tests also demonstrated a unique pulsion, aerodynamics, and structures technologies advanccd rotor system known as the X-wing; it that would enable design of supersonic aircraft that operates as a rotor in helicopter flight and as a fixed wing in an X-configuration in high-speed for- tional design. The test results indicate that the seats ward flight. reduce occupant load up to SO percent, thereby pro- Flight data were gathered on the use of airborne viding a better chance to avoid serious injury in the radar as a navigation aid in landing approaches to event of a crash. oil rigs in the Gulf Coast. This will assist the FAA in establishing criteria for terminal-area instrument Techizicnl Support for the Alilitnry procedures. A major effort completed in 1979 was the formu- Since most of NASA's aeronautical program ad- lation by a NASA task force of an advanced rotor- dresses broad-based fundamental problems, con- craft technology program. NASA also conducted a siderable potential military benefit accrues from highly successful rotorcraft modeling workshop with much d the NASA program. wide participation by the helicopter community. Highly Munciri*i~rablc Aircr~ft Tc~liriology Genernl Aviation. NASA made gains in 1979 in (HiMAT) . A major joint program involving the its research in general aviation to improve energy USAF and NASA that deals with the technology efficiency, environmental impact, safety, and utility. of high-performance aircraft is the HiMAT pro- In 1979, NASA conducted full-scale cooling drag gram. The HiMAT remotely piloted research ve- tests in the Ames Research Center's 40 x SO-foot vicle, a 44-percent scale model of a potential fu- wind tunnel using a semi-span model of a general ture concept, made its first flight on July 27, 1979, aviation wing and nacelle combination. The tests from Dryden Flight Research Center. This was not demonstrated that exhausting the cooling air only the first step in validating the very advanced through exits in the nacelle's side rather than via technologies used in the vehicle design, it also standard cowl flaps can provide better cooling and demonstrated a new flight-test techniclue (i.e., sub- significantly reduce drag from cooling. scale, remotely piloted research vehicles) that offer The quiet, clean, general aviation turbofan significant cost reductions for future flight research. (QCGAT) engine program was successfully com- Tilt Rotor Rci.rrtrrch A ircraft. The NASA-Army pleted, and the primary program goals were met. In tilt rotor research aircraft has been successfully pollutant emissions, there was a 54-percent reduc- flown over a speed range from 0 to 382 kilometers tion in carbon monoxide, 76-percent reduction in per hour. After completing hovering flight and docu- unburned hydrocarbons, and significant reductions menting the aircraft's flight characteristics at vari- in nitrous oxides. The QCGAT engine noise was IO ous combinations of forward speed and rotor tilt to 14 decibels lower than the most quiet of current angle, the aircraft was flown with the rotors tilted business jet engines. forward in the airplane mode for the first time. The The most severe test in the joint NASA-FAA gen- Navy has now joined with NASA and the Army in eral aviation crash dynamics program was per- this program to obtain data on the tilt rotor concept formed at the Langley Research Center's Impact applicable to future V 'STOL aircraft options that Dynamics Research Facility. A twin-engine air- meet Navy requirements. craft was crash-tested at a 30-degree nose-down at- Rotor Systeriis Research Aircraft. The rotor sys- titude using small rockets to increase impact velocity tems research aircraft program, another NASA- to 145 kilometers per hour. Two NASA-designed Army program, reached a major milestone with the energy-absorbing passenger seats were tested in the delivery of both research aircraft to the Ames Re- controlled crash. One was a rocker motion seat de- search Center. The two vehicles, one in the heli- signed to rotate the passenger into a more accept- copter configuration and the other in the compound able position at impact. The other was a ceiling- configuration (wing and auxiliary thrust engines suspended seat that uses the wire bending principle added), are now being flown in familiarization and to dissipate energy. Both restraint systems attached instrumentation systems checkout in preparation for to the seat instead of to the fuselage as in conven- starting research flights.

47 111 Department of Defense

Introduction higli-capacity, high-data-rate, long-haul, point-to- point coiiiiiiiiiiicntions for fixed users; (2) mod- Space and aeronautics are areas of major interest erate-capxity, low-data-ixte communications for to the Dcp;irtment of Defense becnuse they are niobilc iisers; ;id (8) conini;ind and control of fiintl;inient;il to the national security. DoD there- strategic niic1e;ir Eorces. AIiIitary satellite communi- fore operates a strong program with a wide scope of c:i tions sytems for these mission must he hardened activities in slxicc and aeronautics. These activities ;ig;iinsL nucIe;ii. dIects and have jamming protection range from research and development that in;iin- to ni:riiit;rin eommiinic;itioris and command/con- tains tlic flow of fresh technology to the phasing in trol continiiity iii ;I liostilc or crisis environment. of new concepts and systems for more efficient ful- (:ui.i.ently these tIii.cc categories of capability are fillment of requirements in such areas as coni- wtisfied by (1) the Defense Satellite Cominunica- niiinications, coniniaiid and control, navigation, rions System Phase I1 (DSCS 11); (2) Fleet Satellite envii.oiinienta1 forecasting, surveillnnce, and experi- <:ommunic;itions System (F1,TSATCOM) , ~IUS mentation. While the purpose of these activities is Ic;isetl sen.ices on the hl;iris;rt satellite system (Gap- military in nature, Don inaint;iiiis close coopera- filler): ;id (3) the Air Force Satellite Comniunica- tion with other agencies of the government throiigh tions Systeni (AI3A7CO11) , consisting of com- which I)cnefits from the DoD program reach the niriniations ~xickageson the Satellite Data System civilian sector. In 1979 there was not;il~lcprogress (SI),$), ant1 FI .l'SATCO;\I. During tlic coining dec- in a broad range of space activities, including the ;rtlc, these existing s)'stems will be replaced and start of construction of a Space Shuttle launch fa- ;iiigniented in ;in evolutionary manner by (1) DSCS cility on the west coast and the bringing to full 111, (2) 1.e;isctl Satellite (IXASAT) System, and operational strength of the space segment of a global (3) Strategic Satellite System (SSS). DoD communications network. Aeronautics pro- I)r,foi.sc S(i/rlli/r~:o,ri,iiirizicnlions Systcm (DSCS). gressed with flight-test programs of several advanced 7'11~mission of the DSCS is to provide seciire voice concepts and promising new electronic systems. and higIi-tl;i t;i-ixte transmissions in support of iinicliie ;ind vital requirements for worldwide mili- Space Activities tary command and control and crisis management, intelligence data relay, early warning detection, Military Satellite Cominzinicntions monitoring and surveillance, and diplomatic traffic. The DSC3 siipports critical, glohal communication Satellite comm~inicaiionssystenis are being em- i.cciiiii.enicnts of the National Command Author- ployed to meet priority communications needs that ities, tlic M'orldwitle Military Command and Con- are uniq~icto worldwide Don communications re- trol System (WWilrCCS), the Ground Mobile quirements. These systems are also used to estab- I;oi~ccs, the Defense Comiiirinicntions System, the lish high-priority ;ilternatc routing for certain ter- 1)iploniatic Te1ecoiiimrinic;itions Service, the White restrial systenis to impi-ove survival~ility, and to Hoiise (:omniiiiiic;itions Agency, antl selected allies. reduce tlcpcndence on third nations to approve Now ftilly ol)cration;il, the spice portion of DSCS coniniiinica tions ;ICCCSS to other countries. The flexi- bility ofrered by this niediiini to rapidly reconfigure consists of foul- active satellites antl two on-orbit existing communic;itioiis networks to meet crisis spii'es and provides g1oI~:il (less polar) coverage nianagenient i~cquirenientsand provide direct com- with iieiir 100 pei'cent availability through the munications to task force commanders is important I !)8Os. To ciisui'c continuity of essential communica- as a force multiplier. tions and cui~~~ival,iIityduring crises situations and Defense rcqriirenients lor satellite conininnica- ;I potenti:il hostile comniunications environment, tions call for three categories of capability: (1) c~~olvingDSCS satellites will include an improved

48 anti-jam capability in addition to nuclear-effects I)e provided by the FLTSATCOXI. Its objective is hardening. to develop, procure, and implement a satellite com- The initial research and development phase of munications system to satisfy the most urgent, the Defense Coiiimiinications Satellite Program pro- .tvoi.ltlwide, tactical peacetime and crisis manage- vided a limited operational system from 1966 ment commiinic;itions requirements of the Navy tlirough 1974. For most of 1979, the space subsystem ant1 strategic comnirinications requirements of the consisted of four operational spacecraft and one on- .iir Force. Production contriicts for five FLTSAT- orbit spire: one DSCS I1 satellite (number 4) COAf spacecraft have been awarded and the first launched in December 1973, two DSCS I1 satellites two sp;icecr;ift were 1;iunclietl in February 1978 and (numlms 7 ant1 8) 1;iunchetl in hIay 1977, and two Xfay 1979, respectively. The third spacecraft was DSCS I1 satellitcs (numbers 11 and 12) launched sclieclulctl for Iaunch in January 1980. Installation in Decenilxr 1978. The successful December 1978 of fleet I,i-o;tclc;tst receivers is virtually complete, launch of satellites 11 and 12 permitted the return with systems installed in approximately 420 ships to h'ATO of the NATO IIIR satellite which was ant1 IO!) siilmi:irines. Additionally, over 236 ships on loan for temporary use because DSCS I1 satel- are now ecltiil)pctl for reliable long-range secure lites 9 ;ind 10 failed to achieve orbit in RIarch voice opxtion. Shipboard terminal equipment is 1978. DSCS I1 satellites 13 and 14 were successfully now operating through both the XIARISAT and launched in November 1979, achieving the desired FI .I'SATCOhI s)'stems. six-satellite configtiration for the first time. DSCS I1 Reginning in 1982 this class of service will be satellites 1.5 and lfi will become available as replace- provided through the lease of UHF satellite service ments in 1980. (I .EAS,.\I') from the commercial sector. This LEA- The next generation of DSCS satellites will be SA\Ts),ility. During 1979, development of a quali- the end of their service life. fication-model satellite, two RkD flight satellites, Air Forcc Sotcllitc Coi,i~)iIrnirnrions.The Air and ground c-oniniand and control equipment con- Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCORI) tinued. 'The first RkD satellite (DFS 1) is planned System provides coniniunications for command and for a dual 1;iuncli with DSCS I1 number 15 and will control of strategic and other selected nuclear- undergo about six months of RR-D test and evalua- c-:ipabIe forces. The initial operating capability of tion; it will then be turned over for operation:il the system was achieved in Rlay 1979. The space use. The second RR-D satellite (DFS 2) is planned segment incl des UHF transponders on FLTSAT- for a tl1i:il Iauncli wi~hDSCS I1 number 16 and COM and the Satellite Data System (SDS). Up- will undergo a comparable test period before being gratlctl trnnspoiiders with increased jam-resistance placed into operational use. are being integrated into the first DSCS I11 satellites The DSCS I11 satellite will have multiple, in- as ;I secontlary payload, with first launch planned dependent transponders for efficient handling of for the early 1080s. AFSATCORI terminals are be- both small and large terminals. It will provide a ing installed in ground command posts, airborne tlirec-fold increase in channel flexibility, will have comni;ind posts, and the strategic bomber force. improved anti-jam protection through multiple- Atlditional terminals are being procured for ICBM beam antennas capable of nulling or minimizing lauiich control centers. uplink ,jamming signals, and will provide responsive adaptability in reallocating power and bandwidth Sntcllitc Dntn Syste?n (SDS). The Satellite Data assets. In addition to the norma1 S-band tracking, Systein provides critical two-way, transpolar com- telemetry, and command functions operated by the niand and control for nuclear-capable forces as well Air Force Satellite Control Facility (SCF) , the ;IS siipporting the data communications network for the Satellite Test Center and the remote tracking DSCS I11 satellite will have a super-high-frequency command capability, controlled operationally by stations. the Defense Communications Agency. This capabil- St ra t cgic Sa tellit e System. Evolutionary improve- ity will improve response time for reconfiguration ments to the AFSATCOM system are planned. of antenna systems. The satellite will conform to These improvements to the space segment include nuclear survivability guidelines and is being de- development of additional ,jam-resistant transpon- signed for an on-orbit life of ten years. Since the ders for the Satellite Data System and the NAV- Space Shuttle will become operational during the STAR Global Positioning System and possibly a new life of the DSCS I11 program, the new satellite is satellite specifically conceived to provide highly being designed to be Shuttle-compatible. survivable communications into the 1990s. These Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSAT- space segment improvements and the terminal up- COM). Moderate capacity, mobile-user service will grades will become available in gradual steps and

49 arc collectively referred to ;IS the Strategic Satellite operation;il NAVSTAK GPS will consist of constel- System. 1;ttions of s;itellites in three orbital planes at 20,400 Sntellitc Coti~municntionsGm~rnrl Strpport. The kilomctct.s, ;I ground segincnt for calibration and Army Satellite Conimunications Agency is responsi- control of the satellites, and numerous user equip- ble for the development and acquisition oE strategic ments of various classes. The GPS will provide and tactical satellite comnilinications ground ternii- all-weather coverage on a coininon grid, enabling nals for iise by all services. Two ma.jor projects in users passively to determine position to within 10 this prognni element arc the DSCS and the Ground iiieters ant1 velocity to within .03 meter per second. R.lol,ile Forces Tactical Satellite Communications 'I'he system will also provide precise worldwide time Programs. A third and s~nallerproject in this pro- t 1.a nsfer. gram is devoted to the exploratory development re- Dcvelopniental models of all classes of user equip- q it i red to support t lic two in;~jor pro,jects. tileiits, including high accuracy, low-cost, and man- During 1!179, there wxs significant activity i.elatetl pack models, have I,cen and continue to be field to the ground terminals supporting the DSCS I1 tc5tcd with the four GPS satellites launched in 1978. system. All 18 of the new AN/FSC-78 11e:ivy ternii- The desired prototype user-equipment accuracies niils were operational the entii-e year, niecting criti- were ;icliievetl, completing the concept-validation cal ii.ser reqiiirenicnts. The second-year buy of ~)liascin ,June 1979. Full-scale engineering develop- AN/C;SC-S!) niedium termin;ils took place in 1979, ment was initiated in August 1979, with initial 01)- bringing the total on contr;ict to 12. .A third-year ci.;iting c:ipiIility expected in the mid-to-late 1980s. buy for an :iclditional !I terniinds will be funded in 1,:iiiiicli of the fifth GPS satellite is planned for 1980. Prociii-enicnt of 10 iiiore medium terminals I~el~l~ll~l~y1980. to i-epl;ice the qing mid o1)soletc A2N/TSC-54and AN/AISC-46 terniinals is pl;inned for 1982. Also, i\.leteor.ological Actithies the first of the Iiew AhT/7'SC;-8f tr;insport;tl~leJCS contingency satellite tei.iiiin;ils TV~I'C tlcployetl in Ik/(,ii 5 (, AI(.!oo 1.ologiro 1 Sn 1 cl late Progrn in late 1!)7!). Continued siicccss T\.;IS csl~erienced in (D2WzYP).Diiririg 1979, tlic Air Force-managed the contract for the new anti-jam Iiiiiltiple ;icccss DAISP s;itellitc s)'stcni contintied to support DoD equilmients (,\N/USC-25) , Ivitli the first of these sttxrcgic ;ind tactic:il needs for weather information titiit sc~hctluletlfor tlclivei.!. in SepteniIxr 1950. ,211 wit11 three 12loek ~5Dsatellites in orbit. The Navy large, fixed military satellite terminals employed in coiitiniictl to cspincl its me of DAISP's high-resolu- support will he equipped with these new anti-jam tioii jmigery and sounder data both ashore and modems. afloat. The global, stored satellite data are now Tnrtirtll Snlcllitc ~~~//~tiii~nir~~/~~iz,s.Delivery of iniitinel), ti.;insniitted to the Fleet Numerical tlte initi:il I,uy of 81 ~nulticliarinclSHF tactical ter- Oce;inogr;iph) C;eiitci., ingested into the numerical niinals (.iiY/l'SC;-85, AN/TSC:-93) was completed ;iir-occ:in tiiodel's glolxil tl;it;t base, and the imagery in 1979, and I:! of these tcrniinals \vi11 be tlcploycd is ~~eti~;insiiiittcdby conipiiter to the other major to tlic U.S. Army in Europe for use xvitli the DSCS iiaval occ~itiog~~~iphic~)i~ediction centers. The Air 11 slxice aeginent. In Septcnihcr 1979, ;I production Iorcc C;lol):il Wc:ithci. Ce~itrnl(AFGWC) continues conti';ict for 2225 xk1itioii:il tctmin;ils vas ;i\vartlcd, 10 roiitinely procesc kits into its rexl-time global with fii-st deliveries in 1951. When fully tleployed, (I;I tit I);ise for nwt.ItlwitIe striitegic applications, and these SHF tct~niin;ils will provide mobile, in111ti- i\ inst:illing ;I s;itellitc tkitn 1i;indling system which channel coiiiniiitiic;itions for the ground mobile \vi11 peimit real-time interaction of the mcteorolo- forces transniitting froin the ficltl through the DSCS gi\t wTitIi the cotiipiitei' (lata I)ase. The imagery is satellites. Production WIS I)egitn of 2110 UHF \chic- i~~:i~i~niittecll't.oni the s:itcllite in real time to trnns- ulat- tei~iiiiii;ils (,IN /i\ISCi-64) to he used with the ~mi~t~il~letcitl-out stations :it key 1oc;itions worltl- FI,TS.~TCOAfs:~tellitcs Ixgitining in 1981. Testing lvicle to support ,\im~,Navy, and .\ir Force tactical W;IS coniplctetl on the U HI; inmpick terminal operations. In 1979, the Navy continued to im- (AN/PSC-l),ant1 a niltlti-yeai- contract aiv;irtl for a ~)ro\,cits t:ict ic;iI ~~;itl-oiitpi'ogixii by the addition total of 17.1 tci.niin:ils for special Army IISCI~Sis ex- of [lie fifth tlii.ect re~id-outunit to the Fleet. The pected in 19810. foiirtli I2loc.k 5D s:itellitc was Iaunched and became ol)et.;itional in July 197!) and is providing excellent nietcoi.ologica1 information. In addition to cloud Narigation Sntellite Actiziity ini;igci.)~,this s;i tellitc provides vertical teinperatnre TI1 e SAITS T A li G 1ob (I 1 Posi 1 io pi i 11 g Sys f c in profile infoi~nintion from :I new microwave sensor (GPS). N.\VS?'AR GPS is ;I joint-service 1)rogr;iiii s) steiii and ioiiospfieiic &ita froin several other to provide ;I c:ipabiIity for tliree-diiiicnsioii~~l,high \pecial seii\ws. .-\FGM'C: is now tising the plasma accui.acy, continuous, worldwide navigntion. The pt'ol)e iiiforni:ition for real-time analysis and fore- casting of ionospheric electron content. This repre- iwoliitioii nic;isured in space. Development of in- sents tlie first iise of real, in-situ nieasiiremerits of fi.;iretl survciII;ince technology for mosaic detector space environmental data. Also in 1979, the joint :iiny, signal processing, cryogenic refrigerators, Air Force-Navy DhISP instrument development ;ind large optics ;iiitl striictiires continued, with procurement program produced fin:il design and sricces~f~ilI;il)oi.;icory testing of it new generation of conti-act award for a passive microwave imager that infrared tlctector arriiy and hrgc, actively controlled will provide qiiantitative values of precipitation, mirror elenleiits. 'l'lie Teal Ruby sp;ice experiment cloucl aiitl liquid water content of the atniosphere, to cleiiioiistixte tletectioii of aircraft will use first- ocean sitif;ice wind speed, and sea ice tlisti.il,ittioii. gciicixtioii iiifi~;ii~etlmosaic detector arrays and is This new fmiily of DJISP instrunients will lie ciitcriiig the (Iiialifiatioii testing phase, with launch flown in 3981-1984. exl)cctcd :ih:iixl the Shuttle in late 1082. D.iKPA h;is initiated the advanced sensor demonstration pi'ogixiii to demoiirti.;ite advanced surveillance mis- Surveillance Activities sions ;tiid the technology Ixise developed to support Early TT'c/t,ning Sa/cllil~.c.Early warning capabil- thein; ;in ;itlv;iiiced space system is in the design 1;tiiiich ities 1-esit1ein ;in integi-;itctl sy.stem of grouiid-based pIi:isc, with pl:innctl in FY 1987. Technology l.,'I d,'11 .s. and :t constellation of three geostation;iry tlevelopnicnt is initiated for key components of satellites for e;irlie,t int1ic;ition of a hostile lnllistic ~picc-l~~iscdi.:icl;ii. concepts with emphasis on broad missile Iauiich against the United States. During iiiission app1ic;itioiis for tlie technology base, a 1979, ;I successful I;iiiiich rcpl;icetl one of the older pIiiIwopIi), iIi;it was sricccssful in the definition of s:itellites that WIS failing. Development continued tlic iiit'i.;irccl technology needs. 111 1979, DARPA on niotlifications to ensure conip;itibility of early. c oiltintied coiiceptri;il designs for the Talon Gold warning s;itcllite p;i)~londslvitli the Titan 34D and csl)eriiiieiit, i\.liich ivill tlcvelop space technologies Shuttle Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) ;IS well as ini- foi- support of I)iwisioii ;icqiiisition, tracking, and proveineiits in the survivability of the satellite and 1)oiiitiiig ;it long range. ground systems. Spncc S711.ueillnncc.. The current capability for Splice Shuttle Actittities locating, tracking, and identifying objects in spice is provided liy a network consisting primarily of Ip/(,i,/iol lr/i/wi.S/crgc (ZUS). The IUS is under de- grouIitl-l);ised radar seiisoi-s deployed for piirposes \.clol)iiieiit l)~the ,lir Force to deliver DoD space- other than space sur~eilIancc-ior example, missile ci.alt to higher orbital altitudes and inclinations warning. This sensor network h;is a limited capa- 11i;iii the Slitittle aloiic provides and will also be bility to detect objects above 5.300 kilometers alti- tisctl by N.-\Sh for their syiiclironous-orbit payloads tude and has pips in the cover;ige below this ;iiid p1;tiiet:ii.y missions. Don will also iise tlie IUS ;iltitdc. Doll is procitriiig ;I Ground-Ikised Electro- on the Tit;in I11 to improve mission success during Optical Deep Space Surveillance system for compre- tlic e;ii.I), ti.:iiisition period to Shuttle. During 1979, hensive detection and tracking of satellites at high ~~ill-sc~iletlevclolmient continued, having started in a1 ti t utles . .\priI 1978; other procurement involved IUS A vial>le approach, in tlie long-term, for respon- Si-oiiiid support eqiiipment, logistics support, and sive surx.eill;ince 1111 to geosyi~chronousaltitudes ap- ~~ecess;ii.yniotlifications to the Solid hlotor Assem- pears to lie in spaceborne sensors. Several RPcD bly 15uilcling :it Kennedy Space Center. activities to develop this technology are continuing. Con/rollctl i\lotlc crt Johnson Space Center (JSC). For example, tlie Air Force has developed detector hliiittle launcliec will use N.lS:\'s JSC for simula- modules for a niosaic staring sensor which is ex- tion, trainiiq, ;ind flight coiitrol foi- DoD Shuttle pected to provide improved survivability. iiiijsions. In 1958, ;I special ;id hoc Shuttle security The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency gi.ocip ol tlic ~lc~~oii~iiitic~;iiitl .~\st~~onautics Coordi- (DARPA) continued in 1979 development of ad- nating 13oard (4ACH) completed validation of the vanced concepts and technology for strategic and coritr.ol1ctl iiiotle c.oricept IO provide the capability to tactical surveillance from space. Radiation source coiitluct c.l;tsifietl Doll Shuttle niissions out of JSC monitoring from spice is being demonstrated with ~vitliiiiii~ii~iiiin inip;ict to concurrent civil space op- the DARPA 301 gamma ray spectrometer, placed in el-atioiis. I'he .I,\(; 15 ;ipproved the recommendation orbit by the USAF Space Test Progmn in early of this ;id hoc group, and both Don and NASA 1979; the experiment is operating successfully, in- iiiiti;itetl iiiil)lenient;ition of the controlled mode. In cluding demonstration of the long-life cryogenic 1 !)59, ellorts were coIiceiitrated on detailed system refrigerators developed for this flight. The experi- design, software valk1;itioii and verification, and de- ment has achieved the highest garnma-ray spectral tei-niinatioii of facility modifications. A preliminary design review W;IS held in early October. Initial Ins-F. It carried seven payloads. Spacecraft Mission operating capability for the controlled mode is ex- P78-2, also referred to as the spacecraft charging pected in early 1982 to support the initial classified at high ;tltitutlcs (SCATHA) mission, was launched DoD payloads on Shuttle. The investment in con- on ,J;init;iry 30 froni Cape Canaveral Air Force trolled mode is heing held to a minimum consistent Station on n NASA Delta launch vehicle. The with essential security needs and projected Don twelve experinients comprising tlie SCATHA pay- workload on Shuttle through the mid-1980s. lo;ttl, three of which are NASA's, were to provide Vantlenbo-g Air Force Base (VAFB) ShiilIlc the data to determine methods for protecting space- Launch Site. Efforts continued during 1979 to ac- (.raft systems in geosynchronous orbit from tran- quire Shuttle launch and landing capabilities at sient outages and electronic ni;ilfunctions caused hy Vandenberg .4ir Force Base (VAFB) , California. slxtcecixft chai-ging. Finally, Spacecraft hlission Vandenberg facilities are required by both civil and 98-1, also referred to as the Navigational Package DoD users for polar launches, complementing Ken- (N;\\WAC;) niission, was flown on ;I host vehicle nedy Space Center (KSC) which will launch to low- ant1 tested ;I geodetic package. inclination orbits, such as geosynchronous equatorial The progrniii will now serve as the pathfinder for deployments. Commonality of equipincnt and pro- Don to exploit ways to use tlic manned Shuttle as cedui-es between KSC and VAFR is being maxi- ;I laboratory in space. This exploitation approach mized to minimize acquisition costs md operations will expedite infitsion of new technology into space complexity. systems througli tlie me of simpler, incrementally The requirements definition contract for VAFB tlcsignecl, niaii-aided systems. New hardware will be was conipletetl in mid-1978. Tlie follow-on effort, to tlcvclopetl ant1 procured to enalde this exploitation. design uniqiie support equipnient, develop and .I coiitr;ict aw;trtl is expected in 1980. acquire the launch processing and computer appli- cations software, and prepare installation designs is nearing completion. I;;icility construction began in Space Research and Technology ~~1111l;lry1079. Spice-related research and technology by the De- pirtiiicnt of Defense includes efforts defining the Space Boosters space enviroiiment and assessing its effect on the perfoi-mance of DoD systems operating within it. The Don family of space hoostei-s is comprised of Solor R(idici/ion Monitoring Progrnni. The Navy the Atlas ant1 Titan I11 standard launch vehicles as s01;tr monitoring program in 1979 consisted pri- well as siirplris Thor (IAV-2D,LV-PF, SLV-2A) and iiiarily ol' developing additional applications for op- Atlas E/F ICHAI vehicles. Nine Don slxicc niissions era tional predictions of propagation phenomena were successfiilly launched in 1079: 5 on Titan IIIs, affecting HF and VLF radio systems. Solrad Hi and 1 on IaV-2FThor, 1 on ;Ztlas-F, and 2 which were Goes satcIIite t1;it;i provided significant real-time Iaunclietl by NASA (1 on Delta and 1 on Atlas- so1;rr ~iic;rsureiiientsfor the research and develop- Centaur) . In addition, DoD launched 1 N4S.4- ineiit of a prediction system under evaluation at NOAA niission on an Atlas-F. Integration of the tlic Naval Communication Station, Stockton, Cal- Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) with tlie Titan 111 ifornia. The N;iv;il Research Laboratory continues launch vehicle family, begun in June 1977, con- to explore 1);isic research studies in solar physics, tinued through 1979. As DoD transitions its pay- solar-terrestrial relationships, and plasma process to loads to Shuttle, the expendalile launch vehicles tleterniinc tliesc so1;u- effects on Navy systems and will be p1i;iscd out at a rate dependent on progress operations. with major development and orbiter delivery mile- :is part of the continuing Air Force technology stones of the NASA Space Ti-ansportation System. progr;tm in prediction of propagation environment, solar processes are being investigated and solar Space Test Program emissions are measured. The programs in solar emissions include the theoretical study of the proc- Tlie Sp:ice Test Progi-ani provides spice-flights esses 1e;ltling to solar flares, in which the ,4ir Force for test and evaliiation of Don KkD experiments Geophysics I ,:illoratory works closely with the Na- and certain operational spacecraft not authorized tion;il Science Founc1:ition's Sacramento Peak their own mc;ins for space flight. Three payloads Ol,serv;itory. Techniques to forecast the time were successfully flown in 1979. history of Iiigli-eiierg solar particles that may im- Sp;icecr;ift XIission P78-1, known by its 1wini:it.y I,;tcL the E;1rth follow ig ;I major so1;ir flare are still payload tlie ganiina ray spectrometer, was launched iii the tlevclopnieiit stage. The Air Force is install- on Fcliriiary 24 from Vandenberg AFB on an At- ing ;I ivorlclwide radio-solar-telescope network for

52 use with the Solar Optical Observing Network. In higher frequenc y bands are being investigated as a 1979, the radio solar telescope in Australia became me;itis of relief from frequency spectrum congestion opera t i oiia 1. Ixing experienced in the lower frequency bands Air Force scientists are also participating in and ;IS ;I means of enhancing protection against rocket and satellite olxervations of solar ultraviolet .j;iniming. En'orts are also under way in laser com- (UV) emissions. Working closely with NASA scien- niuiiication technology to provide significant im- tists, Air Force personnel are studying the varia- pi.o\~nic~~tsin ,j;imming protection as well as very- tions in solar UV observed by spectrophotometers liigli-d;it;i-I.~itetransmissions. The Air Force Space on Atmosphere Explorer C, D, and E satellites. Divisioii Iias coniplctcd a developmental model Rocket flights designed to measure solar UV flares groiind test pli:isc :it a White Sands, New hIexico, between 230 and 3500 Angstroms continue to be test Ixiigc. .I 'follow-on phase, currently in progress, flown and, in conjunction with satellite measure- will intcgixtc ;I hser communications terminal into ments, used to develop models of the solnr UV at1 E(:-155 xiucraft for air-to-ground tests in FY emission spectrum. 1 980. ,In orl,ital her communications package is Enuimnmentnl Rcvlotr: Scnsing. The Air Force also ~~ntlcrtlei.elopment for launch on the Teal Geophysics 1,alIoratory h;is ;I continuing program liul~yspicccraft in late 1982 aboard Shuttle. to monitor sl~ceenvironment-intluced efEects ;IS 0th~~Tc~rlrnological Acliuitics. Under the space observed at the surface of the Earth. Scientists are vcliicle srilqstcni technology program, spacecraft measuring ionospheric scintilla tion and signal delay sul)s) stein inilwovements are in progress that will at a number of ground station around the globe, I)c iiiipoi.tant to the siu-vivability, autonomy, per- using tr;insniissions from beacons on both orbiting foriii;iiice, powei., ant1 weight of DoD satellites in and geostationary satellites. These measurements tlie 1980s. An iniprovetl magnetic bearing niomen- indicate signal statistics for satellite communication tiini wltecl, for better satellite stability, will com- systems and Air Force surveillance r;idars. I'letc environniental testing of a new wheel mate- Spacecvafl Cha,-ging Technology. The Air Force i.ia1 in early 1980. The space sextant, which will be Geophysics I.abor;itory (AFGI.) is actively in- import;int to l'ittu1.e ;ititonomom satellite operation volved in the joint USAF/NASA spacecraft ;iiitl improved survivability, entered the flight-unit fabi.ic:ition ;ind qualification test phase. Develop- charging technology program. 111 addition to devel- oping theoretic;d and empirical models of the nat- ment ol the fault tolerant spaceborne computer, ural environment leading to spacecraft electrical ~vliich will enhance survivability by minimizing charging at synchronous altitude, AFGI, continued s;itcllitc tlcpentlence on ground stations, has been preparation of a 1iandl)ook that will tlocunent the ;icceler:itcd towird ;I demonstration flight in 1984. full range of variability of charged particles and .\Is0 ni:i,jor advances were made in the magnetic fields that can be expected at this altitude. Data l~11b11lenicinory technology for a solid state space- from the Air Force Scatha satellite, launched in borne memory that will provide a hardened, non- fanuary 1979, are being used to upcl;ltc die moclels volatile data stotxge capability. In satellite space and the handbook. Scatha satellite instriunetit;~tion, power systems, efforts continued on the a 50-amp- supplied by the Air Force, includes electrostatic hoitr nickel-liytlrogen hattery intended to replace analyzers, charged particle flux spectrometers, and iiickcl-c.;itlritirrln units, as well as on a high-efficiency electron and ion beam systems to assess the feasibil- solar pnel employing gallium-arsenide and silicon ity of actively controlling satellite charging and dis- solnr cells. charging. Close coordination between the inter- dependent activities of the Air Force and NASA Spnce Ground Support continues through the joint USAF/NASA space- craft charging technology program. Models of the Don space activities were principally supported energetic electron flux at satellite altitudes will be in I979 by the Air Force's Eastern and Western implemented to measure energetic electrons in the Spice arid Missile Centers, Satellite Control Facil- 1 10-megavolt range, showing the dosage rates re- ity, :tiit1 Arnold Engineering Development Center; ceived by satellite microcomponents. and the Army's White Sands Missile Range. These Aduanced Space Conzm,zinications. The advanced facilities, available for use by Federal agencies, in- space communications program develops and dem- dustry, and other nations, support a wide variety of onstrates advanced spacecraft and airborne/ground test and eva1u;ition activities. In October 1979, Air terminal technologies to meet future DoD needs for Force System Command (AFSC) realigned its military satellite communications systems. In 1979, space and inissile developnient and acquisition ele- new space components were developed for opera- ments. Space Division (SD) , which reports directly tion in the higher EHF frequency bands. These to Hq AFSC, has assumed the space-related activ- ities previously the responsibility of the Space and in 1983-1984, this system will enlarge capacity and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO), which was reduce operating expense. deactivated. The Eastern Test Range at Patrick White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). The AFB, Florida, has become the Eastern Space and Army’s WSMR continued to provide support to Missile Center, while the Western Test Range at DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs. A Vandenberg AFR, California, has become tlie West- full spectrum of launch, flight, and recovery ser- ern Space and Missile Center. vices was provided, including ground and flight Eastern Space and Missile Center (ESMC). ESRIC safety, surveillance, command and control, data ac- has the responsibility to support a variety of DoD quisition, and analyses. NASA program support in- space and ballistic missile operations, NASA space cluded the Space Shuttle, the calibration rocket programs, and commercial or international satellite pi-ogtxni, upper atniosplieric sounding with rockets launches under the sponsorship of NASA. Current ;I ntl Ixilloons, ;ind variety of astronomical test pro- improvement emphasizes tlie enhancement of telein- gr:iins. Specific Space Shuttle activities included etry, radar tracking, and range safety. During 1979, qualification tests on the orbital maneuvering sys- ESMC provided support to Navy testing of Po- tem and on forwai-d and aft reaction control sys- seidon and Trident fleet ballistic niissiles. 1,aunch tem~,evalu;ition of Sliuttle spacecraft materials. and data-acquisition support was provided to training of astronauts to land the Shuttle, and a NASA’s programs, satellites for commercial orga- wtcllite system to track and relay Shuttle position nizations, and operational spice payloads for the (lata back to earth. Air Force. ESXIC was also actively engaged in con- A).no/d Engincwing Deuelofimenl Center ducting planning and ;inalyscs in support of tlie (AEIIC). AEDC provides essential aerodynamic, Space Shuttle, whicli will be Inunclictl for orbital spice eiivironnient, and propulsion tests to accel- test flights from the Kennedy Space Center. ei’atc tlevelolmient of aeronautical and space sys- Western Space nntl Missile Crntcr (TI7SMC). tenic. Its criicial value can be measured by tlie fact WSRIC provides range tracking, data acquisition, it Ims siipportcd virtrially every nia,jor U.S. aerospace and flight safety support for all Ixillistic niissilc and 1)i‘ogr;iiii. Its 40 test units provided approximately space Iauiiclies, as well as aeronautical tests at Van- N.000 test 1ioiii.s in 1979 to support missile projects, denberg AFR. Approxiniatcly 50 l~allistic missile, the Spice Sliuttle, and space launch rocket motor space Iarinclics, and neronautic;il flights were con- tests. .-In ;leropropulsion Systems Test Facility will ducted in 1979. The major aeronautical prograin be t.e:itly in 1983 to test large, high-performance was the cruise niissilc. WSAlC is actively eng;lged in tiirbojct ;ind turbofan engines in a more realistic planning for the S~xiceSliuttle I;iunclies from Van- envir&inient than can he attained today. Another denberg AFB, which involves extensive construction test unit in planning is tlie Turbine Engine Load of launch, logistic, and maintenance facilities. Siiiiul;itor (TELS). TEI,S will be a centrifuge that 1,aunch pad construction foi- Shuttle was Ixgun in \vi11 stress engines to simulate an inflight environ- January 1979. ment and at tlie sinie time x-ray tlie engine to de- teiminc abnornialities caused by “g” forces. TELS Satellite Control Facility (SCF). During 1979, tlie will contt.il)iitc greatly to reductions in develop- SCF supported 17 launches, including 9 DoD niis- iiient ;ind 1n:iinteiiance costs. sions, 1 NASA mission, and 7 lxillistic flights. Re- quirements for network support continued to grow, with 86,900 contacts totaling 68,400 hours of sup- Aeronautical Activities port. With the addition of a second antenna at Tliule, Greenland, and the British Telemetry and Aircvaft md Airborne Systems Commanding Station at Oakhanger, United King- dom, the SCF now has 12 tracking stations at seven I:-lfj Mirltirtii.s.c.ion Fighter. The first production sites worldwide. Significant maintenance efforts in- l:-l(j aircraCt TVCI~received by the United States and cluded the replacement of the antenna aziinuth Iklgiuni’ in January 1979 while the Netherlands bearing at the New H;iinpshire station and replace- t.eceivetl their first production aircraft in ,June 1979. ment of tlie radome over the 18-meter antenna in 7’11~remaiiiiiig European partners, Denmark and Hawaii. Also, modifications were completed for SCF Nor~v;iy,will begin receiving production aircraft in participation in the orbital flight test of the Shuttle. 1!M.71‘l~e niiiltinatioiial operational test and eval- A niajor data system modernimtion effort was uation (A107’E) w;is initiated in January 1979 at started, whicli will replace aging computers at the Hill AFR, Utah. These tests are providing informa- remote sites and consolidate telemetry, tracking, tion on the c;ilxibility and suitability of the F-16 and commanding functions into a centralized sys- to perforin its olmxtional niissions. In addition, de- teni at tlie Satellite Test Center. When operational velopnient testing is continuing to resolve deficien- cies that have been previously identified in aircraft I;-15 Ai,. Slrpriorily Fighter. Limited develop- systems. ment efforts are continuing on the F-15 to complete B-52 Squudrons Development Projects. The de- electronic countermeasure updates and to provide velopment projects under the R-52 squadrons ad- other component improvements. These efforts in- dress a variety of avionics programs all essential to cliide tlevelopnient of a programmable signal tlie effectiveness and survivability of the B-52 force. ~)i~oce~soi-;this expimimi of the c;tp;iljility of the One critical effort is the continuation of the pro- radar system will permit future improvements gram for the offensive avionics system (0AS)- through software changes rather than more expen- phase one. This project develops for B-52G/H sive 1i;irdw:ire modifications. modification an update to tlie bombing navigation Delivery of production F-15 aircraft is con- system incorporating nuclear hardened, digital sub- tiiiiiing. l%ythe end of FY 1979, a total of over 430 systems in place of the 1950 vacuum tube technol- of the 729 total planned F-15s had been received by ogy. Additionally the 0,4S also integrates the air the Air Force. Delivery of F-15C and D model air- launched cruise missile (ALCAI) on the R-52G. Re- craft Ixg;in in June 1979. This improved version cause of the critical schedule requirements to de- featuim a 1000-kilogram increase in fuel capacity, ploy the iiLChl and update the avionics, tlcvelop- provisions for low-dr;ig conformal fuel tanks, and ment and procurement are being considered increased niaxiiiiiim takeoff weight of 30,900 kilo- concurrently. Initial options for the modification grams. The remainder of the F-15 programmed contract were negotiated between January and July procurenlent will Ijc C and D model aircraft. 1979, and the contract was issued in Aiigust 1979. F iA-1,S C:cirric~r-BctscilStrilte Fighter. The Navy's The first of the modified aircraft will be available 1:/;1-18 ;iircraft is the replacement for the remain- in 1981. A second critical item to the bomber mis- ing Navy and hlarine 1;-4 Phantom fighters as they sion is surviving the effects of nuclear explosions. reach the end of their service life. It will also re- New programs will have hardness included, but iiir- p1:ice the aging .\-7 light attack aircraft in the mid- craft systems not scheduled for replacement will 1!)8Os. Introclriction of this aircraft into the fleet require, as a minimum, protection against electro- rvill p.ovitle the txtical commander at sea with a magnetic pulse (EMP). Analyses and studies bepn liigli-l,erformaiice, agile strike fighter, capable of in 1976, but in 1979 the program received new em- surviving in hostile territory. The Secretary of De- phasis, with the B-52 being exposed to the electro- fense has approved full-scale development of this magnetic pulse at two facilities during tlie year. aircraft. The first flight was in November 1978, and Joint DoD, Air Force, and contractor teams are CIIT- ;i total of eleven full-scale development aircraft are rently reviewing tlie EhIP programs in view of the schetluleti for delivery. test results and will make recommendations to in- EF-IIIA. The EF-I 11A is designed to provide de- crease the probability of aircraft surviving the fense suppression radar jamming in support of ERIP threat. Because this threat could affect a11 air- United States and Allied air operations. The peace- borne and ground digital systems, progress on time mission will lie to provide training for opera- B-52s will be closely monitored for potential use in t ions in ;in electronic collliterllie;isl1res environment other programs. for our own air defense and tactical forces. The A-IO Close-Air-Support Airrrnf t. The Air Force EF-111'4 is in limited production, which includes a plans to procure 733 A-10s to provide a specialized test effort to evaluate the correction of deficiencies close-air-support aircraft. Research and develop- identified during earlier tests. Flight-test data to ment is complete, except for integration of new date iiic1ic:ite the EF-111.1 is surpassing all relia- systems being added to improve effectiveness. Of bili ty performance requirements. the 627 aircraft approved for production, approxi- Atluancctl Attack Helicopter (AAH). The ad- mately 300 have been delivered to tactical forces vanced attack helicopter continued in full-scale en- in the United States and Europe. The Air Force gineering tlevelopnient during 1979. The initial activated its first wing and two Air National Guard prototype target acquisition designation systems (TADS) and pilot night vision systems (PNVS) squadrons in the United States as well as an initial were delivered by both competing contractors, for wing of four squadrons, with later growth to six use in system integration and checkout. The two wings, in the United Kingdom. The aircraft in the Phase I flight prototype helicopters were returned United Kingdom will also operate from four for- to flight status after completing modifications which ward locations in Germany. Favorable reliability converted them to the Phase I1 configuration. and maintainability factors have been demon- The first airborne firing of a Hellfire ballistic strated, so the anticipated low operating costs missile from the AAH took place on hlarcli 3, 1979. should be realized. The firing was successful, with no detrimental ef-

55 fects on the aircraft. This and other successful bal- Tonlahawk Cmise Missile. Tomahawk is a high- listic launches led to the first guided Hellfire launch subsonic-speed, turbo-fan-powered, long-range from the AAH on September 18, 1979. The first cruise missile sized to be fired from a submarine autonomously designated launch of a Hellfire from torpedo tube, but also capable of being launched an AAH (fired from the AAH as designated by the from surface ships, aircraft, and mobile ground plat- target acquisition designation system on the same fornis. This missile is being developed in two forms, aircraft) was successfully completed on October 20, a conventionally armed anti-ship version and a 1979. nuclear-armed land attack version. CH-47 Modernization. The CH-47 moderniza- ?’he anti-ship Tomahawk will provide an im- tion program is designed to ensure that the Army portant complement to carrier-based aircraft in ex- will have a medium-lift helicopter capability be- tending the Navy’s anti-ship capaliility over a broad yond the year 2000. An engineering development occan area. The stand-off capability afforded by effort which began in June 1976 has produced three Toni;ih;iwk \vi11 pose ;I credible threat to enemy prototype CH-47D models which incorporate seven surface forces ;it mininiiim risk to our launch modernized systems: rotor, drive, hydraulic, elec- phtforms. trical, advanced flight control, cargo handling, and ’l’hc nuc1e;ir I;intl-;itt;ick l‘oiiiahawk could pro- auxiliary power unit. These changes are to improve \,itlc ;I flexible iiticlear force for theilter or strategic the reliability, availability, maintainability, pro- roles. Its ability to penetrate with its single war- ductivity, safety, and survivability, and produce one Iiead and high accuracy and its survivability make standard CH-47 configuration to facilitate logistical it particularly suitable for use in limited nuclear support and maintenance. All three prototypes ;I t tacks. have begun contractor flight testing and will be 7’omali;iwk is planned for installation on nuclear tested by U.S. Army personnel in the field begin- attack sulimarines and cruisers. A ground-launched ning in January 1980. Once the test results have version of Tomahawk is being developed for the been analyzed, a decision on full-scale production Air Force. of the completely modernized CH-47 will be made. Aii.-f.cii~ric.lrc~tl(;vrii.w ,Ui.s.\i/t, (ALCM). A com- The Army plans to have an entire unit of 2.4 CH- petitive “flyoff” between the AGM-8GB and the ~iC;Af-lO!l ;iii.-launclied cruise niissiles (A1,Chl) was 47Ds in the field by mid-1983. conducted during 1979 and early 1980 with ten E-3A Airborne Warning and Control System launches each. Flight-test results are being eval- (AIVACS). The E-3A Wing at Tinker AFB, Okla- wted ;ilong with contractor cost and technical homa, reached operational status in April 1978. By proposals. Source selection and a production deci- the end of 1979, 19 E-3A aircraft were delivered to sion are to lie made in RIarcli 1980. the Tactical Air Command providing an all-alti- Current plans are for a maximum A1,CR.I pro- tude, airborne radar surveillance and command and cluctioii rate of 40 per month. This is consistent control system with good survivability. The total with the H-52G nioclification rate and supports the United States E-3A force is programmed for 34 “hoot ;Ind penetrate“ concept of initial R-52G/ aircraft. The NATO defense ministers approved a .lICAr cleployiiient. 7’11~first alert c;ipability of the NATO airborne early warning and control lK5X n.itli esteimlly 1o;itlcd ;iI,CAl is scheduled (AEWRC) program which includes the procure- l‘oi. Septeml)cr 1981, and the initial operating capa- ment of 18 E-3A aircraft, the upgrading of ground bility 01 the first 13-52G squadron is planned for communication links, and the preparation of sup- Doc em1ier 1982. port bases and facilities. NATO is also funding de- 2.0 ti n d-La ti nch ed Cui ise Missile (GL C M ). velopment of an improved E-3A computer to in- GIChf will be part of the modernization of the crease the system’s tracking capacity. This program long range theater nuclear force to bolster deter- is the largest acquisition ever undertaken by rcncc, protection against failure of conventional N4TO. United States developments are focused on forces, and theater nuclear firepower. The Air further improvements in capability. Force plans to procure 560 missiles for deployment Development continued on incorporating into to Etirojie. The GI.ChI system will integrate the the E-3A the joint tactical information distribution Toni:th:iwk cruise missile into ;in air-transportable, system (,JTIDS) to provide jam-resistant, secure grountl-mobile system which consists of a trans- communications between the E-3A aircraft and I,orter-crector-l;lunchel. and a launch control cen- other users. Flight testing of the JTIDS terminal ter. The system is now in fdl-scale engineering de- in the E-3X aircraft was completed with successful velo pmen t with i ni t i;r 1 operating capald i ty planned demonstration of the pertinent performance re- for December 1983. quirements, and plans arc to initiate full-scale de- A tlwt n rod St r(i Irjgic A ii.-I.(iII rirli ctl Missile (AS- velopment of a fighter aircraft terminal in 1980. ALM). ASAIX is being developed to enhance the

56 strategic bomber force, which includes the B-52, ;IS target design;itors, range finders and trackers, FB-111, and future strategic carriers. ASALRI is a optic;il search and tracking devices, miniature solid- long-range supersonic missile capable of neutralk- st;itc 7’V camerx, and navigational systems. ing the Soviet air-defense interceptors and warning AtIv;inces in microwave technology continue to aircr;ift, ;is well ;is suppressing defenses and striking Iirovitle improvements in niicrowave-power-generat- prini:iq targets. prop~lsiontechnology valida- ing efficiencies and in electronic package minia- tion 1irogr;ini was established to tlenion5tr;ite the turimtion through the me of recently developed ASd4I.AI integ~ralI-ockct rani,jet propulsion system. solid-state components. This flight-test progr;irii consists of seven flights Emphasis continues on computer science tech- between October 1979 ;ind :ipvil 1!)80. 1niti;il test nology ;IS computer processing requirements be- results :ippear vet.) Iavoi~al~lc.The next phase will conic more integral with the total aeronautical be ;I suhsysteni de~iioristr;~tionv:iliclation which will system 7’otl;iy’s aircraft contain as m:iny as a dozen emph;isi/e air-to-air guitlance tlevelopment, and niiniconil~ters, 1i;indling functions such as naviga- will begin in e;irly 1980. tion, :iltinictry, fire control, weapon delivery, search, P~IP1.071’ C)peration;iI ev;ilu;ition of the Aero- III. ;ind flight control. Recent developments in mass space Rescue and Recovery Service’s Pave I.ow I11 memory c;ip;ibilitics iire allowing development of combat rescue system has heen completed at Xfili- corrcl;ition by computer of stored ni:ipping infornia- tary Airlift Command’s Kirtland AFR, New hlex- tion with tcrr:iin features sensed by radar or passive ico, and the first proditction unit wa.5 completed in ~.;itlionictcrs,tliris providing precise navigation over 1979. Pave Low 111, when integrated into an H-53 long distances. helicopter, provides the Air Force with a highly sophisticated, atlv;incctl system that \vi11 Immit low- .I major new initiative was begun in 1979 011 in- level penetration and recovery of downed airmen tegi.;itetI circuits with the very high speed integrated in hostile territory in darkness ;ind :itlv~rseweather. citx.tiits (VHSIC) progr;ini based on silicon technol- Necessitated by an increasingly lethal enemy threat 0s‘)’.The olijective of this six-),ear program is to that will outdate current rescue tactics, the system :icceler;ite the avai1;ibility to Don of high-speed employs forward-looking infrared devices, terrain integi.atetl circuits featuring submicron sizes. These avoidance/following radar, and inertial/doppler intcgr;itetI circuits will provide new or significantly navigation in its rescue/~,enetration operi~tions. increased c;ipabilities in satellites, avionics, cruise missiles, radar, and digital signal processing. It is expected that one VHSIC will replace 50 or more Aeronautical Reseaid And Development liresent integrated circuits-at least a ten-fold reduc- tion in six, weight, power consumption, and failure Aciunncecl Twhnology Conccf2fs. The Don re- rate with concomitant savings in both initial and search, development, test and evaluation (RDTPcE) life-cycle costs. Thc projected 200-fold increase in program continued to sponsor a myriad of activities signal processing will increase by a factor of ten for the national defense. Its DoD science and tech- the ;iccuracy in cruise missile targeting and synthet- nology program sponsors activities in research, ex- ic-;ipertut.c-ra~l~irground mapping during evasive ploratory development, and advanced technology maneuvering of attack aircraft, as well as a low demonstrations. Technological areas extend from prol)al,ility of intercept by air surveillance radars. propulsion for aircraft, missiles, and space systems; Rescnrrh in Airrvcift Propiilsion Systems. The to guidance and control, communications, and elec- ;idv:incetl turbine engine gas generator (ATEGG) tronics; through materials, structures, and informa- program is the main Air Force propulsion program tion processing; and through environmental sci- assessing core engine components under realistic ences to the vital areas of safety and life sciences. test conditions. Traditionally stressing durability Technological applications in aeronautics and and performance, the program has been increasing space are developed to meet more sophisticated in scope to include life-cycle costing and structural requirements of current and projected programs. testing earlier in the engine development cycle. During 1979, efforts in advanced electronics-elec- A4ccomplishmentsin 1979 include initial tests of a tro-optics, microwave, and computers-continued to drive technological improvements for aeronautical new generation of gas generators, successful com- and space systems. pletion of the first dedicated structural/durability Electro-optics technology is being incorporated test and continued demonstration testing of varia- in many devices, such as infrared and charge- ble-area, high-temperature turbines employing coupled imagers, signal processors, ring laser gyros, ;itIvanced materials. Future efforts will emphasize fiber optics, and displays. These devices are finding comprehensive durability assessment, including ac- their way into improved aeronautical systems such celerated life testing of components. The aircraft propulsion subsystems integration reduction in the propagation of such damage in the (APSI) program is a multi-faceted Air Force effort. adhesively bonded structure, as compared to conven- The joint technology demonstrator engine (JTDE), tional riveted structure, was observed. This struc- a joint Air Force-Navy program, is a part of APSI. tural safety improvement contributes an additional High-pressure turbine engine cores from ATEGG five percent to the originally projected structural are integrated with new low-pressure coniponents weight savings of 15 percent using adhesive bond- (fans, compressors, and fan turbines) to form a ing. Cost savings of 30 percent were also demon- full-scale technology demonstrator engine (the strated, principally from the elimination of over JTDE). When combined with independent dem- 80,000 fasteners. onstration and assessnient of inlets, exhniist nozzles, In 1979, the Army initiated a two-phase program and afterl)urnei-s the tests cIi;ir;icteri7e atlvanced called advanced composite aircraft program engine technologies as complete propulsion systems. (,\ClP). Phase I, which is the preliminary design Accomplishnients in I979 include initial demonstra- ph:ise, will de\~lop;itlvanced composite design con- tion testing. of the JTDEs, initial application of cepts for the primary structrii-e of the next genera- life-cycle cost models, verification of structural life tion of U.S. .\rniy helicopters. Phase I1 will flight- prediction/correlation models, and assessment of dcnionstr;ite two of the most promising concepts. operational benefits for variable cycle engines. Future benefits will include ininimum weight and Follow-on JTDE testing will emphasize compre- reduced m;iniif;icturing cost plns reduced radar hensive ~nechanicalintegrntion/l,erformance testing cross-section :ind iniprovcd ballistic survivability. and dur;ibility/life characterization. Fomlni~lS7~'cpl Tiling. Advanced composite mate- The Army is conducting a competitive demon- I i;ils with inherent characteristics that allow tailor- strator engine prograin in the 800-shaft-horsepower ills of the ~iir~r~tltstnictiiral features has led size. The overall objective of this project is to pro- to the development of the forward swept wing vide an advanced technology option for future (FSW) concept. FSW offers the designer increased Army aircraft and other defense needs. This pro- configirr;i t ion;i I flcxibil i ty tha t can translate into gram has ;IS its goals a 50-60 percent improvement gi~iter tr;tnsoiiic m;ineuveral)ility, lower transonic in specific power and 20-25 percent improvement IKI\T dr;ig, ;ind improved low-speed handling qual- in specific fuel consumption over present in-service ities. ,\ D;\KPA progr;un in 1979 validated the engines. Initial test results have been promising. capibility to design :I divergence-free FSW throngh A ircrci f t St rtict ti rc.s n n ti Mnt crici 1.y Techn oloa . \vintl tunnel tests of large-scale seniispan models. Each of the services has RRD progi-;inis directed Tii\mtigations will be undertaken in 1980 toward toward improved structures and inaterials for aero- tlie tlevelopnicnt of :I flight demonstration vehicle. na 11 t ica 1 n ntl spacc a p pl i ca t ions. A(l~uinw~1Fliglrt Control Concepts. In 1979, the The Air Force is determining the suitability of .\ir Force coniplecetl flight tests of a YF-16 aircraft cast alriminum for primary aircraft striictures, offer- modi ficd to provide independent six-degrce-of-free- ing a niiniiniiin 38 percent cost saving with no tlom control. The tests demonstrated the feasibility weight pen;ilty. A full-scale foi-wai-d fuselage bulk- of providing intlependent control about all axes to head from a cargo aircraft was redesigned froin over improve acciiracy of weapon delivery. The results 400 parts and 3000 fasteners to a one-piece cast of these tests are being incorporated into the Air aliiininuni structure with no fasteners. Testing to Fol~cfigh ter technology integra tion (AFTI) pro- va I ida te structiiixl int egri ty is nearing conipletion. grani, Tr1iel-c tlie aircraft fire control system is in- Primary adhesively bonded striictiire technology is tcgr;itetl with ;in advanced flight control system to also being developed by the Air Force. Through piavide even greater accuracy improvement. AFTI the use of adhesive bonding, fabrication of large is scheduled to begin flight tests in 1981. cargo aircraft structures such as fuselages can be A (i71(i n ccd H c7lic o p 1 L' 1. R o t or Syst c m.7. The Navy reduced from the lalior-intensivc assembly of thou- ;itl\xncetl helicopter rotor system program is sands of parts to the assembly of ;I few large bonded tlircctetl toward denionstrating the flight feasibility nioddcs. The Ail. Force has conducted an advnncctl of the circul;itioii control rotor (CCR) concept. technology demonstration program to design, fah- CCR is ;I noii-;irticul;ited rotor in which aero- ricate, and test a full-scale, 18-meter-long fuselage (1) ii;iniic ;ingle of attack is achieved By boundary section using adhesive honding in place of conven- layer control. The first flight of :I CCR mounted on tional riveted fastening. The test strrictrire has ;I niotlifictl Navy/K;inian H-2 helicopter took place success f 111 I y coni ple tetl four 1i fe t inies (76,000 pres- in Septem1)cr 1979, and the test program is ex- sure cycles) of fatigue testing, some of which was pected to continrie throngh 1981. The X-wing is performed with intentional damage in the form of ;I stopped rotor concept that incorporates CCR saw ciits up to 20 centimeters long. A significant technology. Feasibility of the X-wing concept, which is being jointly developed by DARPA and the consist of L“‘ air veliicles, 18 mission payload sub- Navy, was demonstrated through full-scale wind s~ stenis, foul. gi.ound control stations, and three tunnel tests of a 7.6-meter-diameter rotor. Transi- I;iitnther ;incl recovery subsystems. First flight of the tion between rotary wing flight and fixed wing $)stein is schetlitled for late 1981. flight, and vice versa, was demonstrated in excess of 30 times during these tests. A small (1700-kilo- gram) demonstrator aircraft program will be Relationships with NASA initiated in 1980. iltlditionally, testing has been conducted on a high-speed, countcr-rotating rotor Aeiwncirdtics nncl Asti.onnrrtics Coordinating Board called the advancing I)ladc concept (ABC) as part ‘l’lie .leroiiaittics antl Asti.onaiitics Coordinating of a .joint Army-Navy-NASA program. Atlvantnges h;iitl (.\,lCI%)is the primary mechanism for ad- of this concept include improved maneriver;il,ility, tlrcssitig 1ii;i)or policy issues o€ interest to DoD and low noise, high hover efficiency, and the ability to S.lS.1 in sixice ;ind aeronautics. In 1979, the Road perform high-speed flights at high altitades. Testing ivas crlensively in\~olvedin reviewing the NASA to date has documented these advantages, and eval- Sp;ic,c Slirittle tlcvclopment antl orbiter production uations of this higli-speed rotor will continue i)iqgixiii, ;ind tlie Don program for Shuttle use. through FY 1981. htli ;igencics m;itle adjustments in their respective Sy n t h c 1 ic Fl igli t T1-nin i ng Syst e Ins (SI;T S ). Fol- J”‘ogr;lllls. lowing Army testing, the flight simulator for the .IC Spec Sliuttlc deve1ol)ment has progressed, CH-47 helicopter became stantlard in June 1978. pei-foi.ni;iiice inat-gins have changed because of de- This simu1;ttor iises a closed-circuit television sys- sign xntl equipment changes as well as weight tem in conjunction with a three-tlimensioii~ilter- gmwtli. To allow for further improvement in tlie rain model to provide a realistic visual display, the Shuttle’s c:ipabiIity, NAS;l lins considered a num- first ;1\rmy flight simulator with such a capabilitf. ber of options for providing thritst augmentation, The first production article of tlie CH-47 simulator ;itit1 presented to tlie AXCR iii early 1979 tlie deci- was placed on contract in early FY 1979. The pro- $ion that sitch ;I project, if undertaken in future totype continrtes to be used in an aviator training ).e;irs, would use two strapon solid motors, one on program at Fort Rucker. c;icIi of tlie Shuttle’s large solid rocket motors The AH-I flight and weapons simulator (FWS) (SliAls) . Correspondingly, the Air Force agreed to is the first to incorpoi-ate weapons engagement niotlify the \’:\FH Shuttle launch pad design to along with other flight maneuvers. The evolution ;icconiniotl;itc the thrrist-;iugtiieiited Shuttle con- will continue with the development of the UH-60 figiii.;ition if needed. N.lS,Z has also baselined a Black Hawk flight simulator which will me a second tlii.ust-;tugiiieiitation approach using liquid camera model hoard for one cockpit and a com- boost niotlr~les (LFiAI) that employ Titan tech- puter-generated imagery visual system for the other nology. This I.RAI approach is also compatible cockpit. Testing in 1979 evaluated the training with the revised V,2FR launch pad design. Thus, benefits of these two technologies. Concept formula- citlici. strapon solid motors or LRAI tlirust-aug- tion and development are underway for the AH-64 inent;~tion approaches can be accommodated. flight antl weapons simulator which will have the l%o;itd members have extensively reviewed capability to produce tlie sound and fury of the N.k‘jA’s Shuttle developmental problems and re- battlefield. Testing of tlie simulator is scheduled cent schedule changes. The First Manned Orbital for 1982. Flight (FAIOF) on Shuttle is now scheduled for Remotely Piloted Vehiclcs (RPV). The Army re- late 1980, while Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is motely piloted vehicle (RPV) system performs now to begin launching operational flights in 1982. target acquisition, designation, aerial reconnais- Orbiter 099 is scheduled to he delivered in 1982, sance, and artillery adjustment missions. A small Orbiter 103 in 1983, and Orbiter 104 in 1984. This unmanned air vehicle, including its mission pay- revised schedule will support the DoD plan to be- load, is controlled from ;I ground control station, gin the transition of operational spacecraft to with the plane’s video imagery and target location 1;iuncli on Shuttle in FY 1983 and to complete this information returned via an anti-jam data link. transition by FY 1986. Between October 1, 1978, and September 30, 1979, NAS.4 and the Air Force reached formal agree- administrative and contractual arrangements were iiient in RIarch 1977 on the cost of Space Shuttle made to conduct engineering development of a re- flights for Don missions. Entitled “NASA/DoD motely piloted vehicle system. A contract was RIeniorandum of Agreement on Basic Principles for awarded on August 31, 1979, for the full-scale en- NASA/DoD Space Transportation System Launch gineering development. Hardware deliveries will I~eiinbiirsemerit,” tlie agreement establishes the DoD cost for the standard Space Shuttle delivery ,\'(itionti1 Occ.anic Satellite System (NOSS). A flight at $12.2 million in FY 1975 dollars. Discus- joint stritly by NXSA, NOAA, and DoD has shown sions are currently underway to expand this agree- tI!;it NOSS, iiittlci. joint ;rgenc)' m;inagenient, could ment to include optional services, such as the addi- meet most operational oceanic measurement re- tion:il time on orbit that ivill be t.cquirec1 for qtiircnientc of both the civil and military com- certain defense missions. Discussions arc also under munities. NOSS is being initiated as a limited op- way on the Ixisic principles which will guide sale, er:i tioti;iI tlcmonsti.;ition pro.ject intended to prove by the Air Force, of the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) the utility of ;I routine, repetitive set of related and to N;IS.\, other civil, and foreign customers. s).tiol)tic space me;isurements from which the re- Nczlioncil Acrontirrtic Fncililies Program. In its qiiiixxl glol)al ocean surface information (sea final form as tlefincd by Don and NASA, the Na- IieigIi I, se;~siii.f;ice temperature, ice cover and age, t ion;\ 1 Aerona 11 tic Fa ci 1 i ties Program con ta i ns three sc;~c~t~~rct~ts, ocean wind field, and water color and large facilities necessary to continue the efficient tiit.l)itlity) anI)e extracted. A new real-time ground dcvclopnicn t of ;ieronautical technology and systems 1)rocessiiig ;ind ucci- t1;itn distribution system will be through the etitl of this century. The f;icilities con- ;I key fc;ititi.e in proving NOSS's utility. NASA will tained in the program arc: Ii;ive 1c;itl ~.esl)onsil)ilityfor developing the space 0 f\I~.KOPKOPL'1,41ON sYSTE.\lS TICSTFACILITY zegnicnt witli Don sharing costs, while NOAA and (ASTF)-sl,oiisored by the Air Force to support Dol) \vi11 zli~ii~~i.esponsibility for ground segment the economical development of advanced cn- tlevelopment. 1)evclopnient and operation will be gincs for fighter, large strategic tr;insport, antl joiiitly III~III~I~~~by tlie three agencies with control Ijoniber aircraft. sliil'ting to KO.\.\ and DoD in the later phases of 0 NATIONAI.TI~ASSOSIC FACII.ITY (NTF)-spon- the tlemonstt.;ttion. .-\Irernntivc concept studies for sorctl by hT.lS.1 to permit i.ese:irch xnd develop- s! stem c.onfigui.;ition will commence in early 1980. ment testing ;it high Kcynoltls titinibel- in the H VI I o/-A I o I I n ctl I>i.s/)In y Trc11 no1 ogy . The Air tra tisoti ic niach-number ra nge (conil)incs the I;o tx.e .\eimp c-e X Ictl icn 1 Research Labora tory requirements of the c;ii.licr High Reynolds (,\I;.\Jl IC1 .) IMS provided a helmet-mounted Ntiiii1)cr Tuniiel, sponsoi.ed by the Air Force, (1ispI;i) '4iglit ;ippiixtits for testing at NASA's antl the 'I'r;insonic Kcse;ircli Tunnel, spon- lohiisoil Sp;itx (:eiiter (JSC). This display will be soretl by X.4S.4). inst;tIIctl ill the Slxice Shuttle simulator to test its 0 40 x 80 FOOTS~~I

60 the auspices of DoD, NASA, and the National Ke- Tilt Roto,. Rcscwrch Aircvaft (XV-15). Under a search Council of Canada was conducted to iiicasiii‘e joint .\riiijyA’.4S.\ contract awarded in 1973, two the responsc of the middlc atniospherc ;ind loivcr lilt-rotor i.ese:ircIi ;iircrnft, the XV-15, were built. ionosphere to the February 1370 solar eclipse. Dur- ?’lie first of ihe t~voaircr;tft Iins completed full- ing the eclipse, Don’s Atmospheric Sciences 1,:iI)- scale tests which include hover flight and operation oratory was niainly interested in the clcctron den- iiiitlei, ixmote conti-ol in a wind triniiel. The second sity in the lowest portioii of thc ionospliere, since X\’-l~?is pi‘eseiitly participating in contractor flight DoD comniiinic~itioiisant1 radar signals are ;tffectetl iestc to c~t;il~IisIithc basic flight characteristics for by the electrons and ions in this area. The ra1)icI I)otli Iiclicoptcr ;tiit1 ;iirpIaiie modes of operation. In dny-to-niglit-to-~l~iytransition afforded by the eclipse ,\iiIy I!):!), No. 2 XI’-I5 completed its first in-flight provided ;I rare opportunity to observe how the ( oiivct-\ion Ii.oni ;I helicopter to the airplane mode. ~jresenceand iibscnce of solar radiation affects the It Iixs iiolv lloivii twenty hours and Iias reached a atniosplicre. It is expected that the 1979 solar true air si)ced of 204 knots. The Nary joined the eclipse program will serve as a forerunner for the pi~ogi.;riiiin 1979. niitltlle :I tiiiospliere prograiii in 1!)80-1!)85. Al/c)xtr/p F~ir1.s Progi.cir,r. The alternate fuels KC-135 Wing-let.s. The joint USAF/NASA KC- I)rogr;ini is pirt of a long-term coordinated effort 135 winglet demonstration program is an advanced aiiiong tlic services, NAS,\, aiid thc Department of dcvelopment program ivitli the objcctivc of Energy to ensure that Iiqiiitl fiicls obtained from ~~roving,tliroiigh flight testing, that the total of air- tlonicstic res~iii~ce~such ;IS lower quality peti-oleum, craft drag rctluction cmbe achievcd with winglets. oil 5Ii:ile, tar sands, and coal will be acceptable al- Winglets re sm:tll airfoils of optimum shape lo- tcrn;itivcs to liclriitl hytlrocarl~on fuels in high- cated at the wing tip in a near \~~icalposition. I)ei.loi.m;iiiccengines. The initial DoD effort is an Drag retliiction translates into ;I fuel saving whicli esl)ci‘inient;il pi.ogr;ini to ~~rodiiceaviation turbine is dependent on aircraft fleet utilization rates. Iticls froin sli;ile oil and coal. Results to date pro- Rased on recent rates, ;in 8-percent drag reduction \,itIc cncoiii-;igiiig evidence that the aviation indus- on the KC-135 tanker aircraft could savc 164 mil- try can IIW 111el p~x~dr~c~etlIroni tlic vast United lion litcrs of fuel annually. Winglets dso increase St;iies 1 esouixc\ ol‘ oil sli:11e. 111 I%!), significant ef- the tanker off-load capa1)ility because less fuel is 1oi.t IVAS esl~cii(let1tle\~clopiiig ;I Defense Fuels Mo- used to transit to and from the refueling point. I)iIily .\ctioii PI;iii, ;iiitl ;I 1)eIense Xfo1)ility Fuels 0flic.c ivas c~t:il)lishcdto conso1itl:itc the Don effort. The Air Force has completed the modification of Trcl/iiical Dcuclopmcnt Support. DoD has de- a KC-195 aircraft, and flight testing to validate a predicted eight percent improvement in range he- t:rilctl :I niinibcr of technically ti-aincd persons to gm in Junc 1979. This development will have ap- Nils.% to assist in programs of mutiial interest. The plication to both commercial and military tec1inologic;il traiisfcr back to DoD in unique transpoi-ts. functional ;ii.cas is iniportant. The detailees are working in ;I vai-icty of operational and RkD pro- Rotor Sy.yte?,?.yRrsmwh Aircraft (RSRAJ.A joint grams I)ut iiiost are xsociated with the Space Trans- Army-NASA contract has led to the completion and ~~oixitioiiSytein activities which include space mis- acceptance of two rotor-systems aircraft to serve ;IS sion pl;iiining, ;i\.ionics and communications “flying wintl-tiinnels” for helicopter research. The vxii1.i tj,, ci’civ proccdures, payloads software, logis- aircraft design permits the in-flight testing of full- tics, ;ind facilities construction. In 1979, the Air scale main rotor systems having from two to six Force ;i\sigiietl ;I gciiei-;rl officer ;it N.lS.4 Headquar- also of blades. The design allows the addition fixed tei-s to fiirtlier strcngthen joint Shuttle planning wings and thrusting engines that will permit rotor :iiid progr;ini implementation activities. At Johnson testing at flight speeds up to 550 kilometers per Sp;ice Center (JSC), the Air Force currently has 20 hour. These two aircraft will provide data on aero- ~)ei.soiinelsupporting Shuttle activities with growth dynaniic ~~rolilenisthat are currently iliathemati- to 54 pcople expected by June 1980. cally intractible and cannot be solved without the A.slrontlirt Progrci,,~.The DoD continued to sup- aid of precise flight research results. One research port this progr;ini by providing astronaut candi- aircraft, with its first set of rotor blades, has coni- tlates for the Space Shuttle program. Of 35 new pleted its first phase of flight testing as a piire heli- cant1itl:ites choscn by NASA in 1977, 21 were from copter, as a compound with thrusting engines, and Don. In 1979, these new astronaut selectees com- as an all-up compound with thrusting engines and pleted their training program that began in July augmenting wings. In the next phase, these aircraft 1!)78. All 21 have heen certified and are awaiting will be used to test and optimize the performance ;tssignnient to specific payload missions. DoD is also of various candidate rotor designs as well as obtain submitting atlditional candidates for the next as- data to improve rotorcraft prediction methodology. trollant selection by NASA, scheduled for May 1980.

61 IV Department of Comrnerce

I

Introduction nology, performs applied scientific and engineering analyses to improve technology, and provides The five agencies in the Department of Com- tcc1inic;il assistance to other Federal agencies. merce that contribute directly to the nation’s aero- BOC works to improve information on popula- nautics and sp;tce programs are the National tion trends, urban growth, and the internal struc- Oceanic ;iiitl .Atniosphci-ic ;1tlmittistt.;ition (NOAA), ture of national land areas. Satellite data are used the National Eureau of Standards (NRS) , the 101.tleniogr;iph ic studies and population estimates. hIaritimc Administration (MARAD), the National Telecommunications and Information Administra- Space Systems tion (NTIA) , and the Bureau of the Census (ROC). Satellite Operations NOAA’s mission is to improve the safety and quality of life through better comprehension of ‘I’tic National Environmenlal Satellite Service the Earth’s environment and through more efficient (NESS) of h‘OA;Z operates two satellite systems: use of its resources. To this end, NO.?\,$ operates, the polat.-ot.l)iting system and the geostationary manages, :ind improves the nation’s operational en- system. vironmental s;ttellite systems; provides satellite data Po 1II v-01. bi I i ng Sn I cl 1it cs . D uri ng the first ha 1f of on the impact of natural factors and human xctiv- 1!)70, NESS converted from the Improved Tiros Op- ities on glohl food and fuel slipplies and on en- crational S;itellite (ITOS) system to the new gen- vironment;il quality; uses satellite data and aerial eration Tiros-N series. Tiros-N, the NASA proto- ptiotogra ph y for charting, coa stit 1 mapping, and tylx :itid the first of this series, was launched geodetic research: employs satellite data to improve Octobei- 13, 1!)7S. No;i:i 6. XO;\A’s fit.st opera- the assessment and conservation of marine life: and tioniil satellite of this series, was launched June 27, upgrades weather services by developing new fore- 1979. These two satellites are known as the Tiros-N casting techniques, automating field operations, s! stem. The Tiros-N and ITOS systems overlapped and improving dissemination of weather informa- rtntil ,111ly 16, l!)79, ivlien No;i;i 5, the List of the tion. ITOS series, was deactivated. NBS seeks to improve the standards and related Rctliintlancy is ;ichievetl in the Tiros-N system by services necessary to ensure uniform and reliable two itlcntical satellites rather than two identical measurements. The NRS p-ticipation in the na- instruments on :I single satellite. Tiros-N was tion’s aeronautics and space program is to provide I;iiiiichetl into a near-polar, Sun-synchronous 870- measurement support services for space and satellite kilometer orbit crossing the equator in a north- systems, atmospheric and space research, and aero- ~v:itxI direction at 1500 loc;il time. Noaa 6 orbits nnutical programs. ;it 830 kilometers, crossing the equator in a south- hIARAD works to improve ship safety, opera- witd direction at 0730 local time. tions, and nianagenient. Use of satellites increases The Til-os-N system satellites carry four primary the efficiency of commercial ship communication, itisti.iinimts: ;in .1tlv;incctl Very High Resollition nnvigntion, and operation. R;itliometer; ;I Tiros Operational Vertical Sounder, The NTIA, pi-incipal communications advisor to consisting of three coiiip1ement;iry sounding instru- the President, develops and coordinates Executive ments, one of which is provided by the United Branch policy in teleconimitnicatioiis and informa- I

62 these satellites required installation of a new in 19i2 1):. S.\S.\ :is ;I satellite effort specifically de- groiind system, which was accepted in February signed to test remote sensing techniques for ob- 1979. serving surface features of the Earth. Gco.slnliontiry Satellites. The NOAA designation Srrtcllilc Data Zlzsfribi~lion.During 1979, NESS for its Geostationary Operational Environmental I)eg;in upgracling the Satellite Field Services Stations Satellite system is GOES, the successor to NASA's (SFSS) by p2i;ising out their photo laboratories and prototype geostationary Synchronous Aleteorologi- converting to ;in ;~ll-electronicimage displaying cal S;itellites (ShIS) . Since 1974, two SMS and three system. I

64 lineate the precursor conditions of severe weather 111addition to being tlic first intepited use of satel- development. lite clat:i. this also wxs the first field use of an elec- C;cos~;itioii~ii-)-s;itellite-dcl.i\.ed winds often were tronic satellite iniage animation device. The bene- obtained simultaneously with Tiros-N overpasses. fit5 of s;itellite c1;iL:i and satellite image ;tnimation to The capability was developed to use Tiros-N sound- the ~~cse:irch~vcre con\.iiicingly demonstrated on ings to assign pressure heights to these winds. Eval- .Iuril IO. l!)i!).~vhcn tornadoes along the Red River iia tions suggest that the cloud-height determination Valley tlcvastated the towns of Vernon and Wichita is considerably improved by merging these data Falls, Texas, mtl Lawton, Oklahoma. Satellite data sources. This procedure was used at the University cxlled attention to this threat and allowed fore- of Wisconsin to determinc cloud heights from Goes cxsters to sound an early alert, thus preventing the I-dcrivetl winds over the Indian Ocean during the possibility for further loss of lives and property. Glolxil Wen ther Experiment. The data from Project Sesame are currently being hfoniloying Global Radiation. Radiation budget analyzed. data werc derived from the Tiros-N Advanced Very NESS’s Satellite Field Services Stations (SFSS) High Resolution Radiometer beginning January 1, iverc instrumental in many new environmental 1979. Data from the Tiros-N satellites, like the warning activities during 1979. One of the primary ITOS series, include measurements from which functions of the SFSS is to support the National various heat budget components are derived and Mieathcr Service (NWS) by providing interpreta- niapped globally on different time scales. These tion of GOES images to improve the accuracy of heat budget components are important diagnostic i.outine forecasts and to provide timely severe tools for meteorological and climatic studies and weather warnings to the public. a soiircc of information to the growing number of In response to a demonstrated need to improve scientists interested in climate fluctuations. These niarinc and coastal weather services in the Gulf of data also provide information on the radiative Alexico, a Gulf of Rlexico satellite support unit was rkginies of the Earth, and they yield indirect evi- staffed in June 1979 and located with the Kansas dence on variations in cloudiness, ice and snow City SFSS.‘In 1980, the “Gulf Support Unit” will be cover, and other heat sources. moved to Slidell, Louisiana and will be collocated The Earth Ikidiation I%utlgct (ERB) experiment, with the NWS Forecast Office. carried on Nimbus 7 (launched October 24, 1978), In 1979, NESS’s Synoptic Analysis Branch placed continued to monitor solar output during 1979. into opcration a procedure for estimating precipita- The derivcd solar constant remained at a value of tion intensities from GOES satellite images. These 1376 watts per square meter. The ERB experiment, precipitation estimates were provided as input to hy observing in detail both incoming and outgoing the NWS forecasts of possible flash-flood events. radiation, will provide accurate information on the The most notable event for which rainfall estimates Earth’s radiation budget as a function of location werc provided was the Pearl River flood in Missis- and time. sippi. Rainfall estimates also are provided for the Environmental Warning Seruices. On selected International Water Commission (United States days from March through June 1979, NESS op- and Rlexico) and are useful for planning the regula- erated GOES satellites in a special three-minute- tion of water flow in the Rio Grande River. interval iniaging niotlc to support the Severe En- In research, infrared measurements from geo- vironmental Storms and Mesoscale Experiment stationary satellites continued to be used in a statis- (SESARIE). The objective of Sesame is to use a tical approach to measuring rainfall for input to combined set of satellite and conventional observa- the NWS river-flow models. While a correlation tions to allow meteorologists, for the first time, to was found between infrared cloud-top temperatures observe convective cloud and storm development and rainfall, results were improved by adding other with a resolution in space and time comparable to meteorological variables derived from a combina- the scales of the atmospheric phenomena being ob- tion of satellite measurements ani1 conventional ob- served. Meteorologists are trying to determine the servations. Testing the repeatability of these rela- fine-scale, short-lived mechanisms that trigger tionships tinder various meteorc logical conditions thunderstorms and thunderstorm systems which continues. produce hail, tornadoes, and damaging winds. Ad- NOAA’s National Hurricane ind Experimental ditional support consisted of communications ser- Meteorology Laboratory has continued to use satel- vices and the provision of the new electronic satel- lite data for its research into hurricanes and con- lite image video display system. This system was vective cloud systems. Satellite d tta were collected placeti at NOA’4’s National Severe Storms Labora- over Hurricanes David and Frederic as these storms tory, Norman, Okl~~lioma,for use by the researchers. passed over Hispaniola, Cuba, and the United States. Simultaneous data also were collected by Cloiitl imxges of the western Pacific Ocean from NOAA’s research aircraft. Aircra f t tln ta i ncl iided Japan’s Geostationary Meteorological Satellite are low-level wind fields, storm intensities, and digitired now available to forecasters at Honolulu and the radar depicting the rain distributions with time. K;ition;il ;\Icteorological Center. These pictures Aircraft and satellite data sets will be iised to study (‘over a large ;\rea of the Pacific not viewed by the degree to which cloud motions represent winds United States geostationary satellites; and they are at the lower levels, the accuracy of storm intensity ;in important addition to observing upstream estimates from satellites when compared with ob- ~ve;itlicrconditions over the open ocean. served values, the :iccuracy antl detail of rainfall 111 1979 an operational program was started to estimates from satellite images when compared with nie:isure natriral passive gamma radiation by flying quantitative airborne radar tnemireinents, the 110s- instrrinientetl aircraft over selected areas of the sible indications of diurnal variations in the satel- nortlt-central P1;iiiis. This radiation information is lite-observed cloud field when compared with radar iisctl to help estim;itc water content of snow cover. observations and observed wind fields, and forecast Wlieii irsctl with s;ttellitc information on the areal changes in storm intensity antl motion from satel- estent of snow cover, NWS has a powerful new tool lite-ohserved cloud characteristics by comparison to to I)cttcr judge the thre;it of flooding from the i-ese;irch aircraft nicasurements. Wind fields snolvmelt. have Ixen determined from cloiid motion in the Zk/crmi~i~7gOmin Conditi0n.r. The NO.L4 Sca- oiiter fringes of hurricanes but not within the inner \;it I)rogr:im 1v;is siihjectcd to an intensive review core of the storm. Riiinfall estimates froin satellite inimctli;itcly following the satellite’s demise on Oc- images seem to give reasonable results, but quantita- 1ol)cr !), 1978. .-ldjiistments were made in the tive conip;irisons over lengthy periotlc of time have pl~ititiedexperiment program to account for certain not I)een possible I)ec;iiise of little s~irface truth data wliicli could not be collected. The result was data. An accumulation of digitired radar measure- c;incell;ition of cert;iin experiments. hlajor emphasis ments over long periods will provide dnt;i for these ivas tlii.cctetl toward the surface truth areas where coni pa tisons. Sa tel I i te st orm-i ti t ensi t y cs t i 1113 tes 11 a ve ~~~~~C~IITCIIIship, aircraft, ant1 satellite data were Ixen re;ison;il)ly good, hut large errors are occasion- collected during the 99-day Seasat lifetime. These ally found. Further study of the satellite and con- rve1.e the r\’O.\;\-coordinnted Gulf of Alaska Seasat comitant xircraft data should provide more relixlile Esperimcnt, the Joint Air Sea Interaction experi- comparisons. nieiit, oceanic tropical ;I nd extratropical storms, The hTa~y-NO~4~4Joint Ice Center Iiccame opera- Giilf Stremi, polar ice and other areas where sig- tional in ,June 1979. I’he A1ask:in and Hemispheric it ific;i n t surf:ic e trii tli was available. Ice Analyses :ire now produced ;it the Joint Ice Cen- During its period of operation Sexsat covered ter at Fleet Weather Facilitv, Suitland, Alarylatid. most of the 1978 tropic;il storins. It made 126 passes These ice charts are an important aid to shipping over 21 hrirric;ities antl typhoons, 179 passes over conip;inies that resupply Arctic ports. ‘1’21~ coni- 20 tropical storms, ;itid 64 passes over tropical de- panics can route their ships to avoid severe ice pressions. Sc:isat mc1;ir images were conip;ire(l with conditions, reducing the risk of damage ant1 reduc- coincident srlrf;icc observations m;itlc IIY NO.Z.4 ing the costs in time antl fuel. during the Gulf of ;\l;iska experiment. The results During 1979, the iZnc1ior;iges SFSS expanded its indicate that s:itellite-l)orne imaging r;id;ii-s ait ex- operation to provide 24-horir service to Alaska. ’4 tremely ~~~ilii~il~letools in the study of oceaii surf;ice new tecliniqw to forecast the intensification of ;intl intei~ri;ilI~X\YS, surf;ice currents, atid mesoscale storni systems in the mid-Pacific and Gulf of Alaska ;I tniosplicric disturbances. was opet-ationally tested. Because of the limitations N0;l.i’~Pacific ;\ lari ne Environmen ta 1 La bor;i- of numerical forecasting over the oceans, it is often I oq (PAlEI ,) provitletl the meteoro1ogic;il ana I !.si.s difficult to locate, track, and forecast the develop- of con\~ention;ilsurface oherva tioiis for comparison ment of storm in the mid-Pacific. This technique, with Seasat sc;itteronicter wind fields. The scat- developed at the Anchorage SFSS, iises satellite data tcronictcr potenti;illy is a useful tool for opeixtional to locate ant1 provide a quantitative estimate of the metcoi-ology I)ec;iuse it can accurately locate low central pressure that can he used by NWS fore- prcssiii~ centers, storm producing regions, and casters to estimate storm severity and issue weather /oti;il hinds of high winds. and gale warnings. Of 81 operational cases, the KO.\,l’s N;ition;il Hurricane and Experimental SFSS surf;ice pressure forecast guidance ;ivcr:iged \leteorolog> 1,aboratory ewlrl;ttctl the ~isef~ilnessof 1.28 mi1lil)ars lower than the observed valiie; the wccllite-sciiml stirface o1)serv:itions in the vicinity numerical predictions of ccntrd pressures averaged of hurricanes to provide inform;ttion concerning 15 to I9 millibars higher than observed values. the areal extettt of 1iurric;ine and gale force winds

66 and to provide initial data to hurricane forec;ist 1Tvic.e tlail). over Coast Guard radio, gives a se- models and storm surge models. Data g-;itlicred tlur- c11iciice ol points that i.epresent the west or north ing the 1978 hurricane season by the Seasnt micro- ~v;illof the (;ulf Strcani. C;oast;il shipping interests wave scattei-oinetei- system have been Iised in this iisetl rlii5 inforiii;ition to route their ships to take study. Preliminnry i-csdts int1ic;ite that the satel- :idv:iiit:i,qe of tlic occ;in currents. lite surface wind speeds, below g11e force, are over- .I tii-;igcnc), group conducted ;I study related to estimated by about 15 percent. .4lthorigh winds in tlic tlcvelopiiieiit of ;I National Oce;iiiic Satellite the hurricnne's inner core are not ivcll i.esoIJ.etl, 5) ctciii (SOSS) ;ind formally piiblished its findings this method of remote sensing oRers great poten- iii .\I;ii.ch 1979. This group, ivitli representation tial in obtaining ;I sn;ipcliot of the 1iurric;inc wind 11 0111 Coninicrcc, N;.ISX, ant1 Defense, focused on field. tlic opci.:itioii:il needs of the civil and defense com- NO:I.,I's Wave Prop;ig;ition I,aboi.;i tor), tlcvcl- I ii I I 11 i ti es req tii ri ng occ:i nogix ph ic in forma t ion, and oped ;I computer program for estimating significant on the space ;iiitl gromd systeni that would be waveheight antl iiiean sea level using Seasat i.;icI;ir iiec.cwi.y to s;itisly those needs. SOSS would pro- altimeter data. Conipai'isoiis with SOIIIWS of surface vitlc ;I liniitetl oper;itioii;il demonstration of the truth show agreeiiieiit for signi fica lit uxvclicigli ts ;ibility of s;itellitcs to sense occmic phenomena. up to 30 centinieteix PAIEI, ;iiitl Geodetic 1iese;ii~li Zk/c,i.rr,ini~gI.cikc Contlifioiz.s. The Great Lakes and Development I,al,or;itory investig;itors coni- Ice .\ii:iI!,sis w;is 1xodricetl twice ~vccklycliiring the pleted the first definitive baseline expcrinient coin- ice wxson froiii ,J~iiiiiarytliroiigh April 1979. Visible piring s;~tcllite-;iltiiiieter-deri~e~l ocean sui.fncc Iiigli-resoltitioil satellite images from both the topography wi tli s1iipl)oard olxervations. Results -1'ii os-S and GOES sLitellites were used to annlym show that the satellite ;iltimeter can inc;isurc surfac~ tlic ice conditions in the lakes. Ice conditions were topogr;iphy within 10 ceiitinieters of th;it nips- very se\~ci.etliiiiiig the second half of Fcbrii:iry. Be- iired with standard shiphoard occanogr;iphic t~vccnl~c1~1~11~1r~~ 17-22, 1979. all five Great Lakes measui-eiiien ts. nwe coiiipletcly froren except for a small area in In 1979, two niajor oceanographic cruises were wilt1inntci.n I~kcOntario ;ind an area in central conducted to obtaiii srirf;ice truth tlat;~to siiplmrt I .;ike ,\Iic~Iiifi;in.'I'hcse ;inalyses provide inforination the Niml)us 7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) to .sliips na~.ig;itiiig-this vital waterway. experiments. The first cruise was condrictccl in Zk/c~r.rriiningHytlmlogirnl Conditions. Elements ;\larch 1979 in the Gulf of California. and the sec- of NO.\.Z, N.\SLI, and the Department of Agricril- ond cruise was conducted in Slay antl June 19X tiire coopeixtctl in conducting two soil moisture in the northwest Atlantic. The cruises were supple- field missions ;it the I,uverne, AIinnesotn, hydro-

mented by two field trips to IScrmiidn to 0l)t-i'L 111 at- logic test site in Noimiber 1978 and June 1979. mospheric transniittancc me:isureinents. Optical .Iltliougli the groiintl data sets have been processed, and biological incasiirements were ol)tainetl from a aircraft ;iiitl satellite measurements have not yet wide range of water niasses by scientists from NESS, Ixeii received. A nuclear-powered, combination PMEL,, Scripps Institution of Oceanogr:iphy, Uni- \iioiv-~v;irci.-ecliii\.~il~iit;iiitl soil-moisture pige was versity of Southern California, University of Alianii, installed, and a ht;i Collection Platform will be and San Jose State College. Results from these modified to tr;insmit the d:i ta through the GOES cruises provide the first comparisons hetween re- Data Collection System motely sensed ocean color from the CZCS, surface- NESS continued operational snowmapping from measured ocean coloi-, and the distribution of sus- s;itellite data for thirty river basins in the United pended particulate matter, especially that associated States and C;inad;i. Snowcover during the 1978-1979 with biological activity. winter season was found to be slightly below aver- The Gulf Stream Analysis, which begin in 1973, age in the Pacific Northwest, average in California's continued to be pi-oducecl in 1979. Based 011 high- Sicrix Nev;ida, and above average in the mountains resolution infrared images from the Tiros-N and of .Irizonn, Colorado, and Wyoming. Snowmapping GOES satellites, the weekly composite map shows of the Afissoriri River basin (40,700 sqwre kilom- the location of the Gulf Stream, warm and cold etei-s) ;il)ove Helena, Aloiitana, wsbegun during eddies, and the thermal interface between the slope the 1958-1979 se;isoii at the request of the Depart- and shelf waters. Since fish congreg;cte at thermal ment of Agriculture's Soil Conservation Service and boundaries, fishermen use these charts to locate the National Weather Service. Also, weekly satellite- productive fishing grounds. A related product tlerived snow maps for hfghanistan and neighbor- which describes only the north or west boundary of ing 1-Iiiii:iIayan nations were begun in April 1979 the Gulf Stream also was produced three times a at the request of Agriculture's Joint Agricultural week. The Gulf Stream Wall Bulletin, broadcast Weather Facility.

67 The National Bureau of Standards has studied xr:i ten ;iclj:icent to .\l:iska. High-1-esolution infrared the electromagnetic scattering properties of snow- digital data fi-om Tiros-N are used. Analyses are packs to provide technical data to NASA to develop prepared weekly for cloudfree areas, and they are new sensor systems for earth observation applica- tlistiil,iited to 35 locations by the National Weather tions. Service A1;iskan facsimile network. The maps also Monitol-ing Agricicltirl-a1 Conditions. A new pro- are mailed to 25 other subscribers. Since the be- gram was initiated by NESS in 1979 to provide dcd- havior of the sea surface temperature field of icatetl support to NWS ;rgricultural meteorologists .\l;isknn watei's is relatively unknown, these maps in the states of Oregon, Washington, Californi;i, allow researchers, commercial fishermen, and state and Arizona. Satellite data are used to improve frost :ind Federal ni;iiiagement personnel to study and forecasts to prevent crop loss. Detailed analyses of coiwl;ite fish catch statistic ince the salmon, liali- satellite data from po1;worbiting and geostation;u-y btit, arid ct.;ih fisheries are the economic backbone satellites are made and disseminated to the agricul- of iiiost of co;ist;il Alaska, the value and support tural meteorologists who arc in direct contact with of this product among commercial and recreational the fruit growers. These analyses incorporate cloud fishermen continues to grow. cover, movement of clouds, and changes of intensity 7'hc N:i tional Fisheries Engineering Laboratory of clouds on ;I mesoscale in areas of coticcntrated (NFEI.) , tlic National Weather Service, and NASA agricrtltural activity. Further research is being con- arc coopera ting to develop a small portable satellite ducted to correlate satelli te-derived temperature comiiiitnic;t tions tominal for the me of government and ground-moistrire-level tneasiirements with sur- o1,scrvei.s st;itioned on foreign and domestic fishing face-observed data so that future satellite analyses ~~cs~clsTvithin tlic U.S. Fisheries Conservation and may be used to reveal actual readings. These read- Al;iii;igement Zone (3%-kilometer limit). This will ings will be used to establish the probability of frost I)i-oi,itlctlic observer with a means to relay weather with sufficient lead time to allow prodticers to take (lata, c;itch, position, and other information to the preventive measures to protect crops. 1;incl on ;I nearly real-time basis. From November 1974 until Novenilier 1978, Th e 1 )i'ot ot y pc 1\ Lir i ne R Ia m ma 1 Tra nsm i t ter de- NOAA, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and NL4S.4 ~.clopcdfor tt.:icking porpoise using the Nimbus 7 coopeixtetl in a Large Area Crop Inventory Ex- Kantlom .\ccess hI;inagement System was tested in periment (1,ACIE). The purpose of 1,ACIE was to 1979. Field tests of the instrument were conducted determine if satellite crop monitoring and meteoro- in Harc.aii;rn xva ters I>y attaching ti~;insniittei-sto logical olxwrvations could he used with climate ;tnd H:iw:tiiati spotted dolphins and observing their crop-yield models to make timely and accurate esti- nioveineiit. If thew esperimcnts are successful, op- mates of friture crop production in the nia,ior wheat- cration;il iinits will he procitred for further tagging producing countries of tlic world. cspcrinients in 1980. AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resources Inven- NFEI. has modified its effort to measure ocean tory Surveys Throiigh Aerospace Remote Sensing) srirf;icc circulation itsing scatterometer data because is a new pro,iect that began in 1979. AgRISTARS of the loss of Se;iwt. An experiment to determine is a cooperative research effort among five Fetkral ~rti.l;icclayer ti.;insport in the Gulf of RIcsico is ;igencies-Departinents of Commerce, Agiiculturc, I)cing c-ontliictetl. lki thythermograpli data will be and Interior, Agency for International Develop c.oiiil>ineclivith coastal circulation and open ocean ment, and hT,4S.I. The objectives of AgRJSTARS inotlcls 10 develop a complete interactive display are to develop an e;irly warning systeni able to of tlic Gitlf of Alexico's circulation. A grid of 78 detect conditions affecting crop production and stcitions has I,cen estal,lished to determine contincn- quality and to provide techniques for more accurate tal shelf cii.citl;ition in homogeneous water masses forecasts of domestic and foreign commodity pro- to pt'ovitlc insight into the expected sea-level re- duction. The AgRISTARS eRort will tlevclop and sponse to various wind fields. ;\Icnhaden and test techniques using advanced innote sensing (lata hi.itii1) tlnta are being obtained to correlate with obtained from NO.4A and NASA satellites atid se- tliew niotlels. The first imp1cment;ition of the lected i-emote-sensing data from aircraft. Whilc the c.o;ist;il circulation model for Gulf wters adjacent potentially most valriablc return of XgRISI~XRSre- to I~~ttisiaiia;itid Texis has been completed, show- search will accrue from improved iiifortnation coii- ing ;I coi.rel;itioii between water circulation and cerning foreign crop prod tic tion, domes tic ngricit I- shrimp yield. titre information also will be useful. Satellite data En7~i t'o 11 r n t n 1 illo n ito 1-i n g CTsi ng Dn t n n 1 I oys. should me;iii better commodity information ;it the 111 1979, the IVO.\A Data Buoy Office converted :ill county ;ind regional level. 22 of its tl;it:t buoys to transmit environmental and Fishel-ics Monitol-ing. During 1970, NESS began conimiinic~itionstl;it;i through the GOES satellites. issuing surface temperature maps of the ocean Soiiic buoys were idocated to provide tnaxiiiiiim coverage of the most critical data-sparse marine polar-orbiting Tiros-N system satellites, and at least areas. Six buoys are located in the Northeast Pacific 16 countries now have the capability to receive and Gulf of Alaska, four are located in the Gulf of High Resolution Picture Transmissions and Direct Mexico, ten are located in the Atlantic, and two Sounder Broadcasts from which atmospheric tem- are located in a new Great Lakes data buoy net- I'er"tiirc/liumitlity profiles may be generated. work. The Great Lakes network will be expanded While the primary ;ippIications of these direct read- to eight buoys over tlie next two years. Plans are out transmissions are in storm detection and avia- also underway to incorporate the 12 Coast Guard tion forecasting, these satellite observations also are large navigational buoys, located at the sites of supporting speci;il hydrologic, oceanographic, agri- former lightships, into the GOES Data Collection cultural, and other operational and research pro- System. A prototype system now is in operation on gr;iins overseas. Sea-ice reconnaissance, snow accu- the Columbia River Bar Navigltional Buoy. Both mulation ;tnd melt, agricultural weather forecasts, the data buoys and the navigational buoys provide locust control activities, and pelagic fish migration meteorological data and surface water temperatures. ;ind harvesting are among the many activities being Subsurface water temperatures and wave data are supported by direct readout of satellite data. obtained from selected buoys. These data are used En71i1.0 n tti c n t (1 1 Sate 1lit e Assess nz e n 1 s. Preci pi t a- by the National Weather Service for forecasting tion estimates from Tiros-N and GOES satellite and storm warning, by the Bureau of I.;ind hIan- images are used 11y the Environmental Data and agement for continental shelf xsessment, and by Information Service to directly support the Depart- various scientific programs with specialized marine nient of State's Agency for International Develop- data requirements. AI1 moored buoys are equipped nieiit (AID) disaster assistance effort. These assess- with position-fixing systems which permit the Nim- nients evaluatc the effects of weather variables on bus or Tiros-N satellite to locate them when they crops in the developing nations of Africa, Southeast go adrift. Most buoys have been modified to use Asia, and the Caribbean basin, alerting AID of the Tiros-N Argos Data Collection System for posi- potential droughts, floods, and other weather- tion fixing. induced natural disasters. This support has enabled earlier shipments of food and improved efficiency in planning and implementing emergency opera- Other Uses of Satellites and Space tions.

International Cooperatiolz Domestic Activities Global Weather Experimcnt. During the Opera- tional Year (December 1, 1978 to November 30, Demog)xphic Slrtdies. The Census Bureau is us- 1979) , NESS has archived satellite-derived observa- ing I,antIsat data to update its statistics on land and tions of cloud-motion vectors, sea surface tempera- water areas of tlie United States for the 1980 Decen- tures, and vertical temperature profiles on magnetic nial Census. Digitized county boundaries are being tapes that are sent to the Special Observing Data fitted to screen-displayed Landsat images, and Centre in Sweden. Approximately 40,000 cloud mo- through interactive processing, land is separated tion vector5 per-month are derived from the GOES from water. Area measurements are then extracted east and west satellites. About 1 million sea-surface for both of these surfaces. This new technique is temperatures and 40,000 atmospheric temperature consitleral~lymore accurate and cost-effective than soundings per month are obtained from the Tiros-N the conventional methods used in past census satellite. The European Space Agency provided the operations. control and data handling functions of Goes 1, lo- Idandsatdata also are being studied for a possible cated over the Indian Ocean. The University of future census application under the terms of a Wisconsin processed Goes 1 data to obtain wind NASA Applications Pilot Test agreement. In 1979, fields over this area. The quantity and quality of investigations tested the use of computer-processed satellite-derived meteorological observations are ex- Landsat data for showing land-cover changes and pected to greatly enhance the utility of the final delineating urban zones around two sample metro- data base obtained from the Global Weather Ex- politan areas. Digital registration has been accom- periment. These data will be used in global atmos- plished for Landsat scenes over several different pheric modeling research. years, and these are being processed to show any Sharing Dala. More than 120 countries now avail significant land-cover change. The results will be themselves of tlie medium-resolution Automatic compared with interpreted changes detected on air- Picture Transmission services provided by the craft photography for the same time period. Determination of the Elmth's Shape and Grauity Satellite Commzinications Field Public Service Satellites. The National Telecom- The National Ocean Survey (NOS), as a part of munications and Information Administration its mission to maintain a network of accurately (NTIA) was instructed through the President's Na- positioned ground stations for geodetic surveying tional Civil Slxice Policy to stimulate the aggrega- and mapping, continues its work with NASA to tion of potential public service users of communica- evaluate applications of space systems to geodesy tions satellite services, drawing on technology and geodynamics. In its continuing investigations already in existence, and to work with the Agency into Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) , a for Intei~nationalDevelopment and the Department system based on interferometric observations of ex- of Interior in translating tloiiiestic experience in tragalactic radio sources, NOS is establishing a net- public service programs into programs for less de- work of three observatories to regularly monitor veloped couiitrich ;iiitl remote tell-itoiies. The In- polar motion and universal time. Two of the three teragenc)' Committee on Satellite Telecommunica- required stations, located near Ft. Davis, Texas, tions Xpp1ic;itions (ICSTA), chaired by NTIA and and Westfoi-tl, ;2Iassachiisetts, are scheduled for test repi.esenting 18 Federal agencies, has brought about operations in 1980. This network should be capable progress in tlie first of these three missions, market of determining polar motion to 10 centimeters :iggregation. With ICSTA guidance and support an and universal time to 0.1 millisecond over 8 olm'ational public service satellite and cable televi- hours. NOS continues to collect satellite Doppler sion network began service in October 1979. In- data for pi-ecise positioning to compare with other itially offering 22.5 hours :[ week of accredited col- newly tleveloped space technology, such as lunar lege coiii'ses and other public services to residents laser ranging, satellite laser ranging, and VLBI. ;inti educ;ition;il agencies in ,~ppal:icIii~i,in 1980 Satellite Doppler data also are used as inputs to this network will extend its services nationwide. the model of tlie Earth being refined by the Dop- In fillfilling its international mission in public pler oi~I)it:il comp~itations in tlie international service satellites, NTIA has established collabora- polar motion experiment. tive rel:itioiisl~ipswith the .4gency for International Studies of ways in which the signals from the Development (AID) and the Department of the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites can lie Interioi.. The support is designed to provide basic used to incas~ii-ecrustal movement antl in general telephone and broadcast programming to remote surveying reqiiirements we being carried out by alas of lesser developed countries via communica- the National 13ureau of Standards (NBS) , the Jet tions satellites. Propulsion I,alloratory, the Nav~lSiirface Weapons Tcrknirnl Strfipo~tAc/i7iify. NTIA's Institute for Center, a joint Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ?'elecomiii~inic;itions Sciences (ITS) is currently un- ogy-Di-apel- Laboixtories group, and tlie National dertaking :I series of studies to investigate the poten- Geodetic Survey. The work at Geodetic Survey and ti;)] inipct of the operation of the envisioned Satel- NBS has shown theoretically that pliase-difference lite Power System (SPS) upon the ionosphere and measui-emcnts on signals reconstructed from the in- telecomrnii~iic;itions systems. SPS would be a geo- coming GPS signals are capable of accurately deter- stationary s:itcllite system with solar collectors and mining tlie baseline between the receivers with only is one of ;I numlier of alternative energy sources two hours of observations per site. under investigation by the Department of Energy. NOS also published a new glolial model for the The system ~vouldinvolve the transfer of solar Earth's gravity field based on the density layer energy from geostationary satellites to the surface method. Altimeter observations from the Geody- of the Earth. This energy transfer could lead to namics Experimental Ocean Satellite (Geos 3) sul>st;intial heating of the ionosphere which could antl gravity, Doppler, and satellite triangulation dversely affect the performance of telecommiinica- data were used. NOS began an analysis of altimeter tions systems. data from Seasat and provided assistance to the ITS has revielved tlie GOES satellite certification Jet Propulsion I,aboi-atory in preparing data reduc- st:intl;irtls and recommended some revision to tion progi-anis. Altimeter data have been used to NOAA that are necessary since the GOES Data obtain elevation variations over land. NOS also Collection Systein will be integrated into a world- prepared a study on Gravsat, a proposed pair of wide network. ITS also witnessed certification tests low-a1titude satellites that sense high-frequency at tlvo private contracting companies who have de- variations in the gravity field. This study confirnied \.eloped new Dxta <:olleciion Plntlorm radio sets that at an altitude of 200 kilometers the system can for use by local, state, and federal agencies. recover gravity data within 3 milligals over one- In(oxcilionci1 Cornmitnicntions Policy. NTIA's degree blocks. Office of International Affairs participates in the

70 development of international satellite policies and ical measurements on geostationary satellites before agreements. In addition to tlie traditional oversight ;tiid after launch. th;it NT'I.\ exercises over Coincat's IN'I'E1,SAT Salclli/e Time So-vice. Distribution of National activities, rcsponsil)ilitie\ pci'tinent to Conisat's 13rireaii of Stand;irds (NRS) -referenced time code participation in the International hlaritime Satel- ;it 468 AIHz froin two of NOAA's Goes satellites lite Organization (INLIARSAT) also were assumed W:IS continued ;ind improved during 1979. An NRS- by tlie ;igency. NTI.\ cnsIIres that Conisat does tlevelopetl instrumentation system was installed at not participate in ;I manner contradictory to U.S. XO;\;\'s Command and Data Acquisition station, telecommunications policy. W;illops. Virginia. The new system provides more NTIA hay continued its role ;is monitor and co- trli:tl,lc :ind stable timing signals for a variety of ordinator of the government's me of the radio- applica tions in navigation, communications, elec- frequency spectrum. In that capacity, ITS-throitgh tric po~vei.iietrvork operations, and scientific data participation with the International Radio Con- monitoring tlirortghout the Western Hemisphere. sultative Committee, an agency of the International Te1ecommunic;itions Union, and the Interdepart- ment Radio Advisory Committee-contributed to Space Support Activities the prepar;ition of the United States position relat- ing to satellite communications for the 1979 Gen- Neasureme?zt and Calibration Services eral World Administrative Radio Conference. ?'he National Riireaii of Standards (NBS) is Comwm-ia/ Sa/clli/c Sei-riice. The International ~~ovidingc;ilibr;itions and standards to support the hlaritimc Satellite (INRIAIISAT) Organization . Spice Shuttle program. This has included develop- was implementetl in 1979 by a commitment of ment of standards for near and vacuum ultraviolet funds from participating countries or entities. Tile priinary and transfer soitrces, including new instru- Conisat C;ener;il Corpor~tion hxs I)ecn desig- nients for direct infliglit calibrations, for solar nated in law to be the United States entity in IN- pli) sics I-atliomctry; con~tr~ictionof an instrument MARSXT. The U.S. Rlaritime Adniinistration and for the tleteriiiin;1tion of ozone cross-section data; tlie Cmst Gii:iId :ire working with Coinsat to tlcvelopnient of research stanchrtls for lialocarbons define :ippropriatc safety services for incorporation and nitrous oxide; and devclopnient of ;I chamber into INhfARSrZT. to ca1iI)r;ite vacuum ultraviolet spectrometers. con- The hlaritime Administration successfully NUS has provided radiation data for space sliield- cluded its research and development program that iiig requircntents. The longer duration of present provided compitter-assisted fleet management ;ind pl;innetl satellite missions and tlie increasing through RIxritime Satellite (XIARISAT) comniuni- IISC' of i.atli;i tion-ccnci ti1.c niet;~I-oxitlc,semiconduc- cations to ten US-flag ocean carrier companies. lor tlei,itcs ni:ike it iiii1)oi tant to ltave ;icciir;Ite csti- This effort provides a satellite communications iii;ite\ of i.;idi;i~iondose levels inside sptcccrnft. network that links the corporate offices of the ship- ping companies directly with the ships. Future efforts will focus on the further development of Applicatiotis of Space to Science and Technology shipboard management information needs and re- quirements that will provide the framework for IN- 111 prel~arationfor the Space Shuttle program, MARSAT uti 1iza t ion. NKS is investigating fundamental measurement Satellifc Frequencies. The feasibility of using tlie prol~lcnis~vhich may be studied in the micro-gravity Orbiting Standards Platform (OSP) satellite to ac- environment of space. These include the mecha- curately measure radiated fields and antenna prop- iiisins through which gravity interferes with nearly erties of satellite communication links and compo- all nieasurements of equilibrium properties of fluids nents has been investigated jointly by the National close to the liquid-vapor critical point; methods for Bureau of Standards (NBS), NASA's Goddard control of convection effects during alloy solidifica- Space Flight Center, the Institute of Telecom- tion, including expected effects from micro-gravity; munications Sciences, and Coinsat 1,al)oratories. and methods for determining the thermophysical Heavy use of the electromagnetic spectrum in the properties of reactive materials by use of container- geostationary orbit lixi increased interference be- less techniques possible in space. tween different satellite systems ;tnd is providing Experimental and theoretical studies are being the impetus for extensive frequency reuse. For this c:irried out, as part of NASA's Lewis Research Cen- reason, and because of higher investment costs of ter's Space Shuttle coml)ustion research program, satellite replacement and new satellite deployment, to determine the effects of gravity on flame inhibi- it was found that a standards satellite would serve a tion by halogens. Improved understanding of com- unique and cost-effective function in making crit- bustion mechanisms will provide information needed to better define the application of halocar- The comprehensive data base provided by the bons as flame inhibitors both in the Space Shuttle two International Sun-Earth Explorer satellites and terrestrial environments. now extends over inore than a year, providing long tinic, spatial, and energy icsolution data throughout tlie region surrounding the Earth out to its ap- Solar Activity proxiinate apogee of 21 Earth radii. Analysis tech- niques have been developed which enable the mo- The I1ite1~ti;itiot1;11Solar hlaximuni Year (ISAlY) tion of the magnetospheric boundary to be program, began in August 1979, will continue determined near satellite crossing. A wave structure through February 1981. This period coincides with ;ilso has been found on that boundary which pro- the solar cycle maximum (sunspot surge). Constel- vides inforni;ition on the nature of the interaction lations of satellites poised around the Sun and and niomentum and energy transfer from tlie solar Earth will record detailed development of active wind into the magnetosphere. The coupling of the regions on the solar surface, and arrays of Exrth- solar wind and the niagnetosphere and the explo- surface solar observatories will coordinate their sive cnergi7ation of charged particles in the inag- viewing of the growth of these regions. In particu- netospheric tail-responsible for auroral precipita- lar, scientists with experiments on board the Solar tion of energetic particles and for magnetospheric hfaximum hfission satellite, to be launched in early siiI)storin--;ire crucial to the understanding of the 1!)XO, arc iexiving siipport fi.oin ;I Spice Environ- global dynaiiiics of the magnetosphere. ment Services (;enter (SESC:) unit cst;il)lished at Sfcllni. A ~~no.~fi//~w~.The National Bureau of Godtl:ii-tl Spice Flight Centel-. Data from the Tiros- Stantl;irds (NBS) has been developing the absolute N and the thi.ee Intei~natioti;ilSun-Earth Explorer radiometric calil~rationtechniques and the spectro- satellites will be avai1;ible for oper;ition;il iise by scopic ;inalysis methods for reliable measin-ement SESC in late 1980. of physical properties (temperatures, densities, velocities, and niagnetic fields) in solar and stellar pl~isiii~is.Using &ita obtained from the Copernicus Space and Atmospheric Research and Internntional Ultraviolet Explorer satellites, NBS is applying these methods to the analysis of Space Physics iiItr;ivio1et spectra from the quiescent and flaring chroniosphei-es of single and close binary stars Zntcrfilnnctnry Physics. The effect of coron;il mass cooler than the Sun. X-r;iy observations with the motion, initiated Iiy solar flares and other transient Higli Energy Astronomy Olmrvatorics (HEAO 1 disturbances on the Srin, \V;IS es;iriiitied NO.\:\'s by and 2) are Ixing used to model the hot coronae in Space Environment 1,aboratoi-y (SEI.) in cool~ern- stars cooler than the Sun and to study stellar flares. tion with the N,-\SA hlarshall Space Flight Center, the Harvard College Obseivatory, and the Univer- sity of Alabama, Huntsville. Major features of Aeronaut ica I Programs coronal transient events, such as their expanding bubble-like characteristics and the development of Aeronazrtical Charting shock waves, were successfully tlescribcd by theoret- ical computer siniulations. i\dditional studies have The National Ocean Survey (NOS), which pub- been iii xlc o ti m 111 t i-ditne nsiona 1, ti me-depende ti t lishes atid tlistiibrites the nation's tloiiiestic acro- simulations of the interplanetary consequences of nautical charts, has developed a new bound-volume these solar disturbances. lot~iiiatfor Instrument Approach Procedure Charts Mngnc~/o.spl~c~ricPhysics. Significant advances in (I.\PCs). These charts portray all aeronnutical data the understanding of the dynamics of the ring cur- i'ecliiiretl to m;ike an instrument approach to air- rent (produced by geomagneticall y trapped charged ports in the contiguous United States, Pucrto Rico, particles comprising the Van Allen radioactive ant1 the Virgin Islands. This rep1;ices the tradi- belts) have been made by SEI, scientists. Following tion;il loose-1e;if volume which pilots had to man- earlier 1aI)or:itory studies defining the importance iiall~~riptlatc every 14 days. NOS now issues 15 of ions heavier than hydrogen, further study has bound volumes containing all current Feder;il ,%via- indicated an important aspect of ring current en- iioii .\tliiiiiiisti.~itio~~(~-.\.\)-~il)~~r(~ve[l I;\P<:s every hancement during geomagnetic disturbances. A 56 (lays. C1i;inges in procedures, within the publica- physically consistent theory of the production of le, are issued in a single-volritne at the 28- magnetosphci.ic electric fields responsible for the thy ntitl point of the cycle. The next 56-tlny issue acceleration of aurornl electrons has been formu- incorporates these changes and replaces a11 preced- lated. ing volumes.

72 The expanded me of the National Airspace Sys- to p'ovitle v;iIii:rble support to tlie ozone monitor- tem has increased the demand for more controlled itig piqtxiii. Striclics are being conducted to deter- airspace and for ;ipplicaliIe aerotiaiitic;il charts arid mine tlie ell'ccts ol c;il)in ozone on passengers and services. At the request of the F;-\A, NOS began c~e~vsof sti.atosphcric flights. development of 20 Rlinimum Instrruncnt Flight Rule (IFR) iZltitirde Sector Charts, which provide air traffic controllers Ivitli minimum JFI< altitude Azitoniatior~of Airways Observatiom information for ixlar vectoring and off-airway 01)- erations. NOS also has compiled ;I special-use 7.w N\YS, in coopcr;ition with the FAA, has devel- minal Area Control Chart for the Saran;ic I,;rke, oj)cd ;I \!\tern to tilexiire ;iiitomatically surface New l'ork, area to accommodate the liemy air tr;rf- Iviiid ;iiitl ;rItinictci. settings and to generate ;I voice fic expected for the 1980 Winter Olympics. i.epoi.t xvlricfi is aiitoiiiatic:illy transmitted to the pilot tIit.oq$ :icrotiaiitical navigation aids. The ~)i.ototj~eof this device, callctl Wind, Altimetei-, Safety Services iiritl \'oice (WlzVE) , is being tested at Frederick, ~1;ii~j~l;it1d.,Zutom;tted weather ohsei.vntions have The National ISrireaii of Standaids (NIrS) has I)ccii m;itlc inore complete Iiy the addition of new t1evelol)ed ;I modulation factor st;iIid;it-d to support ( Iod c-eiliiig ;iiitl l.isil)ilit>, tiiciijiiritig ccliiipment at the FALZ'sInstiwment 1,mdi~~gSj.stetrt (11,s).which ;I iqmrts. Seven of the new imp-ovcd automatic ob- provides Imding griitlmcc to aircraft when visual WI'I ittioil st;rtions ~vereinst;illcd during 1979, as well giiitlnnce is riot :iv~iil:ibIc.The NRS stant1;rrd fiir- ;IS 16 ~~etiiotc,iiiitii;intietl, automatic weather obscr- nishes the higlil~~accur;ite (within 0.2 percent) test \.;ition stations. We;itlier infomiation from the sign;rls for c;ifil)r:i ting the FAA's electrotiic ii1sti.u- I:i[ier t\vo t!pes of :iiitotitatic oI,sen.ing stations is metits that are used to install ;itid maintain 11,s not it-;insniittetl directly to pilots brit is ;iddetl to ;it used by apparatus airports. It will lie avionics the n;itional ;i~.i;itionrvcatliei- reporting system antl manufacturers and commercial atid private carriers used by 1orec;istcr-s to monitor rapid weather to ensure correct ol)er;ition of on-board instruments. t.1) ;Inges. KBS also Iias tlcvelopetl ph;isc-ariglc standartls for the calihation of test equipment for the VOR navi- gation system. Automated Roirte Forecasts

Forecast Guidance NWS is cooperating with the FAA to develop ;I 5ysteni to pi-ovitle automated route forecasts to The NWS National 1Ieteorologic;il Center I)ilots. 7'1iis is a Inrge effort that requires the devel- (NAIC:) developed several forecast models to provide opment of ;I new data heof objective weather improved forecosts Ixisic to safe antl economic :i ir- it1form;rtion. Operntion;illy, this grid data base craft operations. During 19713 ;in optinium inter- ~voiiltl I)e cotnl,iiter-se~irclied to provide specific polation scheme was developed that updates the roiite forecxsts which could be delivered to the pilot models by incorporating winds and temperatiires l)y tn~icIiitic-g-etier;rtetlvoice. Important to this new nie;isiiretl from high ;iltitude jet aircraft along s! ~t~mis tlic tlevclopment of a forecaster-computer stand;rrd routes. In ;itltlition, glolxil synoptic strato- inteif;ice so tlic data base can be continually spheric analyses and predictions have enabled NMC ~rpd;itetl.

73 V Department of Energy

Introduction rial will improve the safety index for the next mis- sions. The composi te fiber graphite, shown by blast Since the early 1960s, the Department of Energy overpicssiii.e testing to be stronger than bulk graph- (DOE) ant1 its predecessor agencies have tledicated ite, also 1e;ttls to ;in improved safety index, as well their specializetl skills to the support of the United as to ;I modest weight reduction. States spice program. The earliest Navy navigation These iniprovetl heat source materials and coni- satellite, 1;iunchetl in 1961, delivered a nicre 2.7 ponents entered the production phase for the watts of electric power derived from the decay heat N.\S,A C,;ilileo mission (Jupiter Orbitcr/Probe) of tlie radioisotope pIutoniuiii-238 acting upon sc~lietliilctl for launch in e;irly 1982. Unfortunately, tliermoclectric couples carried by the 2.3-kilogram selenitle-lxisetl thermoelcctric elcnients, expected to unit. Hy contr‘;ist,the most recent outer planetary pmvitle ;ipprosiniately 10 percent conversion effi- spacecraft launclietl by NASA in Ailgust-September ciency lor the C;;ilileo mission, failed to sliow de- 1977 e:icli carried three multi-liundi-et1watt genera- qwte \t:il)ility arid power output in prototype tors supplying :I total of 475 watts of electric po\ver. ground test generators. As n consequence, the deci- The dr;ini;itic photographs transmitted from Voy- sion \vas m;itle to reinstate iise of silicon-germanium agers I and 2, revealing liithe~~tounknown details coiiiwters, already lxl-forming reliably on the of tlie topogr;iphy of ,Jupiter ant1 its moons, wei-c Don I,es 8!’!) ;ind NASA Voyager spacecraft. possihle only through the use of such space nuclear The sp:icecr:lft designer continually strives to J>OTVeI’ systems. Continuing progress is being niadc siil)port ;I ni;ixiniiiin of scientific experiments or in- in the directions of compactness, lighler weight, formttiottal ~n;ivig;itionnl systems at a minimum and improved efficiency md safety. pa~~lo:idweight. The electric power-producing generator is vital to either of these fuiictions and it too niust be optimized at the maximum power out- Progress in Space Applications of Nuclear Power put per unit of weight. The General Purpose Heat Soilrcc (GPKS) was tleveloped to provide a ver- DOE provides sul~stantialsupport to the U.S. ’i:i tile, n~otl111;irpli~toniuni-238 fueled unit suitable space program through its technology development for niinieroiis slxice applications, yet showing im- antl production efforts on nriclear-powered electric pt‘ovcd specific power (watts per pound) and safety generators for current and potential NASA antl intlcr. ‘I’hc iniprovetl iridium-tungsten alloy and Don misions. the coniposite fil)rous graphites already mentioned arc :ipplied in the construction of the fuel module Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) ( oniponcnts. Each niodiilc, fueled with four 62.5- tt~ci~~n~il-~v~itt~~11itoni1i~i1-23~ fuel pellets, is designed To achieve a state of readiness for the increas- to siiri.ivc potenti;il ;iccidental reentries and to im- ingly rigororis demands for safety and performance, Inct the Liidt rvi tli miniiiial consequences. continuing progress iiiiist be niade at many points l’he GPHS niotlules and the silicoti-gerinaniatn along the frontier of technology. During 1979, the tlici.nioclcctric converter couples are specified for niiilti-l~iintl~~etl\v;itt geiicr;itor, ;iIre;itl>~petfol.niing the N,.\S.\ Tntei~nationalSolar Polar Rlission. With yeoman service on Don’s 1,incoln Experimental c.ontinriing design refinements and analytical Satellites and on l>o;ird the Voyager 1 and 2 outer stiitlies, :ind liy planned improvenients to tlie power planetary spacecraft, vas upgraded by selection of symm, the performance level of the generators an improved ii-itliuni-tungstcii alloy for the fuel should ;itt;iin a specific power of approximately 5.5 capsules ant1 I)y application of composite fiber wat~sper kilogram. The s1xicecr;ift 1.equircment for graphites in the heat soiircc aeroshcll. The more 286 xvatts electric at Ixginning of life, ;ind 275 watts ductile and therm;ill y stable iridium c;ipsiile mate- after two ~cirsof service, is expected to be met by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) DoD/DOE coiiiniittce to examine potential mission compi-ising 18 heat source modules, weighing in at reqriirenients for ;I space reactor in the late 1980s, 52 kilogixms. This mission represents a new chal- a tcchnology tlevelolmient program was initiated lenge in cooidination-to ensure compatibility of in FI’ 1!179. ‘I‘hc objective is to estnl)lish the tech- components with Iioth the NAS;\ and Eiiropean nology I~ascfor n high-temperatrire, compact space Sp;ice Agency (ESA) spicecraft as well as to acliiew nuclear electric reactor system, producing power appropri;ite trnjcctories in opposite directions in the 10-100 kilowatt range. The five-year pro- tliroiigli the j)l;inc of the ecliptic antl over/iintler gixm is to coniplete tlevelopment of reactor com- the poles of the Sun. ponent technology that will support a future system tlcnionstration to be scheduled and funded by the Dynamic Isotope Power Systems iiser agency. Xiiiong the app1ic;itions envisioned for this re- In FI’ 1978, tlvo competitive i.atlioisotol)e-fiieled actor s)mm are a power supply for spacebased dynamic po~versystems ~vei’econ~parecl. Fl‘hesc sys- ~.;i[I;ir ol)eixtiiig ivitli \;itellitc power stations, elec- temr lverc the Ikiytoii Isotope Power System and tronic mail syctems, ad~.ancedtelci-ision coverage. the Org;inic R;iiikine Cyle System. Both were de- hologi.;ipliic teleconferencing facilities, and other signed to1vai-tl an output poiver of 1.3 electrical s! stems for potential civilian and military assign- kilowatts. Ground demonstration tests were con- Illents. ducted on sytcms i.epi-esentiiig the crlrrent state-of- During FY 1979, a comprehensive report was is- the-art in ixitcrials selection, conilioncnt design, sued by the I .os Alamos Scientific Laboratory, en- antl ol)er:ition:il controls. Upon critical cv;ilu;ition, titled “Selection of Power Plant Elements for the Orpiriic Ikiiikinc Cycle unit was selected for Futiire I

75 ing and evaluation activities were performed by the waves (the iitc;iiis for transmitting the energy from Air Force Weapons Laboratory, the Naval Nuclear tlie satellite to Earth) on biological systems-bees, Weapons Center, and tlie Applied Physics Labora- rodents, birds, and ultimately on miin-have Iieen tory of The Johns Hopkins University. The com- st;irtctl. The elfccts of the deployment and opera- posite fibrous grapliitcs were tested for blast over- tion of the SI’S on the environment, on the at- pressure resistance by the 1,os .-\l;imos 1,aboratory niosphere, ;iiid on sixice workers are being assessed. with the Teletlync Energy Systems staff also fulfill- Expel-imcnts irie;tsriring the impact of tlie SPS ing a significant role in the assessment of improved niicrowive beam on teleconimiinications and elec- graphites. tronic systems are tinderway. Some 40 generic sys- Reliability engineering requirements have been teiiis tliat c;in I)e imlxictetl are identified, including reviewed by the Snntlia 1,aliorntories ;ind DOE, ;md r~id~irs,iiiicrotvave links, computers, and satellitcs. an updated pi-ogram requirements document was A1itig;iting strategies for iiiost of these systems are issued. The intent of tlie increasingly rigoroils re- :ire 1)ciiig stutlied. liability cfIort is to outline to contractors antl bid- I ti t he societa 1 ;issessnien t, eligible rectenna sites ders the Ixisic practices which tiillst lie pwsiied to arc 1)eing found, tentative materials requirements provide continued positive assiirance that rclinbility are Ilcing c~t;il~lislied,the U.S. institutional issues I-equircnicnts lor space missions will be met. are Ixitig stritlietl. the international implications are 1)eiiig ;isscssetl, and the need for public involve- ment is being recognized and fostered. Preliminary Status of Prior Missions aswssiiiciits of the costs, performance, health and safci). impacts, ;iiid 1;intI reqiiirements for SPS and Data ti;itisiiiitt:ils lroni tlic I’ioiicer IO ;ind 11 otlicr fiitiire energ). ol)tions are being made. antl I’iking 1 antl 2 tclenietl-y systems indic;ite that tlie radioisotope generators are performing essen- tially ;is ;inticilx~tcd;it this point in their life cycle. Nuclear Waste Disposal l’lie i~i~~lti-liiit~~li~c~l1v;itt geiici :itoi.\ on 1)o;ird the hlAS.4 \’o)ager 1 and I! spicecraft provide tlie 111 \iiI)l)ort of the N.\S.Z-T)<)E study of the poten- power for the scientific experinicnts. ;IS rvell ;IS the ii~illor itiic1e;ii- 1v;istc tlisl)os;tl in spice, a Ixscline d:it;i ;itid p1iotogr;ipIiic transiiiitt;ils of tlic f;isciti;it- opei :itioii:iI scenario WAS selected during 1978, iising ing vieivs of Jiil)iter :iiid its moons rcccivctl diiring tlic Space Sliiittle to place waste into a long-tertii earlier niotitlis in 19i!). Similar f;ivor;il)le statiis has \table sol;ir orbit between Earth and Venus. In Imn reported lor the c.omniiinic.:itioiis s:itellitc s) s- 1 9i9, ~iltet~ii~itiv~sp:ice concept definitions were tenis perforniing on the 1,cs 8/!) missions for Don. fiirtlicr c\~;ilii;itetlto en;ible an early decision re- In siinim;iry, ;I re1i;ililc perforniance (lata 1x1s~is g:irtli ng f utrire st iicl ics. well est;il)lishctl. presaging cqiiivalcnt or superior perforni:incc for iiuclc~ir-i,o~vei-cds~);icecr:ift in tlic Remote Sensing of Earth f 11tiire. Scvci.:iI DOE pi~ogr;inis benefit from the data ~)i.o~~itletlI)!, ;T.\S.~-de~-elo~~ed satellites that carry Satellite Power System itisti.iintents sensing the Earth’s surface and at- mosphere. Examples of present activities include The concept of ;I S;itellite Power Sy.stem (SI‘S) in eiili:iticemcnt of cx1)lor;ition technology for lira- geostationary orbit, eniploying ni;issive collectors to iiiiiiii, n:itiir:iI $IS, ;iiitl oil: geological characteriza- c;ipture sol:ir ciiergy, concentr;iting it, ;itid 1)caiiiing tion of ~)otenti:ilniiclcar uxstc disposal sites: and it to E;irtli antennas, has Ixen studied since 1968. \iit-\.ey ol other potentin1 energy facility sites for In 1!)77, the DOE ;ind NXSA started :I S-year ;~sscss- eiir-ii.oiitiietit:iI ;iiid seismic sitit:il)ility. Increased iiient of the SPS concept to Ixgin learning about IIW ol cl;it;i froni existing. pl;inned, atid future satel- the tcc1inic;il ;ind economic fc;isil,ility, the environ- lite pl;itforiiis in these ;ind other energy-related ac- mcnt;rl and soc.iet;il impacts, and the merits of SPS ti\,it ics is ;intic.ip;ited. relative to other future energy options. r\ national team is making excellent progress tormi-d the Nuclear Test Detection study’s plannecl completion date in 1!)XO. NASA has specified ;I reference SPS ;irorintl which De~~elolmcntof sntcllitc-borne nucle;ir surveil- the assessment is Ixiiig in:itle. .\Is0 DOE h:is iden- 1;iiic.e I)eg;iii in tlie c:ii.ly 1960s ;ind led to the Vela tified emerging teclinologic:il developments wliicli Hotel progr;~111. Ikc;i iise of its special iml knowlctlge might be incorpor;itctl to SPS‘ adixnt;tgc. Experi- of riiicle;ir esplosioll c1i;itacteristics ;ind calialiility mental studies to determine the effects of micro- to c1ctec.t :ind meiisiire output radiations, tlie

76 Atomic Energy Commission, one forerunner of the The nuclear surveillance mission of the Vela DOE, W:IS tasked to design and develop the detector satellite prograni is now incorporated into other instrument;itioii for the proposed satellites, while miilti-niission DOD spacecraft and DOE retains Don ni;in;igetl program activities and schedules. rcspoiisi1,ility for design, fabrication, test, calibra- The Vela sitcllites were larinchctl into Earth oi-hits tion, ;ind I;iuiicli and operational support of the of about 112,000 kiloiiietcrs-far enough out so that iristi.iinieiit;itioii sul,systems for nuclear test detec- one s;itcllitc coultl view nearly half the Earth‘s sur- tion. 111 support of this responsibility, DOE con- face ;tiid most of outer space. Six pairs of Vela satel- ducts ;I vigorous rese;ii-ch and developinent program lites were placed into ohit Iietween 1963 and 1970. to meet c1i;inging detection requirements as well as Successive satellites carried improved instrrimenta- 10 tlcvelop ;I tletailetl understanding of the radia- tion for ~iuclear-ex~,losionsurveillance. tioii ciivironiiient of space.

77 VI Department of the Interior

Introduction sensed data collected by USGS and National Aero- iiautics and Space Administration (NASA) aircraft, The Department of the Interior is responsible for ;ind by I,;intls;it, Skylab, A4pollo,and Gemini space- administet-ing the nation's public lands and for craft. EDC: now serves as the national distributor of maintaining ;I halance between the use and ron- 1,;indsnt products to all agencies of the Federal servation of natural resources on these lands. Effec- government ant1 the public. Sales for fiscal year tive resource m;in;rgcment and research require ac- (FY) 1!379 ;~inountedto about S3.4 million, about curate and timely data, whether collected on the (i5 Ixi'cetit of wliicli was [.andsat data. groitiid, from high- 01. low-altitride aircraft, or from satellites. In some invcstigntions data from various Iniproz~ernentsin Landsat Data Processing and scnsoi's swli as multispectl-a1 scanners, cameras, and Handling radars :ire useful. To collect data, the department relies on aircraft for ;icqiiiring aerial photographs, Digital ittiage processing systcms installed in 1978 carrying experimental airhoriic instruments, and :it N:\Si\'s Gotltlnrtl Space Flight Center (GSFC) executing programs such ;IS selection of utility ;ind ;it EDC were placed in production on February corridors. cnt1;istral s~irvcys, and resource inven- 1, 1!17!1, ant1 have offered major improvements in toric s . the quality of I.antlsat data available to the user. The need for surveying ;ind repetitive monitoring In addition, ;I domestic satellite communications of vast :ind often inncccssible areas has also created link (Domsat) hecame operational in May 1979, a growing interest in data obtained from Earth- allowing tr;insfer of current Idandsat data from re- oi-biting s;itcllites, primarily from the experimental ceiving stations in .\laska and California to GSFC, I.antlwt. system Ijccause of its synoptic, repetitive, ;ind from GSFC to EDC via a telemetry link instead and uniform coverage. Digital 1,andsat data have of the post;il service. made possible the extraction of information by The EDC data Inse was improved by indexing computeri7ed teclinic~ries.Eecause of the flexibility (1)iit not archi\,ing) all 1,andsat data holdings ac- that digital data offer in collecting and managing (jriiretl by reception stations in foreign countries. 1;it-g~voliimcs of inform;ition, resource managers in This is the first international Landsat data base seven I)iii.e;iiis of tlic dep;ii'tniettt are incorporating in existence ant1 establishes in the United States a var),ing ;imoiints of this new technology into their single worldwide point of contact for Landsat data. I-outinc activities, such ;is estimating groiind water Currcn t participants in this data base integra tion iise :ind tleterniining the movement of sea ice. include the Ellropean Space Agency (with process- ing centers in Italy and Sweden), Brazil, and Can- ac1:i. Data listings from Japan, Australia, India, Earth Resources Observation Systems Program .\i.gentiti:i, iind other locations will lie added in the 11e:ll. flltulc. The Earth Resources Observation Systems Continued improvements are planned for the (EROS) Progr;im is administered for the Interior next Jar,including modification of the digital im- Departnierit 1)y the 1J.S.Geo1ogic;il Siirvey (USCS). age processing system at EDC to accept unresam- The pi~qmseof the EROS program is to develop, pled IAandsat data and to perform geometric denionstrate, and encoiiragc applications of re- (~ot~~ections. motely sensed data acqiiircd from aircraft and spacecraft. Training Programs The key facility of the EROS program is the EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South Training in the form of workshops and courses at Dakota, which is the principal archive for remotely EDC is provitletl at cost for resource specialists and

78 land managers interested in remote sensing tech- ij iisiiig rclirotel!. sensed thta, priniarily from air- nology. Approximately 25 workshops are offered ( I :if( I)ut sttpplcinc~itetlI)? 1,:indwt. to identify and each year to ahout 500 scientists, both domestic and c~:iI~iatehistoric :ind prehistoric c~~lturalresources foreign. After 5 years of conducting 120 training in tlie n;ition;il p:it.ks. In the S;tn Juan Basin Re- sessions involving more than 2500 participants, the gional Ui.aniiim Study, sponsored ly the Bureau of Center Iix noted :I shift in deinand ;irvay from gen- 1ntli;in .lfI';tirs, imiotcly sensed data from aircraft eral, introtli~cto~.yi'eniote sensing co~it~sestownrd and Iandsat arc I)cing used to assess the effects of courses tha t emp1i;isiie specific scientific disciplines iitxnitini csplora tion antl development upon the or I-CSOIII~CC information ;rnd management tech- l):ii.ks :ind ;~i~clieologicnlsites ant1 iipon the culture niques. 'The Center also cooperates with qualified of tlic iV:ir.;~jo1ntli;ins living in the region. universities in presenting workshops on techniques and on ;ipplications to specific disciplines. These G1~)rij7tlII'(i[(v. irw.The USGS lix the rcsponsi- workshops are offered to practicing professionals, 1)iIity to cstini;ite the quantity of W;ICCI' our nation through university extension programs. iises :innmi11y for indtistrial, domestic, and agricul- tural p~~rposes.:In important part of this respon- sil)ility is to tletei-mine the g~oand-waterpumpage Applications am? Research for ii~ig;itionof crops. Techniques have been de- \~lopcdto iitiliie 1,antlsat data to determine the In atltlition to data distribution and training. EROS activities include technical assistance antl :ti.e:is of (~01)sii.rig;rtetl ant1 to iisc these dnta in rcse;ircIi in tlie :ipplic:ttions of i~cmotelysensed tl;tt;r conjiinctiori Ivitli selective sampling of pimipage at to Eai-tli resources investigations. (=omputer-assisted n.cll Iic;~dsto estimate the total quantity of water image ;in;ilysis techniques are tleveloped, clemon- p~i~npcd.Kesirlts from tlemonstration projects in strated, and documented in the Dat;i Analysis I.ab the Siiw;inec Rivet. MT;itei- Xlanagement District, oratory ;it EDC in i-csponse to the needs of user l~loi%l;i,;inti an eiglit-county site in the tri-State agencies. Coopera tivc tlemonstrations nntl research AIXYI of (:oloi.:itlo, Nebraska, and Kansas, indicate projects tlcvelop ant1 test tecliniques feasible for op- 11i:i~ the inclusion of 1.andsat data improves the erational IISC. Following are some examples of i~cIi:ibilityof the \v:iter-iise estimates, shortens the promising new cooperative projects with potential time Coi. ;Inalysis, and costs less than estimates hased for routine me in the dep;irtment. iiI)on coni.ention;il nietliotls alone. Land Usr and Lnnd Covcv- Mnps. In late hIarch Alonicoring Snow~ncltRunoff. The USGS partici- 1979, a nuclear accitlent occurred at tlie Three hlile pitcd nit11 N:\S.I, the Kational Oceanic and At- Island power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The location of this power plant on the Susqiie- niospheric: .\tlniinistration (NOAA) , and the Salt hanna River, 16 kilometers from the state capital, River Project. .\riTona, in developing methods to raises the question of where such plants should be nionitoi. i.:ipkIly changing snow conditions and to located in terms of the hazards to nearby urban, I)redict snowmelt I-unoff quantities using satellite industrial, antl ;igricultural areas. To aid in evaluat- imagery ;ind r;rtlio-transtnitted hydrologic data re- ing and I-ecommentling solutions for control of such I;iyccl 1)y s;itellite to ground receiving stations. hazards, a special land use and land cover map, Tliccc cl;it;i were made available to officials of the keyed to political units and census statistical areas. Salt Ri\.er Project antl wci-e used for near real-time was digiti/etl from higli-altitude aircraft data by a niaii;igcnient decisions involving reservoir opera- computer-driven plotter. The computer-di.awn map tion. Use of the satellite relayed data and satellite was then placed over a standard USGS topographic imagery has improred the accuracy of short-term quadrangle at tlie same scale of 1: 100,000. Nineteen i~inoff prediction and the eficiency of reservoir detailed land use categories were identified by colors opet.a t ions. and shading patterns. Rings at %kilometer inter- Scn Icc. Froin data ol)tnined during the Nimbus 5 vals and place names were ;idded for evaluation of potential hazards and for site planning. The experiment, the USGS prodiiced a remarkable time- remotely sensed digital dnta used in constructing lapse movie covering several years' collection of this land use and land cover map were obtained satellite microwave images of the Arctic Polar Re- from a data Ixtse conipiletl in 19'78 ;is ;I cooperative gion. The movie dramatically displays the growth, effort between the Pennsylvania Department of En- tlisti-il)rition, and breakup of sea ice. This clear vironmental Resources and the Geological Survey. c1emonstr;ition of the dynamic nature of the Beau- Awheology. The National Park Service (NPS) , fort Sea should be of value to navigitors of ships, working in close cooperation with EROS and sev- geologists interested in offshore petroleum explora- eral other Federal agencies and major universities, tion, ;ind planners of logistic operations.

79 Monitoring the Environment vcloped and inst;ilIetl at Stanford University and at the Technology Application Center of the Univer- Land lnventories sity of New Mexico. Field investigations using these systenis were conducted in New hIexico, Oklahoma, EDC and the U.S. Fish ant1 Wildlife Service are ;111d South ~~;lrolin~l. cooperating in ;I project to tlcnionstrate the use of The Conservation Division of the USGS, working I,;indsat t1at;i in ;in inventory of the vegetation and with the EROS program, has been closely monitor- land cover of wildlife 2i;il)it;its. ing the blowout from Mexico’s Pemex oil well Ixtoc EDC is also cooperating with the Bureau of Land 1 in the Gulf of hIexico. The monitoring has been hIanagcment (RTAI) in a denionstration project to done in collaboration with the U.S. Coast Guard evaluate the application of remote sensing technol- ;ind NASA. I,andsat data were used to detect and ogy to mapping and inventorying vegetation on delineate oil floating westward from the well in BLhI lands. Alriltispectrnl scanner digital data ac- thc kiy of Cinipeche to the coastline between Vera quired hy 1,andsat and digital terrain data were Crriz atid l’anipico and then northward into Texas used to classify approximately 100 square kilonie- witel-s between Brownsville and Galveston. A ters in northwestel-ii Arizona into nine land cover mosaic of four 1,;rndsat images, prepared by the types using the interactive image analysis system at Survey, was used ;IS a guide for July flights of the EDC. 1,arge-scale aerial photographs were used to Coast Guard (2-130 Airborne Oil Surveillance Sys- determine the vegetation type of selected picture tem aircraft to oil-contaminated areas and to aid elements. Results showed that integration of digital NO.-LA’s scientific support coordinator and the 1,antlsat data arid terrain data can significantly im- Co;tst Gu;irtl‘s oil-scctie coordinator in predicting prove the accuracy of \regetation classification. iv1icn oil from the riinar~~ywell would reach U.S. Scientists from the U.S. Forest Service Northern \va te 1’s. Forest Fire Idahoratory are also attempting to use digital I.andsat data ;ind terrain data to identify forest vegetation classes that can be used to map Alaska forest fire fuels over large areas. The data will then Nc:ir-re;il-tinte satellite data are being used in the be met1 for iii;cti;igmicnt actions to ret1irc.c fire Quick-I .ook Project to produce sea-surface tempera- hazards. ture maps for the fishing industry, analyses of sea- The NPS completcd a project for the Everglades ice conditions for personnel working offshore on National Park with the assistance of EDC. ’4 hydro- the ire in the Beaufort Sea, and images showing the logic model for Sliark Slough TWS tlevcloped that location of fires. I’hc project uses data from the required information on water depth, volume, and Defense AIetcorological Satellite, N0,4A satellites, temporal changcs in the water margins of the and 1,;indsnt. Information provided by the images slough. I%y using data from 1,andsat and 76 meas- led to thc ev;rcuatioii of a drill rig on ice in the iirement stations, water depth antl volume were 1kiufoi.t Sea antl Imxliction of an outburst from a determined. One of the more interesting findings gl;icier-daminetl lake west of Anchorage. was that a 10-fold decrease in the witer volume 131.hl antl several other agencies have been using ha1 vet1 the slough margin. ;I llcteor Burst Con~miinicationsSystem (transmis- The NPS also iisetl enhanced Idandsat images in sion of short messages over ionized trails left by their New :lre;r Studies Program. The images were meteors entering the upper atmosphere of the photograph ica I ly enlarged and manua I ly inter- Ihrth) in A\l;tsk;i over the past few years. RLM will preted to provide general vegetation, land use, I)c testing iiictcor 1)iirst coiiiniunications in con- Iandforni. tlrain;ige, and other land cover informa- junction with aircraft on-board naviption systems tion. ’1 significant aspect of these projects was that to ;iiitoniatically relay aircraft positions from re- they wcrc a11 completcd in two or three weeks at a mote areas independently of aircraft elevation or cost of only a few thousand dollars. terrain. This system will greatly enhance the safety ant1 dispatch capability of flights in inaccessible areas. Environmental lmpact of Fuels Exploration and Development Dnta Acquisition through Satellite Relay The Bureau of hIines, Office of Surface Mining, ;ind EROS provided support for the tlcvelopmcnt TIICUSGS continiietl to expand the nnmber of of minicomputer digital equipment and analytical platforins transmi tting environmental data thrortgli tccltniqucs for monitoring surf;icc mining oper;~- the Geostatiomry Operational Environmental tions iisiiig 1,;intls;it data. 1,owcost s)stcnis \\.ere tle- Satellite (Goes). An increase to 150 platforms was

80 in part necewry because the use of 1,andsat to relay 1,;inds;ic images was used to identify promising areas data \vas discontinuetl. The USGS has also con- for inore cletailetl geologic mapping and geochemi- tractetl with Coniwt Genei.;il Coip to test ;I c:iI surveys. Strike-frequency -Ynalysis of mapped pilot rc:il-time information service involving 75 Iinc;imencs indicated the presence of two statis- hydro1ogic tla t;i -cot lec t ion pl a t foims. Tli is pi lot tes t tically significant trends, northeast and northwest. service lvill begin olxration in late 1980. .\t 1c;ist four nortlieast-trending lineament zones The 1%1,;11is concliitling a project with the U.S. \VCI.C tlefinccl ;ind ;ire inteq,i.ctcd to Ix structural Forest Service to provide standat-d Remote .\tito- /ones tliat were tlie primary regional control of min- matic Weather Stations for Fire Alanagement by ei,:i1i/:ition in the porphyry copper deposits of north- rclnying tl;it;i tlirorigh the Goes satellite. c1.n Soiioi,a. .\lthougli northwest-trending structures The Water and Po~vcl-Resources Service began ;I Iso :ippea~.to have influenced the localization of consti-uction of its H~tlromctand Xleteorological ore deposits, these are pervasive structures which Sin-face 0l)serv;ition n’et1voi.k (Mesonet) system ;ire not rlscflli ;IS iqqionnl prospecting guides. In and contr;ictetl with Colorado State University contr:i\t, the nortlicast-trending lineament zones are (CSU) to an;iIye cloiid systems by the IISC of satel- loc;ili/etl ant1 s).stematic ;ind are characterized by lite hta. ~l’lieI Iylroniet s)jteni Tvill c-ollect hylro- concentixtions of limonitic hydrothermally altered logic ant1 meteorologic (lata from sensors on 70 data i.ocks. occuixnces of known copper deposits, and collect ion pI a t forms a ntl t 11 en tra nsm i t these tla ta :inom:iloiisly higli Icxl content in stream sediment. via the Goes satellite to a receiving antenna in Wicw data, along with other geochemical and geo- Boise, Itlalio. ~leson~tis a solai.-poweretl network 1)Ii>sic:i1 d:it;i, Iixve resulted in the identification of of I50 poi~talilemeteoi-ological stations that iisc a sevci.;iI ai~isof csception;il economic potential, and Goes satellite-coniliiiter link to en:il)lc scientists to tIii5 approach Iixs become an integral part of the monitor weathci. developments in greai detail even initieixI appraisal sti.idies being conducted by the thoiigli they occur over large areas many miles clc~,:\rtlncnt. The weather c1;it;i will be i-el;iyetl to ;I groiind Field iiivcstigations in the Williamsport Valley, receiving station ;it M’;illops Island, Viiginia. The Peiins) Ivani;i, to identify lineaments shown on CSU stiitly \vi11 suppoi-t two Rure;iu research pmj- 1,:iiidsat i’etiiim beam vidicon images revealed the ects: the High Plains Cooperative Project in grow 1)i‘cwiice of six tlisci-etc 1;iiilt zones Tvliose strike is ing-season rainfall m;in;igcnient, antl the Sien-a siil~~~ar~illelto tlic trend of the Appalachian folds. Coolmxtivc Pilot Project in winter snowfall en- Tliese /ones range from 0.5 to 1.75 kilometers in lia ncemen t . xvidth and from at least 10 kilometers to more than :io kilometers in length. Xlaiiy thrust faults of only a few centinieters displacement are present within Geology c;icli ioiie and OCCIII‘ at low angles in the beds of .pe” folds. The extreme degree of fault- Mineral Exploration iicisc-type structures may indicate frac- tii1.c porosity traps for pis and oil at depth. 1,andsat imagery antl aerial photographs are Oilier progr;ims using remote sensing techniques used by the tlepirtnient as ;I tool for mineral es- iiicliitle niiclear wtsie disposal, mineral resource ap- ploration ;ind to improve the c1ii;ility ;itid speed of pi.aisal, gcot1ierni;il studies, and volcanic hazards. mineral resoiirces mapping. In the southern Poivtlcl. liivcr Ikisin, Wyoming, many of the uranium producing areas arc obscured Lumr and Planetnq Studies by vegetation that covers 50-75 percent of the ground. :Z 1,antlsat coinl~iiter-enhancement tech- Studies of the moon and of data from the two nique WIS tlevelopetl to map the regional vegetation siiccessful Viking missions to Mars are continuing, variations that reflect subtle changes in lithology. I)iit the flybys of Voyagers 1 and 2 past Jupiter and chiefly tlie proportions of sandstone and mudstone. the mapping of the Venusian surface using the By this technique it w;is discovered that iii.aniuni Pioneel. rad;ir a1tinieter have provided the most deposits are ;issoci;ited with a particular lithology significant findings. Preliniinary studies of the four that has ;in intermediate sandstone/in~idstorieratio. . large Galilem satellites of Jupiter indicate a great Lineament analyses were used to dcvclop a model divei.sity in surface composition and morphology. for the influx of ur;~iiiruii-heariiiggroundwater into Dark areas on Io may be flows of molten sulfur, and the basin and subsequent deposition of uranium. volcanic eruptions were actually observed. Europa In a jointly funded United States-hIexico experi- Iias ;I system of long, linear structures. Ganymede is mental project in northern Sonora, Rlexico, analysis pro1);iI)ly composed of ;in ice-rock crust over a dom- of linemients and limonitic occurrences seen in inantly water mantle. Callisto possessed an enor-

81 nioiis mu1 ti-ring impact basin. On Venus, the International Activities Pioneer satellite is pro~~itling(lata for a radar map of 70 percent of the surface of the planet. E;dy Under the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act, USGS results indicate the presence of active volcanoes and Ixirticipates with the Agency for International De- some Itigli mounti'ins. velopnient (AID) in ;I technical assistance program to aid tlciclopiiig coiiiici.ica in Eaidi-science and engineering applications. These countries fre- Cartography quently reqricst assistance in remote sensing as the most feasiblc way of solving some of their environ- mental and resource problems. Studies to develop techniques for applying satel- Four-week interna tiona 1 remote sensing work- lite kitit to c;ii.tograpliy concentrated on the me of shol)s ;II.C given at EDC twice a year as part of this 1,iintls;it 3 t1at;i. C;omputcr programs were prepared program. In FV lW9, 3i scientists frotn 18 foreign that iisc tlie Hotine Oblique Mercator (HOAI) and countries attentled the woi.l;sliops. EDC also coor- Slxice Oblique hfercatol- (SON) projections for t1in;itcd ;I training course in remote sensing under 1,:itids;it (1;it:i. These programs compute geographic the auspices of the Circum-.Pacific Council in Hono- 1;ititiide aiitl longitude coordinates from the HOAI lulu, Hawaii, for some GO scientists from Pacific and or SOll coordinates or vice versa. Additional in- Fai. E;ist coiintries. ;2 remote-sensing training work- \.estigir tions produced the specifications of map shop ivx held in the People's Republic of China projections for other satellite applications. Geo- tlui.ing Jiine 1979 at the Scientific Research Insti- metric consic1er;itions for ;I mapping satellite system tiite for Pctrolcuni Esploration and Development, ~vtw51ritlictl. RIinistry of Petroleum. Ad\anced training courses in geologic interpreta- tion, land use planning and environmental applica- I~ndsntImage Maps Lions, and digital image processing were conducted for foreign participants by the USGS Center for F.xpcrinienta1 image maps of the coal-rich areas .\strogeology in Flagstaff, Arizona, during the year. of Afontana and Mi>.oming were prepared from A new coiiix for foreign Earth scientists, covering 1.andsnt data. [I unique map combining 1,andsat tlie Ixisic piinciples of digital image processing, is AISS imiig.ery n-it11 line-map data for the Wenachee, to be held at the USGS National Center in FY Washington, I" ~2"quadrangle was printed at a 1980. 1 :?50.000 scale. This map meets national map ac- ;\nother international activity of USGS is coop- ciir:ic\ ~tatitlaixlsTot. the :~ccitracvof 1ioriront:il posi- eration in scientific research and the exchange of tions at that scale and was selected as a prototype information. Landuat imagery is an important com- ponent of several ongoing tasks under a long-term for iise in areas of Latin America where data for LJSGS cooperative agreement with Saudi Arabia. larger scale inaps are not available. Digitally enhanced imagery is used extensively in geologic interpretation and as a base for geologic and geographic maps and mosaics at scales ranging from 1: 100,000 to 1:2,000,000. A program of high-altitude aerial photography In addition, USGS scientists participate in many ma p pi ng admi nis tered by the U.S. Geological Sur- assistance prograins and consultations in the devel- oping countries. A current AID-sponsored project vey for several government agencies has as its goal in Tunisia, for example, is developing skills in complete coverage of the conterminoiis United production and interpretation of satellite imagery States. A solicitation for bids for photographs of for investigations in geology, hydrology, pedology, ahont one-fifth of the country was issued near the erosion, desertification, and pollution. end of 1979. The photographs will be acquired A remote sensing project, led by USGS, is part of simultaneously with two different focal-length cam- the International Geological Correlation Program, eras and will be on bot11 color-infrared and black- which is jointly sponsored by United Nations Edu- and-white film. The scales of the negatives will be caion;il, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and npproxitnately 1 : 60,000 and 1: 80,000, respectively. the 1iitcrnation;il Union oC Geo1ogic;il Sciences.

82 Department of Transportation

Introduction various types and stages of fires. These tests, uti- lizing a C-133 fuselage to simulate a full-scale, wide- The Department of Transportation, through its I)ody .jet, were conducted at the National Aviation aviation component, the Federal Aviation Adminis- 3: ~i.'I' iiies . Experimental Center, in Atlantic City, tration (FXA4), eng;igcs in extensive ;ieron;iutical New Jersey. The tests were designed to measure research, development, test, and evaluation activ- cai.bon monoside levels, smoke intensities, and heat ities. These support the basic responsibilities of rc1e;isetl inside the fuselage from a fire fed by an FAA to regulate air safety, ensure the safe and cffi- exterior 1)urning fuel without any contribution cient utilization of the nation's airspace by both from interior cabin materials. Similar tests will in- civil and military usei-s, and foster the development cliitle burning interior materials to establish their of civil aeronautics and air commerce. contribution. Fuel-fed fires can kill all the survivors of an im- pact-siirvivable aircraft accident. Fuel spewed from Aviation Safety ruptiirctl tanks forins fine mist-like particles that 1-ex1ily ignite and then create an all-consuming fire FAA's research, development, and engineering ball. In attacking this problem, FAA directed its programs in aviation safety are designed to dcnion- elforts toward the development of a fuel additive strate the technical, operational, and economic fea- that would minimize the formation of the mist-like sibility of improving aircraft performance and rais- fucl particles md thereby reduce the possibilities ing the Im'forniance standards for pilots and other of ;I fire Ix111 being creiited. Numerous small and airmen. During 1979, FAA continued to work in initl-si/ctl tests simiilating spillage from a ruptured concert with NASA and the Department of Defcnse fuel tank in the presence of an ignition source were to improve the safety of both fixed-wing and rotor- conducted diiring 1979. Varying amounts of addi- type aircraft; major emphasis was placed on post- tive ant1 levels of ignition intensity were used in crash fires, airframe crashworthiness, turhine- order to establish parameters for the large-scale engine ingestion, and icing. New means of tests, ~vliichwere conducted during the latter part preventing or deterring acts of terrorism or other of the )eat-. violence aboald aircraft and at airports were vigor- Such consitlerations as the stability of the modi- ously pursued. In the area of aviation medicine, fied fucl in stor;ige and handling and during trans- F.AA sought to identify and eliminate biomedical port within the various aircraft systems were also factors in aviation accidents and to improve the invcstiptcd. A sirnillation test was conducted to performance, health, and safety of pilots, ground tleicrmine how well the modified fuel could pass personnel, and passengers. The knowledge acquired t Iirough an aircraft system; the test results were in all of these programs enables F.4A to improve promising. The compatibility of the modified fuel contemporary and future aircraft and ensure the with engine conipoiieiits is being determined in a issuance of appropriate new standards, certification joint effort between FAA and NASA. All aspects of criteria, and regulations. this investigation to date have been encouraging. FAA was also engaged during the year in im- Fire Safety proving and expanding a mathematical model developed by the FAA to simulate aircraft cabin FAA continued to work toward improving the fire. The model is being validated by comparing its chances of aircraft occupants surviving an impact- results with those obtained from on-going FAA- survivable crash involving a fuel-fed fire. Large- NAS.-Z cal)iii-fire tests. The validated model will be sc;ile fire tests werc contliictctl that siniu1;ite what used to evdmte concepts to improve cabin-fire actually happens inside an aircraft fuselage during safety through compartmentation, and the agency

83 plans to sponsor n workshop to encourage and facil- prove runway traction during wet weather. itate nsc of the completed model by industry. In <;i.ooviiifi coiifigiiixtions. installed while bituminous concert with this effort, improved evacuation tech- surfaces were still plastic, were tested during 1979. niques are being developed for incorporation into ‘I’hese tests hare now been completed. existing and futui-e aircraft designs. Finally, FAA made good progress during the year Attiation Medicine tow;ird a “combined hazard index” identifying cabin interior materials that will not contrilmte to As aviation technology expands and grows in the Ii;i/;iids 01 ;I fi1.e. I’liic index tiikes laboratory- coniplesity, advances in air safety depend increas- scale tl;ita generated from I,ui.ning small samples of ingly iipon ;I Ironder understanding of human material and, by using ;I mathematical model, iden- c:ij):il)iIities and limitations and of the relationship tifies the fhininability, smoke, and toxic pis emis- I)ctnmn the ol~cratorand tlie machine in the aero- sion characteristics of the materials. nautical environment. Assessing and improving the performance of the human operator, whether in the cockpit or in the control tower, therefore, is a Aviation Secuvity primary area of exploration for the FAA medical i.cse;ircli progimn. Efforts to deter acts of terrorism and sabotage T;,\,% recently applied simulation theory to all aboard aircraft antl at airports concenti-ated on im- pli:iscs of air ti~~fficcontroller selection, assessment, proving techniques for detecting explosives in jol) striic~tiring, ;ind training. The objective of the checked bagg~geantl other items. A transportable pi‘ogi‘;ini n~isto develop ;I performance-hased system baggige homl) dctector was consti-ucted and readied 10 cvalii;itc ;I conti.oller from initial selection as a for airport testing. Enforcement officials were pro- c;intlitl;ric through his or her progression as a vitlctl with the vapor characteristics of a broad tixinee to full proficiency. A’eiv selection tests were range of explosives for use in evaluating screening tlcvclopctl aiitl ;idministered experimentally to units in an olxmtional airport environment. stiltlent5 entering ti.;iining ;ind to personnel on the Small :iniin;ils continued to be tested for their jol) at opcixtion;il facilities. These tests produced a potential in detecting the minute quantities of Iiigliei. correlation with air traffic controller success vapors emanating froin explosives. The behavior tlian any other tests used in previoiis evaluation of these ;inini;ils UYIS ;issessetl iintlei. ;ictual :iirpoi.t stiidics. They promise to he significantly better for operating conditions. The aniimls’ performance is screening applicants. being compared with that of electronic vapor de- Kew skill tests were also developed and used, tectors. Atltlitionally, tlie characteristics of a screcn- along lvith iiistiwctor evaluations, to measure how ing system employing dual-energy x-ray techniques n~llstritlcnts applied knowledge and skills during (incliitling compii ter-aided tomography) were de- the first months of training. Data collected from veloped :ind inatle avail;ilile to users. these me;iSui~enientswere used to assess and improve the qii;ility of training and to evaluate candidates Airport Pavement ;it the end of their course. The net result has been ;I continuing intei-nal self-improvement system that Airport pavements must be evaluated periodi- iniproIm ti.;iining and selection and promises to cally for their strength c1i;iracteristics and load- provide qualit). controllers at lower cost. carrying c;ipabilities. Conventional testing methods call for cutting test pits measuring 1.2 square meters Other Safety Deafelopments into the airport pavement, conducting plate-bearing tests, antl s;inipling m;iterials. This method is both 111 other safety develoiiments. FAA costly and time-consuming and iquires shutting Continued to invcstipite the new technologies down tlie runway or taxiway. L\n alternative, non- eniployctl in the new generation of energy- destructive testing method has been developed, how- efficient tr;iiisport aircraft that use active con- ever, which eliminates digging pits and niininiizes ti.01 s!.stenis aiitl digital avionics. Fixed-wing the time i~iinwaysarc shut down. Vibration is ap- ;tii.ci.;ift s)stems were valitlated in 1979 using plied to the pavement, its deflection is measured, siiniilation methods. and its strength and load-carrying capability is De\~elopetlhelicopter crash scenarios to inves- c;ilculated by ;I computer. Seminars explaining this tigiitc the feasibility of using general aviation technique were held ;it four airports, aid the details ci~;isli~~oi~tIiincssmodels for helicopters. of this nicthotl were pro\~idedto airport operators. 1kg;iii :I .joint progr;ini with the U.S. Army to In another development, FAA continued to de- cst;il)lisli piranieters upon which icing criteria termine the optimuni groove configuration to im- for helicopter certification could be based. Continued research on general-aviation pilot Alicrownce Lnriding System training and certification, general-aviation air- craft cockpit standardization, and crash-impnct ,\c.ti\.itics lvitli ;I Alicroivave 1,:iticIing System design standards for general-aviation aircraft. (11 I .s) INot ectletl :I\ ~~lietl~~letl.F.LZ has devel- Factors relating to the recognition of stall and oped t1ii.c~\.ci.siotis of ;I ,\Iicroiv;ive I.;inding Sys- spin were identified, and the next phase of pilot tem: ;I Ixisic. lvitlc :I~CI.~IIIY,;I Insic. narrow aperture, judgment training was begun. Experirnental :iiid ;I siii;111 coninriinit)~s! stein. Tlie Ixisic narrow training syllabi were developed for both flight :ijmt~i~e;itid w1;111coniniunity systenis have been instructors and student pilots; the goal is to tcstctl ;iiitl e\.;ilii;itctl. I‘csting of ;I basic \vide sys- produce better and safer civil pilots by cx- tciti, ititended 101. 1;irge aiipoi-ts, 1v:15 begun during I!G!) ;it h‘.\%\’s Wa1lops Flight <:enter. Alemiwhile, posing them to a structured judgment training program. or lie^. clloi is \vei.c tlii-wtetl toiv;ircl (1) the develop- niciit ;itid ititei.n:itioiiaI approv:il of International Cii\,iI ,\viation Oi.g;iniz;ition (IC.10) Standards Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation ;itid I1~0;ic11/ones to me~isiti~ewind conditions, the major i ties. 7’11 e eva 1 iia t i on t cam strongly s 11 11 por tctl the opera t iom 1 concept a ntl iden t i fietl f;ictors that will clenictit infliiencing vortex stability. These data be consitlet-et1 during impletiientation pl;itining to :ire fed into ;I processor, where the conditions are minimiic the impact on field facilities. :iiiiily/ed ;iiitl sent to the air traffic controller, who then cst;il)lishes aircraft separation parameters. The 5ytetii is currently being evaluated at Chicago’s Terminal Information Processing System 0’H:it.e Intcriiational Airport and is scheduled to be commissioned early in 1980. The I’ermiiial Information Processing System On-going ;ind future work includes development (TIPS) is ;in air traffic control terminal automation 01’ tecliniqiies to select improved locations for progr;im that has the potential for increasing the \vcatIier sensors, refinements to the algorithms, as- productivity of the terminal controller. Through seswient of the possibility of decreasing departure the autotn:itetl features of the TIPS computer and ~pacitig,atid ;I mantied flight simulation to assess associated electronic displays, terminal controllers the vortex li:i/~itd as it relates to aircraft spacing will be provided with an improved system for proc- and altitiide of encounter in the approach corridor.

86 Appendixes

APPENDIXA-1 U.S. Spacecraft Record

~ ~~ Earth orbit Earth escape Earth orbit Earth escape Year Year Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure 1957 ...... 0 1 0 0 1969 ...... 58 1 8 1 1958 ...... 5 8 0 4 1970 ...... 36 1 3 0 1959 ...... 9 9 1 2 1971 ...... 45 2 8 1 1960 ...... 16 12 1 2 1972 ...... 33 2 8 0 1961 ...... 35 12 0 2 1973 ...... 23 2 3 0 1962 ...... 55 12 4 1 1974 ...... 27 2 1 0 1963 ...... 62 11 0 0 1975 ...... 30 4 4 0 1964 ...... 69 8 4 0 1976 ...... 33 0 1 0 ...... 1977 ...... 27 2 2 0 1965 93 7 4 1 ...... '1 1978 34 2 7 0 1966 94 12 7 ...... 1967 ...... 78 4 10 0 1979 18 0 0 0 1968 ...... 61 15 3 0 Total ...... 941 129 79 15 ' This Earth escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating countries included in the Earth orbit success totals . which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles . NOTES:The criterion of success or failure used is the attainment "ESCAPE"flights include all that were intended to go to at least an of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than a judgment of mission altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth . success .

APPENDIXA-2 World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond

Year

1957 ...... 2 ...... 1958 ...... 5 1 ...... 1959 ...... 10 3 ...... 1960 ...... 16 3 ...... 1961 ...... 29 6 ...... 20 ...... 17 ...... 30 ...... 1965 ...... 63 48 ...... 1 ...... 1966 ...... 73 44 ...... 1 ...... 1967 ...... 57 66 ...... 2 ...... 1968 ...... 45 74 ...... 1969 ...... 40 70 ...... 1970 ...... 28 81 ...... 2 ...... '1 ...... 1971 ...... 30 83 ...... 1 ...... ' 2...... 2...... 1...... 1972 ...... 30 1973 ...... 23 1974 ...... 22 1975 ...... 27 1976 ...... 26 ...... 1977 ...... 24 98 ...... 2 ......

Total ...... 743 ' Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft . spacecraft . Some launches did successfully orbit multiple NOTE: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft .

87 APPENDIXA-3 Successful U.S. Launches-I979

Apogee__ and Launch date (G.m.t.) perigee Spacecraft name (kilometers) Cospar designation Spacecraft data Period Remarks Launch vehicle Inclination to eauator (dhgrees)

Ian. 30 Objective: To place satellite into a highly elliptical orbit 43,214 U.S. Air Force/NASA spacecraft suc- Scatha (STP P78-2) of sufficient accuracy to allow the spacecraft to achieve 27,581 cessfully orbited by NASA launch 7A its final elliptical orbit. Satellite carried 12 experiments 1416.2 vehicle. Apogee kick motor fired Feb. Delta to identify and measure sources of electrical charge 7.8 2, placing satellite in correct orbit. buildup on the spacecraft. Spacecraft returning data. Still in Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape, 1.7 m in diameter and orbit. 1.8 m high. Three 3-m booms, one 2 m, and one 7 m, all for deployment of experiments; and a 100-m tip-to- tip electric field antenna. Weight at liftoff: 658.8 kg, and 343 kg after jettison of the apogee motor. Feb. 18 Objective: To develop a satellite-based remote sensing 661 Successfully launched by NASA. First Sage (AEM B) technique for measuring stratospheric aerosols and 548 instrument sunrise/sunset events 13A ozone, to map vertical extinction profiles of strato- 96.7 taken Feb. 21. Scientists, using Sage scout spheric aerosols and ozone, to investigate the impact of 54.9 sensor, tracked material deposited in natural phenomena such as volcanoes and tropical stratosphere by volcano La Soufriere storms, and investigate the sources and sinks of strato- on St. Vincent in the Caribbean, spheric ozone and aerosols. which erupted April 13. 14. and 17, Spacecraft: Consists of an instrument module containing ejecting ash and volcanic gases into the Sage (Stratospheric Aerosol Gas Experiment) sen- the surrounding atmosphere. Ozone sor and its supporting equipment and a base module. and aerosol measurements provided Base module contains all the subsystems necessary to by Sage agree with ground-truth support and control the total satellite. Two solar pad- observations. Worldwide distribution dles are mounted on the satellite structure. SAGE sen- of concentration of stratospheric aero- sor is a four spectral channel radiometer which sols currently being measured. measures the extinction of solar radiation during solar occultation. Weight: 147 kg. Feb. 24 Objective: To gather data on solar wind, sunspots, solar 60 1 Air Force test program flight for Naval Solwind (STP P78-1) flares, electron build-up in polar regions, and distribu- 576 Research Laboratory with Defense 17A tion of aerosols and ozone in the atmosphere. 96.2 Research Projects Agency instrument. Atlas F Spacecraft: Carries gamma ray spectrometer, particle 97.6 Successfully placed in correct orbit. counter, coronagraph, extreme-UV monitor, extreme- Still in orbit. UV spectrometer, solar x-ray spectrometer/spectro- heliograph, x-ray monitor, and aerosol monitor. Weight: 1331 kg. Mar. 16 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 246 Decayed Sep. 29, 1979. Defense technology. 170 25A Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.5 Titan IIID 96.3 Mar. 16 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 625 Still in orbit Defense technology . 616 25B Spacecraft: Not announced. 97.0 Titan IIID 95.7 May 4 Objective: To launch spacecraft into successful transfer 35,829 Second of five planned satellites, suc- Fltsatcom 2 orbit. 35,753 cessfully launched by NASA for the 38A Spacecraft: Hexagonal shape, composed of payload 1436 Navy and the Dept. of Defense. Atlas-Centaui module and a spacecraft module, 6.7 m high. Weight 2.6 Apogee kick motor fired May 6. at liftoff: 1867 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: Satellite despun May 7. Spacecraft 1005 kg. placed in desired synchronous orbit at 23' west longitude. All spacecraft systems turned on and operating nominally. Still in orbit. May 28 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 292 Decayed Aug. 26, 1979 Defense technology. 144 44A Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.7 Titan I1 I B-Agena 96.4

88 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches-I979

Apogee and Launch date (G.m.t.) perigee Spacecraft name (kilometers) Cospar designation Spacecraft data Period Remarks Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (degrees)

June 2 Objective: To place satellite in successful orbit. Space- 658 Sixth satellite in cooperative U.S./ Ariel 6 (UK 6) to investigate cosmic radiation. 596 United Kingdom program. Spacecraft 47A Spacecraft: Cylindrical body, 130.8 cm high, 69.6 cm 97.3 launched successfully by NASA. 100th scout in diameter; spin stabilized. Spacecraft power supplied 55.8 launch of Scout booster. Turned over by four solar arrays mounted on deployable booms, to the United Kingdom on June 2. with a span of 274 cm. Scientific payload consists of three experiments: cosmic ray detector and two x-ray experiments. Weight: 154 kg. June 6 Objective: To support the Defense Meteorological Satel- 838 Still in orbit. AMs-4 lite Program. 827 50A Spacecraft: 1.2 m wide, 5.9 m long. Has solar arrays. 101.4 Thor-Burner 2 Is 3-axis stabilized. Has visual and IR day and night 98.7 imagery in resolutions of 3.7 and 22 km, scanning an area 2964 km wide as it moves along its orbit. Also has temperature/moisture sounder, precipitating electron spectrometer, and a density sounder. Transmits both in real time and from tape. Weight: 476 kg. June 10 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 36,260 Still in orbit Defense technology. 35,800 53A Spacecraft: Not announced. 1448.0 Titan IIIC 1.9 June 27 Objective: To launch spacecraft into a Sun-synchronous 826 Successfully launched by a USAF Noaa 6 orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable spacecraft to ac- 810 launch team for NASA and NOAA 57A complish its operational mission requirements. 101.3 using a reconditioned booster sup- Atlas F Spacecraft: Launch configuration, including the apogee 98.8 plied by the Air Force. Noaa 6 was the boost motor, is 371 cm high and 188 cm in diameter. first NOAA-funded operational Solar panels deploy in orbit. Spacecraft structure com- spacecraft of the Tiros-N series. posed of four major elements: reaction control equip- Joined Tiros-N as part of a two- ment support structure (RSS); equipment support satellite system. Apogee kick motor module (ESM); instrument mounting platform (IMP); fired June 27. Spacecraft turned over and solar array. The basic structure is identical to the to NOAA for operation July 16. DMSP Block 5D2. Instruments include: Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). Data Collection and Location System (DCS), Space Environ- ment Monitor (SEM), Total Energy Detector (TED), Medium Energy Proton Electron Detector (MEPED), High Energy Proton-Alpha Detector (HEPAD); and the Tiros Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) com- posed of three instruments: High Resolution Infra Red Sounder (HIRS/Z). Stratospheric Sounding Unit (SSU): and the Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU). Identical instruments carried on Tiros-N launched Oct. 13, 1978. Weight: 723 kg. Aug. 10 Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous trans- 35,794 -bird in a series of three satellites, suc- Westar 3 fer orbit. Satellite to provide transmission of television, 35,780 cessfully launched by NASA for 72A voice, and other data throughout the continental 1436.2 Western Union Telegraph Company. Delta United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. 0.0 Apogee kick motor fired Aug. 11 and Spacecraft: Drum-shaped cylinder 156 cm high and 191 satellite placed in stationary cm in diameter, a 153-cm-wide circular directional equatorial synchronous orbit in a antenna affixed to top of spacecraft; spin stabilized. storage mode at 91' west longitude, Provides 12 color TV channels, 600 two-way telephone due south of New Orleans and above calls, or millions of bits of high-speed data for com- the Galapagos Islands. merical users in the U.S. Weight at launch: 576 kg.

89 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches-I979

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (d6grees)

Sept. 20 Objective: To study amma ray emmissions, with high 501 Spacecraft successfully placed in orbit HEAO 3 sensitivity and resoyution, over energy range of 0.06 486 by NASA. Third in a series of three 82A MeV to 10 MeV; to measure the isotopic composition 94.5 High Energy Astronomical Obser- Atlas-Centaur of cosmic rays from lithium through iron; to measure 43.6 vatories. One of two primary tape the composition of cosmic rays heavier than iron; and recorders failed, backup recorder to operate the spacecraft and acquire scientific data for switched into operation and is perfor- at least 6 months. ming satisfactorily. Data being receiv- Spacecraft: Similar in design to HEAO 1 and 2. Hex- ed. Satellite surveyed the galactic agonal experiment module approximately 3.35 m long plane for gamma rays by the end of and 2.7 m in diameter. Octagonal equipment module the year. 83.8 cm high and 152.4 cm in diameter. Three ex- periments carried on experiment module: High Spec- tral Resolution Gamma Ray Spectrometer, Isotopic Composition of Primary Cosmic Ray Experiment, and Heavy Nuclei Experiment. Weight: 2898 kg, including I314 kg of experiments and a 37.6-kg separation system. Oct. 1 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 41,497 Still in orbit. Defense technology. 30,443 86A Spacecraft: Not announced. 1445.5 Titan IIIC 7.5 Oct. 30 Objective: To obtain accurate, up-to-date, quantita- 351.9 Launched successfully by NASA. Third Magsat (AEM C) tive description of the Earth's magnetic field, develop 578.4 in a series of low-cost modular design- 94A worldwide vector magnetic field model, compile 93.90 ed satellites, designated Applications scout crustal magnetic anomoly maps, interpret anomolies in 96.79 Explorer Missions. Star cameras turn- conjunction with correlative data of Earth's crust, in- ed on and vector magnetometer crease understanding of the origin and nature of the measurements begun next day. Nov. 1 geomagnetic field and its temporal variations. sensor boom deployed to planned Spacecraft: Consists of instrument module comprised of length of 6 m, and scalar optical bench, star cameras, attitude transfer system, magnetometer measurements in- magnetometer boom and gimbal systems, scalar and itiated. vector magnetometers and precision Sun sensor: base module contains the central column, 8 trusses, thermal control louvers, forward and after honeycomb decks, four double-hinged solar panels, electrical power sup- ply system, command and data handling system. 164 cm high, 874 cm with trim boom extended; 77 cm in diameter with solar panels and magnetometer boom extended; 722 cm length along flight path- magnetometer boom and solar array deployed. Spacecraft 3-axis stabilized. Weight: 183 kg. Nov. 21 Objective: Military communications. 35,789 Still in orbit DSCS 11-13 Spacecraft: Drum-shaped 2.7 m in diameter, 1.8m high, 35,609 98A with two dish antennas 1.1 m each, giving an overall 1431.0 Titan IIIC length of 4 m. Solar cells provide 535 watts at launch. 2.5 Communications repeater in X-band has 410 MHz bandwidth, 1300 circuits, power output of 20 watts from each of two traveling wave tubes. Has both Earth coverage and narrow coverage antennas. Weight: 565 kg. Nov. 21 Objective: Military communications 36,375 Still in orbit DSCS 11-14 Spacecraft: Same as preceding. 35,788 98B 1451.0 Titan IIIC 2.5

90 APPENDIXA-34ntinued Successful U.S. Launches-1979

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (dggrees)

Dec .7 Objective: To launch spacecraft into successful transfer 36,124 Third in a series of satellites, success- RCA orbit. Satellite to provide television, voice communica- 166.3 fully launched by NASA for RCA lOlA tions, and high-speed data transmission to all 50 states. 637 American Communications, Inc. Delta Spacecraft: Box shape, 120 cm by 162 cm for the base- 23.8 Spacecraft supposed to be placed over plate and 117 cm for main body height. Each bifold equator at 132O west longitude. Con- solar array is 155 cm by 226 cm. Solar panels fold tact with satellite lost when apogee against transponder body during launch. Four- boost motor fired Dec. 10. Subsequent reflector antenna. Three axis-stabilized. Weight: 895 attempts to locate spacecraft have kg. been unsuccessful.

91 APPENDIXB-I US. Applications Satellites 1975-1979

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

COMMUNICATIONS Mav 7. 1975 Anik 3 (Telesat 3) Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for Canada. Ma; 2e, 1975 Intelsat IV (F-1) Atlas-Centaur Eighth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. Aug. 27, 1975 Symphonie 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for France and West Germany. Positioned over the Atlantic. Sep. 26, 1975 Intelsat IV-A (F-1) Atlas-Centaur First of a new series double the capacity of its predecessors. Positioned over the Atlantic. Dec. 13, 1975 RCA-Satcom-l Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for RCA as first of their communications satellite series. Positioned over the Pacific. Jan. 17, 1976 CTS 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Canadian-U.S., most powerful experimental satellite. Jan. 30, 1976 Intelsat IV-A (F-2) Thor-Delta (TAT) Positioned over Atlantic. Feb. 19, 1976 Marisat 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) For maritime use by Comsat, over the Atlantic. Mar. 15, 1976 LES 8/9 Titan IIIC Experimental satellites with radioisotope power sources. Mar. 26. 1976 RCA-Satcom 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second of three. Apr. 22, 1976 NATO IIIA Thor-Delta (TAT) First of new series. May 13, 1976 Comstar I Atlas-Centaur Placed over Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. June 10, 1976 Marisat 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) For maritime use by Comsat, over the Pacific. July 8, 1976 Palana 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Indonesian domestic communications. July 22, 1976 Comitar 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Placed south of the United States for AT&T by Comsat. Oct. 14, 1976 Marisat 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Placed over Indian Ocean. Jan. 28, 1977 NATO IIIB Thor-Delta (TAT) Second of a new series. Mar. 10, 1977 Palapa 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Indonesian domestic communications. May 12, 1977 DSCS 11-7,s Titan IIIC Defense communications (dual launch). May 26, 1977 Intelsat 1V-A (F-4) Atlas-Centaur Positioned over At Ian t ic . Aug. 25, 1977 Sirio Thor-Delta (TAT) Italian experiment. Dec. 15, 1977 Sakura Thor-Delta (TAT) Japanese experiment. Jan. 7, 1978 Intelsat IV-A (F-3) Atlas-Centaur Positioned over Indian Ocean. Feb. 9, 1978 Fltsatcom 1 Atlas-Centaur First of a new Defense series. Mar. 5, 1978 Oscar 8 Thor-Delta (TAT) Secondary payload with Landsat 3, replacement for Oscar 6 for amateur radio communications. Mar. 31, 1978 Intelsat IV-A (F-6) Atlas-Centaur Positioned over Indian Ocean. Apr. 7, 1978 BSE Thor-Delta (TAT) Japanese experimental direct-broadcast satellite for television; named Yuri; domestic satellite. May 11, 1978 OTS 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) European Space Agency experimental relay satellite; domestic satellite. June 29, 1978 Comstar 3 Atlas-Centaur Positioned south of U.S. over the equator by Comsat; domestic satellite. Nov. 19, 1978 NATO IIIC Thor-Delta (TAT) Final one of this military series. Dec. 14, 1978 DSCS 11-11,12 Titan IIIC Defense communications (dual launch). Dec. 16. 1978 Anik 4 (Telesat D) Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for Canada; domestic satellite. May 4, 1979 Fltsatcom 2 Atlas-Centaur Second of a new DoD series. Aug. 9, 1979 Westar 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic com- munications links. Nov. 21, 1979 DSCS II-13,14 Titan IIlC Defense communications (dual launch). Dec. 2, 1979 RCA-Satcom 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for RCA, but contact lost during orbit circularization. WEATHER OBSERVATION* Feb. 6, 1975 SMS 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. June 12, 1975 Nimbus 6 Thor-Delta (TAT) To build numerical models for Global Atmospheric Research Program. Oct. 16, 1975 Goes 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) First fully operational synchronous-orbit weather satellite. July 29, 1976 Noaa 5 (ITOS-H) Thor-Delta (TAT) Second generation operational satellite. June 16, 1977 Goes 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second of this series. July 14, 1977 Himawari Thor-Delta (TAT) Japanese geosynchronous satellite. Nov. 23, 1977 Meteosat Thor-Delta (TAT) European Space Agency geosynchronous satellite. May 1, 1978 AMS 3 Thor-Burner 2 A DoD meteorological satellite. June 16, 1978 Goes 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Third of this series for NOAA. Oct. 13, 1978 Tiros-N Atlas F First of a third generation for NOAA. also experimental satellite for NASA. Oct. 24, 1978 Nimbus 7 Thor-Delta (TAT) Last of this experimental series for NASA. June 6, 1979 AMs-4 Atlas F A DoD meteorological satellite. June 27, 1979 Noaa 6 Atlas F Like the current DoD meteorological satellites. EARTH OBSERVATION Jan. 22, 1975 Landsat 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second experimental Earth resources technology satellite. Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry resources, mineral and land resources, land use, water resources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and the environment. Mar. 5, 1978 Landsat 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Third experimental Earth-resources satellite. Apr. 26, 1978 HCMM (AEM-1) scout Experimental, low-cost, limited-function heat-capacity mapping mis- sion for Earth resources. - * Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identified by launch. APPENDIXB-1--Continued U.S. Applications Satellites 1975-1979

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

June 27, 1978 Seasat 1 Atlas F Proof-of-concept oceanographic-phenomena data-collection satellite. GEODESY Apr. 9, 1975 Geos 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. May 4, 1976 Lageos Thor-Delta (TAT) Laser geodynamic satellite. NAVIGATION Oct. 12, 1975 Tip 2 scout Transit Improvement Program. Sep. 1, 1976 Tip 3 scout Transit Improvement Program. lune 23, 1977 NTS 2 Atlas F Forerunner of Navstar Global Positioning System. Oct. 28, 1977 Transit scout Developmental model. Feb. 22, 1978 Navstar 1 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. May 13, 1978 Navstar 2 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. Oct. 7, 1978 Navstar 3 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. Dec. 11, 1978 Navstar 4 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite.

APPENDIXB-2 U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1975-1979

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

May 7, 1975 SAS-C (Explorer 53) scout Measure x-ray emission of discrete extragalactic sources. (Italian- launched.) June 21, 1975 Os0 8 Thor-Delta (TAT) To study minimum phase of solar cycle. Aug. 9, 1975 COS-B Thor-Delta Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies. (ESA European satellite.) Oct. 6, 1975 Atmosphere Thor-Delta Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. (Explorer 54) Nov. 20, 1975 Atmosphere Thor - Del t a Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. Measure spatial (Explorer 55) distribution of ozone. Mar. 15, 1976 Solrad HiA/HiB Titan IIIC Measure radiation and particles at close to 120,000 km circular. May 22, 1976 P-76-5 scout Plasma effects on radar and communications. July 8, 1976 SESP 74-2 Titan IIID Particle measurements up to 8000 km. Apr. 20. 1977 Geos Thor-Delta (TAT) European Space Agency, study of magnetic and electric fields from geo- synchronous orbit (not attained.) Aug. 12, 1977 HEAO 1 Atlas-Centaur X-ray and gamma ray astronomy. Oct. 22, 1977 ISEE 1,2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Magnetosphere and solar wind measurements (for NASA and European Space Agency respectively). Jan. 26, 1978 IUE Thor-Delta (TAT) Ultraviolet observation of astronomical phenomena, in elliptical geo- synchronous orbit. July 14, 1978 Geos 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) European studies of magnetosphere, in geosynchronous orbit. Aua. 12, 1978 ISEE 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) International Sun-Earth Explorer, in halo orbit near Earth-Sun libra- tion point. Oct. 24, 1978 Cameo Thor-Delta (TAT) Barium and lithium cloud experiments, carried in rocket body of Nim- bus 7 launcher. Nov. 13, 1978 HEAO 2 Atlas-Centaur High-resolution observations of astronomical x-ray sources. Jan. 30, 1979 Scatha Thor-Delta (TAT) Measurement of sources of electric charge buildup on spacecraft. Feb. 18, 1979 Sage scout Measurement of stratospheric aerosols and ozone. Feb. 24, 1979 Solwind Atlas F Measurement of solar wind, electron buildup in polar regions, aerosols, and ozone. June 6, 1979 Ariel 6 scout Measurement of cosmic radiation (United Kingdom payload). Sep. 20, 1979 HEAO 3 Atlas-Centaur Gamma and cosmic ray emissions. Oct. 30, 1979 Magsat scout Detailed current description of Earth’s magnetic field and of sources of variations.

93 APPENDIXB-3 U.S.-Lauched Space Probes 1975-1979

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIE-Centaur Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, while Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. Sep. 9, 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIE-Centaur Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, while Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and rook measurements of the atmosphere. Jan. 15, 1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIE-Centaur Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of the Sun. measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus a cosmic-ray burst detector. Aug. 20, 1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIE-Centaur Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Was to swing around Jupiter in July 1979 and arrive at Saturn in 1981, possibly going on to Uranus by 1986. Sep. 5, 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIE-Centaur Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, was to swing around Jupiter in Mar. 1979 and arrive at Saturn in Nov. 1980. May 20, 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data. Aug. 8, 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data.

94 APPENDIXC

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights

Vostok 1 Apr. 12, 1961 Yuri A. Gagarin 1 h 48 min. First manned flight. Mercury- May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard, Jr, 15 min. First U.S. flight; suborbital Redstone 3 Mercury- July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 16 min. Suborbital: capsule sank after landing. Redstone 4 Vostok 2 Aug. 6, 1961 Gherman E. Titov 25 h 18 min. First flight exceeding 24 h. Mercury-Atlas 6 Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 4 h 55 min. First American to orbit. Mercury-Atlas 7 May 24, 1962 M. Scott Carpenter 4 h 56 min. Landed 400 km beyond target. Vostok 3 Aug. 11, 1962 Andrian G. Nikolayev 94 h 22 min. First dual mission (with Vostok 4). Vostok 4 Aug. 12, 1962 Pavel R. Popovich 70 h 57 min. Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. Mercury-Atlas 8 Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 9 h 13 min. Landed 8 km from target. Mercury-Atlas 9 May 15, 1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 34 h 20 min. First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. Vostok 5 June 14, 1963 Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 119 h 6 min. Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). Vostok 6 June 16, 1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 70 h 50 min. First woman in space: within 5 km of Vostok 5 Voskhod 1 Oct. 12, 1964 Vladimir M. Komarov 24 h 17 min. First 3-man crew. Konstantin P. Feoktistov Dr. Boris G. Yegorov Voskhod 2 Mar. 18, 1965 Aleksey A. Leonov 26 h 2 min. First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min). Pavel I. Belyayev Gemini 3 Mar. 23, 1965 Virgil I. Grissom 4 h 53 min. First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneuvers in John W. Young orbit. Gemini 4 June 3. 1965 James A. McDivitt 97 h 56 min. 21-min. extravehicular activity (White). Edward H. White, I1 Gemini 5 Aug. 21, 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 190 h 55 min. Longest-duration manned flight to date. Charles Conrad, Jr. Gemini 7 Dec. 4, 1965 Frank Borman 330 h 35 min. Longest-duration manned flight to date. James A. Lovell, Jr. Gemini 6-A Dec. 15, 1965 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 25 h 51 min. Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. Thomas P. Stafford Gemini 8 Mar. 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong 10 h 41 min. First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 David R. Scott with Agena target rocket). Gemini 9-A June 3, 1966 Thomas P. Stafford 72 h 21 min. Extravehicular activity: rendezvous. Eugene A. Cernan Gemini 10 July 18, 1966 John W. Young 70 h 47 min. First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, Michael Collins then Agena 8). Gemini 11 Sept. 12, 1966 Charles Conrad, Jr. 71 h 17 min. First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; Richard F. Gordon, Jr. highest Earth-orbit altitude (1372 km). Gemini 12 Nov. 11, 1966 James A. Lovell, Jr. 94 h 35 min. Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. h 37 min). soyuz 1 Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. Komarov 26 h 37 min. Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. Apollo 7 Oct. 11, 1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 260 h 9 min. First U.S. 3-man mission. Donn F. Eisele R. Walter Cunningham soyuz 3 Oct. 26, 1968 Georgiy Beregovoy 94 h 51 min. Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. Apollo 8 Dec. 21. 1968 Frank Borman 147 h 1 min. First manned orbit(s) of Moon; first manned James A. Lovell, Jr. departure from Earths sphere of influence; William A. Anders highest speed ever attained in manned flight. soyuz 4 Jan. 14, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 71 h 23 min. Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cos- soyuz 5 Jan. 15, 1969 Boris Volynov 72 h 56 min. monauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. Aleksey Yeliseyev Yevgeniy Khrunov Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 James A. McDivitt 241 h 1 min. Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of David R. Scott lunar module to landing and take-off from Russell L. Schweickart lunar surface and rejoining with command module. Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 Thomas P. Stafford 192 h 3 min. Successfully demonstrated complete system includ- John W. Young ing lunar module descent to 14,300 m from the Eugene A. Cernan lunar surface. Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 Neil A. Armstrong 195 h 9 min. First manned landing on lunar surface and safe Michael Collins return to Earth. First return of rock and soil Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. samples to Earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. Soyuz 6 Oct. 11, 1969 Georgiy Shonin 118 h 42 min. Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight with- Valeriy Kubasov out actually docking. Each conducted certain soyuz 7 Oct. 12, 1969 Anatoliy Filipchenko 118 h 41 min. experiments, including welding and Earth and Vladislav Volkov celestial observation. Viktor Gorbatko soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 118 h 50 min. Aleksey Yeliseyev

95 APPENDIXC-Continued History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights

Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 244 h 36 min. Second manned lunar landing. Continued man- Richard F. Gordon, Jr. ned exploration and retrieved parts of Surveyor Alan L. Bean 111 spacecraft which landed in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 James A. Lovell. Jr. 142 h 55 min. Mission aborted due to explosion in the service Fred W. Haise, Jr. module. Ship circled Moon, with crew using John L. Swigert, Jr. LEM as “lifeboat” until just prior to reentry. soyuz 9 June 1, 1970 Andrian G. Nikolayev 424 h 59 min. Longest manned space flight to date, lasting 17 Vitaliy I. Sevastianov days 16 h 59 min. Apolio 14 Jan. 31, 1971 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 216 h 2 min. Third manned lunar landing. Mission demon- Stuart A. Roosa strated pinpoint landing capability and con- Edgar D. Mitchell tinued manned exploration. soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 Vladimir Shatalov 47 h 46 min. Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board Aleksey Yeliseyev space station launched Apr. 19. Crew recovered Nikolai Rukavishnikov Apr. 24, 1971. soyuz 11 June 6, 1971 Georgiy Timofeyevich 570 h 22 min. Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied Dobrovolskiy s ace station for 22 days. Crew perished during Vladislav Nikolayevich fkal phase of Soyuz 11 capsule recovery on Volkov June 30, 1971. Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 David R. Scott 295 h 12 min. Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo ‘3’’ Alfred M. Worden series mission which carry the Lunar Roving James Bensen Irwin Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight EVA of 38 min 12 s was performed during return trip. Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972 John W. Young 265 h 51 min. Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving Charles M. Duke, Jr. Vehicle. Thomas K. Mattingly. I1 Apollo 17 Dec. 7, 1972 Eugene A. Cernan 301 h 52 min. Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, Harrison H. Schmitt again with roving vehicle. Ronald E. Evans Skylab 2 May 25, 1973 Charles Conrad, Jr. 627 h 50 min. Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired dam- Joseph P. Kenvin aged station. Paul J. Weitz Skylab 3 July 28, 1973 Alan L. Bean 1427 h 9 min. Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. Jack R. Lousma Owen K. Garriott soyuz 12 Sept. 27, 1973 Vasiliy Lazarev 47 h 16 min. Checkout of improved Soyuz Oleg Makarov Skylab 4 Nov. 16. 1973 Gerald P. Carr 2017 h 16 min. Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; Edward G. Gibson last of Skylab program. William R. Pogue Soyuz 13 Dec. 18, 1973 Petr Klimuk 188 h 55 min. Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources ex- Valentin Lebedev periments. Soyuz 14 July 3, 1974 Pave1 Popovich 377 h 30 min. Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied Yuriy Artyukhin space station for over 14 days. Soyuz 15 Aug. 26, 1974 Gennadiy Sarafanov 48 h 12 min. Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. Lev Demin Soyuz 16 Dec. 2, 1974 Anatoliy Filipchenko 142 h 24 min. Test of ASTP configuration Nikolai Rukavishnikov Soyuz 17 Jan. 10, 1975 Aleksey Gubarev 709 h 20 min. Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station during Georgiy Grechko a 29-day flight. Anomaly Apr. 5, 1975 Vasiley Lazarev 20 min. Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered Oleg Makarov after abort. soyuz 18 May 24, 1975 Petr Klimuk 1511 h 20 min. Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station during Vitaliy Sevastiyanov a 63-day mission. soyuz 19 July 15, 1975 Aleksey Leonov 142 h 31 min. Target for Apollo in docking and joint experi- Valeriy Kubasov ments ASTP mission. Apollo July 15, 1975 Thomas P. Stafford 217 h 28 min. Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of Donald K. Slayton ASTP mission. Vance D. Brand soyuz 21 July 6, 1976 Boris Volynov 1182 h 24 min. Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station during Vitaliy Zholobov 49-day flight. soyuz 22 Sep. 15, 1976 Valeriy Bykovskiy 189 h 54 min. Earth resources study with multispectral camera Vladimir Aksenov system. Soyuz 23 Oct. 14, 1976 Vyacheslav Zudov 48 h 6 min. Failed to dock with Salyut 5. Valeriy Rozhdestvenskiy Soyuz 24 Feb 7, 1977 Viktor Gorbatko 425 h 23 min. Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station during Yuriy Glazkov 18-day flight. Soyuz 25 Oct. 9. 1977 Vladimir Kovalenok 48 h 46 min. Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. Valeriy Ryumin

96 APPENDIXC-Continued History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

~ Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights

Soyuz 26 Dec. 10, 1977 Yuriy Romanenko 898 h 6 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; Georgiy Grechko crew duration 2314 h. Soyuz 27 Jan. 10, 1978 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 1514 h. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; Oleg Makarov crew duration 142 h 59 min. Soyuz 28 Mar. 2. 1978 Aleksey Gubarev 190 h 17 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was 1st Czech cos- Vladimir Remek monaut to orbit. soyuz 29 June 15, 1978 Vladimir Kovalenok 1911 h 23 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; Aleksandr Ivanchenkov crew duration 3350 h 48 min. Soyuz 30 June 27, 1978 Petr Klimuk 190 h 4 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Heraszewski was 1st Polish Miroslaw Heraszewski cosmonaut to orbit. Soyuz 31 Aug. 26, 1978 Valeriy Bykovskiy 1628 h 14 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; Sigmund Jahn crew duration 188 h 49 min. Jahn was 1st Ger- man Democratic Republic cosmonaut to orbit. Soyuz 32 Feb. 25. 1979 Vladimir Lyakhov 2596 h 24 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; Valeriy Ryumin crew duration 4200 h 36 min, or 175 days. soyuz 33 Apr. 10, 1979 Nikolay Rukavishnikov 47 h 01 min. Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. Georgiy Ivanov Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. soyuz 34 June 6, 1979 (unmanned at launch) 1770 h 17 min. Docked with Salyut 6, later served as a ferry for Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned un- manned.

97 APPENDIXD U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

Thrust Max. Max . Payload (kg) (in Vehicle Stages Propellant' kilo- dia' Height 555-km cape First newtons) (m) (m) orbit launch

Scout ...... 1. Algol IIIA ...... Solid ...... 481.0 1.12 21.95 18ii4 38.6' 1972(60)' 2 . Castor IIA ...... Solid ...... 281.0 3 . Antares I11 ...... Solid ...... 83.1 4 . Altair 111 ...... Solid ...... 26.2 Thor-Delta 2900 series . 1. Thor ulus 9 TX LOX/RP-1 ..... 911.9 2.44 35.36 1769' 47V 1973(60)' 354-5 ...... Solid ...... 440.4' 2 . Delta (DSV-3) ...... N204/Aerozine ... 45.8 3. TE 364-4 ...... Solid ...... 66.7 Atlas F/TE 364-4 . . 1 . Atlas booster & sustainer ...... LOX/RP-1 ..... 1970.6 3.05 25.91 1497' 1977(60)' 2 . TE 364-4 ...... Solid ...... 66.7 Atlas-Agena ...... 1 . Atlas booster & (SLV/SA) ...... LOX/RP-1 ..... 2237.5 3.05 40.54 27224 454' 1968(60)' 2 . Agena ...... IRFNA/UDMH .. 71.2 Titan IIIB-Agena . .... 1. LR-87 ...... N204/Aerozine ... 2353.1 3.05 48.46 3614 ?1727~ 1966 2 . LR-91 ...... N,04/Aerotine ... 444.8 3 . Agena ...... IRFNAAJDMH .. 71.2 Titan IIIC ...... 1. Two 5-segment 3.05-m dia ...... Solid ...... 10413.3 3.05 40.54 . 1464' 1965 2 . LR-87 ...... N20, /Aerozine ... 2353.1 3.05 3 . LR-91 ...... N,04 /Aerozine ... 444.8 4 . Transtage ...... N,04 /Aerozine ... 71.2 Titan III(23)D . 1. Two 5-segment 3.05-m dia ...... Solid ...... 10413.3 3.05 46.94 11,1826 1971 2 . LR-87 ...... N204/Aerozine ... 2353.1 3 . LR-91 ...... N204/Aerozine ... 444.8 Titan III(34)D . 1. Two 5%-segment 3.05-m dia ...... Solid ...... 11555.6 3.05 49.13 12.545' 1981 2 . LR-87 ...... N,04 /Aerozine ... 2353.1 3 . LR-91 ...... N204/Aerozine ... 444.8 Titan III(34)D/IUS . 1. Two 5s-segment 3.05-m dia ...... Solid ...... 11555.6 3.05 48.00 1818' 1818' 1981 2353.1 3 . LR-91 ...... N,04/Aerozine ... 444.8 4 . IUS 1st Stage ...... Solid ...... 191.3 5 . IUS 2nd Stage ...... Solid ...... 71.2 Thor LV-2F . 1. Thor ...... LOX/RP-1 ..... 756.2 2.44 23.77 512'' 1976(66)' 2 . TE364-4 ...... Solid ...... 66.7 3 . TE 364-15 ...... Solid ...... 44.5 Thor SLV-ZA/Block 5D-2 ...... 1. Thor plus 3 LOX/RJ-1 ...... 756.2 2.44 24.23 653'' 1980(63)' TX 354-5 ...... Solid ...... 689.5' 2 . TE 364-4 ...... Solid ...... 66.7 3 . TE 364-15 ...... Solid 44.5 . .

' The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a Due east launch . date in parentheses for the initial version . ' Polar launch 185 km . ' Set of 3 . Polar 185 km (nominal). Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Liquid Oxygen 7 Synchronous equatorial (nominal). and a modified Kerosene - Lox/RP, RJ. Solid propellant combining ''Iar 185 km (Current estimate)' in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid: Inhibited Red Fuming" Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine . SPchrOnOu equatorial (current estimate). IRFNA/UDMH; Nitrogen Tetroxide and UDMH/N2H4-",O, / '' Polar 833 km (from WTR) . Aerozine .

90 APPENDIXE-1 Space Activities of the US. Government

HISTORICALBUDGET SUMMARY - BUDGET AUTHORITY (In millions of dollars)

NASA Fiscal Year Defense Energy Interior Total Space' ::zi ture

1959 ...... 330.9 260.9 489.5 34.3 ...... 784.7 1960 ...... 523.6 461.5 560.9 43.3 ...... 1 1065.8 1961 ...... 964.0 926.0 813.9 67.7 ...... 6 1808.2 1962 ...... 1824.9 1796.8 1298.2 147.8 50.7 ...... 1.3 3294.8 3673.0 3626.0 1549.9 213.9 43.2 ...... 1.5 5434.5 1964 ...... 5099.7 5016.3 1599.3 210.0 2.8 ...... 3.0 6831.4 1965 ...... 5249.7 5137.6 1573.9 228.6 12.2 ...... 3.2 6955.5 1966 ...... 5174.9 5064.5 1688.8 186.8 26.5 ...... 3.2 6969.8 1967 ...... 4965.6 4830.2 1663.6 183.6 29.3 ...... 2.8 6709.5 1968 ...... 4587.3 4430.0 1921.8 145.1 28.1 .2 .5 3.2 6528.9 1969 ...... 3990.9 3822.0 2013.0 118.0 20.0 .2 .7 1.9 5975.8 1970 ...... 3745.8 3547.0 1678.4 102.8 8.0 1.1 .8 2.4 5340.5 1971 ...... 3311.2 3101.3 1512.3 94.8 27.4 1.9 .8 2.4 4740.9 1972 ...... 3306.6 3071.0 1407.0 55.2 31.3 5.8 1.6 2.8 4574.7 1973 ...... 3406.2 3093.2 1623.0 54.2 39.7 10.3 1.9 2.6 4824.9 1974 ...... 3036.9 2758.5 1766.0 41.7 60.2 9.0 3.1 1.8 4640.3 1975 ...... 3229.1 2915.3 1892.4 29.6 64.4 8.3 2.3 2.0 4914.3 1976 ...... 3550.3 3225.4 1983.3 23.3 71.5 10.4 3.6 2.4 5319.9 T.Q...... 931.8 849.2 460.4 4.6 22.2 2.6 .9 .6 1340.5 1977 ...... 3817.8 3440.2 241 1.9 21.7 90.8 9.5 6.3 2.4 5982.8 1978 ...... 4060.1 3622.9 2728.8 34.4 102.8 9.7 7.7 2.4 6508.7 1979 ...... 4595.5 4030.4 3211.3 58.6 98.4 9.9 8.2 2.4 7419.2 1980 bt...... 5266.9 4696.6 4003.4 54.2 90.7 11.7 13.1 2.4 8872.1 1981 Est...... 5514.6 4989.1 4910.7 50.8 92.9 12.1 15.7 2.4 10073.7

' Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). Source: Office of Management and Budget. T.Q. -Tra mitional Quarter.

U. S. Space Budget-Budget Authority 1970-1981 (May not add due to rounding) BILLIONS OF DOL LARS 10.1

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 T.O.1/ 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 EST. EST. I/ 1.a. TRANSITIONAL OUARTER m OTHER a EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AIR TRANSPORTATION ...... :.:.:.:.:.:.:.::?...... DEFENSE SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AN0 BUDGET ...... 0 NASA&' APPENDIXE-2 Space Activities Budget (In millions of dollars)

Budget Authority Outlays 1979 1980 1981 1979 1980 1981 Actual Est. Est. Actual Bt. Est. Federals ace ro ams: NASA P ...... pgr 4030.4 4696.6 4989.1 3743.9 4471.4 4675.1 Defense ...... 321 1.3 4003.4 4910.7 2891.8 3472.7 4277.3 Energy ...... 58.6 54.2 50.8 54.7 58.4 50.7 Commerce ...... 98.4 90.7 92.9 97.4 89.8 91.9 Interior ...... 9.9 11.7 12.1 9.9 11.2 11.8 NSF ...... 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 Agriculture ...... 8.2 13.1 15.7 8.2 13.1 15.7 Total ...... 7419.2 8872.1 10073.7 6808.3 8119.0 9124.9

NASA: Space flight ...... 2432.6 2846.9 3135.7 2216.8 2745.1 2945.7 Space science, applications, and technology ...... 1224.2 1415.3 1403.7 1153.1 1315.8 1309.5 Air transportation ...... 519.1 570.3 525.5 443.3 528.3 537.5 Supporting operations ...... 382.9 437.3 452.8 383.3 413.4 423.0 Less receipts ...... - 9.3 - 2.9 - 3.1 - 9.3 -2.9 -3.1 Total NASA ...... 4549.5 5266.9 5514.6 4187.2 4999.7 5212.6

' Excludes amounts for air transportation. Source: Office of Management and Budget.

Aeronautics Budget (In millions of dollars)

Budget Authority 1979 1980 1981 Actual Est. Est. Federal aeronautics programs: NASA' ...... 519.1 570.3 525.5 Department of Defense' ...... 2239.7 2223.2 2149.1 Department of Transportation' ...... 90.8 92.0 87 .O Total ...... 2849.6 2885.5 2761.6

' Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, Research ' Federal Aviation Administration Research and Development, and Program Management. Research, Development, Testing and Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. Source: Office of Management and Budget.

100 APPENDIXF White House Fact Sheet November 20, 1979 Management of U.S. Civilian Remote Sensing Activities

The President today announced the designation of the Commerce Department’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to manage all opera- tional civilian remote sensing activities from space. This designation is one of several policy decisions announced today after a review of civilian space policy mandated by a Presidential Directive in October, 1978. Early in his administration, the President directed a comprehensive review of space policy. The review, completed in May, 1978, resulted in a Presidential Directive that established a national space policy framework. It created a Policy Review Com- mittee on Space, chaired by the Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, Frank Press. One of the tasks of the Policy Review Committee has been to assess the Nation’s future civil space remote sensing requirements. That review was the basis for the policy decisions announced today. Designation of a single agency, NOAA, to manage all civil operational satellite activities will lend itself to further integration and potential cost saving in the future. NOAA’s experience in successfully operating and managing three generations of weather satellites prepares it to assume the responsibility for land remote sensing in ad- dition to its ongoing atmospheric and oceanic activities. NOAA’s first action will be to develop a transition plan in coordination with other appropriate agencies for moving to a fully integrated satellite-based land remote sensing program. Initially, our operational land remote sensing efforts will rely on experience de- rived from the Landsat program. Landsat was begun in 1972 by NASA as a satellite effort specifically designed to observe surface features of the earth. The President’s decision establishes a three-part framework to serve remote sens- ing activities: -Integration of civilian operational activities under NOAA. -Joint or coordinated civil/military activities where both parties’ objectives can be best met through this approach. -Separate defense activities which have no civilian counterpart. Other space policy decisions developed by this review and announced today are: -The Commerce Department will seek ways to further private sector oppor- tunities in civil land remote sensing activities, through joint ventures with industry, a quasi-government corporation, leasing, etc., with the goal of eventual operation of these activities by the private sector. -We will continue the policy of providing Landsat data to foreign users, and promoting development of complementary and cooperative nationally operated satellite systems so as to increase benefits for all nations. -The Department of Commerce will establish and chair a Program Board for continuing federal coordination and regulation of civil remote sensing activities. The involved federal organizations will be represented (i .e., the Department of Defense, Interior, Agriculture, State, Transportation, and Energy, and NASA, CIA, AID, and EPA). The National Governors’ Association and the National Conference of State Legislatures will be invited to participate.

101 -Separate weather programs for the military and civil sectors will be maintained under the Departments of Defense and Commerce because of their differing needs. We will continue procurement of current spacecraft until development of a new system design is justified. Future polar orbiting satellite development and procure- ment will be jointly undertaken by Defense, Commerce and NASA to maximize technology-sharing and minimize cost. -Ocean observations from space can meet common civil and military data re- quirements. Accordingly, if we decide to develop ocean satellites, joint Defense/Com- merce/NASA management of the program will be pursued.

102 APPENDIXG The United Nations Moon Treaty

The Moon Treaty has been under discussion since late 1971 when the General Assembly adopted resolution 2779, in which it took note of a draft treaty submitted by the U.S.S.R. and requested the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and its legal Subcommittee (LSC) to consider the question of the elabora- tion of a draft international treaty concerning the Moon on a priority basis. The draft Moon Treaty is based to a considerable extent on the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. Indeed, the discussion in the Outer Space Committee confirmed the understanding that the Moon Treaty in no way derogates from or limits the provisions of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. The draft Moon Treaty also is, in its own right, a meaningful advance in the codification of international law dealing with outer space, containing obligations of both immediate and long-term application to such matters as the safeguarding of human life on celestial bodies, the promotion of scientific investigation and the ex- change of information relative to and derived from activities on celestial bodies, and the enhancement of opportunities and conditions for evaluation, research, and ex- ploitation of the natural resources of celestial bodies. The General Assembly, by concensus, opened the treaty for signature on December 5, 1979. This appendix presents the text of the draft treaty in the left column on each page; in the right column, opposite the appropriate seqtions of the text, are some com- ments by the Department of State on the attitude of the United States regarding particular provisions.

103 Treaty Text Commentary by Department of State

Draft agreement governing the activities of States on the moon and other celestial bodies. The States Parties to this Agreement, Noting the achievements of States in the exploration and use of the moon and other celestial bodies, Recognizing that the moon, as a natural satellite of the earth, has an important role to play in the explora- tion of outer space, Determined to promote on the basis of equality the further development of co-operation among States in the exploration and use of the moon and other celestial bodies, Desiring to prevent the moon from becoming an area of international conflict, Bearing in mind the benefits which may be derived from the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon and other celestial bodies, Recalling the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, the Convention on Inter- national Liability for Damage Caused by Space Ob- jects, and the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, Taking into account the need to define and develop the provisions of these international instruments in relation to the moon and other celestial bodies, having regard to further progress in the exploration and use of outer space, Haue agreed on the following:

Article I There has been considerable discussion of Article I of the draft treaty. The United States accepts the 1. The provisions of this Agreement relating to the Outer Space Committee’s conclusions as to this ar- moon shall also apply to other celestial bodies within ticle-namely, first, that references to the moon are the solar system, other than the earth, except in so far intended also to the references to other celestial bodies as specific legal norms enter into force with respect to within our solar system other than the earth; secondly, any of these celestial bodies. that references to the moon’s natural resources are in- 2. For the purposes of this Agreement reference to tended to comprehend those natural resources to be the moon shall include orbits around or other trajec- found on these celestial bodies; and, thirdly, that the tories to or around it. trajectories and orbits referred to in Article I, 3. This Agreement does not apply to extrater- paragraph 2, do not include trajectories and orbits of restrial materials which reach the surface of the earth space objects between the earth and earth orbit or in by natural means. earth orbit only. In regard to the phrase “earth orbit only”, the fact that a space object in earth orbit also is in orbit around the sun does not bring space objects which are only in earth orbit within the scope of this treaty.

104 Article II Article I1 reaffirms the application of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law to outer All activities on the moon, including its exploration space. While the Charter predates man’s entry into and use, shall be carried out in accordance with inter- space, its principles and provisions, including those national law, in particular the Charter of the United relating to the permissible and impermissible uses of Nations, and taking into account the Declaration on force, are as valid for outer space as they are for our Principles of International Law concerning Friendly seas, land, or air. The United States welcomes the in- Relations and Cooperation among States in accord- ternational community’s reaffirmation in the Moon ance with the Charter of the United Nations, adopted Treaty of this essential point. by the General Assembly on 24 October 1970, in the interest of maintaining international peace and securi- ty and promoting international co-operation and mutual understanding, and with due regard to the corresponding interests of all other States Parties.

Article III Article 111 contains a statement of the principle that the celestial bodies and those orbits around them and 1. The moon shall be used by all States Parties ex- to them are only to be used for peaceful-i.e., non- clusively for peaceful purposes. aggressive -purposes. 2. Any threat or use of force or any other hostile act Paragraph 2 of Article 111 spells out in some detail on the moon is prohibited. It is likewise prohibited to some of the consequences to be drawn from Article 11. use the moon in order to commit any such act or to Specifically, paragraph 2’s purpose is to make clear engage in any such threat in relation to the earth, the that it is forbidden for a party to the Moon Treaty to moon, spacecraft, the personnel of spacecraft or man- engage in any threat or use of force on the moon or in made objects. other circumstances set forth in paragraph 2 if such acts would constitute a violation of the party’s interna- tional obligations in regard to the threat or use of force. 3. States Parties shall not place in orbit around or other trajectory to or around the moon objects carry- ing nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction or place or use such weapons on or in the moon. 4. The establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications, the testing of any type of weapons and the conduct of military manoeuvres on the moon shall be forbidden. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be prohibited. The use of any equipment or facility necessary for peaceful exploration and use of the moon shall also not be prohibited.

Article ZV 1. The exploration and use of the moon shall be the province of all mankind and shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, ir- respective of their degree of economic or scientific development. Due regard shall be paid to the interest of present and future generations as well as to the need to promote higher standards of living conditions of economic and social progress and development in ac- cordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

105 2. States Parties shall be guided by the principle of co-operation and mutual assistance in all their ac- tivities concerning the exploration and use of the moon. International co-operation in pursuance of this Agreement should be as wide as possible and may take place on a multilateral basis, on a bilateral basis, or through international intergovernmental organiza- tions.

Article V 1. States Parties shall inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations as well as the public and the in- ternational scientific community, to the greatest ex- tent feasible and practicable, of their activities con- cerned with the exploration and use of the moon. In- formation on the time, purposes, locations, orbital parameters and duration shall be given in respect to each mission to the moon as soon as possible after launching, while information on the results of each mission, including scientific results, shall be furnished upon completion of each mission. In case of a mission lasting more than 60 days, information on conduct of the mission including any scientific results shall be given periodically at 30 days’ intervals. For missions lasting more than six months, only significant addi- tions to such information need be reported thereafter. 2. If a State Party becomes aware that another State Party plans to operate simultaneously in the same area of or in the same orbit around or trajectory to or around the moon, it shall promptly inform the other State of the timing of and plans for its own operations. 3. In carrying out activities under this Agreement, States Parties shall promptly inform the Secretary- General, as well as the public and the international scientific community, of any phenomena they discover in outer space, including the moon, which could en- danger human life or health, as well as any indication of organic life.

A~tzcleVI

1. There shall be freedom of scientific investigation on the moon by all States Parties without discrimina- tion of any kind, on the basis of equality and in ac- cordance with international law. 2. In carrying out scientific investigations and in furtherance of the provisions of this Agreement, the States Parties shall have the right to collect on and remove from the moon samples of its mineral and other substances. Such samples shall remain at the disposal of those States Parties which caused them to

106 be collected and may be used by them for scientific purposes. States Parties shall have regard to the desirability of making a portion of such samples available to other interested States Parties and the in- ternational scientific community for scientific in- vestigation. States Parties may in the course of scien- tific investigations also use mineral and other substances of the moon in quantities appropriate for the support of their missions. 3. States Parties agree on the desirability of ex- changing scientific and other personnel on expeditions to or installations on the moon to the greatest extent feasible and practicable.

Article VII Article VI1 contains important protections for the en- vironment of celestial bodies. The United States en- 1. In exploring and using the moon, States Parties dorses the Committee’s understanding that the shall take measures to prevent the disruption of the ex- language of this article is not intended to be read in isting balance of its environment whether by introduc- such a way as would result in prohibiting the exploita- ing adverse changes in such environment, its harmful tion of natural resources to be found on celestial contamination through the introduction of extra- bodies but, rather, that any such exploitation is to be environmental matter or otherwise. States Parties shall carried out in such a manner as to minimize, insofar as also take measures to prevent harmfully affecting the possible, disruption of or adverse changes in the en- environment of the earth through the introduction of vironment. extraterrestrial matter or otherwise. 2. States Parties shall inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the measures being adopted by them in accordance with paragraph 1 of this article and shall also to the maximum extent feasible notify him in advance of all placements by them of radio- active materials on the moon and of the purposes of such placements. 3. States Parties shall report to other States Parties and to the Secretary-General concerning areas of the moon having special scientific interest in order that, without prejudice to the rights of other States Parties, consideration may be given to the designation of such areas as international scientific preserves for which special protective arrangements are to be agreed in consultation with the competent organs of the United Nations.

Article VZIZ 1. States Parties may pursue their activities in the exploration and use of the moon anywhere on or below its surface, subject to the provisions of this Agreement. 2. For these purposes States Parties may, in par- ticular : (a) Land their space objects on the moon and launch them from the moon:

107 (b) Place their personnel, space vehicles, equip- ment, facilities, stations and installations anywhere on or below the surface of the moon. Personnel, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, sta- tions and installations may move or be moved freely over or below the surface of the moon. 3. Activities of States Parties in accordance with paragraphs 1 and 2 of this article shall not interfere with the activities of other States Parties on the moon. Where such interference may occur, the States Parties concerned shall undertake consultations in accordance with article XV, paragraphs 2 and 3.

Article IX 1. States Parties may establish manned and unman- ned stations on the moon. A State Party establishing a station shall use only that area which is required for the needs of the station and shall immediately inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the location and purposes of that station. Subsequently, at annual intervals that State shall likewise inform the Secretary-General whether the station continues in use and whether its purposes have changed. 2. Stations shall be installed in such a manner that they do not impede the free access to all areas of the moon of personnel, vehicles and equipment of other States Parties conducting activities on the moon in ac- cordance with the provisions of this Agreement or of article I of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Ac- tivities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

Article X 1. States Parties shall adopt all practicable measures to safeguard the life and health of persons on the moon. For this purpose they shall regard any per- son on the moon as an astronaut within the meaning of article V of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States on the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies and as part of the personnel of a spacecraft within the meaning of the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. 2. States Parties shall offer shelter in their stations, installations, vehicles and other facilities to persons in distress on the moon.

108 Article XI The common heritage concept, which was initially suggested by Argentina, but formally proposed by the 1. The moon and its natural resources are the com- United States in 1972, is set forth in Article XI, mon heritage of mankind, which finds its expression in paragraph 1, which makes it clear that its meaning, the provisions of this Agreement and in particular in for purposes of the Moon Treaty, is to be found within paragraph 5 of this article. the Moon Treaty itself. Likewise, its meaning in the Moon Treaty is without prejudice to its use or meaning in any other treaty. 2. The moon is not subject to national appropria- tion by any claim of sovereignty, by means of use or oc- cupation, or by any other means. 3. Neither the surface nor the subsurface of the moon, nor any part thereof or natural resources in place, shall become property of any State, interna- tional intergovernmental or nongovernmental organization, national organization or non- governmental entity or of any natural person. The placement of personnel, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations on or below the sur- face of the moon, including structures connected with their surface or subsurface, shall not create a right of ownership over the surface or the subsurface of the moon or any areas thereof. The foregoing provisions are without prejudice to the international regime referred to in paragraph 5 of this article. 4. States Parties have the right to exploration and use of the moon without discrimination of any kind on a basis of equality, and in accordance with interna- tional law and the terms of this Agreement. 5. States Parties to this Agreement hereby under- Article XI, paragraph 5, makes it clear that the par- take to establish an international rkgime, including ties to the treaty undertake, as the exploitation of the appropriate procedures, to govern the exploitation of natural resources of the celestial bodies other than the the natural resources of the moon as such exploitation earth is about to become feasible, to enter into is about to become feasible. This provision shall be im- negotiations to establish a mutually acceptable inter- plemented in accordance with article XVIII of this national regime to govern the exploitation of those Agreement. mineral and other substantive resources which may be found on the surface or subsurface of a celestial body. Each of the participants in a rigime conference will, of course, have to evaluate any treaty that emerges from the conference in the light of its own national interests. For the United States, this would require a conclusion that the treaty is balanced and reasonable and would then, as a constitutional matter, require submission to the Senate for its advice and consent, just as we have sought and obtained advice and consent to United States ratification of the four outer space treaties now in force. 6. In order to facilitate the establishment of the in- ternational rkgime referred to in paragraph 5 of this article, States Parties shall inform the Secretary-

109 General of the United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific community to the greatest extent feasible and practicable of any natural resources they may discover on the moon. 7. The main purposes of the international rkgime The draft Moon Treaty, as part of the compromise to be established shall include: by many delegations, places no moratorium upon the (a) The orderly and safe development of the exploitation of the natural resouces on celestial bodies natural resources of the moon; by States or their nationals, but does provide that any exploitation of the natural resources of celestial bodies (b) The rational management of those resources; be carried out in a manner compatible with the pur- (c) The expansion of opportunities in the use of poses specified in paragraph 7 of Article XI and the those resources; provisions of paragraph 2 of Article VI. The United (d) An equitable sharing by all States Parties in the States views the purposes set forth in paragraph 7 as benefits derived from those resources, whereby the in- providing both a framework and an incentive for ex- terests and needs of the developing countries as well as ploitation of the natural resources of celestial bodies. the efforts of those countries which have contributed They constitute a framework because even exploita- either directly or indirectly to the exploration of the tion which is undertaken by a State Party to the Treaty moon shall be given special consideration. or its nationals outside of the context of any such rkgime either because the exploitation occurs before a rkgime is negotiated or because a particular State may not participate in the international r6gime once it is established, will have to be compatible with those pur- poses set forth in Article XI, paragraph 7, of the Moon Treaty. This same paragraph is also an incentive. By setting forth now the purposes governing exploitation of natural resources, uncertainty is decreased and both States and private entities may now find it possible to engage in the arduous and expensive efforts necessary if exploitation of the natural resources of the celestial bodies is ever to become a reality. Eipecially vital in this regard is the fact that Article XI(7)(d) recognizes that an equitable sharing of the benefits derived from the natural resources of celestial bodies necessitates giving special consideration to those who have con- tributed directly to the exploration of the moon, as well as to the needs of developing countries and those who have indirectly contributed to the moon’s explora- tion. This language also reflects the international cooperation that exists today in telecommunications and other practical applications of space -for exam- ple, Intelsat, Intersputnik and Inmarsat, where those States who have expended large resources, either public or private, to develop space systems to exploit these applications have equitably shared the benefits with the international community. 8. All the activities with respect to the natural Article XI, paragraph 8, not only covers and sets the resources of the moon shall be carried out in a manner standards for the general right to exploit natural compatible with the purposes specified in paragraph 7 resources (in a manner compatible with Article XI(7)) of this article and the provisions of article VI, but also is intended to ensure that the unrestricted paragraph 2, of this Agreement. right to collect samples of natural resources is not in- fringed upon and that there is no limit upon the rights of States Parties to utilize in the course of scientific in-

110 vestigations, such quantities of those natural resources found on celestial bodies as are appropriate for the support of their missions.

Article XII 1. States Parties shall retain jurisdiction and con- trol over their personnel, vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations on the moon. The ownership of space vehicles, equipment, facilities, sta- tions and installations shall not be affected by their presence on the moon. 2. Vehicles, installations and equipment or their component parts found in places other than their in- tended location shall be dealt with in accordance with article V of the Agreement on Assistance to Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. 3. In the event of an emergency involving a threat to human life, States Parties may use the equipment, vehicles, installations, facilities or supplies of other States Parties on the moon. Prompt notification of such use shall be made to the Secretary-General of the United Nations or State Party concerned.

Article XIIl A State Party which learns of the crash landing, forced landing or other unintended landing on the moon of a space object, or its component parts, that were not launched by it, shall promptly inform the launching State Party and the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Article XZV 1. States Parties to this Agreement shall bear inter- national responsibility for national activities on the moon whether such activities are carried on by govern- mental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring that national activities are carried out in conformity with the provisions set forth in the present Agreement. States Parties shall ensure that non- governmental entities under their jurisdiction shall engage in activities on the moon only under the authority and continuing supervision of the ap- propriate State Party. 2. States Parties recognize that detailed ar- rangements concerning liability for damage caused on the moon, in addition to the provisions of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies and the Convention

111 on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, may become necessary as a result of more extensive activities on the moon. Any such ar- rangements shall be elaborated in accordance with the procedure provided for in article XVIII of this Agree- ment.

Article X V 1. Each State Party may assure itself that the ac- tivities of other States Parties in the exploration and use of the moon are compatible with the provisions of this Agreement. To this end, all space vehicles, equip- ment, facilities, stations and installations on the moon shall be open to other States Parties. Such States Par- ties shall give reasonable advance notice of a projected visit, in order that appropriate consultations may be held and that maximum precautions may be taken to assure safety and to avoid interference with normal operations in the facility to be visited. In pursuance of this article, any State Party may act on its own behalf or with the full or partial assistance of any other State Party or through appropriate international procedures within the framework of the United Nations and in ac- cordance with the Charter. 2. A State Party which has reason to believe that another State Party is not fulfilling the obligations in- cumbent upon it pursuant to this Agreement or that another State Party is interfering with the rights which the former State has under this Agreement may re- quest consultations with that Party. A State Party receiving such a request shall enter into such consulta- tions without delay. Any other State Party which re- quests to do so shall be entitled to take part in the con- sultations. Each State Party participating in such con- sultations shall seek a mutually acceptable resolution of any controversy and shall bear in mind the rights and interests of all States Parties. The Secretary- General of the United Nations shall be informed of the results of the consultations and transmit the informa- tion received to all States Parties concerned. 3. If the consultations do not lead to a mutually ac- ceptable settlement which has due regard for the rights and interests of all the States Parties, the parties concerned shall take all measures to settle the dispute by other peaceful means of their choice and ap- propriate to the circumstances and the nature of the dispute. If difficulties arise in connexion with the opening of consultations or if consultations do not lead to a mutually acceptable settlement, any States Party may seek the assistance of the Secretary-General without seeking the consent of any other State Party

112 concerned, in order to resolve the controversy. A State Party which does not maintain diplomatic relations with another State Party concerned shall participate in such consultations, at its choice, either itself or through another State Party or the Secretary-General, as intermediary.

Article X VI With the exception of articles XVII to XXI, references in this Agreement to States shall be deemed to apply to any international intergovernmental organization which conducts space activities if the organization declares its acceptance of the rights and obligations provided for in this Agreement and if the majority of the States members of the organization are States Parties to this Agreement and to the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Ex- ploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. States members of any such organization which are States Parties to this Agreement shall take all appropriate steps to ensure that the organization make a declaration in accord- ance with the foregoing.

Article XVII Any State Party to this Agreement may propose amendments to the Agreement. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Agreement accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Agreement and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Agreement on the date of acceptance by it.

Article X VIIl Ten years after the entry into force of this Agree- ment, the question of how the review of the Agreement shall be included in the provisional agenda of the United Nations General Assembly in order to consider, in the light of past application of the Agreement, whether it requires revision. However, at any time after the Agreement has been in office for five years, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, as depository, shall, at the request of one third of the States Parties to the Agreement and with the concur- rence of the majority of the States Parties, convene a conference of the States Parties to review this Agree- ment. A review conference shall also consider the question of the implementation of the provisions of ar- ticle XI, paragraph 5, on the basis of the principle referred to in paragraph 1 of that article and taking into account in particular any relevant technological developments.

113 Article XIX 1. This Agreement shall be open for signature by all States at United Nations Headquarters in New York. 2. This Agreement shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Any State which does not sign this Agreement before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any time. Instruments of ratification or accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 3. This Agreement shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the fifth instrument of ratification. 4. For each State depositing its instrument of ratification or accession after the entry into force of this Agreement, it shall enter into force on the thir- tieth day following the date of deposit of any such in- strument. 5. The Secretary-General shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification or accession to this Agreement, the date of its entry into force and other notices.

Article XX Any State Party to this Agreement may give notice of its withdrawal from the Agreement one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

Article XXI The original of this Agreement, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all signatory and acceding States. IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Govern- ments, have signed this Agreement, opened for signature at New York on

114