Revolution, Reform and Regionalism in Southeast Asia Geographically, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam are situated in the fastest growing region in the world, positioned alongside the dynamic economies of neighboring China and Thailand. Revolution, Reform and Regionalism in Southeast Asia compares the postwar political economies of these three countries in the context of their individual and collective impact on recent efforts at regional integration. Based on research carried out over three decades, Ronald Bruce St John highlights the different paths to reform taken by these countries and the effect this has had on regional plans for economic development. Through its comparative analysis of the reforms implemented by Cam- bodia, Laos and Vietnam over the last 30 years, the book draws attention to parallel themes of continuity and change. St John discusses how these countries have demonstrated related characteristics whilst at the same time making different modifications in order to exploit the strengths of their individual cultures. The book contributes to the contemporary debate over the role of democratic reform in promoting economic devel- opment and provides academics with a unique insight into the political economies of three countries at the heart of Southeast Asia. Ronald Bruce St John earned a Ph.D. in International Relations at the University of Denver before serving as a military intelligence officer in Vietnam. He is now an independent scholar and has published more than 300 books, articles and reviews with a focus on Southeast Asia, North Africa and the Middle East and Andean America. Routledge contemporary Southeast Asia series 1 Land Tenure, Conservation and Development in Southeast Asia Peter Eaton 2The Politics of Indonesia-Malaysia Relations One kin, two nations Joseph Chinyong Liow 3 Governance and Civil Society in Myanmar Education, health and environment Helen James 4 Regionalism in Post-Suharto Indonesia Edited by Maribeth Erb, Priyambudi Sulistiyanto and Carole Faucher 5 Living with Transition in Laos Market integration in Southeast Asia Jonathan Rigg 6 Christianity, Islam and Nationalism in Indonesia Charles E. Farhadian 7 Violent Conflicts in Indonesia Analysis, representation, resolution Edited by Charles A. Coppel 8 Revolution, Reform and Regionalism in Southeast Asia Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam Ronald Bruce St John Revolution, Reform and Regionalism in Southeast Asia Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam Ronald Bruce St John I~ ~~o~;~;n~~~up LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 2006 by Routledge Published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group an informa business Copyright © 2006 Ronald Bruce St John Typeset in Times by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear The Open Access version of this book, available at www.tandfebooks.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 978-0-415-70184-6 (hbk) To Carol, Alexander and Nathan who shared the journey Contents Preface viii Acronyms xiii 1 Same space, different dreams 1 2 Rush to socialism 20 3 Tentative reforms 44 4 Reform accelerates 70 5 End of the beginning 102 6 Challenges and prospects 143 7 Continuity and change 189 Notes 204 Select bibliography 247 Author’s note 276 Index 277 Preface My study of the political economies of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam began in 1970 as a freshly minted captain in the U.S. Army. I served as an intelligence officer in the Strategic Research and Analysis Section of Headquarters, Military Advisory Command, Vietnam. Working under cover as a “topographical engineer,” my duties included the supervision of a small, dedicated group of highly educated analysts, detailed to brief the commander-in-chief daily on the impact of political events on the military conduct of the war. In attempting to understand and explain the organi- zation and operation of the so-called Viet Cong Infrastructure, I earned the equivalent of an M.A. in Southeast Asian Studies to accompany advanced degrees in international relations earned earlier at the Graduate School of International Studies, University of Denver. At the same time, I grew increasingly disenchanted with the American role in Southeast Asia. Out of that disillusionment grew a lifelong fascination with the often trou- bled, ever-changing political economies of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Following my tour in Vietnam, I resigned my commission and pursued a dual career in academia and international commerce, living much of the next two decades in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. I returned to Southeast Asia in 1987, living first in Hong Kong and later in Bangkok. Employed as a regional manager for Caterpillar Inc., I traveled widely throughout the region, most especially in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. My duties varied widely from mine clearing operations on the Poipet- Battambang road to drafting reports on the political economies of Cambo- dia and Laos to testifying before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1991 in support of lifting the multinational embargo and resuming mul- tilateral aid to Vietnam. Eventually, I returned to the United States and took early retirement to work full time as an author and independent scholar. In recent years, I have continued to travel frequently to Cam- bodia, Laos and Vietnam. Based on research begun in the 1970s, this book explores the economic and political reforms implemented by the governments of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam over the last three decades. A focal point is the different paths to reform taken by three neighbors long considered to be intimately Preface ix related, if not a single entity. The impact of their divergent reforms on regional plans for economic development through the Association of Southeast Asian Nations in general and the Greater Mekong Subregion in particular is a secondary focus. Grandiose schemes abound and publicists tout success; however, as is often the case, the devil is in the detail. In writing about a diverse geographical area, I have followed a simple rule regarding the spelling of place names discussed. I have tried to use the most common contemporary spelling even when this means that current usage is at variance with earlier decades. Fortunately, the difference in most cases between present and past usage is not great. The official title of the state and government of Cambodia is an exception as it has varied considerably over the last four decades. Unless reference to a specific regime adds clarity or emphasis, I have generally referred throughout the book to the country and government simply as Cambodia. Widely known Vietnamese toponyms like Hanoi or Danang are recorded as a single word while less well known place names like Ben Tre or My Tho are cited in their common Vietnamese form. The terms “Laos” and the “Lao People’s Democratic Republic” or “Lao PDR” are used interchangeably as they are in English-language publications by the Vientiane government. The term “Lao” is used to denote citizens of the Lao PDR as well as ethnic Lao. The different usages should be apparent in their context. The full complement of diacritical marks is not used as a matter of printing conve- nience. Where references to place names are contained within quotations from earlier periods, I have retained the contemporary usage. In the course of completing this book, which has been in progress for almost two decades, I have received assistance from a variety of sources which have facilitated access to materials and information in many differ- ent ways. The library staffs at Carnegie Mellon University, Knox College and Bradley University have been especially gracious of their time and talent over a prolonged period. I would also like to thank the staff at the Orientalia Section in the Library of Congress and at the U.S. National Archives in College Park, Maryland for their research support. I am grate- ful for the assistance I received at the Bibliothèque Nationale and the Archives Nationales in Paris and the Centre des Archives, Section Outre- Mer, in Aix-en-Provence. The library staffs at Georgetown University, Northern Illinois University and Yale University also facilitated selected aspects of my research endeavors. Over time, I have become indebted to a large number of teachers and scholars whose research and writing, often accompanied by counsel and guidance, have shaped my own thinking. While a mere listing of names cannot do justice to their manifold contributions, I would like to take this opportunity to recognize some of them. The late Mikiso (Miki) Hane, Szold Distinguished Professor Emeritus of History and a gifted scholar and talented teacher, first sparked my interest in Asian studies when I was an undergraduate student at Knox College. Peter Van Ness later helped x Preface grow my understanding of Asia when I was a graduate student in inter- national relations at the University of Denver. My Vietnamese language training commenced at the Defense Language Institute at Ft. Bliss, Texas under the strict tutelage of some wonderfully warm and caring Vietnamese teachers who succeeded in inculcating in me a love of the culture as well as the language of Vietnam. Major Arnold Catarina, a foreign area officer specialist on Southeast Asia and officer commanding during my Vietnam tour, was an informed teacher and a sensitive individual, highly knowl- edgeable about the region but serving in an impossible situation. Among those active in Vietnamese studies, I would like to thank espe- cially Douglas Allen, Melanie Beresford, Mark Philip Bradley, Pierre Brocheux, Nayan Chanda, Patrice Cosaert, Henrich Dahm, Dang T. Tran, William J. Duiker, Adam Fforde, Frances Fitzgerald, Frédéric Fortunel, Nick J.