Coventry University Reconciliation in Cambodia: Victims and Perpetrators Living Together, Apart McGrew, L. Submitted version deposited in CURVE January 2014 Original citation: McGrew, L. (2011) Reconciliation in Cambodia: Victims and Perpetrators Living Together, Apart. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Coventry: Coventry University. Copyright © and Moral Rights are retained by the author(s) and/ or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This item cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder(s). The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. CURVE is the Institutional Repository for Coventry University http://curve.coventry.ac.uk/open Reconciliation in Cambodia: Victims and Perpetrators Living Together, Apart by Laura McGrew A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the University’s requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Coventry University Centre for the Study of Peace and Reconciliation Coventry, United Kingdom April 2011 © Laura McGrew All Rights Reserved 2011 ABSTRACT Under the brutal Khmer Rouge regime from 1975 to 1979 in Cambodia, 1.7 million people died from starvation, overwork, torture, and murder. While five senior leaders are on trial for these crimes at the Extraordinary Chambers of the Courts of Cambodia, hundreds of lower level perpetrators live amongst their victims today. This thesis examines how rural Cambodians (including victims, perpetrators, and bystanders) are coexisting after the trauma of the Khmer Rouge years, and the decades of civil war before and after. In this qualitative research study, 134 semi-structured interviews were conducted with rural villagers, government officials, and peacebuilding practitioners. Cambodian culture is characterized by conflict avoidance, and reliance on family networks, hierarchy, and patronage. Buddhism is a strong cultural influence as well. These characteristics, as well as the lack of trust resulting from the Khmer Rouge years, provided important context for this analysis of Cambodian social recovery. Research on the processes of coexistence and reconciliation inform this study (Bloomfield 2006; Huyse 2003; Kriesberg 2001; Lederach 1997; Rigby 2001). However, few studies have been done that examine community reconciliation in Cambodia (Etcheson 2005b). This thesis examines the processes of reconciliation, including interfering and facilitating factors. Processes such as building relationships and trust, and developing empathy and compassion are explored. Cambodians’ views of apologies, revenge, forgiveness, and other key concepts are reviewed. Models of coexistence, acceptance, perpetrator coping strategies, and a victim decision-making tree are presented to assist in the analysis of the data. These models provide a theoretical framework for the understanding of the situation of coexistence and reconciliation in Cambodia. The thesis suggests that Cambodians are currently living in various stages of coexistence (surface, shallow, and moderate) and have not yet approached a condition of deep reconciliation. Practical applications of the findings are suggested. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Andrew Rigby, Director of the Centre for Peace and Reconciliation at Coventry University, for accompanying me on this thesis journey. His patience and insights have been much appreciated: he has re- taught me to write. Secondly, I want to thank my research assistant Tim Minea who worked with me for several years, providing a lens for me into Cambodian society. This he has done through the hardship of fieldwork, and with good spirits and a sense of humour. Youk Chhang assisted in the search for research assistants, and the staff at DC-Cam assisted with background interviews, advice, suggestions of possible informants, and library and document assistance. Professor Fred Brown of Johns Hopkins University’s School of Advanced International Studies has provided important moral and substantive support since my time with him as a graduate student in 1994. Beth Wright translated my hand-written diagrams into professional figures, and Laura Bryant customized the map. Last but not least, I want to thank all of the respondents and others who provided informal interviews, who took the time to speak with me, and who shared stories of the past. Their courage and fortitude to survive, and to thrive, are truly inspiring. Initial research assistance was provided by Ahmed Yousos and Sin Vorn. I appreciated the part-time research assistance of Chantho Kong, Kim Teang Leng, and Pia Wallgren who transcribed some of the interview tapes. A special thanks goes to Bunleng Men who provided moral support, and the Canadian Embassy that provided financial support for my research conducted in 1999 and laid the groundwork for this thesis. I dedicate this thesis to my parents, who provided me with the sense of social justice that led me on the path I am on today. iv CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...........................................................................................iv CONTENTS .................................................................................................................v ILLUSTRATIONS .......................................................................................................vii ABBREVIATIONS .....................................................................................................viii MAP OF CAMBODIA ..................................................................................................ix PREFACE ....................................................................................................................x CHAPTER 1 - Introduction .........................................................................................1 Methodology ......................................................................................................5 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................15 Thesis Structure ...............................................................................................17 CHAPTER 2 – History and Culture ..........................................................................20 Historical Context .............................................................................................21 Cambodian Culture and Religion .....................................................................35 CHAPTER 3 – Reconciliation: What Is It? ............................................................... 49 Definition of Reconciliation ...............................................................................49 Assumptions ....................................................................................................54 Processes of Reconciliation .............................................................................60 Reconciliation in Cambodia..............................................................................69 CHAPTER 4 – The Communities in Context ...........................................................79 The Context .....................................................................................................81 Setting the Stage – Conflict Analysis ............................................................... 84 The Khmer Rouge Period ................................................................................85 Models of Community Reconciliation ............................................................... 92 CHAPTER 5 – Victims and Perpetrators: Fine Lines, Factors, and Coping Strategies ................................................................................................................100 The Victims ....................................................................................................104 Former Khmer Rouge and Bystanders ........................................................... 108 The Perpetrators – The Accused ...................................................................113 Factors Affecting Victim-Perpetrator Relations ............................................... 116 Coping Strategies of Perpetrators ..................................................................124 v CHAPTER 6 – Return to Community .....................................................................134 A Model of Acceptance ..................................................................................135 Factors Affecting Victims’ Acceptance of Perpetrators ................................... 152 Four Communities – Four Types of Coexistence ........................................... 156 CHAPTER 7 – Revenge – Blood Debts..................................................................168 Revenge in Cambodia ...................................................................................171 Confession to a Revenge Killing ....................................................................177 Blood Debts, Hot Anger, and Revenge .......................................................... 181 Factors Influencing Revenge: To seek or not to seek. ................................ 183 Reconciliation and Revenge ..........................................................................193