RECONSTRUCTING CAMBODIAN IN DIGITAL HUMANITIES:

A SPATIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS OF CONFESSIONS AND ARRESTS

IN THE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE

A thesis submitted

To Kent State University in partial

Fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of Master of

By

Kok-Chhay Ly

December 2018

© Copyright

All rights reserved

Except for previously published materials

Thesis written by

Kok-Chhay Ly

B.S., Burapha University, 2014

M.A., Kent State University, 2018

Approved by James A. Tyner , Advisor

Scott C. Sheridan , Chair, Department of Geography

James L. Blank , Dean, College of Arts and Sciences

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iii & iv LIST OF FIGURES ...... v & vi LIST OF TABLES ...... vii ACKNOWLEGMENT ...... viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Problem ...... 2 1.2 Purpose of the Study ...... 4 1.3 Outline ...... 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1 Genocide and Mass Violence ...... 9 2.2 Digital Humanities ...... 10 2.3 Analysis ...... 13

CHAPTER 3: DATA AND METHODLOGY ...... 16 3.1 Overview of Site Study ...... 16 3.2 Modelling of Administrative Structure of ...... 20 3.3 Modelling of Prisoners’ Confessions ...... 25 3.4 Modelling of Arrest and Execution Logs ...... 28 3.5 Methodology ...... 32 3.6 Data Collection Techniques ...... 34

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSES AND RESULTS ...... 36 4.1 Reconstructing Ministry of Commerce ...... 36 4.2 Network Analysis and Visualization ...... 38 4.2.1 Data Mining ...... 38 4.2.2 Relationship Matrix ...... 41 4.2.3 Visualization in NodeXL ...... 43 4.2.4 Network ...... 48 4.2.4.1 Betweenness Centrality ...... 48

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4.2.4.2 Closeness Centrality...... 51 4.2.4.3 Eigenvector Centrality ...... 54 4.3 Spatiotemporal Analysis under Arrests and Executions ...... 56 4.3.1 Spatial Networks Analysis ...... 56 4.3.2 Temporal Networks Analysis ...... 59 4.3.2 Series of Chorological Operation ...... 62

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...... 67 5.1 Summary of Findings ...... 67 5.2 Discussion ...... 69 5.3 Limitation ...... 71 5.4 Suggestions for Future Research ...... 72 5.5 Conclusion ...... 75

REFERENCES ...... 78 APPENDICES ...... 84 A Python scripts: Building a Relationship in Matrix ...... 84 B List of Appreciations ...... 87 C List of Prisoner’s ID ...... 88

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The Map ...... 17 Figure 2: The Administrative Boundaries of DK ...... 18 Figure 3: The Administrative Structure of S-21 ...... 21 Figure 4: Chart of the Administrative Structure of DK ...... 24 Figure 5: Confessions from S-21 ...... 27 Figure 6: Arrest Logs from S-21 ...... 31 Figure 7: Flow chart of research methods ...... 34 Figure 8: Structure of Ministry of Commerce ...... 38 Figure 9: The Hierarchy Diagram of Arrests in the Cofessions ...... 41 Figure 10: The relationship of Matrix in the Excel Sheet ...... 42 Figure 11: A visualization in NodeXL ...... 44 Figure 12: Harel koren fast multiscale ...... 45 Figure 13: Clustering the Network in the confessions ...... 46 Figure 14: Clustering the Network in the Motif ...... 47 Figure 15: Group by Motif in NodeXL ...... 47 Figure 16: The Frequency of Betweenness Centrality ...... 49 Figure 17: Network in the betweenness Centrality ...... 50 Figure 18: The Frequency of Closeness Centrality ...... 52 Figure 19: Network in the Closeness Centrality ...... 53 Figure 20: The Frequency of Eigenvector Centrality ...... 54 Figure 21: Network in the Eigenvector Centrality ...... 55 Figure 22: Clustering Arrests the Network by Zone Level ...... 57 Figure 23: Clustering the Network by Arrested Date ...... 59 Figure 24: Clustering the Network by Execution Date ...... 60 Figure 25: Arrested Operations from 1st – 4th Quarter, 1976 ...... 62 Figure 26: Arrested Operations in 1st Quarter, 1977 ...... 63

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LIST OF FIGURES (continue)

Figure 27: Arrested Operations in 1st Quarter, 1977 ...... 64 Figure 28: Arrested Operations in 2nd Quarter, 1977 ...... 64 Figure 29: Arrested Operations in 3rd and 4th Quarter, 1977 ...... 65 Figure 30: Arrested Operations in 1st – 3rd Quarter, 1978 ...... 66

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The list of number of names in the confessions ...... 40 Table 2: Distribution of arrests in reginal zones ...... 56 Table 3: Number of Funding of Arrests and Executions in the confessions ...... 61 Table 4: List name of Net Sokha’s confessions ...... 70

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis would not have been completed without the generous support and guidance of many individuals and institutions. First, I would like to thank numerous individuals in Youk

Chhang (Director of Documentation Center of ), which continuously encourages and motivates me to pursue higher education and chase my dreams. Nevertheless, this research would have never finished without invaluable support and data sources from DC-Cam. Second, I am deeply indebted to my advisor, Professor James Tyner, who instructed, guided, encouraged and especially provided full funding for my master’s program. Without his guidance, knowledge, and support I would have no chance to pursue studying in the United States.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my co-advisor, Xinyue Ye, who guided me through my coursework, instructed me regarding research methodology, and provided constructive feedback to my thesis. I would also like to acknowledge support from my committee member Dr. Andrew Curtis, who provided rather useful questions and comments. My thanks also goes to Ph.D. student Sokvisal Kimsroy and Qingsong Liu, Christopher Willer as well as staff members of the Department of Geography, who have been extremely supportive to me throughout my master’s studies at Kent State.

Finally, I am especially grateful to Kenneth Sponsler, who is my host family in the U.S. and my family in Cambodia whose love, care, and motivation have encouraged and supported me throughout my educational journey. In particular, my parents have always respected my decisions and allowed me the full freedom to choose my career and lifestyle.

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Chapter 1

Introduction

After World War II ended, the geopolitics of the world had been divided into three crucial groups: (1) democratic countries having the tendency to gravitate toward the United

States; (2) communist countries having the tendency to lean toward the former ; and

(3) neutral countries having no apparent tendency (Leffler & Painter, 2007). These divisions resulted in the “,” which lasted from 1947 to 1991. In sum, the Cold War pitted

“” versus “Capitalism.” The war turned hot for the first time in Europe in 1948 during the Berlin Airlift. The Soviet Union had gained control of much of Eastern Europe and a portion of Germany’s capital, Berlin, after the Second World War while the United States,

Britain, and France controlled western Germany and West Berlin according to the agreement arranged by these former Allies near the end of the war. Likewise, the Allies divided the Korean peninsula, which had been occupied by Imperial Japan, into and —

North Korea became communist and South Korea became a capitalist country upon the armistice bringing an unstable peace at the end of the conflict in 1953 (Hickey, 2001). Soon after in 1955, the War started and the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) was supported by the Soviet

Union, , and other communist nations whereas the South Vietnamese army (i.e., ARVN, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam) received support from the United States, South Korea,

Australia, , and other anti-communist countries (Westad, 2005). Eventually, the

Vietnam War extended to other Indochinese counties ( and Cambodia).

1

The war in Indochina during the 1960s drove Cambodia into a civil war, which then descended into genocide from 1975 to 1979. Democratic Kampuchea (DK, known as the Khmer

Rouge or the regime after its leader) came to power on April 17, 1975 and led the country for three years, nine months, and twenty days. Instead of ending the civil war, the Khmer

Rouge initiated a series of policies and practices that resulted in widespread violence. Strict enforcement of socialist policies in reform led to socialist economic or autonomous cooperatives according to the Four-Year Plan of Democratic Kampuchea (CPK’s Four Year

Plan) (Chandler, et al., 1988). Collective cooperative, labor camps, and massive agricultural and irrigation projects began throughout the country and underwent administration through a complex governmental structure. The treatment of civilians under Khmer Rouge rule was somewhat capricious—minor infractions such as breaking an agricultural tool or expressing dissatisfied opinions about the Khmer Rouge origination were considered crimes and often led to arrest and even execution. Consequently, nearly two million Cambodians died from diseases for lack of medical care, exhaustion from overwork, and starvation (Tyner et al., 2012). Vast numbers were executed simply for coming under suspicion.

1.1 Background of the Problem

With Pol Pot’s slogan, “Better to kill an innocent by mistake than spare an enemy by mistake,” (Locard, 2004: 209) many of victims did not even know why they were arrested. The purging of senior cadres in late-1976 was part of an intensive campaign against people who showed tendencies of being pro-Soviet, pro-Vietnamese, or pro-American. Under the word

“Enemy,” the regime arrested a growing number of people whom the regime tortured and forced to confess to having ties to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Komitet Gosudarstvennoy

2

Bezopasnosti (KGB), or the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) as supported by Vietnam, which had become fully controlled by communists after the fall of Saigon, the capital of South

Vietnam, in April,1975 (Ciorciari & Chhang, 2005).

The Khmer Rouge leaders believed that “Secrecy is the key to victory” (Khamboly, 2007:

2). If we examine how the Khmer Rouge leadership operated, we can see that the main reason they favored secrecy is that they did not even trust each other. According to David Chandler

(1999), mutual suspicion led to widespread killing among themselves, even among the high- ranking positions of the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge created at least 196 security centers, or prisons, across the country, and one of the best-known was a detention and interrogation center referred to by the regime as S-211. According to DC-Cam’s estimates, the regime arrested as many as 20,000 prisoners, who were arrested interrogated, tortured to conduct confessions, and executed later.

Moving beyond the historian Chandler, Osman (2002) has conducted research known as

“OUKOUBAH” on the confessions of forty-two Cham Muslim prisoners who had been held at

S-21. Research was directed toward individual prisoners’ confessions to analyze systems and intent of eliminating ethnic Cham Muslims under the Khmer Rouge’s policy. The study also examines confessions and draws stories and traitorous network, which was then linked to the killing of those people. Heder and Tittemore (2004) use Khmer Rouge telegrams to examine and lay out legal responsibilities of seven senior officials with regard to their roles in developing and implementing the murderous policy during the DK period, particularly their roles in sending prisoners to S-21. Tyner and Devadoss (2014) view S-21 photos as a mean to further understand

1 “Democratic Kampuchea’s prisons” reported by Pong-Rasy Pheng (2008), DC-cam’s archive. 3 so-called administrative violence during the Khmer Rouge regime. The mugshot of each prisoner represents the violent process of S-21, particularly photos of people who were to be killed.

More recently and as indicated early, Tyner et al. (2016) look specifically at the execution log and proposes a new way of studying as part of the Cambodian . In this study, the authors examine the list of 12,273 prisoners from S-21 to do space-time analysis and note sequences of inside this notorious prison. But to date, scholars have not conducted any research on enhancing digital humanities, particularly a network analysis of confessions and arrests at S-21. Applying digital humanities on big data of arrests and executions gleaned from the S-21 security center can help researchers understand dynamic patterns, relationships, and chorological and spatial changes during the .

Moving in this research, the 4217 existing confessions compiled by the Khmer Rouge2, prisoners confessed and named other people in their teams, groups, lines, or families.

Throughout the DK era (1975 – 1979), at least 482 prisoners3 were arrested from within the

Ministry of Commerce and sent to S-21. In Kuy Thuon’s 43-page confession,4 for example, 78 people can be identified by name. Those people became the next target of arrests and coerced confessions. To investigate the specific reasons why many of these people were arrested and what connections they had to another individual, to many individuals, or among many individuals, is now extremely challenging. The relationships or networking among the prisoners is quite complicated to understand, and it is difficult to describe via textual analysis.

1.2 Purpose of the Study

2 “Toul Sleng (S-21) Execution Log: 1976-1978“, by Ros Sampeou et al. (2006), DC-cam’s archive. 3 See in “Closing Order on Case File No.: 002/19-09-2007”, ECCC, Paragraph 428, Page 111 4 See in “D23250” The Activities of The Traitor, by Documentation of Cambodia’s Bibliographic Database 4

This research proposes to expand an awareness of digital humanities, a field that has only currently been applied to genocide and mass atrocities; it will do so using new cutting-age technology. More specifically, I am producing a visualization tool with the ability to integrate quantitative (historical sources) with qualitative (textual and visual data) elements. The tool will provide us the suitable use, spatial relationships, and temporal patterns to analyze the geographic perspective, historical shape, and social composition of networks in the Cambodian Genocide.

The study will be of interest to broad audiences: (1) scholars of genocide and mass violence; (2) educators presenting classroom instruction on genocide and mass violence; (3) legal experts in genocide and mass violence; (4) historical geographers, and (5) Social computing scholars. The project will be a prototype for the integration of quantitative and qualitative methods for social science and disciplines that can lead to significant discussion across the disciplines. It also can be a fundable sample for Toul Sleng Genocide Museum to engage in future research or related projects.

Nonetheless, the purpose of my research is to see what kinds of flow assumptions can be made. It also will review centrality network analyses, spatiotemporal networks, and the chronology of arrests. To determine the specific areas this research addresses, three research questions have been pursued: (1). What functions did the Ministry of Commerce play during the

Khmer Rouge period? (2). What were the social status and social relationships among employees of the Commerce Ministry? and (3). Who was arrested earlier or later, where were they arrested, and why?

1.3 Outline

5

Continuing the brief discussion presented in the introduction, Chapter 2 reviews some of the literature that examines the intersection of genocide and mass violence, digital humanities, and . Much of this literature focuses on the scholarly research using historical sources to enhance the humanities. The chapter concludes with a brief narrative of genocide and mass violence: the landscape of violence and genocide across the world. The literature review will also examine digital humanity and how the digital medium enhances the humanities. The literature review further highlights why social network analysis is significant in terms of current academic research, especially as it applies to social science subjects.

Chapter 3 discusses the process by which historical data collection occurred and how such data were formatted for use in reconstructing the Cambodian genocide. It provides a review of the textual sources consulted for this thesis and a verification of those sources. It also discusses the modeling of the administrative structure of the Khmer Rouge, where it has been investigated through historical sources with subsequent empirical analysis applied to it in order to rebuild the administrative structures of the regime. In this part, I will review the significant documents of Ministry of Commerce and highlight keywords in the Khmer Rouge’s meetings.

This chapter also describes the theory and issues in data collection on confessions and summarizes the procedures and techniques for prisoner interrogation at S-21. It also examines errors inherent of the traitor’s names in confessions. In the last part, I will discuss why the people were arrested and executed, and how people allowed this manipulation to occur at S-21. This process reviews the components of different types of targeted people, and it provides an overview of the errors that are coherent within the data; in particular, the lack of temporal mismatch issues arising from the arrest and execution dates will be reviewed.

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Chapter 4 discusses the processes of analyses of reconstructions, visualizations of the network analyses, and spatiotemporal analyses and provides a discussion of issues of accuracy and precision that are inherent in the dataset. In a more formal context, the distribution of these research questions will be answered in this Chapter: 1). What functions did the Ministry of

Commerce perform during the Khmer Rouge period? 2). What were the social status and social relationships among employees of the Commerce Ministry? and 3). Who was arrested earlier or later, where were they arrested, and why?

Chapter 5 summarizes the findings of the research in Chapter 4. It also analyzes how these two factors interact to constrict the types of analyses that can be performed with the available data. It concludes with a brief summary of the contributions of the study to research issues in the geography landscape in addition to historical geography. Finally, it will offer suggestions for future research as well as the limitations of this thesis based upon data and time restrictions.

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

In Chapter 2, I review existing study within the field of geography perspective and related disciplines that examine that intersection of genocide and mass violence, digital humanities, and social network analysis. Much of this literature focuses on the scholarly research using historical sources to enhance the humanities. The review is divided into three sections: (1) genocide and mass violence; (2) digital humanities; and (3) social network analysis.

2. 1 Genocide and Mass Violence

The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

Genocide defines genocide as “the intentional attempt to destroy other groups, either in whole or in part” (Kunz 1949; United Nations 1948, as cited in Burleson & Giordano 2015: 89). The

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United

States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) (2013) stress the historical importance of the crime against humanity committed by the Nazis during World War II. USHMM (2014) describes as “a watershed event, not only in the 20th century, but also in the entire course of human history.” One Holocaust book noted that the Holocaust as “probably the most extensively and carefully documented event in human history” (Fracapane, et al., 2014: 63).

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Nazi concentration camps were places of detention and execution. Between 1933 and

1945, and its collaborators established more than 40,000 camps and other incarceration sites. Although forced labor occurred in these places, the camps had killing as their central purpose. One case study of the gas chambers indicated that 6,000 Jews were gassed

[poisoned] in one room each day (USHMM, 2016). Another primary example took place during the genocide in Rwanda in 1994. Over the course of a 100-day period beginning on the day after snipers shot down the plane carrying the President of Rwanda, Hutus killed about 700,000

Tutsis, as well as around 50,000 politically direct Hutus. Gauges of the whole number of individuals murdered shift, as well as how numerous individuals were murdered in each bunch, but the over figures are generally common (Des Forges, 1999; Mamdani, 2002; Prunier, 1995 as cited in Staub, 2006).

The geographic study of genocide and mass violence take place across landscapes – it is necessary to consider the process by which these landscapes have been produced during time series (Sirik, 2015). This author provides genocide evidences through the material distribution of mass graves, prison sites, and labor camps during the Khmer Rouge regime. The landscape of

Cambodia becomes mass death resulting from reformed and is informed by structures of violence and context for physical violence. As one scholar argues, “structural violence is often presumed to consist of structures that have violent effects: racism, sexism, patriarchy, and poverty” (Graeber, 2012 as cited in Tyner & Rice, 2016: 49). Moreover, Tyner (2014) discusses the consequences of administrative violence on the spatiality of death during the Khmer Rouge period. He argues that mass graves are not merely the production of direct violence, but also help us understand the administrative calculations that are implicitly materialized on the landscape.

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According to Gating and Fischer (2013), direct violence identifies a subject as the actor of violence; however, the actors of violence no longer needs to be identified. In other words, viciousness is a structure at work, churning out hurt and causing essential human needs shortfalls. In studies of critical social theories, analysts challenge viciousness concepts on the ground that savagery is not basically shown in a coordinate and obvious shape (Tyner, 2009).

Social structures that encapsulate savagery make conditions for imbalances and pulverization of life. While it is easy to classify the Cambodian genocide as direct violence given the practice of mass execution where the actors of violence are identifiable.

To date, the creation of violent landscapes during DK speaks to the indication of administrative violence, in addition to Jewish survival of the Holocaust, which explains and summarizes its occurrence emphasizing the role of impersonal structures in mediating human action, the particularism narrative highlights the agency of human actors (Tyner et la., 2014;

Moses, 1998; Berger, 1995). A number of geographic studies examine the intersection of state politics, memorial sites, and landscape of violation. Still, not many scholars have conducted research on enhancing digital humanities on and mass violence.

2.2 Digital Humanities

One researcher explains that “The digital humanities, also known as humanities computing, is a field of study, research, teaching, and invention concerned with the intersection of computing and the disciplines of humanities” (Gold, 2012: 4). this author mentions that it involves investigation, analysis, synthesis and presentation of information in electronic form.

Much of the current literature focuses on digital humanities in the discipline of geography, particularly how historical data is transformed into digital data. The increasing number of

10 scholars making used of computing in the humanities and social sciences fields is a result of the expanding digital humanities (Schreibman et al., 2008, as cited in Berry, 2011). One area, for instance, has been understanding historical data, such as major events or historical development through the tool of search engines.

The digital age has been a boom for historians, particularly as it applies to the mass digitization of old books, which has made research more efficient than ever: first editions are now available for downloading via Google, Online libraries, and elsewhere. Books that lay forgotten for generations can now be rediscovered and accessed (Edelstein, 2016). Although digital humanities offer new possibilities to historians of science, historians are not the only ones to gain from using digital tools—as scholars note when they compare historians with social scientists. For instance, the History Manifesto mentioned Michael Friendly’s proposal that historians should become technical experts in time-series analysis in various disciplines

(Friendly, 2007; Flis et al., 2016).

Integrating computing information literacy skills into the study of humanities topics such as mass violence, civil rights, and African American history and literature has become recognized as an increasingly important of effective teaching (Kong et al., 2017). By this I mean an awareness of the historicity of data representations (graphics, , or otherwise) and an understanding of the context they represent, especially when they relate to social and historical developments. Classrooms can thus help students not only use authentic data, but also enable them to complete in-depth studies of specific issues, thereby enhancing student interest in a topic. At the same time, digital information can provide students with the opportunity to display and interact with spatial information on a computer-based system that

11 promotes contextually rich student learning and improves students’ critical thinking and spatial thinking skills (National Research Council, 2006).

The increasing number of scholars utilizing big data in the field of human geography results from the expanding digital humanities (Kitchin, 2013). Much of the social sciences and humanities performed with spatial thinking has been quantitative in nature; recently, however, there has been an increased interest in the use of geographical information for more qualitative work. Examples of this type of work can be seen in projects at the Perseus Digital Library (Smith et al., 2000). Geographers work with maps or Spatial perspectives (Goodchild & Janelle 2010).

Historical GIS (HGIS) can map, analyze, and visualize past events (Gregory& Ell, 2007), using the attributes and coordinates of historical information to create the Geo-historical databases. As a result, HGIS is the integration of space and time with practical visualization in maps and past events (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).

The use of historical data is increasing in historical studies as well as in research on mass violence (Knowles, 2014). The researcher has employed software and computed spatial and temporal analytics for historical research. Manfra and Stoddard (2008) approach the subject through the expansion of digital content dealing with the Holocaust and genocide, using it to identify new digital media that allow students to engage in authentic learning experiences.

Burleson and Giordano (2015) analyze and investigate uncertainties in geo-historical data, by using two historical geographical information systems (HGIS) case studies and connecting historical research with the geography of genocide. Additionally, teaching genocide through the

GIS application offers teachers and students the opportunity to historical and contemporary genocide acts (Fitchett & Good 2012). And lastly, the Holocaust Atlas of Lithuania website was

12 developed by Vilna Gaon State Jewish Museum and the Austrian Verein Gedenkdienst (2010) to provide educational tools, information diffusion, and promotion of tourism5.

Over the past decade, more and more scholars have shown interest in developing a web- based GIS library for historical and crucial events—especially the history of genocide and holocausts, where the historical data are not derived from a single source. Many scholars note that historical research primarily depends on sources from books, archives, and museum collections; despite this, such sources are often inconsistent, uncertain, or incomplete (Burleson

& Giordano, 2015; Gregory & Healey, 2007). Moreover, the process of developing historical databases is quite challenging; precious little historical data have therefore been digitized into the database, requiring the majority of scholars to begin their work from scratch (Knowles, 2014 &

Cromley, 2015).

In short, researchers confront the reconstruction of historical and geographical events with fragmented data sources (Tyner et al., 2016). Gregory and Ell (2007: 1) explain “Historical geography is rarely data-rich; in face data are frequently incomplete and error.” This is because the data are not only collected from multiple sources, but the date are often also incomplete, which can impose limitations on creating the metadata and documentaries for the standards used.

Additionally, studies of mass violence and genocide that apply technology tools with massive data have so far been severely limited (Beorn et al., 2009). Thus, this research on the content of reconstructing genocide in the digital humanities can help fill in the gap.

2.3 Social Network Analysis

5 See in the website of Holocaust ATLAS of Lithuania. (2010). Retrieved February 23, 2016, from http://www.holocaustatlas.lt/EN/#about-project/ 13

Social Network Analysis (SNA) is an arithmetical technique that analyzes relational patterns of nodes/vertices (actors) and edges (ties) based on mathematical computations. This means that each set of relationship connections is measured as existing between pairs of nodes between people, groups, and things, seeking to understand the effects and meaning of a tie between two nodes (Scott, 2016; Smith et al., 2009). Researchers use a network analytic approach to measure some characteristics of networks, including the density of their inter- connections, and it can describe as well as explain one phenomenon or one environment effectively.

Erickson (1997) notes that the network analysis is an effective tool that contributes to historical work; however, not many scholars have known how to come up with this tool. The author continues by noting that the links include friendship, hatred, trade, war, alliance, or other relationships of interest. The idea that network analysis offers methods and suggestions for working with past investigations into crime network analysis has been around for nearly two decades. A number of scholars such as Sparrow (1991), Peterson (1994), and Klerks (2003) have indicted how to approach criminal links from a network analysis to illustrate not only complex investigative data, but also visualize and analyze overall structure (as cited in Morselli, 2010).

When using historical sources, many people wonder how historians can analyze the network of individual deaths. Although scholars might be studying contemporary networks, they must ask questions about actual people (Marsden, 1990). Historical records are rich in network information. In one instance, Padgett and Ansell (1993) have acquired information about trade, partnerships, and other business ties from Florentine tax records.

A case studies of drug trafficking and other illegal operations have likewise pursued this line of inquiry. One author has found that both criminal and noncriminal networks are accessible

14 to law-enforcement targeting and investigations (Morselli, 2009). To cite an example, the War on

Terror has been well executed in . Since 2001, the arrests of approximately 160

Jemaah Islamiyah (JI)-linked militants have disrupted the terrorist operations. The author is concerned about two things: 1) The group is rebuilding its capabilities. 2) Although Southeast

Asia has played a significant role in the financial support of Al Qaeda, there have been no terrorist assets seized in the region and no campaign against terrorist financing (Abuza, 2003). It indicates such a campaign would be difficult, because terrorist financial operations are very complicated, including both legal and illegal operations.

Those samples of research have applied network analysis to the investigation of criminal networking. Such networks are complex, and the relationships of one to the others cannot be explained easily. Seeing this, the authors have applied visual inquiry to the task of finding out who the key individuals are involved in the crimes, with the aim of eventually leading to arrests.

In this conclusion, applying all these components to the Khmer Rouge genocide, very little empirical work to date has examined the scope of prisoner arrests and confessions. Thus, through the applying of network analysis in this research, this thesis will be an important contribution in making use of multiple data, but also incomplete digitized data sources. This research will create a visual dataset that can be used for various purposes, such as humanities scholarships, teaching on genocide, and disseminating public knowledge of humanities research.

It should be of solid interest from historians to computing scholars to develop a visual network on confessions and arrests of prisoners under the Khmer Rouge regime.

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Chapter 3

Data and Methodology

In this chapter, I first review the overall site study, particularly, the significance of the overall demonstrative structure DK, including the structure of the security center, and documents, which have been conducted at the former security center known as S-21. I discuss the process by which historical data were collected and formatted for use in reconstructing the

Cambodian genocide. It has been investigated through the historical sources and, subsequently, empirical analysis to rebuild the administrative structures of the Khmer Rouge. In this part, I will review the significant documents of Ministry of Commerce and highlight keywords in the Khmer

Rouge’s interrogations of the prisoners in S-21 as well as describe the theory and issues in confessions and summarize the procedures and techniques for interrogations. In the last part, I will discuss why people were arrested and executed by the Khmer Rouge’s cadres and manipulated at former security center S-21. This process reviews the components of different types of targeted people, and it provides an overview of the errors that are coherent within the data, specifically, the lack of temporal mismatch issues arising from the arrest and execution dates.

3.1 Overview of Site Study

Administrative and governance structure were critical for the social economic reform and the laying military strategies under the leadership of Khmer Rouge. The political geographic

16 administration of the country was divided into a hierarchy of zones, regions, districts, and cooperative end villages.

Figure 1: The Democratic Kampuchea’s Map, published by the Ministry of Education, 1976, (Documentation Center of Cambodia Archives). According to Figure 1, the DK map of 1976 denoted six geographical zones, Northeast,

North, Northwest, West, Southwest, and East. The boundaries of these zone were altered over time, as some zones were combined or divided to form zonal divisions.

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Figure 2: The Administrative Boundaries of Democratic Kampuchea (ECCC: Source) 6

This chart (Figure 3) demonstrates administrative boundaries of the standing Committee

(Center), which normally comprised seven to ten individuals, were the DK military mechanism and the regional and local administrative boundaries of the Khmer Rouge. Democratic

Kampuchea was organized into six zones and two special region including surrounding Phnom

Penh as well as Kampong Som7. Every single zone was further subdivided into number of regions (sector). Regions were composed of various districts, and communes or villages. “Under

6 The chart presented by Craig Etcheson during the hearing (2009). Download from ECCC’s website: https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/document/court/chart-presented-craig-etcheson-during-hearing-18-may- 2009-organisation-democratic. 7 See in Figure 1. The Democratic Kampuchea Map, published by the Ministry of Education, 1976, (Documentation Center of Cambodia Archives).

18 the governing statutes of the central committee and zone Committees were ordered to spread party programs to the grassroots. The duties of the Central Committee to all subordinate zone, region, and local party organizations and nation-wide departments; and administering and deploying cadre and Party members within the party as a whole” (Ciorciari & Chhang, 2005:

253).

Similarly, the structure of security center of in DK, were divided into five categories (Ea,

2005). First, the sub-district or commune military center are the lowest level for a small mistake such as sealing food. It was used to detain a few prisoners in short period. Second and third, district or region security centers are the next level up for detention, interrogation and execution.

The main targets are former soldiers of regime, running home, speaking ill to Khmer

Rouge cadres. Forth, zone security centers are the big prisons, being served as hard labor and execution place for thousand prisoners. The main targets are Khmer Rouge cadre and their family who committed offense at zone level. Fifth, central-level of security center, known as S-

21, is the most important prison. In the book Voices from S-21, David Chandler (1999) estimates a number as high as 20,000 prisoners were arrested and executed after signing their confessions.

Most of the prisoners were Khmer Rouge cadres from both low and high-ranking positions in various units, departments, ministries, and zones.

Security Center S-21 proved to be an important interrogation and detention center of

Democratic Kampuchea; it was established on August 15, 1975.8 The physical property was a former high school (Chao ; it has now become the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum) located in , the capital of Cambodia. S-21 was uncovered by Vietnamese Army troops in January 1979 after they occupied Phnom Penh city and drove off the Khmer Rouge

8 “Closing Order: Case File No.: 002/19-09-2007-ECCC-OCIJ,” from ECCC database, catalogue D27, Paragraph 949. 19 cadres, who left behind thousands of written and photographic records according to Toul Sleng

Genocide Museum. Although 196 similar security centers existed across Cambodia, only S-21 left behind a sufficient number of documents to undertake a deep investigation of the Cambodian genocide9.

3.2 Modeling of Administrative Structures of the Khmer Rouge

Reconstructing is a restructuring or re-enactment of a past event of one state, economy, culture, and society in the wake of war from the historical source, empirical data, and available evidence. It draws much of its organizational structure of one landscape or phenomenon, which operated spatially and temporally. Hence, the following charts have been applied this power idea to study the past societies. For example, the S-21 security center operated under Kaing Guek

Eav, who had the alias Duch, the former Chairman of the Khmer Rouge S-21 Security Center in

Phnom Penh.

9 “Tuol Sleng History”, retrieved from the museum’s official website: http://www.tuolsleng.com 20

Figure 3: The Administrative Structure of S-21 (before of the arrest of Num Huy) 10 This (Figure 3) of the ECCC “Case 001 -Documents shown on screen, Organizational chart of the Committee of Office S-21,” shows Hor (administrator at Phnom Penh section) and

Nun Huy (re-educator at Prey Sa section) were directly under Duch. Moreover, Hor was in charge of the Military Unit (deputy: Phal), which followed by the Guard unit and the Special unit, and Interrogation units (divided: males/ females). Finally, other units, namely messengers, telephone, typewriter, logistic, economic, and cook, were also under Hor.

Moreover, Khamboly Dy summarizes (2007: 71) “A History of Democratic Kampuchea from 1975 to 1979” by, the CPK’s administration was structured as follows11:

10 The Chart presented by Case 001 -Documents shown on screen, Organizational chart of the Committee of Office S-21. from ECCC’s website: https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/documents/court/case-001- documents-shown-screen-organisational-chart-committee-office-s-21, page 10. 11 “The First Congress Meeting of the People’s Representative Assembly,” April 11-13, 1976, catalogue number D21227 21

The Standing Committee of the People’s Representative Assembly included (president), Nguon Kan (first vice president), Peou Suo

(second vice president), and seven members. The members of the State Presidium of Democratic Kampuchea were (president), So Phim (first vice president), and Nhim Ros (second vice president).

The members of the Council of Ministers were Pol Pot (prime minister),

Ieng Sary (first deputy prime minister and minister of foreign affairs),

(second deputy prime minister and minister of economy), (third deputy prime minister and minister of national defense), Ho Nim (minister of propaganda and information), Thioun Thioeun (minister of health), (minister of social affairs), Touch Phoeun (minister of public works), and (minister of culture, education and national studies).

In addition, Democratic Kampuchea established some committees such as the Agriculture Committee led by Chey Suon, the Industry Committee chaired by

Cheng An, the Commerce Committee under Koy Thuon, the Rubber Plantation

Committee with Phuong as head, the Transportation Committee headed by Mei Brang, and the Energy Committee.

Despite this organization, these institutions never functioned completely and had been changed over time. For example, the six committees fell under the supervision of the deputy prime minister in charge of economy, and each committee president had a position equal to minister. In this case, Sok Thuok, better known as Vorn Vat, was in charge of the Ministry of Economic and was

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followed by six committees, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce, Rubber Plantation

Transportation, and Energy.

To demonstrate, the chart of Figure 4 draws the whole origination of DK. It provides the administrative structure and individuals ‘responsibilities. This can be a significant example of reconstructing the structure of historical events.

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Figure 4: Chart of the Administrative Structure of Democratic Kampuchea12

12 The chart presented by Craig Etcheson during the hearing (2009), from the ECCC website: https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/documents/court/chart-presented-craig-etcheson-during-hearing-28-may- 2009 24

3.3 Modelling of Prisoners’ Confessions

The Khmer Rouge guards at Tuol Sleng (S-21) “subjected the prisoners to various methods of , culminating in the forced, written confessions of over 4,000 Cambodians”

(Luftglass, 2004: 901). The author also explains the law and regulation of interrogation progress including from electric shocks, severe beatings, submersion in water, cigarette burnings, needling, suffocation, suspension, removal of toenails and fingernails, and forced consumption of their own excrement. The S-21 became a fundamental evidence for the Khmer Rouge atrocities, and the exact and cautious records kept up by its guards without a doubt serve as good prove amid any criminal settling

With a handful of exceptions, all the prisoners in S-21 were killed not only because of their alleged guilt but also because of the existence of the prison and its location; its purpose needed to be kept secret. Prisoners arrived at S-21 for many reasons, whether because they had been named in other confessions or because their unit commanders were suspected of being

“enemies” who were sometimes exposed at regular self-criticism meeting for cadres (Chandler,

1999).

Prisoners were always asked to implicate their associates in their confessions. Chandler

(1999: 81) say “the string of traitors appended to nearly all the confessions occasionally run to several hundred names, creating the impression of a vast, national wide conspiracy”. This is absolutely what Duch and his seniors hand in mind. One researcher noted, “S-21 is the most authentic expression of the Khmer Rouge world view and most probably the only efficient one”

(Sanchez-Biosca, 2015: 106). From the point of view of the author, Khmer Rouge’s determination in revealing, archiving, curbing and killing their rivals. To understand this requires

25 entering the rationale and functioning of such enthusiasm for documenting, the next paragraph will lead us to formulate certain answers.

According to Chandler note book “Voice from S-21”, two methods consistently used by interrogations at S-21 to obtain results consisted of “doing politics” and “imposition torture”

(1999: 82). Doing politics involved insulting prisoners, asking questions, and persuading them that the Party already knew of their crimes. It was more difficult for workers at S-21, especially for “upper brothers” whom confessions were routed and impossible to consult. On the contrary, imposition torture lay in the use of weapons, or contraptions; however, “beatings” during interrogation could be designated as torture. In essence, a seven-step procedure for interrogations has been found in an interrogation notebook compiled in 1976 (Chandler, 1999: 82, 85)

1. First, extract information from them

2. Next, assemble as many points as possible to them down with and to prevent their

getting away.

3. Pressure them with political propaganda.

4. Press on with questions and insults.

5. Torture.

6. Review and analyze the answers so as to ask additional questions.

7. Review and analyze the answer so as to prepare documentation.

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A D D E

D

B D

A

C A

A

Figure 5: Confessions from S-21 (Source: Documentation Center of Cambodia Archives)

Written by confessors (Maybe Thy, or Houy)

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A. Written by Son Sen, alias Khieu (Minister of defense and deputy prime minister, head

of Kuch)

B. Written by Duch (Chief of S-21 security center)

C. Written by Pol Pot (Prime Mister of Democratic Kampuchea)

D. Written by officers of the Ministry of Interior or Toul Sleng (current signs)

Most confessions at S-21 were divided into four parts: (1) “life stories” or “curriculum vitae,” where prisoners provide their biographies including names of relatives and associates, and the list of work units; (2) “history of treasonous activities” or “my political biography,” which was followed by the information in chronological order; (3) “plans,” where prisoners describe what they would have done had they not been arrested; and (4) “lists of the prisoners associated” or “string of traitors,” containing everyone, even dead people, who had been named in the confessions (Chandler, 1999: 89)

3.4 Modelling of Arrest and Execution lists

Tuol Sleng Prison a location of cross examination, torment, and execution, best represents the deadly nature of the Khmer Rouge regime.1314 An estimate of 16,000 to 20,000 people were ridded at the S-21, and only seven survivors are known to be alive (Luftglass, 2004).

This author stress that in the late is the most important timeline of the change, was the analytical and deliberate torture and murder of Cambodians. Three main targets for arrests during the Khmer Rouge regime took over the county, each chosen to serve a strategic goal. First, the

13 Locals in Phnom Penh referred to the prison as the "place of entering, no leaving." David Chandler, A 218 (2d ed. 1996).

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Khmer Rouge rid the rest of the former government, basically those identified with the prior regime of General Lon Nol. Second, the Khmer Rouge committed to clean inside of the

Communist Party, especially in the Eastern Zone. Third, the Khmer Rouge arrests those who might pose a threat to the regime through (Bunyanunda, 2000). The Khmer Rouge argue with reasoning that "a person who has been spoiled by a corrupt regime cannot be reformed, he must be physically eliminated." (Luftglass, 2004: 900). For those who under suspicion and have not been killed, S-21 guards endured torturing and interrogating to find others’ sting of traitors.

The arrest and execution logs conducted by Khmer Rouge cadres at S-21 can be broken into two broad phases (Chandler, 1999). The first campaign starts from September 1975 until

September 1976, with targeting to most civilians and military officials related with the defunct Lon Nol regime. After the Khmer Rouge took power, the regime killed thousands of former Lon Nol’s solders. The second campaign of arrests and executions continued until the collapse of DK. The author also reviews the new search for enemies that can be describe in two odd events: In February 1976, an explosion took placed in the City, which went with the sighting of foreign aircraft. Similarly, Phnom Penh capital city had many random explosions, which were apparently targeting Pol Pot and his colleagues. But what happened on those two odd events remains unclear, and the regime blamed the Siem Reap City incident on “CIA agents.” In late 1978, the DK Party’s leaders believed Vietnam to be behind the incidents toward the DK troops. That led to a suspicion of the secretary of the Northern Zone, Koy Thuon, involving the explosion in the Siem Reap. Later, the secretary of Eastern Zone, Sao Phim, also fell under suspicion for the explosion in Phnom Penh.15

15 The explorations, see Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime, 316-19, and Vickery, Cambodia 1975 – 1982, 128. 29

After the Vietnamese Army invaded in 1979, the S-21 prison staff fled, leaving behind thousands of written and photographic records including confessions. Next, the new government called the People’s Republic of Kampuchea was established and the new officers of Tuol Sleng

Genocide museum collected and conducted the arrest and execution list. They divided the list into ten categories consisting of high racking Khmer Rouge’s cadre, factory work, civilian, student, teacher or professor, health care service provider, engineer, former government officer, former military officer.16 It also designed as six columns, namely ordering number, name, alias, position, arrest date and execution date. Later, the arrest and execution list was revised and conducted by DC-Cam and transformed into a digital form using Microsoft Office. Lately, the

ECCC underwent revision and conducted the newer list of arrests and executions, which I use in this research analysis.

In the current contact of the ECCC’s comprehensive list of 12,273, utilizing in previous research on emerging data from S-21, which required to be cleaned due to the consistency of time order and missing information value (i.e. name, sex, date of arrest, or date of execution, arrest place) (Tyner et al., 2016). Consequently, my research also utilizes this ECCC list to conduct in spatiotemporal networks. The following Figure 6 provide a sample of original list of

S-21.

16 Summarize from Confessions: Toul Sleng (S-21) Prisoners, download from website of DC-Cam: http://www.d.dccam.org/Archives/Documents/Confessions/Confessions.htm 30

Name Arrests Executions dates dates Alias Position

Figure 6: Arrest Logs from S-21 (Source: Documentation Center of Cambodia Archives)

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3.5 Methodology

This research integrates quantitative (spatial and numerical data) with qualitative

(historical sources). Scholars have used this mixed method to map, analyze, and visualize past events (Gregory & Ell, 2007), using the attributes and coordinates of historical information to create the geo-historical data base. The author explains because of this, Historical GIS is the integration between space and time, practical map visualization, and past events. Similarly,

Knigge and Cope (2006) conduct a study on an integrated analytical method for using both qualitative and quantitative data through geographic information systems (GIS) and ethnography.

Moreover, many scholars have combined quantitative and qualitative approaches to study human geography (Philip, 1998; Pavlovskaya, 2006; Maroko et al., 2009).

It has been noted that “Spatialization refers to the construction of abstract spaces of knowledge that can in visualization, pattern detection, and the accumulation of scientific insight” (Goodchild et al., 1993; Skupin & Fabrikant, 2003 as cited in Wachowicz & Owens,

2013: 127). Therefore, things that are not completely spatial (e.g., arrests data and traitorous networks) can be rendered graphically for spatial visualization. In the spatial perspective, the geospatial techniques and geo-computation technologies help manage the large number of data from many sources by providing the spatial analysis in the historical events and mass atrocities.

Data mining is “the process of trawling through data to find previously unknown relationships among the data that are interesting to the user of the data” (Hand, 1998 as cited in

Singh & Kumar, 2017: 200). Similary, another author mention that data mining can be a complex process that applies methods and techniques developed in related studies in statistics; machine learning and dataset systems cannot solve their problems. Since data mining poses many challenging research issues, data can be classified into one of several predefined categorical

32 classes. Frequently, different methods can be applied by decision trees, neural networks, and some probability approaches (Jaiwei & Kamber, 2006). “Many advances on researches and developments of data mining, and many data mining techniques and systems have recently been developed” (Chen et al., 1996: 868). However; the author suggests that to conduct effective data mining, we need to do a pre-examine on data features, basically what kind of highlights an applied information revelation framework that is anticipated to have and what kind of challenges one may confront at the advancement of data mining procedures. But in this research, data mining can help gain more new insight into the confessions, which allows us to find the relationships between the spatial cluster of arrest locations and their social relationships with traitors.

Further, social network analysis provides a deeper understanding of genocide through revisualization of confession (textual data) and arrests (numerical data). This research will build fundamental skills from many disciplines, including genocide and mass violence study, social network analysis, and digital humanities. The research develops a new the theory on genocide research using social science methods (statistical analysis, empirical and historical approaches) and computational applications

(NodeXL, Microsoft Word &Excel, and Python Programing)

In response to such a demand in this article, creating a flow chart (Figure 7) of research methods applying those techniques and developing the research design, with an emphasis on reconstructing techniques, network visualization, and spatiotemral analyses, proves useful. The first part starts from performing empirial analysis on histrocial data, the second part consists of data mining on cofessions, and the final part analyzes spatiotemporal analysis on arrests and executions.

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Figure 7: Flow chart of research methods (Source: Author)

3.6 Data Collection Techniques

In the research, I use the data source from The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of

Cambodia (ECCC) and Documentation of Cambodia (DC-Cam). With regards to both forms, credit has to be given mostly to the DC-Cam, a non-profitable organization dedicated to collect and preserve historical document from the Democratic Kampuchea regime, commonly known as the Khmer Rouge. The institution holds more than 600,000 pages of documents, and the Tuol

Sleng Genocide Museum (Ciorciari & Chhang, 2005). Documents include the DK era such as

Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) Correspondence, Confessions from S-21 prison,

Committee Minutes and Reports, CPK biographies, foreign documents, Media materials, especially magazines, and post-DK era such as Renakse petitions and mapping reports and available transcripts mostly conducted through DC-Cam.

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In the first part, I will reconstruct the Ministry of Commerce. This is because of (1) the fact that the Ministry of Commerce stood at the core of Democratic Kampuchea’s economic policy. (2) Koy Thuon, was a former of Secretary of the Northern Zone, and later become the

Minister of Commerce and a Communist Party of Kampuchea Central Committee member, play a very important role. These will lead to significant findings and discussions. And (3) to date, there is no research paper have been addressed the reconstructing the whole Ministry of

Commerce.

Then, I will use the 4217 existing confession lists compiled by the Khmer Rouge to find the confessions which connect to the Ministry of Commerce, Consequently, 15 confessions will be selected to do analysis in this research17. Those confessions were selected based on the Figure

8: Structure of Ministry of Commerce.

17 Do data mining from “Toul Sleng (S-21) Execution Log: 1976-1978“, by Ros Sampeou et al. (2006), DC-cam’s archive. 35

Chapter 4

Analyses and Results

In this chapter, I will show the procedure of analyses and results of the research applying mix method both qualitative and quantitative. Based on the flow chart of research methods of the

Figure 6, a decision was made on which coordinates to use in the models of reconstructions, visualizations of the network analyses, chronology of arrests, and provides a discussion of issues of accuracy and precision that are inherent in the dataset. First research question: what functions did the Ministry of Commerce play during the Khmer Rouge period? the distribution of these research questions will be answered in the chapter. Second research question: what were the social status and social relationships among employees of the Commerce Ministry? Third research question: who was arrested earlier or later, where were they arrested, and why? The distribution of these research questions will be answered in this chapter.

4.1 Reconstructing Ministry of Commerce

An empirical analysis is used in reconstructing the Ministry of Commerce using the historical sources. The exploration of the significant documents is applied to find the common structure, functionality, position of individuals in the ministry of commerce. First, the overview of each unit and responsivity for each single important person before drawing the overall administrative structure for the ministry.

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The Ministry of Commerce was referred to as K-15 and the first minister of commerce was Koy Thuon. After he was arrested and execution in 1977, Commerce Committee

Chairman18, Soeu Vasy replaced him. Then after Soeu Vasy was arrested, the position remained unfilled and directly under Chairman of the Commerce Committee, Van Rith. K-15 had two sections, foreign and domestic regarding to Etcheson. On the foreign side, Banking Committees had Sar Kimlomouth, who handled foreign banking matters, and was divided into two unites,

BOTRA and FORTRA. Domestic was structured as several market and production facilities

(Mertha, 2014). In local or central commercial units attached to it, such as fisheries, clothing, government warehouses, transport and the Kampong Som Seaport19.

Although Pol Pot eliminated currency, banks, markets, personal property, the regime still traded with many countries, including “China, Korea, Hong Kong, Thailand, ”

(Mertha, 2014: 125). Many products such as rubber, lacquer, kapok, skins, shrimp, squid, fish, turtle, elephants, and more were exported. Agricultural crops such as peanuts, wheat, corn, sesame, and beans were planned to be exported alongside rice (Chandler et al., 1988). Hence, the

Ministry of Commerce played a very significant role during the Khmer Rouge era.

Consequently, the following chart (Figure 8) shows the complete of reconstruing of Ministry of

Commerce.

18” A conclusion of Standing committee’s decision,” Documentation of Cambodia, April 19- 21, 1976, catalogue number D00694, The Commerce Committees included: Comrade Rith (member), Comrade Nhem (member), and Comrade Choeun (member). 19 ECCC “Closing Order on Case File No.: 002/19-09-2007”, Paragraph 428, Page 111 37

Figure 8: Structure of Ministry of Commerce, (Source: Author)

4.2 Network Analyses and Visualizations

In the confession list conducted by Tuol Sleng, having 4186 names, 108 names can be identified as the people work in the Ministry of Commerce; however, 56 out of 108 names have the dates of arrests and only 1 name has the date of executed. According to the Figure 7 the structure of Ministry of Commerce, 15 prisoners’ confessions of high-ranking positions in the ministry have been collected for data mining and data analysis. Due to this specific selection, the rules may describe how the probability of applying in other confessions as well.

4.2.1 Data Mining

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Data mining in my research, refers to the extraction of interesting previously unknown information from big data (large amounts of data) to discover meaning and significant patterns or knowledge. It is an essential process where intelligent methods are applied to extract data patterns.

Before data mining method can be used, a target data set must be simplified. The pre- examination is critical to analyze the different data sets before data mining, so the data need to be cleaned or removed the inconsistent timeline and missing information. Moreover, it is necessary to use a data mining query language (Prisoner’s name) or geographical information (arrested place or working place) and the historical events (arrested dates or meeting dates) to determine the interesting subset of information, and the relevant group targets of attributes, and the kinds of clues to be discovered.

With discovering confession documents which were conducted by Khmer Rouge’s cadres at S-21, 935 traitorous names can be identified from 15 prisoners’ confessions. However, we got only 740 traitorous names after cleaning the duplicated names among all 15 prisoners’ confessions. This is because one traitorous’ name can be found one or many confessions, so that main the actual traitors have only 740 people.

The table 1 shows the information of 15 main prisoners’ confessions including individual’s names, alias, positions, arrested places, and arrested and execution date. This table also indicate number of names in each confession. For example, Im An (No. 12) has 115 names can be identified; this also include his name.

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Table 1: The list of number of names in the confessions (Source: Author)

No Alias Name Position Arrest place Arrested date Execution date Number 1 Khuon Kuy Thuon Minister of Commerce Phnom Penh 25-Jan-77 - 78 Member of Ministry of 2 Penh Propaganda Phnom Penh 09-Jul-77 - 72

Deputy Chief of State 3 Nhem Tit son Commerce Committee Phnom Penh - - 80 4 Chin Ho Chief of region 22 Commerce Eastern Zone - - 92 5 Mol Maen Sakhorn Member of State of Commerce Phnom Penh 23-Nov-76 12-May-77 8 6 Sîth Uon Yoeun Chief of Commerce logistic Phnom Penh 12-Feb-77 12-May-77 28 Chief of Commerce of 7 Man Em Man Northwest Zone Northwest Zone 16-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 102

40 Chief of Tractor Repairing

8 Sukin Prak Yîn Workshop 2 Northwest Zone 05-Jul-77 18-Oct-77 39 Chief of Commerce in West 9 Suon Sin Kim Eng Zone West Zone 28-Aug-77 - 49 10 Deth Net Sokha Chief of Commerce supply Phnom Penh 22-Sep-76 06-Dec-76 9 Chief of trading in the 11 Poek Chum Thai Y Commerce Ministry Phnom Penh 17-Feb-77 12-May-77 37 12 Thon Im An Chief of Poi Pet Gate Phnom Penh 04-Mar-77 20-Jul-77 115 13 Savath Chheng Kay Chief of region of Commerce Northwest Zone 28-Jun-77 31-Oct-77 42 Chief of cultivation group, 14 Phen Sam Man Commercial office Phnom Penh 24-Jul-78 02-Sep-78 86 Chay/ Chief of Commerce in Central 15 Lom Pheng Son Zone Central Zone 03-Oct-77 10-Mar-78 98 Total 935

Figure 9: The Hierarchy Diagram of Arrests in the Confessions (Source: Author) The Figure 9 draws the hierarchy diagram, displaying hierarchical relationships progressing from top to bottom with starting from the 1st to 8th prisoner. However, the prisoners from the 9th to 15th are not completely in the hierarchical structure since their networks are indirect connected from one prisoner to other prisoners. This means that their networks are connected through the traitorous names in those perpetrators.

4.2.2 Relationship Matrix

The Relationship Matrix is used for visualizing the way that requirements are related to each other and to other elements in the model in a visually compelling matrix or spreadsheet like view. Any number of matrices can be defined quickly and then saved to be viewed in workshops or included in documentation generated automatically from the model or exported to a spreadsheet file. When a matrix is created, connections can be viewed by placing the

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Requirements on one axis of the matrix and the connected elements on the other axis then the squares of the matrix will indicate the direction of the relationship.

First, a confession was selected regarding to the reconstruction of Commerce Ministry, particularly it was selected from the high ranging positions to low. After selecting the confessions, they were read one line by one line to seeking for names which have mentioned in the confessions. Then, I create one list for the individual confession and set up ID for each single name. This will help for searching the duplicated person.

Figure 10: The relationship of Matrix in the Excel Sheet (Source: Author) Second, the research use Microsoft Excel (Figure 10) to create the matrix where number

#1 showing the relationship between one person and other people and number # 0 showing the non-relationship. In this part, to avoided checking hundreds of names over again and again weather these names are the same or different, a code was written to reduce the time consuming and mistakes which make by human. The coding in the Python script was written to remove

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duplicated names in the confessions, and to create the matrix relationship, that shows the connection of the prisoners from one name to other names (see the script in the page 88).

4.2.3 Visualization in NodeXL

NodeXL, “an extendible toolkit for network overview, discovery and exploration implemented as an add-in to the Microsoft Excel 2007 - 2016 spreadsheet software” (Smith et al., 2009: 255). This is NodeXL template for Microsoft Excel that makes it easy to explore network in variety of graphs. “With NodeXL, an open-source, you can enter a network edge list in a worksheet, click a button and see your graph, all in the familiar environment of the Excel window.”20 This application can be used to model many types of relations and processes in social and information systems. Many practical problems can be represented by graphs. Emphasizing their application to real-world systems, the term network is sometimes defined to mean a graph in which attributes (e.g. names) are associated with the nodes and/or edges (Smith et al., 2010).

In this part, we import the Matrix of Excel Sheet into the NodeXL Template. Then, the application shows the attribute on the left and the graphic visualization on right. This NodeXL, is the very power tool that user can apply many algorithms for drawing graphs and visualizing the relationship among the prisoners (see in Figure 11).

20 See in NodeXL: Network Overview, Discovery and Exploration for Excel. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://archive.codeplex.com/?p=nodexl 43

Figure 11. A visualization in NodeXL (Source: Author) In this research, graphs are used to represent lines of traitors, which can be divided into two types of the traitors: 1). Prisoners were confessed by the Khmer Rouges’ cadres; and 2).

Traitorous names in those confessions.

After do data mining, 195 duplicated names are found in various confessions; it indicates that one traitor can be named more than one time. Consequently, those names probably were selected and arrested soon or after by Khmer Rouge.

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Figure 12: Harel Koren Fast Multiscale Harel Koren (Figure 12) is the fast-multiscale layout of a clustered network of prisoners, using color and curvature to differentiate among the nodes in different clusters. The layout produces a visualization with overlapping cluster positions. The red nodes symbolize the 15 prisoners, black nodes symbolize traitorous names, and the black lines symbolize the connection between prisoners and the traitorous names in those confessions. With the cross-hierarchy diagram, researcher can indicate that structures of arrests are not simply as Davide Chandler agues one chronology of arrests, but this graph shows the complex relationship of traitors between one and other confessions.

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Figure 13: Clustering the Network in the confessions The graph (Figure13) shows the 12 clusters and the relationship between each cluster in different colors. The bigger nodes (many colors) symbolize prisoners, small node are traitorous names, the smaller combination lines (gray lines) symbolize less edges, and bigger combination line symbolize more edges. For example, a small connecting line between Im An (red color) and

Sim Kim Eng (Orange color) show they are not close each other. On the other hand, a big connecting line between Im An (red color) and Chheng key (light green) show they are close each other. Basically, this graph addresses how close the relationship is between one prisoner to others by counting the number of people that both of prisoners know.

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Figure 14: Clustering the Network in the Motif Network motifs are defined as recurrent and statistically significant sub-graphs or patterns.

Network motifs are sub-graphs that repeat themselves in a specific network or even among various networks.

Figure 15: Group by Motif in NodeXL

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The graph (Figure 14) shows 38 subgroups, but the Solid Diamond has 24 (63%) which is the largest number in the clusters. It means most of the relationship are connecting between two prisoners. In other words, one prisoner connects to another prisoner by knowing the same traitors. Thus, the relationship network in those confessions are between two prisoners and one prisoner to the traitors, but there is no relationship between multiple prisoners.

4.2.4 Network Centrality

Centrality network analysis is to an indicator of on how significant of a node or edge is for the connectivity or the information flow of the network21. This method has been applied into graph theory and network analysis and indicators of centrality determine the most important nodes in the graph. One author used Centrality concepts investigates the performance of three and heuristics with respect to the spread of influence (Chen, 2016). This author continues that applications used to measure centrality reflect their sociological origin and determining the most influential person(s) in a social network, essential infrastructure nodes in the cyber space or urban networks, and others. These provide to see what kinds of flow assumptions can be made and review the three-well-known centrality network analysis; I begin with Betweenness centrality.

4.2.4.1 Betweenness Centrality

Betweenness centrality is one of the simplest centrality measures of social network analysis. Basically, the measure of centrality in the graph depend on shortest paths of each node's

21 EMBL-EBI (n.d.). Centrality analysis, Retrieved January 20, 2018, from https://www.ebi.ac.uk/training/online/course/network-analysis-protein-interaction-data- introduction/building-and-analysing-ppins-0

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betweenness in a network is determined by calculating number of time between paired nodes that pass through the node (or, a target node). In other words, it can be a bridge, connecting one node to any of other nodes in the network. This formula was found by Linton Freeman (1976). The betweenness centrality of a node 푣 is given by the following expression:

where 휎푠푡 is the total number of shortest paths between node 푠 and node 푡, and 휎푠푡(푣) denotes the number of those shortest paths between 푠 and 푡 that pass-through node 푣.

800

600

400

Frequency 200

0 Betweenness Centrality

Minimum Betweenness Centrality 0.000 Maximum Betweenness Centrality 133910.675 Average Betweenness Centrality 2046.496 Median Betweenness Centrality 0.000

Figure 16: The Frequency of Betweenness Centrality

The graph shows the frequency of betweenness centrality, which frequency run in vertical axis and betweenness centrality run in horizontal axis. After running a simulation, the asymptotes of the graph are decline, that means the large number of nodes do not have betweenness centrality.

At the starting point the, there are approximately 680 nodes and drop to approximately 30 nodes before continue downing and fluctuating at the last whole part.

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Figure 17: Network in the Betweenness Centrality The graph (Figure 17) shows Em Man (chief of commerce at Northwester zone) and Im

An (chief of commerce at Poi Pet), having the highest score in the Centrality betweenness, having the score 133911 and 131105 respectively. The graph shows the biggest node and darkness of the color tones in these to people. Thus, Em Man and Im An have an important role as a bridge that traitors from one side connected to other sides though them.

4.2.4.2 Closeness Centrality

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Closeness centrality is used to do a measurement of estimates the flow of information, basically how fast the information would be through a given node to other nodes22. The most import author of this centrality measure in graph theory give the definition that closeness centrality highlight the length of the shortest path that can be descript as the natural or geodesic distance between pairs of nodes (Sabidussi, 1966). For a node 푣, the farness of node 푣 is defined as the sum of its distances along the shortest paths from all other nodes. The formula of closeness then is defined as below:

where 푑퐺 (푣, 푠) is the geodesic distance between 푣 and 푠. Notices that more central a node is, the lower its total geodesic distance from all other nodes would be. Moreover, some nodes may not be reachable from node 푣 – two nodes can be associate with separate components of a network, and it has no connections between these separate components.

22 EMBL-EBI (n.d.). Centrality analysis, Retrieved January 20, 2018, from https://www.ebi.ac.uk/training/online/course/network-analysis-protein-interaction-data- introduction/building-and-analysing-ppins-1

51

150

100

50 Frequency

0 Closeness Centrality

Minimum Closeness Centrality 0.0003 Maximum Closeness Centrality 0.0005 Average Closeness Centrality 0.0004 Median Closeness Centrality 0.0004

Figure 18: The Frequency of Closeness Centrality

Different from the between centrality, the closeness centrality graph (Figure 18) shows the dome distribution shape, which the peak is in middle and first and lower fluctuations are in the last part of the graph. The peak values approximately 120 nodes, then having a little peak value approximately 70 nodes before goes down to 0 node.

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Figure 19: Network in the Closeness Centrality The graph (Figure 19) shows that Tit Son, Koy Thuon, Im An and Em Man have the closeness relationship within each other. This is because they named in each other’s’ names of their four confessions and they know many same people. In this case, the information can spread out to these four people quickly.

4.2.4.3 Eigenvector Centrality

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Eigenvector centrality is another centrality measure in graph theory. Its’ measurement addresses the most importance of a node’s neighbors that can be acknowledges that with more neighbors, one influential node is not just a node, but with more neighbors that are influential

(Bonacich,1987). The method is to calculate a popularity score to each individual within a connected network. To obtain eigenvector centrality mathematically, an method is used. For node 푣 in the network, the eigenvector centrality of node 푣 can be defined as in formula below:

where 휆 is a constant. 퐴푖푗 is the element in adjacency matrix in that 퐴푖푗 = 1 when there is a link between node 푖 and 푗, otherwise 퐴푖푗 = 0.

300

200

100 Frequency

0 Eigenvector Centrality

Minimum Eigenvector Centrality 0.000 Maximum Eigenvector Centrality 0.026 Average Eigenvector Centrality 0.001 Median Eigenvector Centrality 0.001

Figure 20: The Frequency of Eigenvector Centrality

Similar to the Betweenness Centrality, the graph (Figure 20) shows the decline asymptote, having the peak at the first part and go down at middle and the last part. The peak has approximately 250 nodes and decline to 100 nodes then go down to 0 node.

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Figure 21: Network in the Eigenvector Centrality The graph (Figure 21) shows that Im An has the biggest node, that mean it is the most influential node to other nodes. In other words, Im An knows the greatest number of people, particularly 115 names in this confession. Thus, graph indicate the most importance of person by counting the number of neighbors.

4.3 Spatio-temporal Analyses under Arrests and Executions

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Spatio-temporal analysis is used to demonstrate the individuals ‘relation through space and time. These analyses display the clustering of nodes from their arrested places, arrested, and executed date. The following section will provide the single step of the data interpretation into georeferenced and time series.

4.3.1 Spatial Networks Analysis

Grouping the nodes who have geocoding in Microsoft Excel as the basis for constructing the database, the functions and tools in NodeXL can be used to construct graphs, as well as importing the file into zoning for Geocoding analyses. The first series of analyses were done using the Excel file itself to create a series of graphs explaining the temporal distribution of the arrest and execution operations. Then graph (Figure 22) at a regional level were created to show the regional distribution of arrests.

Table 2: Distribution of arrests in reginal zones (Source: Author)

No Arrested Place Number Percentage (%) 1 Central Zone 20 7.49 2 Eastern Zone 25 9.36 3 Kampong Som 8 3.00 4 Northeastern Zone 6 2.25 5 Northern Zone 42 15.73 6 Northwestern Zone 51 19.10 7 Others 54 20.22 8 Phnom Penh 50 18.73 9 Southwestern Zone 5 1.87 10 Western Zone 6 2.25 Total 267 100.00

The table 2 shows that 267 nodes were arrested in different zones and Northwestern zone has the largest number, having 51 nodes or 19.10% since Others (No.7) cannot be identified as the zoning levels. Similarly, Phnom Penh also has large number of arrests, particularly 50 nodes

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or 18.73% (No.8). However, there were four zones have less number of nodes such as Kampong

Som, Northeastern zone, Southwestern zone, and Western zone. In specifically, its ‘cluster has 8 nodes, 6 nodes, 5 nodes and 6 nodes respectively.

N.7 N.8 N.5

N.6 N.2 N.1 N.3 N.10

N.4 N.9

Figure 22: Clustering arrests the network by zone levels (N.1 …, refer to order number) The graph (Figure 22) shows the network and relationship between one zone to others.

Basically, this spatial network analysis which can be divided in ten group in clouding seven reginal zones such as Central zone (Blue color), Eastern Zone (Dark green color), Northeastern

Zone (Black color), Northern Zone (Red color), Northwestern Zone (Orange color),

Southwestern Zone (Pink color), Western Zone (Purple color); and two special zones Kampong

Som (light green) and Phnom Penh (Green) as well as others (yellow color). The bigger nodes

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(many colors) symbolize prisoners, small node are traitorous names, the smaller combination lines (gray lines) symbolize less edges, and bigger combination line symbolize more edges.

Similarly, it describes the how nodes (traitors) have edges (connection) from one zone to other zones. For examples, people in the Eastern zone (N.2) have less connection with the

Northern zone (N.5) due to the small combination edge between them. However, the people between the Central zone (N.1) and Phnom Penh (N.8) have stronger connections since the combining edges have a bigger size. Moreover, nine leaders were arrested in Phnom Penh (N.8), having multiple connections with other zones. It indicates that Phnom Penh is main target of arrests.

4.3.2 Temporal Networks Analysis

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1975

1977 1978

1976

No Year Year

Figure 23: Clustering the Network by Arrested Date The graph (Figure 23) shows the large number of arrested people during 1977, particularly 151 people of 738 that equal to 20.46%; however, there is only one was arrested in

1975. The graphs also show people 29 or 3.9% were arrested during 1976 and 33 people or 4.5

% were arrested in 1978. This graph also addresses on the cross-relationship network among the arrests from 1976, 1977 and 1978. It helps us to understand between time of arrests from year to year.

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1978 1976

No Year

1977

Figure 24: Clustering the Network by Execution Date Similar to graph (Figure 23), the graph (Figure 24) also shows the large number of executing people during 1977, particularly 157 people of 738 that equal to 21.27% and 35 people or 4.74 % were executed in 1978. Moreover, 538 people or 72.90 % do not have the dates.

Although the graph show on the cross-relationship network among the executions from 1976,

1977 and 1978, it shows less connection between 1976 and 1978. It indicates that n Neth Sokha’s confession, few people were executed 2 years later after his execution.

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Table 3: Number of Funding of Arrests and Executions in the confessions

Percentage Arrests Execution No Confession Names Finding (%) Identify No date Identify No date 1 Koy Thuon 78 45 57.69 32 13 26 19 2 Tiv Ol 72 39 54.17 29 10 28 11

3 Tit Son 80 42 52.50 34 8 30 12 4 Chin Ho 92 25 27.17 16 9 12 13 5 Maen Sakhorn 8 5 62.50 3 2 2 3 6 Uon Yoeun 28 13 46.43 10 3 10 3 7 Em Man 102 51 50.00 38 13 35 16 8 Prak Yin 39 13 33.33 12 1 12 1 9 Chum Thai Y 37 17 45.95 13 4 14 3 10 Im An 115 33 28.70 28 5 27 6 11 Chheng Kay 42 10 23.81 9 1 8 2 12 Sin Kim Eng 49 10 20.41 8 2 4 6 13 Sam Man 86 26 30.23 22 4 20 6 14 Neth Sokha 9 4 44.44 4 0 4 0 15 Pheng Son 98 47 47.96 42 5 35 12 Total 935 380 40.64 300 80 267 113

This table 3 shows the number of finding names of arrests and executions, having total number 380 names that equal to 40.64 % since the total names in 15 confessions have 935 names according to the table 2. This result address that not all the names, being answered in the confessions were soon or after arrested; however, more than 50 % of those traitorous names cannot be matched in the arrest and execution logs conducing by Khmer Rouge. Thus, the arrested operations occur not only because of string of traitors, but it also has other principles under the Khmer Rouge leaders.

4.3.3 Series of Chronological Operations

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Series of graphs were created to show the distribution of chorological of arrests under

Khmer Rouge’s operations. These analyses also demonstrate the arrested operations, having patterns for the data in comparison to the next step of arrests in time order from earlier and alter arrests. The following graphs show the provide an overall understanding of the changing command structure, particularly breaking arrested date from March 30, 1976 to November 16,

1978 into three patterns.

The figures 25 to 30 show the temporal analysis of the arrested dates in four quarter of year (1st Quarter, 2nd Quarter, 3rd Quarter, and 4th Quarter). The big nodes (red colors) symbolize prisoners, small nodes (gray color) are traitorous names, the gay lines symbolize edges. However, while the target nodes and edges were selected, they turn color tune to blue color for node and cyan color for edges. The black nodes symbolize the nodes have been analyzed already.

Figure 25: Arrested Operations from 1st – 4th Quarter, 1976

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Figure 26: Arrested Operations in 1st Quarter, 1977 Figure 25 & 26 demonstrate Net Sohka (Chief of Commerce supply) and Maen Sakhorn

(State of Commerce) were arrested in 1976 before Koy Thuon (Minister of commerce) was arrested in the 1st quarter of 1977. Although three edges point to Koy Thuon as seen in the Figure

25, those edges do not come from Net Sohka and Maen Sakhorn. In other words, both of Net

Sohka and Maen Sakhorn’s confessions did not name Koy Thuon. Consequently, the arrest of

Koy Thuon are not related to the earlier arrests of those two key prisoners, so he probably was arrested intentionally, or others related prisoners.

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Figure 27: Arrested Operations in 1st Quarter, 1977

Figure 28: Arrested Operations in 2nd Quarter, 1977

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Figure 27 & 28 shows the second pattern of arrested operations after Koy Thuon was arrested. 59 people were arrested after Koy Thuon in the 1st quarter of 1977. Among of key prisoners, only Im An (Chief of Poi Pet Gate) was arrested because of connecting to Koy Thuon.

However, there is no arrested connections between Im An and other key prisoners in 2nd quarter of 1977. This shows a partial hierarchy of chorological arrests and incomplete of network data.

Figure 29: Arrested Operations in 3rd and 4th Quarter, 1977

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Figure 10: Arrested Operations in 1st – 3rd Quarter, 1978

The third pattern in Figure 29 & 30 show that Prak Yin, Tiv Ol, Sim Kim-Eng, Pheng

Son and Sam Man were arrested, but they have no connections to each other. Although Chin Ho and Tit Son have connection to each other, their data does not have arrested dates. Thus, the arrested operations from 3rd Quarter, 1977 to 3rd Quarter, 1978 do not have hierarchy of chorological arrests.

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Chapter 5

Discussion and Conclusion

5.1 Summary of Findings

To demonstrate the significant finding of this research, it’s needed to break down into three sections regarding to the three research questions: 1.) What functions did the Ministry of

Commerce perform during the Khmer Rouge period? 2.) What were the social status and social relationships among employees of the Commerce Ministry? and 3.) Who was arrested earlier or later, where were they arrested, and why?

The modeling of reconstructing ministry of commerce (Figure 7) provides a clear evidence that Khmer Rouge set up a well-organized administrative structure of the ministry of the commerce. This ministry has two main sub-units, particularly the foreign has responsibility for banks, boarder gate (Poi Pet) and over-shipping unites, and the domestic has responsibility for fisheries, clothing, warehouse, transportation, Kampong- Som seaport and hospital. These administrative functions demonstrate that the ministry play a very important for DK’s trading and economics. Although DK regime eliminated the currency, banking, trading in the country, the oversea trading is major income for sustaining this socialist and isolated country. Similar to ministry of commerce, this reconstructing prototype also can be used to reconstructing another ministry of Khmer Rouge.

To demonstrate the social status and social relationships of the Commerce Ministry’s employees, the social network analytic methods were applied in this section. As the result of

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clustering of the network in the Motif, the graph (Figure 14) shows subgroups of Solid

Diamonds, having the largest number in the clusters. It indicates that most of relationship are connecting between. Moreover, the graph (Figure 17) shows the degree of betweenness centrality. It demonstrates Em Man (chief of commerce at Northwester zone) and Im An (chief of commerce at Poi Pet) have a role as the bridge that traitors connect from one side to other sides. Similarly, the graph (Figure 19) addresses the closeness centrality of among Tit son

(deputy chief of state commerce committee), Koy Thuon (minister of commerce), Im An (chief of Poi Pet gate) and Em Man (chief of commerce of Northwest Zone); in other words, information can spread out to them people quickly. Nevertheless, the graph (Figure 21) displays eigenvector centrality of Im An (chief of Poi Pet gate), who is most influential to other people due to his connections link to the greatest number of people.

In the last part of the analyses, this research demonstrates the networks through spaces and time, basically visualizing spatial and temporal networks under arrests and executions. After clustering the arrested places into 10 reginal zones, Phnom Penh, Northwestern zone, and

Northern zone have great number of arrests, valuing in 48 (6.50 %), 51 (6.91 %), and 44 (5.96

%) respectively according to the (Table 2). Moreover, the graph (Figure 22) shows Phnom Penh have stronger and multiple connections to other zones; it also the main target of arrests. With temporal analyses of arrests and executions, the graphs (Figure 23) and (Figure 24) show 151 people (20.46%) and the 157 people (21.27%) were arrested and executed respectively in 1977.

However, Neth Sokha (chief of commerce supply) and Maen Sakhorn (member of state of

Commerce) were arrested in 1976 before mass of arrests in 1977.

5.2 Discussion

1) Applying the social network analysis in the arrests and executions

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This study found that social network analyses help the researcher to demonstrate the value of this dataset to display basic characteristics of relationship of the prisoners and operations of arrests and purges during Khmer Rouge regime. The network provided some very interesting results showing the periods and places of greatest number of arrests and executions. The examples of the graphs from Figure 22 to Figure 32 show proof of concept that the temporal data were extremely useful as each record contained the year, month and day of each arrested operation.

Moreover, with the series of chronological could be displayed the intervals between cohesions’ answers and arrests. This can be answered the fundamental question why one person was arrested.

2) Data selection and mining

The historic data selection and mining used to construct this descriptive aspect of the historic datasets were more precise and accurate. The selection of 15 confessions were used to provide a series of exploratory analyses to provide samples of data mining. To demonstrate, two examples are explained some issues of data mining in the confessions.

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Table 4. List name of Net Sokha’s confessions. (Source: Author)

Arrested Arrested Execution No Alias Name Position Zone date date Code Neth Deputy group of supply in Ministry of 1 Deth Sokha Commerce Phnom Penh 22-Sep-76 06-Dec-76 D03741 Kampong 04-May- 2 Sath Deputy of supply in Ministry of Commerce Som 77 20-Jun-77 3 Ratt Chief of rubber farm at Ou 5, 4 Phlang Cooperative at Chhuok Khsach, Baray, Kampong Thom D04074 Kampong 04-May- 5* Sath Deputy of supply in Minstry of Commerce Som 77 20-Jun-77 6 Phy Member of company D13515

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7 Daet Combatant Commerce 19-Sep-76 18-Mar-77 8 Vann Combatant 9* Ratt Chief of rubber farm at Ou 5, Kampong Cham 10* Phlang Cooperative at Chhuok Khsach, Baray, Kampong Thom Kampong 04-May- 11* Sath Deputy of supply in Ministry of Commerce Som 77 20-Jun-77 Former of car garage unit in economic Prek 12 Phan Pnao

Number with “*” is duplicated name.

Three confessions of Neth Sokha were extracted through the data mining, we found that number 5, 9 10, 11 were the duplicated names within three different confessions of D03741,

D04074, and D13515. This indicate that by adding more confessions; we will get more names although there are some duplicated names. In this case, it will be applied in the limitation of accessibility to data sources.

Nevertheless, the data exploration gives the prove of Uon Yoeun’s confessions, which has 36 different confessions, were not selected. I found that 19 of those confession have the same names or even the same outlooks. The case can be applied in man-made errors due to the confessors ‘notes or miss listed during from original sources, which provide more detail in the limitation part.

5.3 Limitation

Studies of digital humanities through historical source have both pros and cons. Although this research has many challenges from accessibilities of data sources to the process of data analyses and the implications of research outcomes. First, I would review the difficulties of accessibilities of data sources, is one of the challenge since the all the confessions in Khmer

Rouge period are collected from Cambodia. It is take longer time to send the data back and forth.

Moreover, many confessions have limitations due to the incomplete series of documents and man-made errors in the conducting processes of the information. Thus, number of confessions have been lost and cannot find, in addition to the inconsistencies of the contexts.

Second, the limitation of data analyses has been found due to the incomplete entries, particularly many prisoners’ names cannot identify while number of records, for example,

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position, age, sex, name, alias, and arrest place could have errors because of inaccurate information conducted by S-21’s staff. Because these datasets are used to construct the attributes of the networks, it is possible that there are some effects in the result of the analyses.

Finally, the confessions in this research have been selected through themes of structures and accessibilities. For instance, 15 important people have been selected as the prototype to investigate the patterns of their relationship. Therefore, the outcome may not have high efficiency that could be applied in overall case of studies. Furthermore, it is possible that implications of the thesis have some limitations, which needs to do future research or investigations for similar topics or related topics.

5.4 Suggestions for Future Research

Handling limitations of uncertain and missing data in the field of genocide studies is very challenging because one single missing recode represents one dead person; thus, missing information cannot be solved by calculation or simulation in the same way of statistical analysis, for example in rainfall or slopes datasets. To solve to issues of missing of prisoners’ information in my research, it need to do future investigation through other data sources, particularly finding the proved documents from S-21 archives to modify those incomplete datasets.

Although there are some limitations, this research has provided a greater understanding of how difficult it is to develop a historical dataset regarding events that occurred before the digital age that allows data to be more easily translated the relationship into complex networks.

In the initial stage of next project, some recommendations for researcher do a future exam of matching up prisoner’s photos and the networks in the confessions. According to the official

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Toul Sleng website, “when the Vietnamese Army invaded in 1979 the S-21 prison staff fled, leaving behind thousands of written and photographic records. Altogether more than 6,000 photographs were left; the majority, however, have been lost or destroyed”. This will show a complete network vitalization that transforming various analog datasets from the Tuol Sleng

Genocide Museum’s archive into digital platforms.

Another important stage, researchers should have longer time conduct a research and collect data in Cambodia, basically collected more confessions although there are more than

4,000 confessions are existing23. However, increasing the number of confessions for doing the complexity and the relationships of the traitorous networks may be a new challenge for the next researcher, so a new roadmap in the concepts of scaling up to the large volume of data and provide a conceptual model of the big data processing framework, particularly considering on data accessing and computing processors, and big data mining algorithms.

For big data mining, if data scale is overwarming of the capacity that a single personal computer (PC) can handle, a sample big data processing framework will rely on cluster computers with a high-performance computing platform. For example, some parallel programming tools, such as MapReduce or Enterprise Control Language (ECL), on many computing nodes (i.e., clusters) have been used for data mining tasks. In other words, the software being deployed to make sure that a single data mining task can find the best match of a query from a database with large number of records and split into many small tasks each of which is running on single or multiple computing nodes (Wu at al., 2014). In recent years,

NoSQL systems have been deployed as a potential solution to support -scale applications. For example, Amazon’s DynamoDB, and Google’s Bigtable, as well as open source

23 DC-Cam archive, “Toul Sleng (S-21) Execution Log: 1976-1978“, by Ros Sampeou et al. (2006). 73

such as Cassandra, HBase, and MongoDB. These stores are particularly attractive for applications that perform relatively simple operations while needing low-latency guarantees as they scale to large sizes. NoSQL stores offer flexible schema and elasticity to overcome relational databases’ limitations (Tan et al., 2013).

Beside of hardware and software, a new data mining algorithm is also a key to determine other parameters and design in tackling the difficulties raised by the big data. Traditional data models are incapable of handling complex data in the context of big data. For example, key-value stores, big table clones, document databases, and graph databases are the complexity of these data models. Complex relationship networks in data are emerging research which are needed to address the issues of structure, evolution, interaction, information and communication (Wu at al., 2014).

Moreover, algorithm and computer codes being deployed in the big data research that including analysis and simulation of network data. The study of social network depends on the concepts in complex graph theory which is requited specific applications or software packages to generate the data. The igraph coding package, is open source, being rapidly gaining popularity as a potential solution to support social network research. “The igraph library was developed because of the lack of network analysis software which (1) can handle large graphs efficiently,

(2) can be embedded into a higher-level program or programming language (like Python, Perl or

GNU R) and (3) can be used both interactively and non-interactively (Csardi et al., 2006: 2).”

In short, the recommendations and roadmaps of the future research provide an idea how a next research will get through; however, it will need a long-term commitment to do further research and learn the coding software. The next research will be a significant study if the research can collect and compute the spatial network analysis from all existing confessions. That

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would allow research to minimize the errors and misconceptions of relationship of the cadres during Khmer Rouge regime.

5.5 Conclusion

Scholars of genocide and mass violence have proposed number of methods addressing how characteristics of the governments, political leaders, and civilians play roles in the criminological concepts (Day at al., 2000). However, not many scholars have applied the cutting- edge technologies to address the explanatory constructs of genocides. In this digital age, the technology plays a crucial role in terms of determining historical information from analogs and translates to digital platform. My research targets to enhance the digital humanities, practically utilizing the S-21’s confessions to find the specific answers of the social relationship of prisoners showing in complex networks. My research methods provide a visualization of arrest and executions based on networks established in confessions; this provides researchers an opportunity to identify the characteristics and relationship of prisoners, and operational practice of arrests and purges during Khmer Rouge regime. In the broader concepts, this method provides an awareness of social network analyses, a field that has only currently been applied to genocide and mass atrocities. The case study of Cambodia geocide can be a technical examination and conceptual contribution of how the integrating of the mix methods applied in genocide studies that can lead to significant discussion across the disciplines.

This paper provides a first provisional step towards a more thorough empirically informed, analysis of social networks among detainees at S-21. With small analytical dataset of

15 key confessions in my research, it indicates a prototype of research framework to investigate the patterns of their relationship in the confessions. This study can scale-up in larger dataset by

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applying the same method to investigate social networks or reconstruct administrative structures.

With bigger analytical dataset, researcher can expand more confessions, basically by adding more names (or nodes) into the Matrix. The next procedures, researcher can follow my research framework in overall. Moving to comparative studies, this research provides an awareness of enhancing digital humanities in the genocide and mass atrocities. This finding can be a fundamental footprint of applying the integration method in others’ mass violence such as holocaust in Germans during World War II, Armenia, Bosnia, Rwanda, and Darfur as well as

Dictatorship in Guatemala. One example in Germans, classic methods of a detection to investigate the alleged murder of millions of Jews under Nazi rule, and one question is raised by

Ernst Gauss (2003) how reliable are the claims of the eyewitnesses, and the confessions of the alleged perpetrators. Another example in Latin America, After Guatemala's bloody thirty-six years of civil war from 1960 to 1996, 75 million pages were found in Guatemala's secret police archives (Weld, 2014). With those documents, researcher can discover the network of perpetrators and establish the reconstruction of the mass violence. Thus, the funding my research will have a greater impact of applying new method into the field of genocide and mass violence.

In the end, I would give my perspective on ethic of this research. The genocide is an enormous tragedy for not only Cambodian people, but for the hold humanities. Miseries of starvation, , executions and others’ sadness stories that Cambodian people overcome, can be an unbelievable story for young generations who have never been through the Pol Pot regime to accept the truth. However, history is the history; we cannot change the past, but what we can do, is going forward to the future. From my point of view, I believe that genocide studies can be a crucial prevention of repeating the genocide. For example, many of genocide documents are opened for publics and many scholars such as David Chandler, James Tyner and so on have

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reviewed the information in their books and research. Thus, utilizing of dead people’s information in the good deed and give a respect is the right thing to do. However, the data have been shared for public does not mean any privacy cannot do harm. Recognizing a single profile has different ethical implication from a group of profiles. Zook (2017) mentions “privacy depends on the nature of the data, the context in which they were created and obtained, and the expectations and norms of those who are affected.” In Cambodian cultures, dialogues of

Cambodia’s killing field is one way of the healing. Many old people are willing to share their stories on what they have been through during the genocide. Meanwhile, many young generations are willing to know what were happened during the Cambodian genocide. Moreover, utilizing perpetrators’ information from confessions and providing a clear point to the certain people is sound acceptable when scholars shift their mindset from ethical perspective to techniques and methodology. Thus, responsible for ethics of publishing in my research is not preventing privacies, but making sure that analytic results are accurate, and maximizes the advantages while minimizing harm.

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83

APPENDIX

A. Python Script: Building a Relationship in Matrix

# reading from file data=open('ID_Names.csv').read().split("\n") # file to write # outf=open('matrix_out.csv','w') temp_outf=open('temp_out.csv','w') newset=[] headerdict={} #duplicated remove data dupremovedset=[] i = 0 flag = False parsed_data = [] final_data = [] for d in data: lowerdat=d.strip().lower() splitted_row = lowerdat.split(',') stripped_splitted_data = [] for x in splitted_row: stripped_splitted_data.append(x.strip()) parsed_data.append(stripped_splitted_data) t_dt = copy.deepcopy(parsed_data) uniq_elem = [] index = 0 for x in t_dt: p='' if x[0].startswith('*'): p=x[0][1:len(x[0])] else: p=x[0] if p in uniq_elem : continue else: uniq_elem.append(p) index=index+1

print("Buildoing matrix names") mat = [[],[]] i = 0 mat[0].append(uniq_elem) uniq_elem = uniq_elem[1:len(uniq_elem)] for i in range(len(uniq_elem)): temp_list = [] j = 0

84

for j in range(len(uniq_elem)): if (j ==0): temp_list.append(uniq_elem[i]) else: temp_list.append('0') j=j+1 mat.append([]) mat[i+1].append(temp_list) i=i+1

i = 0 while i< len(parsed_data): j=0 if parsed_data[i][0].startswith('*'): row_id = ''+parsed_data[i][0][1:len(parsed_data[i][0])] print("row to found is ", row_id) index = -1 j=1 for j in range(len(mat)-1): #print( " j is ", j) if j ==0: continue if (mat[j][0][0])==row_id: index = j #print("Found row at index--",index) #print(len(mat[index][0])) if index == -1: print("could not find uniq roq in marinx.exiting--",row_id) exit(1) j=i+1

while j< 937 and not(parsed_data[j][0].startswith('*')) : #print(parsed_data[j][0]) for k in range (len(mat[index][0])): if k ==0: continue elif mat[0][0][k] == parsed_data[j][0]: mat[index][0][k] = 1 #print("Paichi") #print(mat[index]) j=j+1 #print("j is ", j)

i=i+1 row_id = ''

for i in range(len(mat)): for j in range(len(mat[i])):

85

for k in range(len(mat[i][j])): if mat[i][j][k] == 1: mat[k][j][i] = 1

for x in mat: for y in x: for z in y: #print(z) p=","+str(z) temp_outf.write(p) temp_outf.write("\n") index = index+1 temp_outf.close()

86

B. List of Abbreviations

Abbreviation Meaning

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

CPK Communist Party of Kampuchea

DC-Cam Documentation Center of Cambodia

DK Democratic Kampuchea

ECCC Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

GIS Geographical Information Systems

HGIS Historical Geographical Information Systems

KGB Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti

NVA North Vietnamese Army

SNA Social Network Analysis

UNESCO The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

USHMM United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

87

C List of Prisoner’s ID

Arrested Arrested ID No Alias Name Position Execution Code Zone date 10001 1 *Koy Thuon Minister of Commerce Phnom Penh 25-Jan-77 Non D23250 10002 2 Ros Sarin Member of anit revolution at Rattakiri Others 12-Dec-76 18-Mar-77 10003 3 Ing Yunheang Line of the school 10093 4 Hang Thon Hak Line of the school 10005 5 Meas San Line of National Institute of Education Eastern Zone 14-May-78 27-May-78 Northern 10006 6 Tang Lng Teacher Zone 19-Apr-77 08-Jul-77 10007 7 Yao Malang Line National Institute of Education 10008 8 Sareth Line of the Wat Langka Others 23-Mar-77 13-Apr-77 10009 9 Ban Line of the Wat Langka Others 25-Mar-77 15-Oct-77

88 10010 10 Khan Line of the Wat Langka Others 10-Sep-77 15-Oct-77 10011 11 Chab Lonn Teacher Northwestern 10012 12 Sam At Teacher Zone 21-Mar-78 25-Mar-78 10013 13 Chab Sokh Teacher Rey Chhaom

10014 14 Doeum 10015 15 Rey Chhin 10016 16 Meas Chhon Others 05-May-77 07-May-77 10017 17 Meas Sarun Civil Northern 10647 18 Chhum Father of Peng Kim, Srey Santhou district Zone 16-Feb-77 18-Oct-77 10019 19 Ya Men San Line in Northeast zone Eastern Zone 23-Jul-77 20-Oct-77 10020 20 Ren Pengkit Propragodist for parliament election 10021 21 Um Sim Propragodist for parliament election 10022 22 Tep Sunthy Chief of province 10079 23 Tiv Ol Line of the school Phnom Penh 09-Jul-77 Non

10024 24 Lon Nol Millitary General Northern 10025 25 Eng Meng Ly Member of anit revolution at Rattakiri Zone Non 03-Aug-77 10026 26 Mai Lunn Line of the school Phnom Penh 11-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10027 27 Thach Khet Line of the school 10028 28 Sun Seng Communist party member 10029 29 Sihanouk King of Cambodia 10030 30 Ub Kim Ang Line of anit revolution 10031 31 Sol Spen Line of anit revolution 10148 32 Meas Dim Live at Kampong Cham 10166 33 Va Sin Central Zone 19-May-77 09-Dec-77 Northeastern 10034 34 Ya Chief of anit revolution Zone 20-Sep-76 Non 10035 35 Doeun 2nd Deputy of chief of anit revolution Phnom Penh 05-Feb-77 20-Jun-77 Western 10036 36 Vy Member of anit revolution Zone 02-Apr-78 Non

89 Others 10037 37 Thun 1 st Deputy of chief of anit revolution Non Non 10038 38 Lao Member of anit revolution Phnom Penh 13-Jul-77 16-Jul-77 10039 39 Thuch Others Non Non 10040 40 Lang Member of anit revolution Phnom Penh 16-Nov-78 14-Dec-78 10525 41 Roeun Millitary at Phnom Penh 10915 42 Sarun Khaphaun Northeastern 10043 43 Chuon Member of anit revolution at Rattakiri Zone 23-Nov-77 27-May-78 Northeastern 10044 44 Y Member of anit revolution at Rattakiri Zone 22-Mar-78 Non 10045 45 Svay Member of anit revolution at Rattakiri Central Zone Non 14-Feb-78 Southwestern 10046 46 Mi Member of anit revolution at Rattakiri Zone 25-Jun-75 05-Oct-76 10047 47 Khy Member of anit revolution Others 29-Apr-77 10-Jun-77 10048 48 Kaun Phoeun Member of anit revolution 10049 49 Tauch Phoeun Member of Cambodian worker party Others 17-Feb-77 Non 10242 50 Chhouk Member of anit revolution Eastern Zone 28-Aug-76 Non

10051 51 Sreng Member of anit revolution Central Zone Non Non 10052 52 Soth Member of anit revolution Eastern Zone 23-May-78 Non 10053 53 Ho Nim Member of anit revolution Others 10-Apr-77 06-Jul-77 10131 54 Oeun Member of anit revolution Western 10055 55 Si Member of anit revolution Zone Non Non 10056 56 Yi Member of anit revolution 10151 57 Nhem Tit Son Member of anit revolution Phnom Penh Non Non 10058 58 Hean Member of anit revolution Phnom Penh 04-Feb-77 Non 10059 59 Suong Member of anit revolution Central Zone 06-Jul-78 02-Sep-78 10060 60 Chey Suon Member of anit revolution Phnom Penh Non Non 10061 61 Chak Krey Others Non Non 10062 62 Phuon Phoeun Eastern Zone 10-Sep-78 14-Sep-78 10063 63 Tuon Tangleng Eastern Zone Non Non 10064 64 Chheu Suylay

90 Rai Chhaum Phnom Penh 10065 65 Doeun 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 Northeastern 10447 66 Suy Saroeun civilian Zone Non Non 10067 67 Suy Sarou civilian Northeastern 10068 68 Rai Chheu civilian Zone Non Non 10069 69 Meas Thuk civilian 10161 70 Peng 10186 71 Phnom Penh 27-Nov-76 20-Jun-77 10072 72 Iv Yang Propragodist for parliament election 10073 73 Aom Sim 10074 74 Chamraen Work for News Northwestern 10075 75 Mai Zone Non 18-Oct-77 10076 76 Fukly Chief of CIA, rang in Colonel 10077 77 Meas Khoem

10078 78 Meas Dab Live at Kampong Ream 10079 79 Penh *Tiv Ol Ministry of Propaganda Phnom Penh 09-Jul-77 Non J00502 10002 80 Ros Sarin Member of anit revolution in 1950 Others 12-Dec-76 18-Mar-77 10081 81 Nong Un Member of anit revolution in 1950 10082 82 Uy Phal Member of anit revolution in 1950 10083 83 Keo Kim Huot Member of committee of anit revolution Others 13-Jul-77 10-May-78 10001 84 Koy Thuon Member of committee of anit revolution Phnom Penh 25-Jan-77 Non 10085 85 Chan Ol Teacher at Prek Totoeng Phnom Penh Non 01-Jul-77 10086 86 Mey Heng Teacher at Prek Totoeng 10087 87 Mey Chhang Teacher at Prek Totoeng Teacher of institute of eduation at Phnom

10088 88 Uch Ven Penh 10089 89 Mae Non Student study at Japan 10090 90 Tik thuok Student study at Japan 10091 91 Kuy Pheng Student study at Japan

91 10092 92 Pech Sambath Student study at Japan Member of committee office of

10093 93 Hang Thon Hak education Member of art committee office of

10779 94 Tan Kim Hout education Member of art committee office of

10095 95 Chhouk Meng Mao education Member of art committee office of

10096 96 Ly Kim Uong education Member of art committee office of

10097 97 Chheng Phon education Member of art committee office of Noun Kon Others 19-Oct-76 06-Dec-76 10098 98 education Member of art committee office of Others 10099 99 Huo Heng education Non 30-Jun-77 Member of art committee office of

10100 100 Cheng Son education 10101 101 Ov chay CIA or Khmer Serey 10102 102 Ov Yan CIA or Khmer Serey

10103 103 Yoy Butchhy CIA or Khmer Serey 10520 104 Seng Bunthorn 10105 105 Thach Sevann 10106 106 Kim Hong Others 21-Jun-77 25-Jun-77 10107 107 Iem Seng Others 28-Oct-76 28-Jan-77 10108 108 Siet Chhe 10109 109 Long Manni Rith CIA 10110 110 Khiev Rasy 10111 111 Lin Exam contoler at Kampuchea Buth school Central Zone Non Non 10112 112 Man Director at Kampuchea Buth school 10113 113 Kim Yam Accountant at Kampuchea Buth school Others 17-Sep-76 06-Oct-76 10039 114 Thuch Vorn Teseach association office Others Non Non 10728 115 Sin Pheat Others 16-May-77 10-Jun-77 10116 116 Kong Sokun Committee member of student Others 08-Aug-77 15-Oct-77 10117 117 Phum CIA at Phnom Penh Others 05-Apr-77 09-Dec-77 92 Khmer Serie from Phnom Penh to Northern 10118 118 Tum Northern zone Zone Non 23-Jul-77 Northern 10119 119 Doeun Line in the Northern zone Zone 03-Aug-76 02-Oct-76 10200 120 Chhoeun Line in the Northern zone Central Zone 17-Feb-77 Non 10121 121 Hun Line in the Northern zone Central Zone 25-Feb-78 27-May-78 10122 122 Tun Line in the Northern zone Central Zone Non Non 10123 123 Tang Line in the Northern zone 10051 124 Sreng Line in the Northern zone Central Zone Non Non Northwestern 10125 125 Sat Line in the Northern zone Zone Non Non Northwestern 10126 126 Saron Line in the Northern zone Zone 08-Nov-77 30-Dec-77 10127 127 Nin Line in the Northern zone Central Zone Non Non Northern 10128 128 Dom Line in the Northern zone Zone 11-Apr-78 27-May-78 Northern 10796 129 Preap Line in the Northern zone Zone 01-Mar-77 08-Jul-77

Northwestern 10130 130 Voeun Line in the Northern zone Zone 02-Feb-78 10-Mar-78 10131 131 Oeun Line in the Northern zone 10132 132 Ne Line in the Northern zone 10059 133 Suong Line in the Northern zone Central Zone 06-Jul-78 02-Sep-78 10134 134 Phim Secrectery of committee Others 30-Mar-76 ??-???-76? Northeastern 10034 135 Ya Deputy secrectery of committee Zone 20-Sep-76 Non 10083 136 Keo Kim Huot Committee member of student Others 13-Jul-77 10-May-78 10137 137 Duch Rin Committee member of student 10138 138 Khek Pen Committee member of student Others 05-May-77 07-May-77 10139 139 Phouk Chhay Committee member of student Others 14-Mar-77 06-Jul-77 10140 140 Phouk Ky Committee member of student Others Non 18-Oct-77 10141 141 Phouk Kanal Committee member of student Others 01-Jan-77 03-Aug-77 10142 142 Thoun Sok Phal Committee member of student Others 01-Jan-77 03-Aug-77

93 Kampong

10143 143 Chhon Soknguon Committee member of student Som 19-Oct-76 12-May-77 10144 144 Mao Khem Noeun Committee member of student Others 05-Apr-77 09-Dec-77 10145 145 Ly Lay Try Committee member of student 10146 146 Mao Ron Committee member of student Others 11-Mar-77 Non 10147 147 Chhum Narin Committee member of student 10148 148 Meas Dim Chief of students' committee 10149 149 Thouch Rin Deputy secrectery of students'committee 10150 150 Leok Vorn Accountant of students' committee Deputy Chief of State Commerce Phnom Penh 10151 151 Nhem *Tit son Committee Non Non J00916 10001 152 Khuon Koy Thuon Chief of Northern zone Phnom Penh 25-Jan-77 Non CIA at Phnom Penh Northern 10153 153 Doeun Deputy chief of economic 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 Zone 10154 154 Ning Secrectary of region 43 10051 155 Sreng Chief of region 41 Central Zone Non Non

Northern 10156 156 Tol Chief of region 42 Zone 18-Feb-77 19-Sep-77 10157 157 Chan Chief of region 43 Central Zone 19-Sep-77 Non Northwestern 10125 158 Sath Chief of rubber of NorthZone Zone Non Non Page 28 10159 159 Ngin Chief of agriculture at Northzone 10058 160 Hean Chief of Uddor Meanchey province Phnom Penh 04-Feb-77 Non 10161 161 Peng Chief of Pouk district, Siem Reap Secretary of Srout Nikom district, Northern 10162 162 Khoeun Battambong Zone 02-Mar-77 07-Jul-77 Northern 10163 163 San Chief of commerce of region 106 Zone 28-Feb-77 19-Sep-77 Secretary of Prek Prosob Battambong, Northern 10164 164 Un region42 Zone 19-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10165 165 Suor Secretary of Barray, Battambong Zone 24-Feb-77 08-Jul-77 10166 166 Va Chief of industrial of Northern Zone Central Zone 19-May-77 09-Dec-77

94

10167 167 Chit Chief of hospital of Northern Zone Central Zone 19-Feb-77 09-Dec-77 Northern 10168 168 Poul Chief of commerce of Northern Zone Zone 18-Feb-77 23-Oct-77 Northern 10169 169 Nguon Cadre of commerce of Northern Zone Zone 22-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 10170 170 Chhoeun Member of Land Transport Unit Others 18-Oct-76 18-Feb-77 10171 171 Kun Chief of garment ministry of Phnom Penh Phnom Penh Non 20-Jul-77 Member of rubber plantation at Northern Northern 10172 172 Khem zone Zone 19-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 10173 173 Keom Battalion 10174 174 Thun Deputy chief of energy Phnom Penh 01-Jan-77 15-Oct-77 10186 175 Phin Cadre of commerce Phnom Penh 27-Nov-76 20-Jun-77 Member of committee of Kampong som's

10176 176 Muoy sea port 10323 177 Mol Assistant chief of commerce ministry Phnom Penh 23-Nov-76 12-May-77 10178 178 Nil Chief of Kampong Som

Kampong 10179 179 Sam Assistant of receptionist at port Som Non Non Member of committee of Kampong som's

10180 180 Vut sea port Kampong 10181 181 Thong Chief of receptionist Som 03-Apr-77 20-Jun-77 10182 182 Hak Chief of technical school Others 16-Feb-77 22-Jul-77 10183 183 Yorn Chief of logistic of commerce 10184 184 Chhun Chief of committee of energy 10185 185 Hang Member of commerce of energy Others Non Non 10186 186 Phin Chief of product screening Phnom Penh 27-Nov-76 20-Jun-77 10187 187 Keo Fly ticket seller Phnom Penh 27-Nov-76 20-Jun-77 Former of chief of artists at the Northern

10188 188 Morm Zone 10189 189 Chhang Chief of people parliament office 10189 190 Chhang Chief of public work at Northern Zone 95 10191 191 Samrith Suong Political Chief of Kampong Thom Others Non Non Page 3

10192 192 Saom Military at Kampong Thom 10193 193 Ban Economic at Kampong Thom Northern 10194 194 Soy Chief of Samtok district Zone 20-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10195 195 Lin Chief of Zone 01-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 10196 196 Kuon Chief of Stong district 10197 197 Hel Chief of Kampong Svay 10198 198 Nhe Chief of Sandann Northwestern 10199 199 Eng Assistant Zone 06-Feb-78 17-Feb-78 10200 200 Chhoeun Member of Commerce Committee Central Zone 17-Feb-77 Non 10201 201 Phat Cambatant at Khuon Eastern Zone 16-Mar-78 05-May-78 10610 202 Try Cambatant at Khuon Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10203 203 Yann Cambatant at Khuon 10204 204 Heang Cambatant at Khuon Phnom Penh 25-Oct-76 18-Mar-77

10205 205 Thol Member of campany of worker's power 10206 206 Sambatt Machine Technician at technical school Technician at car maintenance at

10207 207 San commerce 10208 208 Em Former of female chief of Ek district Phnom Penh 17-Feb-77 18-Oct-77 10117 209 Phum Female of Platoon of garment Others 05-Apr-77 09-Dec-77 10210 210 Mai Female of actor at Song of Northern zone 10211 211 Nuo Member of land transportation 10212 212 Phen Member of technical school 10213 213 Phan Female doctor of Phnom Penh commerce Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10214 214 Rat Former of female of Robay district 10215 215 Huo Member of logistic of commerce 10216 216 Kry Chief of battalion of comerce 10217 217 Phi Chief of worker market of Phnom Penh 10218 218 Sarin Member of logistic of commerce Phnom Penh 21-Dec-76 18-Mar-77

96 Deputy Chief of warehouse of Phnom

10219 219 Vann Penh 10220 220 Man Chief of land transpotation 10221 221 Soy Member of car maintenance of commerce Northeastern 10034 222 Ya Zone 20-Sep-76 Non 10223 223 10224 224 Chhuok 10225 225 Mi Thuo Veitnam 10226 226 Soeun Veitnam 10227 227 Nhoek 10231 228 Sou Ho Eastern Zone Non Non 10229 229 Nin Deputy of secretary of region 22 Committee of relationship Cambodia and

10230 230 Seng Hong vietnam 10231 231 Sou *Chin Ho Chief of Sector 22 Commerce Eastern Zone Non Non J00927 10232 232 Ta Phim Deputy of secretary at Eastern zone Eastern Zone 30-Mar-76 Non

Deputy of secretary at region23, Eastern Others 10039 233 Thuch zone Non Non 10234 234 Nong Saroeun Secretary of region 23 at Easter zone Chief of economic at region 20, Easter

10235 235 Mai Phou zone Secretary of Mean Chey Thmey district at

10236 236 Prom Samit region 23, Easter zone Secretary of Chhlong district at region 21,

10237 237 Chhaom Savat Easter zone 10238 238 Peam Chief of office at Estern zone Eastern Zone 05-Jun-78 Non 10239 239 Savorn Chief of Division 3 at Eastern Zone Eastern Zone 04-Apr-78 11-Apr-78 Work in Ministry of agriculture, Eastern

10240 240 Thon Zone 10241 241 Chhon Bun Nguon Chief of art and culture of Eastern Zone Eastern Zone Non Non 10242 242 Chhouk Secretary of region 23 at Easter zone Eastern Zone 28-Aug-76 Non Chief of military educational school at

10243 243 Savit Eastern Zone

97 Work in Ministry of agriculture, Eastern

10244 244 Yean Zone Work in Ministry of commerce, Eastern Eastern Zone 10245 245 Khon Zone Non Non Representative secretary of army chief of

10246 246 Tum central party in Phnom Penh Secretary of Pea Rang of region 22,

10247 247 Ngin Easterns Zone Secretary of Ksach Khandal district in the

10248 248 Mit region 22, Eastern Zone Secretary of Sithou Kandal district in the

10259 249 Chhon region 22, Eastern Zone Secrectary of Mok Kampol district in the Eastern Zone 10250 250 Phon region 22 , Eastern Zone 08-Jun-77 09-Dec-77 10251 251 Dim Chief of central division at coastal areas Central millitary member at Chroy

10252 252 Sim Changva District, Phnom Penh

Central millitary member at Chroy

10253 253 Chhay Changva District, Phnom Penh Deputy of socail affairs of region 22,

10254 254 Vann Pheap Eastern zone Chief of women combatant of

10255 255 Chhum Vireak transportation of region22, Eastern zone Assistant of cadre at region 22, Eastern Eastern Zone 10256 256 Thea zone 07-Oct-77 Non Chief of security of region 22, Eastern

10257 257 Saman zone Chief of ministry of disabled soldiers at

10258 258 Soy region 22, Eastern zone Member of at region 22, Eastern Zone 10259 259 Chhon Eastern zone 09-Mar-77 Non Angkar assigned him to work at Phnom

10260 260 Heng Penh, couldn't identify his position Angkar assigned him to work at Phnom

10261 261 Mut Penh, couldn't identify his position

98

10331 262 Uon Yoem Couldn't identify Phnom Penh 12-Feb-77 12-May-77 10263 263 It Heng Couldn't identify 10264 264 Tol Sart Couldn’t identify 10265 265 Vinh In Couldn’t identify 10266 266 Oeur Tay Man Couldn’t identify 10267 267 Thach Thai Couldn’t identify 10268 268 Bow Lang Couldn’t identify 10269 269 Chao Ich Couldn’t identify 10270 270 Cheang Iem Seng Couldn’t identify 10271 271 Sieng Kim Son Couldn’t identify 10272 272 Long Koen Heu Couldn’t identify 10273 273 Kan Sang Hav Northern zone, Couldn’t identify 10274 274 Leng Vouch Eng Couldn’t identify 10275 275 Son Ta Couldn’t identify 10276 276 Nget Som Couldn’t identify 10277 277 Sok Yorn Couldn’t identify Others Non Non

10278 278 Hen Sokphal Couldn’t identify 10279 279 Khoem Sam On Couldn’t identify 10280 280 Sary Couldn’t identify 10281 281 Nem Work at a factory of state at Phnom Penh 10220 282 Man Couldn’t identify 10283 283 Lay Couldn’t identify 10284 284 Lav Nam Couldn’t identify 10285 285 Leang Kim Huot Couldn’t identify 10286 286 Oung Sitha Work at state of commerce at Phnom Penh 10287 287 Chhay Koh Thom, Couldn’t identify Northern 10156 288 Tol Run Couldn’t identify Zone 18-Feb-77 19-Sep-77 Work at Ministry of commerce at Eastern

10289 289 Nit zone Cooperative of Kang Meas at region 41,

10290 290 Pao Saret Northern zone 99 Chief of commerce of Srey Santho at

10291 291 Long region 22, Eastern zone 10292 292 Choun Sick and died Cadre assistant of Srey Santho at region

10293 293 Ol 22, Eastern zone Cadre of Ministry of commerce at Srey

10294 294 Vann Santho district at region 22, Eastern zone 10295 295 Thon Sick and died 10296 296 Choem Angkar transferred to Northern zone Chief of Prek Pou commune, Srey Santho

10297 297 Riem district, region 22, Eastern zone Deputy chief of Prek Pothom, Srey

10298 298 Chhum Santho, region 22, Eastern zone Chief of Phtas Kandal commune, Srey

10299 299 Tim Santho district, region 22, Eastern zone Work at ministry of agricalture of state at Phnom Penh 10300 300 Thun Phnom Penh 07-Jul-77 13-Mar-78 10301 301 Bow Work at a factory of state at Phnom Penh

10302 302 San Work at publicing office of state Boat driver at ministry of commerce at Eastern Zone 10303 303 Chhoeun Eastern zone Non Non Boat driver at ministry of commerce at Eastern Zone 10304 304 Phirom Eastern zone Non 02-Jul-77 10305 305 Thai Seng Couldn't identify Phnom Penh 01-Jan-77 28-Jan-77 10610 306 Try Couldn't identify Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 Chief of ministry of commerce at Ou Rang Eastern Zone 10307 307 Lin Ov district, region 22, Eastern zone 05-Jun-78 Non Chief of the rice mill of the region 22 in

10308 308 Thoeun Sitho Kandal district, Eastern zone Chief of commerce of region 22 in Koh

10309 309 Hoeun Sotin district, Eastern zone Chief of water transportation in the ministry commerce, region 22, Eastern Eastern Zone 10245 310 Khon zone Non Non Work In supply chain of produce in the 100 ministry of commerce, region 22, Eastern

10311 311 Voeun zone Work In supply chain of produce in the ministry of commerce, region 22, Eastern 10280 312 Sary zone Accountant of ministry of fishery at region Others 10313 313 Seng 22, Eastern zone 01-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 chief of handwork of jars at region 22, Eastern Zone 10314 314 San Eastern zone 30-Jun-77 03-Jul-77 Deputy of land transportation at ministry Phnom Penh 10315 315 Song of commerce at region 22 14-Aug-76 06-Dec-76 Driver at ministry of commerce, region 22,

10316 316 Vat Eastern zone Driver at ministry of commerce, region 22,

10317 317 Kosal Eastern zone Accountant of commerce ministry, region

10318 318 San 22, Eatern zone Accountant of ministry of commerce in

10319 319 Ty region 22, Eastern zone

Staff at commerce ministry in region 22,

10320 320 Bow Easten zone Chief of logistic of commerce ministry at

10321 321 Tha region 22 Northwestern 10322 322 Sok Make soybeans at region 22 Zone Non 18-Oct-77 10323 323 Mol *Maen Sakhorn State of Commerce Phnom Penh 23-Nov-76 12-May-77 D05482 10191 324 Suong Political chief of Kampong Thom Others Non Non Deputy Chief of State Commerce Nhem Tit Son Phnom Penh 10151 325 Committee Non Non 10131 326 Oeun Deputy Chief Northeastern Ya Chairman 10034 327 Zone 20-Sep-76 Non 10328 328 Suon Member 10329 329 Voeung Member Northwestern Em Man Member

101 10359 330 Zone 16-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 10331 331 Sith *Uon Yoeun Group chief of commerce of state Phnom Penh 12-Feb-77 12-May-77 D07221

Deputy Chief of State Commerce Nhem Tit son Phnom Penh 10151 332 Committee Non Non 10333 333 Kang Chief of fishery in Kampong Som 10334 334 Chhin Chief of medical in Kampong Som 10335 335 Bol Political regiment in Kampong Som D08497 Kampong Sath Political comapny in Kampong Som 10336 336 Som 04-May-77 20-Jun-77 Kampong Ang Political worker in Kampong Som 10337 337 Som 27-Mar-77 18-Oct-77 Kampong Chek Security in Kampong Som 10338 338 Som 08-Nov-76 28-Jan-77 10339 339 Chhoeun Car maintenance in port Phnom Penh 18-Oct-76 18-Feb-77 10340 340 Hun Fishery in Kampong Som 10341 341 En Chief of Worker in Kampong Som 10342 342 Chhon Cambatant of oil factory in Kampong Som 10343 343 Phat Cambatant of oil factory in Kampong Som

10344 344 Yoeun Cambatant of oil factory in Kampong Som 10345 345 Hien Cambatant of oil factory in Kampong Som Chief of hospital Kampong , Now Phnom Hong Others 10346 346 Penh 01-Jan-78 Non-78 D10277 10347 347 Moeun Wood Export Phnom Penh Non Non 10348 348 Yem Combatant from hospital Kampog Som 10349 349 Lun Combatant of security in Kampong Som 10350 350 Lanh Company in Kampong Som Others 01-Feb-78 22-Mar-78 10351 351 Cheat Chief of cooking in Kampong Som 10352 352 Nin Chief of Wood Export in Kampong Som Others Non Non 10353 353 Lim Member of driver in Kampong Som Kampong Tit Combatant in Kampong Som 10354 354 Som 24-Jan-77 18-Oct-77 10355 355 Si Nuon Combatant of cooking , Kampong Som 10356 356 Ven Worker in Phnom Penh Phnom Penh 07-Feb-77 12-May-77

102 Company of worker sector in Kampong Koh Others 10357 357 Som 06-Apr-77 13-Apr-77

10358 358 Sreng Rubber expert in Kampong Som Northwestern *Em Man 10359 359 Chief of Commerce, Zone 16-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 J00408 10360 360 Nap Chief of Tane commune 10361 361 Yun Chief of Tane commune 10362 362 Yeun Chief of platoon Svay kran Northwestern 10363 363 Lakk Committee of Tamnak Trap Zone 11-Nov-77 30-Dec-77 Northwestern 10322 364 Sok Chief of Sroung village Zone Non 18-Oct-77 Northeastern 10034 365 Ya Chief of Prey village Zone 20-Sep-76 Non 10366 366 Phun Chief of Sokla village, Sroung commune 10367 367 Bai Monk at Talo pagoda Others 13-Jul-77 16-Jul-77 10368 368 Nouch Chief of Chumrok village 10313 369 Seng Economist at Prey Kontuot Others 01-Mar-77 20-Jun-77

10184 370 Chhun Chief of Kamprak Kol village Northern 10371 371 Phal Chief of Damnak Thnong Zone 14-Jun-78 Non Northwestern 10875 372 Sim Chief of Damnak Thnong Zone 23-Apr-78 05-May-78 10373 373 Ros Chief of Damnak Thnong Deputy chief of commerce Northwestern Northwestern 10374 374 Loeun Zone Zone Non 18-Oct-77 10375 375 Hot Member of commerce Northwestern Zone 10376 376 Yean Chief of warehouse of Northwestern 10377 377 Tuon Deputy of warehouse of Battambang Zone 21-Jun-77 20-Oct-77 10378 378 Den Member of warehouse of Battambang Northwestern 10379 379 Ing Member of of warehouse of Battambang Zone 14-Oct-77 30-Dec-77 10380 380 Nem Chief of warehouse , Pursat

103 10754 381 Sam Deputy of warehouse , pursat Others 23-Jul-77 29-Jul-77

Southwestern 10382 382 Leng Member of warehouse, pursat Zone 28-Mar-78 27-May-78 10383 383 Rin Member of warehouse, pursat Northwestern 10441 384 Vann Chief of cultivation at region 1 Zone 20-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 10385 385 Horn Deputy chief of cultivation at region 1 10184 386 Chhun Chief of cultivation at region 3 Northwestern 10387 387 Seng Deputy of cultivation at region 3 Zone Non 03-Jul-77 10388 388 Hao Chief of cultivation at region 4 Northern 10164 389 Un Deputy of cultivation at region 4 Zone 19-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 Northwestern 10390 390 Pum Chief of cultivation at region 5 Zone 09-Mar-78 01-Apr-78 Northwestern 10391 391 Bav Deputy chief of cultivation at region 5 Zone Non Non 10392 392 Nhem Member of cultivation at region 5

Chief of fishery at Prek Teal Northwestern Northwestern 10393 393 Suon Zone Zone 17-Feb-77 12-May-77 Northern 10394 394 Chut Deputy chief of Northwestern Zone Zone 17-Mar-78 Non 10395 395 Chhann Member of Northern Zone 10832 396 Phlang Member of Northern Zone Northern 10397 397 Rem Member of Northern Zone Zone 11-May-77 12-May-77 (Women) Chief of fishery of NothWestern

10398 398 Van Zone 10399 399 Chon Chief of rice miller at Mong 10688 400 Soeun Deputy of rice mill at Battambang Northwestern 10401 401 Sorn Member of rice mill at Battamabng Zone 24-Oct-77 04-Nov-77 Northwestern 10402 402 Sorn Member of rice mill at Mong Zone 19-Jan-77 10-Mar-78

104 10403 403 Han Chief of fish source craft at Battambang Deputy chief of fish source craft at

10404 404 Oy Battambang Northwestern 10405 405 Chhoeun Member of fish source craft at Battambang Zone 29-Jan-78 17-Feb-78 10406 406 Nim (Women) Chief of craft Phnom Penh Non 30-Jun-77 Chief of car maintenance in commerce Northeastern 10407 407 Phorn Northwestern Zone, Battambang Zone 30-Jul-77 Non Deputy chief of car maintenance in Northwestern commerce Northwestern Zone, Zone 10461 408 Sokin Prak Yin Battambang 05-Jul-77 18-Oct-77 Member of car maintenance in

10409 409 Teng Northwestern Zone Chief of transportation of commerce in Northwestern 10410 410 Kong Yeng Northwestern Zone Zone 23-Jul-77 09-Dec-77 Defuty of transportation of commerce in

10411 411 Norn Northwestern Zone Member of transportation of commerce in

10412 412 Va Northwestern Zone

10413 413 Chan Member of transportation of commerce Phnom Penh 26-Feb-77 12-May-77 Member of transportation of commerce in Northwestern 10414 414 Chuon Northwestern Zone Zone Non 18-Oct-77 Chief of rice farm of commerce in

10415 415 Ny Northwestern Zone, Battambang Defuty of rice farm of commerce in

10416 416 Sann Northwestern Zone Member of rice farm of commerce in

10417 417 Bech Northwestern Zone Chief of farm of commerce in

10418 418 Ry Northwestern Zone Deputy of farm of commerce in

10419 419 Ke Northwestern Zone Member of farm of commerce in

10420 420 Chhorn Northwestern Zone Former of commerce in Northwestern

10421 421 Son Zone

105 Northwestern 10422 422 Voeun Economist of region 1 Zone Non Non

Northwestern 10423 423 Sam Chief of commerce of region 1 Zone 05-Jul-77 19-Sep-77 Northwestern 10424 424 Thoeum Chief of office of region 1 Zone 04-Aug-77 18-Oct-77 10425 425 Sorn Assistant of region 1 at Sangke district 10426 426 Phour Assistant of region 1 at Kralar district Northwestern 10427 427 Vuon Chief of cooperative at Phnom Thipatey Zone 09-Oct-77 31-Oct-77 Northwestern 10428 428 Chhorn Millitary of region 2 Zone 28-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 10429 429 Doeng Sack factory in Battambang 10430 430 Pul Worksite at region 2 Battambang Transportation of warehouse unit in

10431 431 Ngorn Battambang Transportation of warehouse unit in

10432 432 Phear Battambang

10433 433 Kaet Rice miller Northwestern 10434 434 Tha Rice miller Zone 16-Jun-77 Non 10435 435 Ven Rice miller Central Zone Non Non Cooperative at Luong pagoda, Bakan

10436 436 En district Northwestern 10437 437 Bouch Rice miller at Zone Non Non 10438 438 Say Chief of office 560 Northwestern 10439 439 Chet Textiles factory and sack at Battambang Zone Non Non Northern 10163 440 San Staff of division 1 Zone 28-Feb-77 19-Sep-77 Northwestern 10441 441 Vanh Secretary of region 1 Zone 20-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 10442 442 Doeun Telephone at office 560 Committee of communication with 106 10443 443 Sour Thailand Committee of communication with Others 10444 444 Mai Thailand Non Non Committee of communication with

10445 445 Vann Thailand 10446 446 Nov Cambatant of division 1 Northwestern 10447 447 Suy Member of region 4 Zone Non Non Northwestern 10448 448 Muoch Member of region 4 Zone 04-Jul-77 Non Northwestern 10449 449 Hoeng Secretary of region 5 Zone 20-Sep-77 Non Northwestern 10450 450 Lai Member of region 5 Zone Non Non Northwestern 10451 451 Vat Chief of economic of region 5 Zone 28-Jun-77 Non 10452 452 Khleng Staff of division 2 10453 453 Khoy (Woman) Division 2

10454 454 Ren (Woman) Division 2 10455 455 Ny (Woman) Division 2 Others 31-Mar-77 13-Apr-77 10456 456 Chhorn (Woman) Division 1 10315 457 Song Division 1 Phnom Penh 14-Aug-76 06-Dec-76 Northwestern 10458 458 Korn Division 1 Zone 05-Oct-77 09-Dec-77 10459 459 Lek Member of region 6 Northwestern 10460 460 Kuy Machine at Battambang Zone 19-Jan-77 10-Mar-78 Northwestern Sukin *Prak Yîn Chief of Tractor Repairing Workshop 2 J00034 10461 461 Zone 05-Jul-77 18-Oct-77 Cadre of people's education at Bankan Northwestern 10462 462 Tang Thoeung district Zone 04-Feb-78 17-Feb-78 Cadre of people's education at Bankan

10463 463 Sor Sok district Cadre of people's education at Bankan

107 10464 464 Bun Thoeun district 10596 465 Se Hou Chun

10466 466 Sok Sorn Combatant Eastern Zone 10-Jun-77 20-Jul-77 10467 467 Boen Khoem 10468 468 Boen Uok 10469 469 Nhea Sat Northwestern 10359 470 Man Em Man Chief of commerce at Northwestern Zone Zone 16-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 Northwestern 10441 471 Vanh Secretery of region 1 Zone 20-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 Northern 10472 472 Mao Kalo village Zone 29-Apr-77 14-Feb-78 10473 473 Lak Kalo village 10474 474 Phon Siphan Chief of Lom Lek commune 10475 475 Ly Saem Member of Lek commune 10476 476 Meok Muh Member of Lek commune 10477 477 Sieng Hieng Group chief of cooperative at Hatil village 10478 478 Eung Pha Group chief of cooperative at Hatil village

10438 479 Say Mun Chief of disability at Svay Doun Kaev Chief of medicinal plants office at Svay

10480 480 Ton Savuth Doun Kaev Chief of cooperative of Damnak Kansaeng

10481 481 Khouch Tuoch commune Chief of cooperative of Bak Chinchien

10482 482 Ba Pou commune Deputy chief of cooperative at Damnak

10483 483 Kim Sarun Kansaeng Chief of cooperative at Vat Luong

10484 484 Sam On commune Deputy chief of cooperative at Vat Luong

10485 485 Nga commune 10486 486 Chhoem Chhum Chief of Prey Thom farm at region 2 10487 487 Eung Sun Cooperative at Khna Toutoeng 10488 488 Om Sarorng Cooperative at Khna Toutoeng

108 10489 489 Nov Sanh Former tearcher 10490 490 Penh Ngan Chief of commune at Bankan Others 29-Nov-77 06-Dec-77

10491 491 Hi Chief of Prey Damrey pagoda (Monk) Northern 10492 492 In Deputy chief of commerce office Zone 02-Apr-77 08-Jul-77 10493 493 Siem Meterial list Phnom Penh 26-Feb-77 12-May-77 Northwestern 10377 494 Tuon Chief of commerce office Zone 21-Jun-77 20-Oct-77 10495 495 Den Chief of steel warehouse Northwestern 10496 496 Mang Commerce region 2 Zone 24-Nov-77 17-Feb-78 Northwestern 10497 497 Nhoem Commerce region 2 Zone Non Non 10852 498 Sem soktum Major sergeant Northwestern 10199 499 Eng Kabuo ralsehou Zone 06-Feb-78 17-Feb-78 10500 500 Poek *Chum Thai Y Chief of trading in the Commerce Ministry Phnom Penh 17-Feb-77 12-May-77 D15185 10501 501 Nhem Noeun Live at S 44 Steng Trang before 18. 3. 70 Eastern Zone 02-Mar-77 07-Jul-77

10502 502 Ran Dam Live at Siem Reap before 18. 3. 70 10503 503 Tang Kim Live at Kampong Siem before 10504 504 Preab Sok Live at Koh SoTin before 18. 3. 70 Others Non 30-Jun-77 10505 505 Sa Khon Live at Koh SoTin District before 18. 3. 70 Eastern Zone 16-May-78 27-May-78 10506 506 Sary Live at kampong Siem before 18. 3. 70 10507 507 Him Neang Live at Nuoy Roeug before 18. 3. 70 10508 508 Khean Seng Live at Kampong Cham before 18. 3. 70 10509 509 Krouch Long Live at Kampong Cham before 18. 3. 70 10510 510 Ly Kheang Live at Kampong Cham before 18. 3. 70 Others 09-Jun-77 15-Oct-77 10511 511 Lach Cooperative chief at Streng Trong Distrist Cooperative deputy at Streng Trong

10512 512 Hoeung Distrist 10185 513 Hang Chief of Oil- Warehouse Russey Keov Others Non Non 10514 514 Mean Chief of Warehouse at region 15 10515 515 Noeun Chief of group at Office "K" 51 109 10516 516 Yoeun Chief of Office"K" 51

10517 517 Noeun Deputy of group at Office Phnom Penh 25-Feb-77 20-Jun-77 10201 518 Phat Member of office Eastern Zone 16-Mar-78 05-May-78 10519 519 Sang Member of office 10134 520 Phim Deputy of chief at Office Others 30-Mar-76 Non 10521 521 Sith Chief of Offic B 15 10204 522 Heang Member office Phnom Penh 25-Oct-76 18-Mar-77 10523 523 Doeun Battaalion 350 Northern 10524 524 Von Division 1 Zone 01-Apr-77 08-Jul-77 10525 525 Roeun Chairman of Division 2 10526 526 Yuos Chief of Telegram Office Others Non Non 10445 527 Vann Member of Telegram Office 10528 528 Kha Member of Telegram Office 10529 529 Huor Member of Telegram Office 10530 530 Hun Member of Telegram Office

10531 531 Phoeun Combatant driver Ch "3" Others Non Non Southwestern 10532 532 Ry Combatant driver Ch "3" Zone 25-Jun-76 10-Oct-76 10455 533 Ny Telegram K 15 Others 31-Mar-77 13-Apr-77 10534 534 Sen Combatant of Offfice S 2 10535 535 Mach Trensport at Northern zone Others 10-Mar-77 18-Oct-77 Northern 10536 536 Chhon Telegram at Engnery Zone 03-Mar-77 07-Jul-77 10537 537 *Im An Chief of commerce Poi Pet Phnom Penh 04-Mar-77 20-Jul-77 J00616 10208 538 Em Chief of committee, logistic Phnom Penh 17-Feb-77 18-Oct-77 10539 539 Mach Chief of committee of Battalion, logistic Others Non Non 10217 540 Phi Chief of municipal market 10392 541 Nhem Member of External Commerce 10323 542 Mol Member of External Commerce Phnom Penh 23-Nov-76 12-May-77 10186 543 Phin Chief of quality control products Phnom Penh 27-Nov-76 20-Jun-77

110 10171 544 Kun Chief of garment committee Phnom Penh Non 20-Jul-77

10183 545 Yorn Chief of supply Northwestern 10546 546 Satt Deputy chief of supply Zone 14-May-77 15-Oct-77 10218 547 Sarin Member of supply, commerce Phnom Penh 21-Dec-76 18-Mar-77 10548 548 Bik Chief of office K-51 10549 549 Chheang Deputy chief N-15 10550 550 Seng Member of office K-51 10515 551 Noeun Chief of security at office K-51 10552 552 Thy Chief of office at 10553 553 Leung Chief of region Kampong Thom 43 10554 554 Bun Chief of hospital K-27 10555 555 Mean Chief of office N-15 Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10220 556 Man Chief of committee of transportation 10001 557 Kuy Thuon Chief of committee of commerce Phnom Penh 25-Jan-77 Non 10166 558 Va Chief of textile fatory Central Zone 19-May-77 09-Dec-77 10534 559 Sen Member of committee of New market

10560 560 Vut Member of telegram of K-51 10561 561 Nhan Combatant of telegram K-51 10562 562 Phin Combatant of telegram K-51 10563 563 Khin Combatant of office K-51 10157 564 Chann Combatant of office K-51 Central Zone 19-Sep-77 Non 10565 565 Dei Member of office K-51 10566 566 Thorn Chief of wearhouse N-15 10567 567 Khort Deputy chief of Poi Pet border 10568 568 Tong Member of Poi Pet border 10445 569 Vann Member of Poi Pet border 10570 570 Tha Member of Poi Pet border 10571 571 Then Chief of production at office K-51 10572 572 Sin Ambassador at Loas 10573 573 Han Deputy of New market Chief of management office of the 111 10574 574 Chhun Ministry

10575 575 Kan Deputy of production, commerce Phnom Penh 02-Dec-76 18-Mar-77 10576 576 Suot Member of committee 10577 577 Bong Chief of gas station at Kbal Thnal 10185 578 Hang Member of commetee of state's warehouse Others Non Non 10579 579 Chin Member of hospital at Stoung district 10580 580 Leang Chief of amy at Stoung district 10328 581 Suon Chief of cooperative at Duong commune 10582 582 Houn Chief of worksite at Stoung district 10519 583 Sang Chief of cooperative at Sakrea commune 10584 584 Leang Chief of provincal transpotation Member of cooperative at Bro Lay

10585 585 Pheng commune Member of cooperative at Chamnar

10586 586 Ty commune Member of cooperative at Bro Lay

10587 587 Meas commune

Member of cooperative at Samproch

10588 588 Yem commune 10688 589 Soeun Chief of cooperative Bet Trang village 10216 590 Kry Chief of commerce Stuong district 10591 591 Thol Deputy chief of cars maintenance garage 10592 592 Men Committee member of commerce 10593 593 Khou Combatant of car maintenance 10594 594 Chun Combatant of car maintenance 10595 595 Khum Combatant of car maintenance 10596 596 Se Combatant of car maintenance 10597 597 Net Combatant of car maintenance 10056 598 Yi Combatant of car maintenance 10599 599 Lonh Committee of municipal market 10117 600 Phum Neari Chief of campany, garment Others 05-Apr-77 09-Dec-77 10601 601 Chek Chief of Telegrame "K-51" commerce 112 10602 602 Dan Combatant K-51

10399 603 Chon Combatant K-51 10260 604 Heng Combatant K-51 10204 605 Heang Combatant K-51 Phnom Penh 25-Oct-76 18-Mar-77 Member of management department, Northwestern 10546 606 Satt garment Zone 14-May-77 15-Oct-77 10308 607 Thoeun chief of state's warehouse 10608 608 Yatt - Neari chief of campany, state's supply 10406 609 Nim- Neari deputy chief of company - commerce 10610 610 Try Cambatant of security of office N-15 Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10611 611 Sao Chief of office N-15 10612 612 Phan Deputy chief of office N-15 10613 613 Sruoch Cambant of hospital at N-15 Others 06-Apr-77 20-Jun-77 Northern 10472 614 Mao Chief of battalion, logistic Zone 29-Apr-77 14-Feb-78 10615 615 Dao Chief of company, logistic

Commune chief at Tang Krasang,

10616 616 Houy Kampong Cham 10617 617 Ngal Member of commerce at region 5 Northwestern 10449 618 Hoeng Chief of region 5 Zone 20-Sep-77 Non Chief of commerce office, Northwestern Northwestern 10374 619 Loeun Zone Zone Non 18-Oct-77 Northwestern 10437 620 Bouch Chief of rice machine Zone Non Non Member of cooperative at Kro Koh

10621 621 Khun commune 10622 622 Seoun Deputy of amy at Santuok district 10623 623 Nguon Chief of cooperative at Ti Po commune 10575 624 Kan Member of cooperative at KangSao village Phnom Penh 02-Dec-76 18-Mar-77 10625 625 Sany Member of cooperative at Vang village Chief of cooperative at En Khma village,

113 10626 626 Mean Kampong Thom Northern 10627 627 Saom Chief of cooperative at Sala visay village Zone 20-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 Chief of cooperative at Samrong village,

10628 628 Kuang Stang 10629 629 Thet Chief of cooperative at Kraya village 10630 630 Chhab Chief of Battalion 404 Phnom Penh 09-May-77 08-Jul-77 10631 631 Chuon Chief of division 404, KampongThom 10632 632 Thaong Chief of Battalion 404 10633 633 Pech Member of Battalion 405 10528 634 Kha Member of Battalion 405 10635 635 Som Chief of Battalion 403 10636 636 Chhem Deputy chief of Battalion 403 Member of committee of foreign affairs Northwestern 10637 637 Sou (Thai) Zone 21-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 Deputy chief of division at Northwestern

10446 638 Nov Zone, boader

Northwestern 10377 639 Tuon Chief of brigade, commerce Zone 21-Jun-77 20-Oct-77 Chief of regiment, Northwestern Zone,

10640 640 Meun boader Northwestern 10641 641 Chheoun Chief of brigade Zone 21-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 10642 642 Rith Chief of cotton farm, Enderk Hem Phnom Penh 06-Jan-78 25-Mar-78 10643 643 Sun Chief of fishery, Northest zone 10644 644 Chann Chief of car maintenance region 4 Northwestern 10645 645 Tapi Ses Chief cooperative Soriya village Zone 08-Aug-77 31-Oct-77 10646 646 Vat Chief of agriculture office Northern 10647 647 Chhum Chief of Management offfice Zone 16-Feb-77 18-Oct-77 Deputy chief of municipal market "New Kampong 10648 648 Sath market" Som 04-May-77 20-Jun-77

114 10649 649 Sae Combatant of office K-51 10398 650 Vanh Chief of region 3

10651 651 Mon Chief of commerce, Northwestern Zone Northwestern Savath *Chheng Kay Chief of Commerce in Region 5 East Zone 10652 652 Zone 28-Jun-77 31-Oct-77 J00807 10250 653 Phon Eastern Zone 08-Jun-77 09-Dec-77 10585 654 Pheng Northwestern 10451 655 Vat Zone 29-Jun-77 Non 10642 656 Rith Phnom Penh 06-Jan-78 25-Mar-78 10657 657 Hing 10658 658 Nai 10659 659 Ren Secretary of Monkol Borey District 10660 660 Lem Northwestern 10661 661 Huot Secretary of District Zone 17-Jul-77 18-Oct-77 10662 662 Phlenh (died ) 10663 663 Pheum (died )

10664 664 Tang Kheun Assistant at region 5 10665 665 Thy Secretary of District 10666 666 Tong (died ) 10667 667 Huo (died ) Khmer Medicine at Thmey village, Thmey Northwestern 10668 668 Roath commune, Thmar Phuok District Zone Non 18-Oct-77 10669 669 Lam Control Kouk village 10670 670 Mov Control at Mok Chhnang 10671 671 Sri Control at Khnang Tuol 10672 672 Phlek Control at Kok Taen Northwestern 10673 673 Yeng Fomer farmer at Chhuok Roreang Zone 20-Dec-77 30-Dec-77 10674 674 Yoy (died ) 10675 675 Kheam 10676 676 Kheoun

115 10677 677 Kheun

Fomer solder, now Khmer Medicine at Northwestern 10678 678 Tum Thmar Phuok, Region 5 Zone 20-Sep-77 29-Dec-77 10679 679 Long Combatant of commerce region 5 10680 680 Heng Combatant of commerce region 5 10617 681 Ngal Combatant of commerce region 5 10682 682 Toeun Combatant of commerce region 5 10683 683 Dara Ou Kra Lanh (A ranh) 10684 684 Long Saket Ou Kun Trey Northwestern 10449 685 Hoeng Zone 20-Sep-77 Non 10686 686 Vun 10687 687 Khou Chief of Commerce in Thma Deputy of Commerce in Phnom Srok

10688 688 Smon District Deputy of Commerce in Thma Puok

10689 689 Loeng District 10446 690 Nov Secretary of Commerce in Division 1

10691 691 Hoeung Fomer Chief of region 5 Northwestern 10692 692 Maong Secretery of Preah Net Preah Distist Zone 28-Jun-77 18-Oct-77 10693 693 Chhaem Member of Thmar Pouk Western Suon *Sin Kim Eng Chief of Commerce in Western Zone 10694 694 Zone 28-Aug-77 Non D41599 10695 695 Chhun Young former professor, now can't Identify Southwestern 26-Feb-78 Non 10696 696 Pon Chief of salt farm of state at Kampot Zone 10697 697 Chhim Ouv Bak Student, now can't Identify 10698 698 Tim Pear Student, now can't Identify Primary school teacher at Kampong Trach,

10699 699 Kry Kampot Primary school teacher at Kampong Trach,

10700 700 Soth Kampot Secondary school teacher at Kampong

116 10701 701 Phou Trach, kampot Western 10702 702 Soeun Mobile Work Brigade youth Zone 31-Dec-76 12-May-77 10703 703 Chuong Mobile Work Brigade youth 10704 704 Tong Chief of Battalion 1, Western Zone Student of secondary school in Kampong Southwestern 10705 705 Khun Trach, kampot Zone 10-Jul-76 04-Nov-76 10706 706 Ka Group chief of mobile Brigade youth 10373 707 Ros Chief of company 1, Western zone Chief of commerce of company , Western

10708 708 Nip zone Committee of Sakea Satob commune, Prey

10709 709 Khoeun Proyut, regions32, Western zone Committee of Sakea Satob commune, Prey Western 10055 710 Si Proyut, regions32, Western zone Zone Non Non Chief of constucting agricultural site at

10711 711 Nao region 32, Western zone Factory technician at region 32, d Western

10712 712 Prak zone

Stecretary of Prey Proyout, region 32,

10713 713 Moeun Western zone Committee of Prey Proyout, region 32, Western 10714 714 Son Western zone Zone 12-Apr-77 Non Chief of cooperative of Tasal commune,

10715 715 Chey Prey Proyut district, region 32 Committee of Tasal commune, Prey

10716 716 Saom Proyut district, region 32 Villager at Klong Ey, Tasal commune,

10635 717 Som Preyut district, region 32 Western 10036 718 Vy Chief of agriculture at Western zone Zone 02-Apr-78 Non 10719 719 Touch Chief of factory at Western zone Chief of Dei Chhnang village, Haong

10720 720 Nhaek Samlang, Prey Proyut, region 32 Chief of Chambie village, Haong Samlang commune, Prey Proyut district, region 32,

117 10721 721 Loy Western zone Chief of cooperative of Hao Samnang

commune, Prey Proyut district, region 32, 10714 722 Son Western zone Chief of Tang Krouch commune, Prey Eastern Zone 10723 723 Chhoun Proyut district, region 32, Western zone 13-Apr-78 17-May-78 Chief of economic at Kang Krouch

10724 724 Chhat commerce, Prey Proyut district, region 32 Chief of cooperative of Kang Krouch

10725 725 Mok commerce, Prey Proyut district, region 32 Chief of Krang Davay commune, Prey Western 10726 726 Dom Proyut district, region 32, Western zone Zone 11-Apr-78 27-May-78 Group chief of cooperative at Krang Davay commune, Prey Proyut district, 10727 727 Pann region 32 Group chief of cooperative at Krang Davay commune, Prey Proyut district, 10728 728 Sin region 32, Western zone 10729 729 Chay Civilain at fishery unit, region 32

Secretary of Thkal district, region 32,

10730 730 Non Western zone Chief of cultivation of commerce office,

10731 731 On Westren zone Chief of techicial unit of commerce,

10732 732 Lan Western zone Chief of of commerce office, Westren

10733 733 Bow zone Group chief of car at commerce office,

10734 734 Sarat Western zone Chief of Battalion, region 32, Western

10735 735 Kloy zone cultivation of commerce office, Western

10736 736 Hean zone Chief commerce at region 37, Western

10737 737 Chan zone 10738 738 Chay Deputy group chief of cultivation

118 10531 739 Phoeun Office cambatant at at Westernzone Others Non Non

Group chief spy at Tang Krauch commune, Prey Proyut district,region 32, 10737 740 Chan Western zone Committee of Prey Poyut district,

10741 741 Cheat region32, Western zone 10742 742 Kim Hak Student of Sisovat high school Chief of cultivation group, Commercial Phen *Sam Man Phnom Penh 10743 743 office 24-Jul-78 02-Sep-78 J00360 10744 744 Phea Chief of Campnay region 42 10131 745 Oeun Chief of Platoon inTang Trang commune 10746 746 Chek Commune chief of Tang Trang 10240 747 Thon Member of Chheung Thnong commune 10748 748 Soy Deduty of office central zone 10749 749 Rorn Combatant at Pey Chhor 10750 750 Kim Chief of company at militory district 44 Northern 10168 751 Poul Committee militory district 44 Zone 18-Feb-77 23-Oct-77

10157 752 Chann Commune chief at militory district 44 Central Zone 19-Sep-77 Non 10753 753 Boeun Chief of Platoon 10754 754 Sae Deputy group chief 10446 755 Nov Chief of platoon 44 Combatant of machine technician,

10756 756 Sreng commerce 10595 757 Khum Combatant of commerce 10758 758 Pech Cambatant of cotton fatory at Ta Khmao 10759 759 Sun Live at Kampong Som 10760 760 Oum Commune chief of Chrek 10134 761 Phim Member of commerce Others 30-Mar-76 Non 10539 762 Mach Chief of battalion in car parts of commerce Others Non Non 10763 763 Lok Chief of zoning office region 15 Chief of telegram unite in state of

10764 764 Poek commerce

119 10765 765 Seng Chief of messengers Eastern Zone Non Non

10741 766 Cheat Chief of office S-2 Others 23-Oct-77 23-Nov-77 10767 767 Khan Combatant of B 5 Others 14-Apr-77 20-Jun-77 10591 768 Thol Chief of cars unit in the commerce 10769 769 San Combatant at commerce of state Phnom Penh 30-Jun-77 03-Jul-77 10770 770 Sambath Combatant at commerce of state 10771 771 Latt Combatant at commerce of state Phnom Penh 13-Sep-76 28-Jan-77 10772 772 Heat Chief of group office B-5 10773 773 Lim Combatant at office B-5 10774 774 Sun Combatant at office B-5 10775 775 Sao Combatant at office of commerce Others 08-Feb-77 12-May-77 10610 776 Try Combatant at office of commerce Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10300 777 Thun Combatant at office of commerce Phnom Penh 07-Jul-77 13-Mar-78 10253 778 Chhay Combatant at office of commerce 10779 779 Tan Combatant at office of commerce Phnom Penh 11-Jul-77 16-Jul-77 10780 780 An Combatant at office of commerce

10781 781 De deputy chief of office of commerce 10550 782 Seng Combatant at office of commerce 10399 783 Chon Combatant at office of commerce 10784 784 Yauk Combatant at office of commerce 10785 785 Chhorn Chief of platoon at office of commerce Phnom Penh 07-Sep-76 18-Mar-77 10786 786 Set Group chief of office of commerce 10555 787 Mean Chief of office of commerce Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10788 788 Ron Chief of company at commerce 10789 789 Chhoeun Deputy of Ministry of Commerce 10515 790 Noeun Chief of company of commerce of state 10213 791 Phan Chief of commerce office of state Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10792 792 Th Chief of company of commerce of state 10793 793 Seng Chief of company of commerce of state 10534 794 Sen Combatant at office of commerce 10659 795 Ren Goup chief of commerce of state

120 10796 796 Preap Chief of commerce office of state

10797 797 Dey Chief of company of commerce of state Phnom Penh 21-Mar-77 20-Jun-77 10798 798 Hong Chief of commerce of state Phnom Penh 07-Feb-77 12-May-77 10799 799 Tong Chief of quility control at commerce 10800 800 Yuok Chief of dong machine for commerce 10534 801 Sen Group chief of commerce of state 10802 802 Thong Chief of platoon of commerce of state 10204 803 Heang Chief of cotton factory at Ta Khmao Phnom Penh 25-Oct-76 18-Mar-77 (Woman)Chief of company of commerce

10804 804 Na of state (Woman) Chief of company of cotton

10805 805 Oeun factory at Ta Khmao (Woman) Chief of commerce office of

10806 806 Sim state 10807 807 Im Member of commerce of state Phnom Penh Non 23-Jul-77 10321 808 Tha Chief of commerce office of state 10809 809 Ly Cambatant of commerce of state Phnom Penh 13-Apr-78 27-May-78

10315 810 Song Cambatant of commerce of state Phnom Penh 14-Aug-76 06-Dec-76 10406 811 Nim Group chief of commerce of state 10702 812 Soeun Group chief of commerce of state Chief of company at Thmey village, Mok

10813 813 Sam Kampol district Deputy chief of company at Thmey

10636 814 Chhem village, Mok Kampol district Member of company at Thmey village,

10815 815 Lun Mok Kampol district 10816 816 Khin Chief of villagers' leader at Thmey village Group chief of villagers' leader at Thmey

10817 817 Thong village 10818 818 Thorn Chief of platoon at Thmey village 10819 819 Oy Secretary of Mok Kampol distrcit 10519 820 Sang Member of region 22 Chief of company at Salong village, Mok

121 10821 821 Chhat Kampol distrcit, region 22

Chief of group at Salong village, Mok Eastern Zone 10822 822 At Kampol distrcit, region 22 07-Jun-77 06-Jul-77 10001 823 Khuon Koy Thuon Phnom Penh 25-Jan-77 Non 10131 824 Oeun Chief of division at Northern zone 10132 825 Ne Chief of regiment 10826 826 Oung Chief of division Western 10055 827 Si Chief of regiment Zone Non Non Chief of company at Sarika keav village,

10828 828 Seu Ton Mok Kompol district Deputy group of supply in Minstry of Deth *Neth Sokha Phnom Penh 10829 829 Commerce 22-Sep-76 06-Dec-76 D03741 Kampong Sath Deputy of supply in Minstry of Commerce 10648 830 Som 04-May-77 20-Jun-77 Chief of rubber farm at Ou 5, Kampong Ratt 10831 831 Cham

Cooperative at Chhuok Khsach, Baray, Phlang 10832 832 Kampong Thom D04074 Kampong Sath Deputy of supply in Minstry of Commerce 10648 833 Som 04-May-77 20-Jun-77 10834 834 Phy Member of campany D13515 10835 835 Daet Cambatant Others 19-Sep-76 18-Mar-77 10294 836 Vann Cambatant Former of car garage unit in economic Phan 10837 837 Prek Pnao

*Pheng Sun Chief of Central Zone Commerce Central Zone 10838 838 03-Oct-77 10-Mar-78 J00415 10167 839 Chit Chief of health care in Northern zone Central Zone 19-Feb-77 09-Dec-77 Northern 10840 840 Hoh Chief of regiment 174 Zone 14-Oct-76 12-May-77 Northern 10841 841 Duong Chief of company at 174 Zone 02-Feb-77 08-Jul-77 122 10051 842 Sreng Deputy of secrectary of Northern zone Central Zone Non Non

Northern 10156 843 Tol Secretary of region 42, Northern zone Zone 18-Feb-77 19-Sep-77 10052 844 Soth Secretary of region 106, Northern zone Eastern Zone 23-May-78 Non 10845 845 Lan Secretary of region 30, Northern zone 10846 846 Suon Deputy of secretary of Kampong Siem Northern 10847 847 Beng Secretary of Puok district Zone 02-Mar-77 07-Jul-77 10848 848 Sambo Secretary of Division Northern 10058 849 Hean Division at region 106 Zone 01-Mar-77 Non Northern 10850 850 Lun Member of office at Northern zone Zone 01-Apr-77 08-Jul-77 10851 851 Saray Chief of Division 174 10852 852 Sem Chief of Division 174 10361 853 Yun Chief of artillery at 174 10854 854 Reap Member of Division Central Zone 20-Sep-77 10-Mar-78

10855 855 Ly Logistic of Division 174 Central Zone 20-Sep-77 09-Dec-77 Northeastern 10044 856 Y Chief of devision 174 Zone 23-Mar-78 Non 10857 857 Lei Deputy chief office of Northern zone 10858 858 Dim Member of office at Northern zone 10732 859 Lan Chief of office at Northern zone Western 10055 860 Si Secretary of Division 174 Zone Non Non Northern 10861 861 Veng Deputy of Division 174 Zone 18-Feb-77 12-May-77 10435 862 Ven Chief of office at region 43 Central Zone Non Non 10252 863 Sim Member of Division 174 Central Zone 03-Oct-77 09-Dec-77 10864 864 Chon Secretary of region 43 Central Zone 19-Nov-77 10-Mar-78 10123 865 Taing Secretary of region 41 Central Zone Non Non Northern 10866 866 Soeun Deputy of secretary of region 41 Zone 08-Jun-77 08-Jul-77

123 10867 867 Sor Secretary of

Northern 10868 868 Meas Secretary of Zone 26-Feb-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10611 869 Sao Secretary of Kanpong Siem district Zone Non 08-Jul-77 10870 870 Chhean Secretary of Baray district Northern 10164 871 Un Deputy of region 42 Zone 19-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 10872 872 Mut Secretary of Tangkok district Northern 10165 873 Suor Secretary of Prek Prosab district Zone 24-Feb-77 08-Jul-77 10874 874 Dol Member of Stoeng Trang 10875 875 Sim Deputy of 10876 876 Srun Deputy of secretary at region 43 Central Zone 16-Mar-77 09-Dec-77 Northern 10627 877 Saom Secretary of Zone 20-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 10878 878 Ban Secretary of 10879 879 Hoeun Secretary of Pongsvay district Central Zone 19-Nov-77 10-Mar-78

10159 880 Ngin Chief of agriculture of Northern zone Deputy chief of agrilcuture of Northern Northern 10881 881 Sarorn zone Zone 10-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10882 882 Tun Member of agriculture of Northern zone Zone 21-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10883 883 Prach Member of agriculture of Northern zone Zone 21-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 10166 884 Va Chief of industrial of Northern zone Central Zone 19-May-77 09-Dec-77 Northern 10885 885 Keo Deputy chief of industry of Northern zone Zone 30-Apr-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10796 886 Preap Member of industy of Northern zone Zone 01-Mar-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10168 887 Poul Chief of commerce of Northen zone Zone 18-Feb-77 23-Oct-77 Deputy chief of commerce at Northern

10888 888 Hor zone Northern 124 10169 889 Nguon Member of commerce at Northern zone Zone 22-Mar-77 08-Jul-77

Northern 10890 890 Khim Chief of public work at Northern zone Zone 08-Feb-77 Non Deputy chief of public work at Northern

10891 891 Chet zone 10892 892 Tep Member of public health at Northern zone Deputy chief of public health at Northern

10893 893 Khem zone Northern 10706 894 ka Chief of culture at Nortern zone Zone 01-Apr-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10524 895 Von Deputy chief of culture at Northern zone Zone 01-Apr-77 08-Jul-77 Northern 10896 896 Phaen Chief of security of Northern zone Zone 08-Nov-76 18-Oct-77 10897 897 Hom Chief of Division 174 10898 898 Hum Member of Division 174 10899 899 Rom Chief of Division 174 10900 900 Bul Division at region 106

10774 901 Sun Secrectary of district Northern 10162 902 Khoeun Secrectary of district Zone 02-Mar-77 07-Jul-77 Northern 10903 903 Cheam Secrectary of district Zone 03-Mar-77 07-Jul-77 10904 904 Noeun Secrectary of district Northern 10905 905 Da Secrectary of district Zone 02-Mar-77 07-Jul-77 Northern 10163 906 San Chief of commerce of region 106 Zone 28-Feb-77 19-Sep-77 10741 907 Cheat Secretary of disitrict 10908 908 Khul 10847 909 Beng Northeastern 10407 910 Phorn Zone 30-Jul-77 Non 10307 911 Peam Lin Chief of office at Eastern zone Eastern Zone 05-Jun-78 Non

125 Northern 10912 912 Hang Secrectary of region 103 Zone 03-Jan-78 Non

10913 913 Rin Chief of commerce at region 103 10443 914 Sour Chief of office of Vieng at region 103 10915 915 Sarun Chief of commrece at Eastern zone 10916 916 Chuon Chief of commerce at Kratie 10753 917 Boeun Chief of logistic at Division 174 Others 17-Sep-77 Non Villager of Boeng Proul village at Eastern

10918 918 Thun zone 10919 919 Chhen Villager of Koh village, Krouch Chma 10920 920 Mi Chief of office at region 21, Eastern zone 10921 921 Huor Rubber worker at Chhum, Eastern zone 10922 922 Nin Rubber worker at Chhum, Eastern zone 10923 923 Hean Rubber worker at Chhum, Eastern zone Villager at Chi heng, Tboun Khmom ,

10244 924 Yean Eastern zone 10925 925 Krun Villager at Ka Knul, Chloung, Eatern zone

10926 926 Treng Villager at Ka Knul, Chloung, Eatern zone Deputy of secretary of ,

10927 927 Kav Eastern zone Secretary of Chhloung district, Eastern

10928 928 Ek zone 10929 929 Kheum Cut bamboo at commerce of central zone 10930 930 Sao Chief of public work at central zone 10769 931 San Chief of industry at central zone 10932 932 Nhan Chief of office at central zone 10933 933 Phi Chief of commerce at region 103 10934 934 Mov Chief of communication at 43 10549 935 Chheang Member of communication at 43

126