ISSN 0974-200X ANUSANDHANIKA Refereed Research Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Volume IX Number I January 2011 Editor Managing Editor Madhukar Shyam Dr. Sudhanshu Kumar Verma

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ANUSANDHANIKAISSN 0974-200X Refereed Research Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Volume IX Number I January 2011 Contents 1. Religion and Making of a Region: A study of The Amar Nath Jha 1 Baidyanath Cult 2. Theories of Social Change and Tribal Movements Dr. Surendra Jha 12 of Jharkhand and Bengal 3. Science and Technology in Arthasastra Dr. Prashant Gaurav 23 4. Prince Dara Shikoh : A representative of Indian Dr. Renuka Nath 29 Cultural Synthesis 5. Economic Settlement of Tribal Women through Sukanta Sarkar 33 Rubber Plantation: A case study of Tripura 6. Role of National Human Rights Commission in Dr. Madhu Gupta 37 Upholding Children’s Rights 7. The Reality of HIV/AIDS in Primary Schools in Dr.Kalpana Sharma 43 India after two decades Shikha Trivedi 8. Global Warming - An Ecological concept of Dr. Reeta Kumari 47 Chipko Andolan 9. Attitudinal differences between the sons and their Dr. Shashi Kala Singh 53 fathers: A study of generation gap 10. Prehistoric Jharkhand: Stone Instruments and Dr. Anil Kumar 64 areas of their procurement 11. Special British Provisons for Paharias Dr. Hitender Anupam 68 Rajesh Hansda 12. Political participation of women force in India : Dr. Ranjeet Kumar Choudhary 72 Spatio temporal analysis of female awareness 13. B.R. Ambedkar and his Feminist Idea : An Ishita Aditya (Ray) 76 appraisal 14. A Study of Food Faddism and Faulty Food Habits Shyamasri Sanyal 81 among Women of Hazaribag 15. Development of weaning food items from locally Sunita Kumari Kamal 91 available food grains Dr.Satyendra Prasad Bharti 16. Bhagwadgita and Tao Te Chung: A comparative Ajit Kumar Jha 94 analysis 17. Child Labour : A Social Curse with special Dr. S.N.M Topno 98 reference to West Singhbhum (Jharkhand) 18. Nature : The end of Technology Dr. Rajesh Kumar 103 19. Passing the barrier : A critical study of Alice Mani Sinha 107 Walker's The color purple 20. Absurd Drama with special reference to Harold Kumari Saswati De 111 Pinter 21. Psycoanalytic Feminism in the works of Arundhati Amit Purushottam 115 Roy, Kiran Desai and Manju Kapur ANUSANDHANIKAISSN 0974-200X Refereed Research Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Volume IX Number I January 2011 Contents 22. The Social Vision in the novels of George Orwell Seema Prasad 126 23. A comparative study of Nayantara Sahgal's Storm Sharmistha Biswas 131 in Chandigarh and Shashi Deshpande's That Dr. Ashutosh Roy Long Silence : A feminist perspective 24. Federalism and Regionalism : Lessons From Kantesh Kumar 138 India 25. Jane Austen’s Novels - A study of Women-minds Dr. Awadhesh Kumar Mishra 142 involved in their personal relationship 26. efJeefYeVe ÙegieeW ceW YeejleerÙe m$eer keâer efmLeefle [e@Ê Mebkeâj heÇmeeo 145 27. jeieojyeejer keâe efMeuhe - meewvoÙe& [e@Ê ceerje "ekegâj 157 28. keâefJe keâer keâesefšÙeeB SJeb meùoÙe : Skeâ DeOÙeÙeve [e@Ê Oeve_peÙe JeemegosJe efÉJesoer 160 29. 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Religion and Making of a Region: A study of The Baidyanath Cult Amar Nath Jha Associate Professor, Department of History S. S. N. College, University of Delhi, Delhi

Abstract The region of the Santal Paragnas had acquired a distinct identity of its own, at least from 7th century A.D. onwards. The Baidyanath cult facilitated for this distinct regional identity of Santal Paragnas and its surroundings. The Santal Paragnas along with some of the areas of modern and West Bengal; such as the Banka and the Districts of Bihar in the north and north west and Burdawan and Birbhoom Districts of West Bengal in the south and south east comprise a large and separate geo-cultural entity. Some of the characteristics of this region can be identified by any serious student of History. Topography, demography, Languages, mode of agriculture, landscape, pattern of house building, food habits, attire and several other things form this vast country into one distinct region. Most of the people of this region are tri-lingual. Apart from the local dialect, almost all the population of this area understands and speaks Bangla and Hindi. Shiva and Shakti are worshipped in the entire area. Baidyanath remains in the centre of the entire world view of this region. Not only the famous temples of Baidyanath and but several other Shiva temples and Shakti-Pithas are the centers of cultural activities of this region. Here Shiva and Shakti combine together and become one, as far as the philosophical background of the Hindu religion in this region is concerned. All are Shakta as well as Shaiva at a time, in this country. Even Vaishnavites also worship Shiva and Shakti. Hence, Shiva-Shakti cult becomes the essence of the Baidyanath Cult and Baidyanath in his Ardhanarishwar form not only is worshiped but remains as the supreme deity of this region. All other deities are connected to him in different ways. Keywords: Baidyanath Cult, Shakti-Pithas, Great-Tradition, Little-Tradition, Regional Culture. Introduction regional identity of Santal Paragnas and its

th surroundings which demonstrates the The 7 century A. D. seems to be very assimilation of both, the “great tradition” and important for the making of ‘Indian History’ the “little tradition”, which gives this area its due along with the emergence of various socio- identity. The “great tradition” – Vedic and cultural traits in its various ‘Regions’. The Pauranik tradition - along with the impact of ‘Harshacharita’ of Banabhatta, the first Mithila and Bengal, is the dominant tradition of historical book in Sanskrit language was this region. The “Little tradition” - along with written in prose in 7th Century A.D. This book several local cults has also acquired very gives an insight into the administration and important place in the day to day rituals of this reign of king Harshavardhan who ruled from region. This gave birth to a distinct socio- 606-647 A.D. The historical details given in cultural tradition. Consequently, Baidyanath Harshacharita are similar to those of Hieun Dham emerged as a nucleus of the Baidyanath Tsang, a Chinese traveler who gives important Cult. The study of the Baidyanath Cult provides information about Indian History. It was but us the clue to understand the evolution of a natural that the ‘Region of Santal Paragnas’ distinct ‘Regional Culture’ in Santal Paragnas did not remain unaffected during this period. It in historical perspective. also witnessed several developments during Materials and Methods this period. Since this region has not yet been studied The region of the Santal Paragnas had by any professional historian, therefore, a little acquired a distinct identity of its own, at least data is available for the purpose. Nevertheless, from 7th century A.D. onwards.1 The some works of great scholars like R. K. Baidyanath cult facilitated for this distinct Chaudhary, J. C. Jha, B. P. Sinha, C. P. N.

-1- Sinha, D. K. Chakrabarty and Surendra Jha topography is flat and alluvial. The Burdwan- provide relevant and important references, Teliagarhi stretch is historically the most though in a stray manner, related to this region. important communication line between the Therefore, this writer has primarily relied upon middle Gangetic valley and the regions further the field studies conducted by him during last east.5 This is a corridor defined by the few years. Findings of the field studies have hills on the west and the on been substantiated by oral traditions of the the east. The hills come very close to the river region. Thus, historical conclusions have been bank at some places. The forts at Teliagarhi, derived through the prism of Cultural- north of Sahibganj and , south of Anthropology. Hence, it may be claimed that Sahibganj are on this line. The rim of the hills the role played by ‘Religion’ (The Baidyanath overlooking the river are honey combed with Cult in this case) has been studied here to stone quarries and “we like to imagine that the understand the process of the making of a situation was the same in antiquity, particularly ‘Region’ (The Santal Paragnas and its during the Pala and Sena periods when the surroundings as a case in hand) for the first stone from the Rajmahal hills was widely used time by any scholar so far. However, this theory to make innumerable sculptures”.6 needs to be tested with further studies. Historical development in the region of Results and Discussions Santal Paragnas - In the Later Gupta period Adityasena was certainly the master of South The region of Santal Paragnas, now a 7 commissionary division of the modern state of and East Bihar. His Apsad and Shahpur Jharkhand, is “lying between 23° 48’ and 25° inscriptions are found in Magadh and the 18’ N. and 86° 28’ and 87° 5’ L. with an area of Mandar Hill Rock-inscription in the east of 2 Banka Sub-division of the 5,470 square miles” . It is bounded on the north 8 by modern Bhagalpur and Katihar districts of (ancient ). In this connection reference may be made to Vaidyanath Temple Inscription Bihar, on the east by Malda, Murshidabad and 9 Birbhum districts of West Bengal, on the south which was brought from the Mandar Hill. “It by Burdwan and districts of West appears that the Inscription Bengal and Jharkhand and on the west by actually preserves important historical information 10 , Hazaribag, Jamui and Banka districts about Adityasena” concludes Dr. B. P. Sinha. of Jharkhand and Bihar. The old Bihar district Here it may be added this inscription also has been subdivided into six separate districts - preserves important information about the , , , , historicity of the Baidyanath Temple. But and . surprisingly Dr. Sinha is of the opinion that “The inscription is certainly much later, belonging to It has three clear physiographic components. the 16th century A.D.”11 But it seems that Sinha's The west or southwest section is dominated by findings could be questioned. In effect, there a rolling topography interspersed with hills. are enough evidence to prove the antiquity of The Calcutta-Patna section of the Indian this Temple and hence this region as well. Railways passes through this area. “Communication-wise this section was not Bateshwar inscriptions near ancient important till the advent of the railways” opines Vikramsila University speak about Baidyanath D. K. Chakrabarti3, but he is not correct. The Tirtha Kshetra.12 Thus, one can say that in the issue has already been dealt elsewhere,4 it can 7th century A.D., the Later Gupta Emperor be said that this very section provides the most Adityasena ruled this region. important information regarding the process of state formation taking place in the early Rahul Sankrityan is of the opinion that medieval period of modern Santal Paragnas. during this period this area was known as 13 The most important river in this section is the ‘Sumha’. By various sources it can be inferred Ajay which, like the lesser rivers of the region, that the core area of it (Sumha) was located in has a shallow bed and frequent meanders. In Santal Paragnas. Dr. Surendra Jha writes in the Godda area and the stretch between this regard “Geographical connotation of the Burdwan and Teliagarhi along the Ganges, the ancient site of Sumha country varied from time -2- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 to time. Major portion of the present Santal period.19 A beautiful Door-jamb belonging to Paragnas was in Anga and the region in which the Sena period was found near Rajmahal by the village is located was known as the railway authorities.20 Likewise, at Teligarhi, Sumha”.14 But he further mentions that another a richly carved Stone Pillar (12th century A. D.) geographical term related to Sumha was is still under worship.21 Recently the Basta ‘Radha’. According to Jain Acharanga Sutta, Pahar in the Meharama block of Vajjabhumi and Subbhabhumi were component has been explored and traces of a number of part of ‘Ladha’ (Radha) and the equation ruined brick built temples on its summit have shows that only a portion of Radha was known been found.22 Local people connect this site by the geographical term ‘Sumha’. Thus it is with Ramayan age. Further excavation may clear that Sukshma Desha or Sumha region add something new to this place. contained eastern portions of Birbhum as well as Santal Paragnas opines Dr. Jha.15 However, During the reign of Narayan Pal this area the writer disagrees with Dr. Jha to some again formed the core part of part empire as extent and believe that Dr. Jha is not correct is evident from the fact that “Acharya when he disputes Bhattacharya, that “Prof. Abhayakaragupta, a great teacher and scholar Bhattacharya has wrongly identified it with of Tantra, became the abbot of Vajrasana, Dakshina Radha only.” In fact taking clue from Nalanda and Vikramashila. He wrote a Rahul Sankrityayan and corroborating with the commentary in eight thousand verses on inscriptions mentioned above, it is clear that Prajnaparamita. Many of his books were translated into Tibetan by Buddhakirti. the area of Apar Mandar, Radha and Sumha 23 overlapped and hence Sumha and or Radha Abhayakaragupta hailed from Deoghar,” denotes more or less entire area of modern writes Radhakrishna Chaudhary. Santal Parganas along with its surroundings, During his Gangetic campaign Rajendra which witness the process of historical Chola seems to have visited the Baidyanath developments during this period. During the Temple, as per the collective memory of the fabulous regime of Pala dynasty. people of this region. The Baidyanath Temple During the fabulous regime of Pala Inscription of Adityasena mentions about dynasty this region was part of the Pala Cholesvar, probably indicating Rajendra Empire. D. C. Sircar also says “Vatesvara is Chola. Since in Tirumalai Rock Inscription of mentioned as Valesvara (i.e.Vadesvar) in an Rajendra Chola, mention is made of inscription of the early Pala age found at Ranashura, of Dakshin Radha, the ancestor of Vatesvarasthan near the colgoan (Kahalgaon) Lakshmishura, the ruler of Apar Mandar 16 mentioned in the Ramacharita, separately railway station in Bhagalpur district”. Keeping from Mahipal of Uttar Radha, usually identified in view the closeness of Santal Paragnas with 24 this place (Santal Paragnas has been carved by the scholars with Mahi Pala I of Pal family , out with portions of old Bhagalpur division and we can safely reach the conclusion that the Burdwan division as mentioned earlier), it can collective public memory of the land bears the be inferred that during the early Pala period the historical fact. region under study, Santal Paragnas, must Two inscriptions of Pala period found in have been in flourishing state and this area clearly establish the fact that the Vatesvarnath area was within the cultural zone region of Santal Paragnas was a part of the of Santal Paragnas since this also mentions Pala Empire. The Tapovan Inscription found 17 Vaidyanath kshetra. from Tapovan hill rocks, lying six km south-east of Deoghar, speaks of ‘Shri Ramapal Devah’ In the region of Santal Paragnas a good and the second Inscription found from number of stone idols and other old relics Harlajori, a place five km in the north-east from belonging to the Pal-Sena period (circa 8th 18 Deoghar mentions ‘Sri Nayayapal Devah’ century-12th century A. D.) have been found. leaves no doubt to this.25 The temples at Burhait, Basukinath, Deoghar, Katikund, Dumka, Maluti, Pathrol etc comprise During the early sultanate period, this a good number of stone idols of the Pala-Sena region was under Bengal. Ikhtiyaruddin

-3- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Muhammad Bin Bhakhtiyar Khalji had invaded Migration of the Maithil Brahmins in the Assam and Bengal en route Tailiyagarhi. As Region of Santal Paragnas - We are told that per a local legend, the Son of Laxman Sen, the during the early medieval period Maithil King of Cooch Bihar, fled from there and came Brahmins migrated to Bengal in good to Deoghar in the year 1201 A.D. The local numbers. The story of Adisura, a legendry king tradition claims that the king after fleeing from of Bengal is being credited for the migration of his capital took at Deoghar and made Maithil Panditas to Bengal. But the historicity of this place his capital. Following the prince, Adisura is not yet proven. Some identify Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad Bin Bhakhtiyar Adisura with Gurjar-Pratihar Bhoja. There are Khalji also came to Deoghar and he also made others who hold that Vallalsena may be a Deoghar his Capital in the same year, 1201.26 descendant of Adisura from the mother’s side As per the local legend, there was a fort built by who flourished in 1060 A.D.31 “It is also him at the present site known as Jhaunsagarhi, suggested that Adisura could well have been a 27 which was later burnt by Kala Pahar and is son or a grandson of Ranasura of Dakshina called Jhaunsagarhi, since then. However, Radha reffered to in Tirumalai Rock there is no archeological evidence to support Inscriptions of Rajendra Cola.”32 But D. C. this local legend as on today. Sircar has different views about Adisura. He The Muslim invaders overrun entire area holds Adisura legend totally unreliable. during 13th–14th century A.D. Tailiyagarhi According to him, Sura royal family in ancient was an entrance door for Muslim invaders. Bengal is known but no genuine ruler named They used to travel to & fro from Bengal to Adisura is found in Bengal sources. The only Taliyagarhi because the main route from Bihar Adisura known to the East Indian history is a to Bengal passed through Teliagarhi, petty chief who is mentioned by Vacaspatimisra 33 Sakarigali and Rajmahal of. this region.28 in his Nyayakanika. In this context J. C. Jha Therefore, it was but natural that the region of opines “Hence Adisura, his contemporary Santal Paragnas did not remain unaffected must have flourished in the middle of the ninth from the movements of new political powers of century A.D.”34 Swati Sen Gupta also opines the land. However, it’s greater part-Sumha/ “He may have been a petty chief of North Bihar, Urrat Radha/ Dakshin Radha/ Apar Mandar-- and a vassal of the Palas of Bengal and remained free from the destructions as we do Bihar.”35 not have any evidence of invasion of Bhakhtiyar Khilaji on the temple of Baidyanath, Further, if one try to reinterpret the story of which had acquired great fame since 7th Adisura, he may reach to some valid conclusion. As suggested by Swati Sen Gupta, century A.D. Rather, if we believe Minhas, after 36 the invasion of Bhakhtiyar Khalji on Rai Adisura might be a small king of North Bihar. Lakhamania (Monghyr), the Brahmins of that Again as stated earlier, it is also suggested that area fled and took shelter at their holy places Adisura could well have been a son or a named Shankhanath and Jagannath. Keeping grandson of Ranasura of Dakshina Radha in view the religious importance of this place reffered to in Tirumalai Rock inscriptions of 37 this Shankhanath should be read as the Rajendra Cola. And, since Ranasura himself Baidyanath.29 In this context it is interesting to might have been an ancestor of Laksmishura, note that he did not harm Baidyanath Temple, the ruler of Aparmandar, mentioned in the 38 while as he is said to have burnt the Ramcharita, It can be safely concluded that Vikramshila University. Can we have the liberty the said Adisura, a descendent of Ranasura, to say that the Baidyanath commanded was the ancestor of Laksmansura of Apar respect of Muslims also from the very Mandar. As shown earlier the area of Apar beginning, which is seen even today, as the Mandar/ Sumha/ Uttar Radha/ Dakshin Radha daily puja of Baidyanath is not completed are inter-changeable and overlapping and unless he is offered flowers from the Halim correspond to the modern Santal Paragnas, family, descendents of Data Saheb Faquir, a therefore, Maithil Brahmins must have started venerated sufi saint of the area, before the to come to this area during the reign of Adisura doors of the temple are closed?30 who was the king of the region of the modern

-4- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Santal Paragnas during 10th-11th centuries. in this region is concerned. All are Shakta as Thus we can conclude that both D. C. Sircar well as Shaiva at a time, in this country. Even and R. C. Majumdar may not be correct when Vaishnavites also worship Shiva and Shakti. they declare Adisura a mythical character. He Hence, Shiva-Shakti cult becomes the was a historical personality and ruler of the essence of the Baidyanath Cult and region of Santal Paragnas. Readings of Swanti Baidyanath in his Ardhanarishwar form not Sen Gupta that Adisura was a king of east only is worshiped but remains as the supreme Bihar Na not of North Bihar needs corrections deity of this region. All other deities are under abovementioned observations. Thus, by connected to him in different ways. all probable explanations it is safe to conclude In course of field studies the writer has that the migration of the Maithil Brahmins in the come across a number of deities worshiped at region of Santal Paraganas started taking 39 different levels in this region, but all extract place since 10th-11th century AD. powers from the Baidyanath only, in the The migration of Maithil Brahmins in this capacity of his subordinate. We have made region started a new era for this land. The extensive study of the following deities in order process of acculturation and Sanskritisation to understand the influence of the Biadyanath left deep impact on both the Maithila Brahmins cult, which ultimately gives this entire region a and the local traditions of this area which distinct identity. Some of those deities are as ultimately gave rise to the distinct character of under: a religious sect of this area to be known as ‘The DUBE BABA: The first and most Baidyanath Cult’. The Baidyanath Cult and the important local deity of this area is ‘Dube cultural horizon of the region is deeply Baba’. As the name itself suggests, ‘Dube’ is influenced by the migration of Maithil Brahmins 40 one of the surnames of Kanyakubja Brahmins, in this area to a great extent, as a whole. who have migrated to this land from the Evolution of a Regional Culture in the Madhyadesha during the pala-Sena period. Region of Santal Paragnas - The Santal ‘Dube Baba’ is worshiped primarily in Deoghar Paragnas along with some of the areas of and Jamtara districts and also in some parts of modern Bihar and West Bengal; such as the of this region. In Banka and the Jamui Districts of Bihar in the two villages named Dakai and Bamangama north and north west and Burdawan and are the two most important places where this Birbhoom Districts of West Bengal in the south deity is worshiped on a large scale, though and south east comprise a large and separate there is not a single village in these two districts geo-cultural entity. Some of the characteristics where we do not find the prevalence of Dube of this region can be identified by any serious Baba Pooja. student of History. Topography, demography, The emergence of ‘Dube Baba’ as a deity languages, mode of agriculture, landscape, is attributed to his enmity with a powerful pattern of house building, food habits, attire Khetori chief. Dube was killed by the chief in a and several other things form this vast country fight for a piece of land. Thereafter, incarnated into one distinct region. Most of the people of as ‘Dube Baba’, he started uprooting Khetoris this region are tri-lingual. Apart from the local from the area by his divine use of snakes. dialect, almost all the population of this area Unable to sustain the curse of snake-bite all understands and speaks Bangla and Hindi. khetoris left that area and took shelter in the Shiva and Shakti are worshipped in this entire vicinity of Basukinath Dham of , area. Baidyanath remains in the centre of the where Shiva is worshipped as lord Basukinath, entire world view of this region. Not only the the lord or the king of snakes, and thus the famous temples of Baidyanath and Basukinath wrath of ‘Dube Baba’ on khetoris was but several other Shiva temples and Shakti- restrained. But ‘Dube Baba’ retained his Pithas are the centers of cultural activities of supreme position as a God of snakes in the this region. Here Shiva and Shakti combine above mentioned two districts of the area. In together and become one, as far as the this entire area, where ‘Dube Baba’ is philosophical background of the Hindu religion worshipped, we do not find the habitat of any

-5- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 khetori family even today. ‘Brahma Devata’ after unnatural death, to protect his family members from the negative Dube Baba is the supreme deity of snakes influence of all evil forces. So, he is also a in this area. Here snake-bite is cured only by ‘Rakshak Devata’ of individual Maithil Brahmin the grace of this deity. Even today, in this age of families in this region. The interesting thing to globalization and computerization, after any note is that this deity is different from ‘Brahma incident of a snake-bite, not only illiterate Pishach’ who is also worshipped in the similar villagers but the highly placed officers and fashion in certain families of not only Maithil English educated intellectuals of this area also Brahmins but other Brahmins too. While an take refuge to this deity, instead of going to a unnatural death of a non-Maithil Brahmin may doctor. It is believed that with the pleasure of lead to his emergence as ‘Brahma Pishach’ the Dube Baba the snake will come back, again same cannot be said about ‘Brahma Devata’. bite the victim to take back its poison and the The basic difference between these two is that victim will be cured. Therefore, snakes are not while ‘Barhma Devata’ is a Rakshak Devata of killed in this region. This may undoubtedly be Maithil Brahmins only, as said earlier, ‘Brahma the reflection of utter superstition but at the Pishach’ is an evil spirit. Villagers are scared of same time this also speaks of the popularity of ‘Brahma Pishach’ but ‘Brahma Devata’ is the deity in this entire region. This deity highly respected and venerated. This deity too derives all his powers from Baidyanath as he is derives his power from Baidyanath and regarded as the manifestation of a particular protects his progenies from evil forces. aspect of Shiva, Nageshwar, the lord of serpents too. Yaksha Baba: Almost 20 Km in the north east side of Deoghar city, there is a deity BABU OJHA : ‘Babu Ojha’ is primarily known as ‘Jakh Baba’ or ‘Yaksha Baba’ in worshiped in the village named Sakarigali, Jaynagara village. This deity also cures people situated at about 15 Km west of Deoghar city. suffering from all black magic. As we know that This deity is the main deity of this village and is Yakshas and Kinnaras are regarded the perceived to be a ‘Rakshak’ or saviour. He servants of Shiva, hence in that capacity this cures the problems related to ghosts and black deity too derives his power from Baidyanath. magic. People from far distant places visit this Interestingly this is perhaps the only place village to get cured of their problems and in where this deity Yaksha is worshipped, though lieu, offer their worship to this deity. We all we come across much folk lore narrating the know that Shiva is known as Bhootnath as well. charismatic power of Jakha. He is regarded a I believe this deity is the manifestation of that foolish but very powerful deity who can be aspect of Shiva. This deity is satisfied only after tamed by people by their seer wisdom. He is being given he-goat sacrifice to him. The not a harmful deity and generally regarded importance of ‘Babu Ojha’ can be assessed by very friendly and helpful to the villagers in this the simple evidence that on the main door of entire region. People from all part of the Santal the Baidyanath temple, local pilgrims offer Paragnas visit this place in large numbers in water, flowers and other things to this deity, order to be blessed by ‘Yaksha Baba’. before entering into the sanctorum (garbhagriha) of the temple. As per our present state of Kolha Gosain : This deity is basically knowledge, ‘Babu Ojha’ is worshiped in worshipped in the so called low caste people of Sankarigali village only but exercises immense this area. The very name of this deity gives us influence in the entire area. The entire region some clue about his origin. He might be the gives high respect to this deity. chief deity of the primitive ‘Cole tribe’ of this region. This tribe seems to be one of the Brahma Devata : This deity is very special aboriginal inhabitants, like Paharias, of this in the sense that only Maithil Brahmins worship region. In the process of acculturation this him. All Maithil Brahmin families have their own deity became an important deity of the region. ‘Brahma Devatas’. This deity is supposed to be People of all caste and class are very fearful of one of the most pious and elevated forefathers this deity and offer sacrifices to please him. He of the concerned family, who is incarnated as is so ferocious that nobody dares to displease

-6- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 him and is offered his share of sacrifice at all and songs are sung by a group consisted of the auspicious occasions like birth, mundan, people from ‘Charmakar’ and or ‘Dom’ upanayan and marriage ceremonies. community only. They are also known as ‘Dholakiyas’. Interestingly this group sings the In a village named Lakhoria, situated songs composed by two great personalities of around 20 Km in the south west from Deoghar this area named Charu Charmakar and Bhava city, this deity is worshipped. Though, as we Pritanand Ojha respectively. For the first half of said, this deity belongs to the lower caste/tribal the ceremony songs of Charu Charmakar are origin, but worshipped by all castes including sung. The tones of these songs are very bitter Brahmins. Normally he is satisfied by goat and critical to Brahmanic order. In the second sacrifice, but he is very fond of hen & cocks. half of the ceremony devotional songs and Though Brahmins are allowed to offer only he- Jhumars dedicated to Baidyanath and Parvati, goats, other caste people can offer hen & composed by Bhava Pritanand Ojha, one of cocks also. the chief priests of the Baidyanath Temple and Baba Namdeva: This deity too is a representative of the orthodox brahmanic worshipped mainly by the Charmakar order, are sung. Thus Charu Charmakar, a community of this region but the ceremony and rebel of brahamanic order and Bhava vrata known as ‘Chaupahara’ related to this Pritanand Ojha, an upholder of brahmanic deity is observed by all class and caste order, both are venerated by Brahmins as well including the Brahmins. Mythologically Baba as Charmakars in ‘Chaupahara’. Hence Namdev is said to be the son of Parshuram by ‘Chaupahara’ event becomes the symbol of some sections of the Charmakar community of the assimilation and synthesis of the two this area but this popular belief is not supported mutually contradictory and hostile world views. by any scripture or Purana. Nevertheless, the This assimilation of cultural values and famous Bhakti Saint Namdev has some synthesis of different world views provides this similarities with this Baba Namdev of entire region of Santal Paragnas a distinct 41 Chaupahara story. This Baba Namdev is also identity of its own. said to be the incarnation of Parshuram, as per There are also a number of various other the popular belief of other sections of the local deities worshiped in this region, but we Charmakar community of this region. As per are not including details of all of them and have the versions of this section, Baba Namdeva studied these five major deities only, because was born in a low caste family as he had all the symptoms and characteristics committed the sin of killing his mother Renuka associated to the distinct culture of the region in his last birth by the order of his father of Santal Paragnas are imbibed in these five Jamadagni. Though as a vow and penance major local deities. All other small local deities Baba Namdev had completed extreme appear to be proxy of these five. ‘Tapasya’ and he had adopted the Bhakti Marg, but Brahmins did not pay him any respect and With a careful and minute analysis of the he was forced to remain as an untouchable mode of worship of these deities we also and was prohibited to enter the village temple. observe several distinct characteristics of this Hence, he was compelled to offer pooja to the region. We find that while ‘Dube Baba’ comes village deity from the back of the temple. But as from a Kanyakubja Brahmin caste and he was a great soul, the village deity shifted the naturally he is supposed to be a vegetarian door in the direction of Namdeva. Thus deity as the Kanyakubjas are, but he accepts Namdeva becomes the symbol of the magical both Anna as well as Pashu-Bali that is animal power of an untouchable earned by the sacrifices as offerings. He-goats are sacrificed ‘Tapasya’ or ‘Bhakti’ and ‘Chaupahara’ is to him in a large numbers at different places. celebrated to mark his achievements. Both the villages of Dakai and Bamangama witness the scene of hundreds of goat The most important thing to note about sacrifices every year. This can simply be this ‘Chaupahara’ is that though this is explained in terms of the influence of the “little celebrated even by Brahmins but the ‘Bhajans’ tradition” of the area on the “great tradition”

-7- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 where aboriginal peoples’ non-vegetarian their milk to the infants of Brahmin families. mode of worship combined with Maithil The ‘Dusiya’ remained polluted or ‘Dushit’ Brahmins goat sacrificial mode of worship is because they continued with their traditional attributed to this vegetarian Kanyakubja work and food habits. That is why we find that Brahmin deity. Along with this the ecological the ‘Gorias’ do not marry outside any concerns of aboriginal people is still honored Charmakar families of this region and claim to by not killing snakes in this region. That is why be as pious as those of the Brahmins. many rare species of snakes are still found in Interestingly ‘Dagarins’ command respect and this region. Therefore, the emergence of ‘Dube love of the Brahmin communities of this region. Baba’ as an important deity of this region with This is a very distinct characteristic of the this distinct mode of ritual worship is a region of Santal Paraganas. reflection of the process of cultural assimilation The topography of this region has made between the “Great tradition” and the “Little the Santal Paragnas a safe heaven for the tradition” of the region. rebels as they could hide themselves in the Similarly ‘Babu Ojha’, who comes from a dense forest and unconquerable hills of the Maithil Brahmin caste, is able to acquire a region. We come across many examples place on the door of Baidyanath temple is during medieval period when rebel against the again the reflection of the same process. We mighty central power took shelter in this region. all know that the Baidyanath is worshiped in During the British period also this country used the region since time immemorial and the to be the refuse of revolutionaries. That is why historicity of the Baidyanath Cult goes back to we find a tradition of rebellions in this land. 7th century A.D., while as Maithil Brahmins Leaving aside the remote past even if we try to migrated in this region much later, only around analyze its recent past we find a series of 10th-11th century A.D., as we have already revolts against the British rule in this country discussed earlier. Hence the prominent starting from ‘paharia’ revolt up to the position acquired by Babu Ojha on the door of ‘Jharkhand movement’. Inhabitants of this the Baidyanath Temple signifies the important region have always been up in arms against place acquired by the Maithil Brahmins in the the exploiters and invaders. This distinct overall Baidyanath Cult horizon. Similarly the characteristic was possible due to its acceptance of ‘Brahmadevata’ as an important topography. The topography of this land gives deity of the area also indicates the same thing it a distinct regional identity. i.e. the important positions of Maithil Brahmins The Region of Santal Paragnas: a in the process of the evolution of the regional victim of Historiographical Colonialism - It culture of this country. is a truth that the region of Santal Paragnas The recognition and acceptance of ‘Kolha has never been able to attract the attention of Gosain’ and ‘Namdeva’ as important deities by historians, despite the fact that it contains very the upper caste Hindus including Brahmins, rich pre-historical and historical traditions. very clearly establishes the fact that the Generally this region is perceived as a part of process of interactions between the local or ancient and medieval Anga, which is not “little tradition” and the elite or “great tradition” correct. As has been said earlier, historically, ultimately paved the way for the emergence of only some parts of Santal Paragnas a distinct regional culture of the region of constituted a portion of the Anga and a greater Santal Paragnas. We further notice this portion of this region remained outside the procees when we find that two sub-castes boundary of the Anga. Similarly, southern and emerged within the Charmakar community of eastern parts of modern Santal Paragnas this region which is known as ‘’ and constituted parts of various early medieval ‘Dusiya’ Charmakars. The ‘Goriyas’ are those kingdoms of modern Bengal. Therefore, the having fair skin and who left eating flesh of historicity of this region known as Santal dead animals simply because their women folk Paragnas in modern times, gives her a distinct were allowed to enter the houses of Brahmins regional identity during the early medieval as a ‘Dagarin’ and were even allowed to feed periods of Indian history.

-8- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Before venturing into the study of a antithetical to the national ethos if the former regional culture in the region of Santal seeks to underline its own identity. It is needless Paragnas we must not forget that most of the to say, therefore, that a historiographical tradition modern historians focus only on the events which neglects regional history may culminate related to the Santals and other tribes and thus into dangerous outcomes– by negating tend to forget to throw light on the land, culture regional identities, it in effect, generates a and history of Santal Paragnas in toto. May be, regional perception that seeks to demand for unconsciously, Santal Paragnas becomes the break way autonomy for itself. Hence, “it is synonym of tribal culture alone, while as the argued that to overwhelm to the extent of fact remains that along with Santal and other negating regional identities under the rubric of tribes the entire region has a long history and pan-Indian historiography is to tread a path culture like its other neighbours i.e. Bengal and which is essentially counter productive”.46 The Bihar. Therefore, this general understanding historical identity of a region should certainly about Santal Paragnas needs to be improved be appreciated and an attempt should be with factual details. made to situate it in the “broader context of historical developments in early India”.47 There We all know that the geography plays a is a sensible need for sharing important significant role in the formation of the regional concerns with the suppressed voices and identities of a place or area in the course of its imaginations within the metropolis. So the historical evolution. Gramsci also acknowledges need of investigating history at micro-level has this point In his essay ‘Some Aspects of the become much more relevant today, than was 42 Southern Questions’. Historians, like B. in any other period of history, to understand the 43 Subbarao also feel the same way. M. S. basis of Indian cultural traditions. “National Pandey also addresses the same issue.44 Thus history is nothing but a composite of the geographical differentiation does not underline histories of regions comprising the nation” only the evolution of variant landscapes, etc. says again Dr. C. P. N. Sinha, in his book ‘The but also marks the process of alternate social Mithila under the Karnata’.48 In the Indian and cultural formations. Therefore, we have to context regional history has significance as understand the geographical composition and India has always been a sub-continent, a vast the process of state formation, in order to geographical entity with a variety of cultures, understand the religio-cultural developments, religions and languages. “Each fragment of of the area of our study. But unfortunately this vast land mass has fostered a unique 49 regional histories do not find much attention of culture of its own”. Regional history in India is dominant historiography in India which a far more complex and absorbing subject than sometimes prepares ground for socio-political in any other country of the world because often a particular region has a distinct identity of its unrest in the country. own.50 In the 55th session of the Indian History Congress (1994), referred earlier, delivering Conclusion the Presidential address for the Ancient India The present study does not permit to put Section Dr. C. P. N. Sinha too expresses his all findings related to the reconstruction of the concern that “the hitherto dominant history of the region of Santal Paragnas (best explanatory models for the study of early India be renamed as Upper Mandar, a principality or very often ignore the specificities of the small kingdom of 7th century A.D., which 45 different regions”. Consequently, the “imagined” incorporated almost the same geo-political Indian Idioms receive such domineering boundary of today’s santal Paragnas and its historical projections that they too subsume surroundings), the use of a specific geo- even the distinct traits of the constitutive cultural term, ‘The Vaidyanatheshwar Kshetra’ regions. Such a tendency not only negates the as cited above, to denote this entire area dynamic role of a set of peripheries by pushing leaves no doubt that this is a specific ‘Region’ them into the backyards of historical since the early medieval period. The region of development, but ironically puts a region as Santal Paragnas, forms a separate geo-

-9- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 cultural entity from the very beginning, at least 18. Sinha Ajay Kumar, The Santal Paragnas from the 7th century A.D. The importance of through the Ages. (I could not find any Baidyanath lingam as one of the important 12 book of this writer on Santal Paragnas. jyotirlingams and one of the famous Shakti However I have a printed article with the pithas called Chitabhoomi, mentioned in the above title with me.) list of the 52 Shakta Pithas named hardaPitha, 19. Ibid indicates about the historicity of this ‘Region’. 20. Ibid References 21. Ibid 1. Jha Amar Nath, Locating the Early History of Santal Paragnas, Paper presented in 22. Ibid Ancient India Section of the 70th session of All India History Congress, University of 23. Chaudhary Radhakrishna, The University Delhi, Delhi of Vikramasila, Bihar Research Society, Patna, 1975, p. 31, Cf. R. Sankrityayana, 2. The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. XXII, Tibet Me Baudhadharma, p 42 p 78 24. Ghosh Amartya, PIHC: 53 Session, 1992- 3. Chakrabarti D. K., Archaeology of Eastern 93, pp 79-81 India, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1993, p 98 25. Shree Shree Vaidyanath Vangmay, op. cit., pp 262-263 4. Jha Amar Nath Jha, op. cit 26. We do not have any further evidence to 5. Chakrabarti D. K. , op.cit corroborate this, except the District 6. Ibid Census Hand Book (Santal Pagnas), 1961, Cf. S. Narayan, The Sacred 7. Sinha B. P., Dynastic History of Magadh, Complexes of Deoghar and Rajgir, New Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1977, Delhi, 1979, p 5 p 158 27. As per the versions of the local people of 8. Ibid Deoghar, Kala Pahar had attacked the 9. Ibid Baidyanath Temple in 1565, but could not destroy it. Thus, he became revengeful 10. Sinha B. P., op. cit., p159 and set the said old fort/settlement of the 11. Sinha B. P., op. cit., pp. 158-159 present Jhaunsa Garhi to fire and burnt it completely 12. Shree Shree Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga Vangmay, Hindi Vidyapeetha Deoghar, 28. Chakrabarti D.K., op. cit. 2009, p 258 29. Shree Shree Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga 13. Sinha C. P. N., Presidential Address, Vangmay, op. cit., p 277 Section I, PIHC, 55th Session, Aligarh, 30. I have been told about this practice by Mr. 1994, p18 Harafu, the surviving descendent of Data 14. Jha Surendra, Synthesis of Budhist, Saheb Faquir and also by the Priests of Shaiva and Shakta Tantras, Pratibha the temple Prakashan, New Delhi, 2009, p 15 31. Chanda R., Gauda-Rajmala, p.p. 69-71, 15. Ibid cf. J. C. Jha, Migration and Achievements of Maithila Panditas, Janaki Prakashan, 16. Sircar D. C., J.A.I.H. Vol. 1-2, 1972-73, New Delhi, 1991 p 46 32. Ghosh Amartya, Op. cit 17. Shree Shree Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga Vangmay, op. cit., p 258 33. Jha J. C., op. cit., p 30

-10- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 34. Jha J. C., op. cit 42. Selection from political writings, 1921-26, , 1976, pp.458-462. Cf. C. P. N. 35. Jha J. C., p. 31 Sinha, Sectional Presidential Address, op. 36. Ibid cit 37. Ghosh Amartya, PIHC: 53 Session, 1992- 43. Subbarao B. , The personality of India: Pre 93, pp.79-81. Also see J. N. Sarkar, and Proto History of India and Pakistan, History of Bengal, Vol.II, Calcutta, 2003 Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, (reprint), p 459 1958 38. Sinha C. P. N., Sectional Presidential 44. Pandey M. S., The Historical Geography Address (Ancient India), Proceedings, and Topography of Bihar, Motilal IHC: 55th Session, 1994, p19 Banarasidas, Delhi, 1963 39. Jha Amar Nath Jha, Migration of Maithil 45. Sinha C. P. N., Presidential Address, Brahmanas to Santal Paragnas, Section I, PIHC, 55th Session, Aligarh, Anusandhanika / Vol.VIII / No. II / July 1994 2010, pp 184-189 46. Ibid 40. Ibid 47. Ibid 41. Das R.K., Principal, Kendriya Vidyalay, 48. Sinha C. P. N., Mithila Under the Karnatas, Suratgarh, Rajasthan who is also a native Janaki Prakashan, Patna, 1979, preface of the village Navadih (near Rohini) Deoghar district of Jharkhand, provided 49. Ibid me this extremely important information 50. Ibid which was subsequently confirmed by investigating other sources

-11- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 12-22 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Theories of Social Change and Tribal Movements of Jharkhand and Bengal Dr. Surendra Jha Head, University Department of History Sidhu Kanhu Murmu University, Dumka, Jharkhand

Abstract In the present paper an attempt has been made to co-relate the sociological-anthropological theories with the genesis, nature and effects of the tribal movements in 19th century in Jharkhand and Bengal. The founding fathers of sociological and anthropological thought viz. August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Ogburn, Kroeber etc. were basically evolutionists, believed in Social Darwinism and theory of progress and as such did not initiate the study of social movement which are basically the collective effort of the individuals to change the socio-economic and cultural system. Similarly, the functionalists believed in “social equilibrium” and ‘Homeostasis’ and were in search of conditions conducive to social equilibrium. Such approaches were not conducive to the study of social movements. An humble attempt has been made in the paper and a multi- disciplinary approach has been initiated. Where Santal-revolt and other early revolts were basically, resistance movements and thereby reversionary in character, later movements like Sapha Hor, Sardari movement Birsa, Tana Bhagat, Hari Baba movements were norm-oriented, revivalistic, and millenarian movements. Keywords: Evolution, Progress, Social Darwinism Culture, Psycho-social synthesis Introduction The evolutionary theories of Herbert If one examines the history of any society, Spencer tried to direct attention away from the he finds that much of it contains the stories of deliberate and conscious efforts of men to change their societies. The “Evolution” was the different struggles of groups within that identified with “Progress” and it was conceived, society to change some aspects of the socio- under the influence of Social Darwinism, that politico-cultural milieu. This is one of the revolutionary and reformatory movements reasons that history books are full with were not only futile but “antithetical to accounts of the careers of great leaders, the progress”. The emphasis on culture rather than rise and fall of political movements and terrors, the group as the dynamic force in social the revolutions, the crusades, the reformation, change reached its peak in the writings of W.F. the French and American Revolutions, Ogburn who has been strongly influenced by Russian and Chinese Revolutions, the anti- the writing of anthropologists, particularly A.H. slavery movement, labour movements, etc. Kroeber. Kroeber looked for laws of cultural which have resulted in far-reaching changes in change including bases for prediction of when the societies which they touched. However the culture would change and of the effects of question arises – changes in one part or the other parts. Furthermore, he emphasized material culture a. Whether the leaders and the people who rather than non-material culture as the lead followed them were the real cause of the element in the famous “cultural lag” of change. change? or The concept of “cultural lag” as the theory of b. Are they merely epiphenomena which change was popularized by W.F. Ogburn. He accompany inevitable socio-cultural distinguished between material culture and non- changes? The answer to this basic material culture and propounded on the basis of question is complex and the social evidence from history and ethnography that scientists are divided on the point. By and non-material culture fails to keep pace with large, the sociologists have looked to material culture and this produces a gap which socio-cultural forces in their analysis of has been termed as the “cultural lag”. The non- change; and not to the actions and material culture contains some inherent interactions of men. This attitude, in turn, elements such as the force of habit, sanctity of resulted in an implicit premise of tradition, vested interests and so forth–which determinism in sociology. resist change and adaptation. This results in a

-12- cultural lag. Simply stated, the concept states develop. Social change is not simply a that due to technological advance in the consequence of the intrusion of discordants in society, a culture is transformed in two ways – to an otherwise stable system5 similarly the “in the first stage, behaviour is changed bit by bit efforts of men to bring change are not to accommodate the inventions, in the second, symptoms of’ ‘cultural lag’ or ‘disequilibrium’ or the institutions and belief systems are disorganization’. The change is a normal changed."1 The time between the “first and aspect of culture and a social movement is one second stage” is the ‘cultural lag, which of the most important ways through which possibly accounts for several features of socio-cultural changes are produced. society such as tensions and conflicts. The famous Sociologist, Emile Durkheim Therefore, as Late Prof. Shyama Charan Dube in his work ‘The elementary forms of religious puts it, this concept illustrates an aspect of the life’6 emphasized the importance of social process of change, but it does not explain 2 interaction or ‘Psycho-Social Synthesis” which much of the change itself’. produces collective representations. Similarly Another approach in sociology described Gustav Le Bon in his most popular and best as “functionalism” also directed attention away known work ‘La psychologie des foucles’7 from social movements as dynamic force in pointed to the importance of interaction which social change. Instead, there was an overemphasis takes place in collective behaviour as the on “equilibrium” or “homeostatis”. This led to factor producing social and cultural change the search for conditions conducive to Although he wrote of the “Crowd” his concept equilibrium and also a search for ‘dysfunctional’ of Crowd was so broad that it included social aspects of culture presumed to upset the movements. Le Bon makes it clear that he equilibrium and thereby produced changes. “does not regard crowd as a mere group of The above stated approaches were not individuals assembled in physical contiguity, conducive for the study of social movements. but, rather such an organized aggregation that a collective mind is formed and the conscious However, in spite of the neglect of social 8 movements in the main body of sociological individuality of the persons is lost”. Le Bon writings there has long been an interest3 in also analyzed the psychic traits which such subject. R.M McIver has emphasized the characterize crowd. A crowd possess a need for a distinction between the “cultural collective mind and a psychic unity “which alter order”, “the technological order” and “the social the normal emotions, thought and conduct of order”. To quote MacIver-“the fact that cultural the individual to a considerable degree. The crowd mind is not the average mind of its values are socially fostered need not blur the members but is, rather, a complex of new traits distinction of the cultural order, as a value 9 configuration, from the social order, as a web of which arise from the combination”. relationships. And similarly the fact that the Thus he explained the psychological aspects of social organization are specifically background of the social movements and utilitarian need not prevent us from distinguishing sought an explanation of social change in the a pattern of social relations from a system of activities of persons who constitute the techniques”.4 collectivity, not merely in the cultural form which produced this activity.10 The study of social movements is the study of social change as well as cultural Besides these French sociologists Max change, of a changing social order as well of Weber also represented a shift towards changing values and norms. This is not the making the study of social movements “a 11 study of stable groups or established central rather than peripheral concern.” He institutions but of groups and institutions in the emphasized on the subjective element in process of becoming. Cultural maladjustments social action. It is an important basis of modern are of interest, but only as conditions out of voluntaristic theory of social action which which the collective efforts of men to change challenged the deterministic theories which their culture arise. The changes which take discouraged the study of social movements. place in the culture are important as end However, his theory of charisma is of more products of social movements and as features interest for us. MaxWeber has talked of three of the new milieu within which new movements kinds of authority institutionalized-rational

-13- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 legal, traditional and charismatic. In the case of specific movements he made clear the rational legal authority, authority is exercised concept that a social movement is a by virtue of incumbency of office under a “collectivity”14 of individuals characterized by a system of generalized rules. In the case of ‘we-consciousness’ as distinguished from the traditional authority, authority is not exercised “mass” of individuals acting in the same way by virtue of an office but of a traditionally but on the basis of individual decisions and sanctioned status. The third category is that of without a sense of membership.15 In a similar charismatic authority. The charismatic vein, Robert Herberle defined social movement authorities are not a form of stable socio- “as a collective attempt to reach a visualized cultural order but as a pattern of authority goal, especially a change in certain social which develops during. Social movements. institutions.”16 Turner and Killian define a social The charismatic leader claims legitimacy for movement as a collectivity acting to promote his demands upon other people by virtue of a with some continuity or resist a change in the personal authority which is in specific conflict society or groups of which it is a part.”17 with an established order. The charismatic T. K. Ommen defines–‘social movements leader claims obedience as a matter of are purposive collective mobilization of people personal devotion to him and his cause. There informed of an ideology to promote change in is, again, no clear separation, between his any direction using means, violent or non- sphere of office and that of his private life or violent, and functioning at least in an between official property and private resources. 18 According to Weber, the charismatic leader as elementary organisational framework’. A “a prophet” challenges the traditional order; movement may continue over a length of time whereby there arises the social organization through repeated collective action. The independent of the traditional order. This, objectives or goals need not be fully articulated according to Weber, is the genesis of the social or may change over a period of time. The movement. perception of the goals may significantly differ between the leaders and masses. The These pioneers of sociological thought motivations of people for coming together may opened the field of study of social movements also be different. and the pace of study was accelerated by the work of Robert E. Park and Burgess. They In all such definitions the central theme is defined the social movement as “Collective the effort of men to intervene in the process of Behaviour.” Park and Burgess characterized social and cultural change. Most of the social the “Collective Behaviour” as the “phenomena movements emphasize the goal of establishing which exhibit in the most obvious and a new order sometimes efforts are also made elementary way the process by which societies to resist changes which appear imminent but are disintegrated in to their constituent are disliked by the people. But in all the cases, elements and the processes by which these men are viewed as actors and not as passive elements are brought together again into new responders. Another essential element of 13 social movement is that men’s efforts are organizations and new societies.” collective Individual acts in a collective way. It Herbert Blumer carried on the interest of is not the discrete activities of so many these sociologists in “Collective Behaviour” scattered individuals but of people acting including social movement. Blumer characterized together with a sense of engaging in a movements as collective “enterprise to collective enterprise.19 establish a new order of life”13 Blumer also Attempts have been made by Western as suggested different types of social movements. well as Indian scholars to classify social He suggested three main types of social movements. The same phenomenon may be movement. termed differently by different scholars. When I. General Social Movement a social movement seeks to restore the golden II. Specific Social Movement (with subtypes past of a society, Cameron terms it as reformatory, and revolutionary) reactionary while Linton calls it a revivalist and perpetuative movement. These two characteristics III. Expressive Movements including religious are subsumed under the term Nativistic, movements and fashion. different from these reversionary movements In distinguishing between the general and which aim at altering part of the structures for

-14- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 improvement of the social order. All reform recent political movements as an instance of movements are thus discontinuity in cultural ‘sub-nationalism’ which is generated in orientation and it would amount to a economically backward communities to fulfill revolutionary movement in the eye of analysts. aspirations of an emerging elite. Roy Burman But the participants of the movements may still distinguishes between two elite based regard it as revivalist. movements. Under ‘Infra-nationalism’ some Smeller distinguishes between ‘norm- tribes are involved in a progressive movement oriented’ and value-oriented’ movements. The in a phase of the expansion from tribalism former implies the presence of specific norms towards nationalism. In this phase the tribe is in or regulatory principles. The latter lays stress search of an identity at a higher level of on value or the more general statements of integration than tribalism. legitimate ends which guide social action, with In situations of culture contact some a world view or ideology. In his view general societies experience threat to their cultural social movements do not possess sufficiently system from the dominant population. This crystallized belief or an adequate degree of leads to a deliberate, organized, and mobilization to fall in the category of collective conscious effort by members of that society of outbursts. They only provide a convenient creating a more satisfying culture. This springboard from which specific norm-oriented process has been designated as a movements emanate. Value-oriented movements revitalization movement by Wallace. It involves include Marxism-Leninism, Nazism, but a charismatic leader. It develops an nativistic and revitalizing, and millenarian organizational base and gets routinized in due movements are norm-oriented movements course. The revitalization cycle is repeated such as Birsa Movement. under conditions from search for economic From the point of view of leadership, a betterment or for political power. However movement may be categorized into charismatic there may be cases where the cultural stress and chiliastic movement. A leader displays accompanies economic distress and quest for certain extraordinary qualities or miraculous powers as we find in Birsa Movement. powers. A chiliastic leader is in addition to his S.P.Sinha (1990) attempted a classification charisma, a messiah or a prophet. In many based on the motivation and related to the societies there is a belief that in times of crisis a causes of the movements such as messiah would appear to restore the golden encroachment on traditional tribal rights, revolt age to secure justice and drive away the against economic exploitation and tyranny, oppressors. Some scholars like Stephen directed against cultural imposition and Fuchs have failed to appreciate this distinction domination, assertion of alternative political and have characterized all tribal movement power, entry into existing power structure or leaders as prophets or messiahs. enhancement of prestige, and revolt against In Eastern India, many social movements political encroachment. A close look at the were concerned with assertion of self- different movements will reveal that most of conscious social-political solidarity vis-à-vis them are not uni-causal but multi-causal. the non-tribals. The solidarity situations exist As to the genesis of social movement; it is among tribes at different levels of socio- caused by the anomalies in the society. The political development. While the small social order in which men seek satisfaction of encysted tribal groups have not been drawn their needs is not spontaneous, or biologically into solidarity movement, large and more determined reflection of men’s needs. Nor it is advanced groups like the Naga, Mizo etc. in a rationally planned, internally consistent the North-East and Munda, Oraon, Ho, and order. Rather it is a constantly emerging Santal of Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa are actively system, much of which develops or is accepted involved in such movements. In some areas without foresight. As societies merge, exchange members or subdivide; the social dominated by tribals they have espoused the order comes to have different components with cause of Hindu Chiefs in their struggle against diverse origins. Thus, not only values but value British or Indian Governments. conflicts also emerge. Not only group cohesion The solidarity movements have different but inter-group rivalry also develops, not manifestations. N. K. Bose20 has viewed the statuses and roles but dilemmas and

-15- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 contradictions of status are features of the threat posed by the British rulers to the social order. From these ingredients result situation of cultural ecological isolation. They frustration which, in the long run, generates a were also a response to the economic social movement. However, we do not mean to backwardness, economic exploitation and say that a social order is inevitably hostile or oppression, attempts at cultural domination repressive to human nature. While analyzing and the feeling of frustration over their plight. the psychology of social behaviour, R. E. L. The Ghatwal Paharia Revolt (1770-1780), Faris says “All civilized societies are in a Chuar Rebellion (1795-1800), the rising of perpetual condition of change and partial Chero Zamindars in 1820, Kol and disorganization, so that persons experience Revolts (1832) and the Santal Revolt (1855-56) conflicts and frustrations, divided loyalties, and were such movements which tried to resist the failures of various kinds along with their good penetration of the British rule. Theoretical times in life.”21 The socialized individual seeks concepts of revitalization movement satisfaction of his needs in the social order. If millenarian movement of Stephen Fuchs, society fails to satisfy his needs and to provide Nativistic Movement of Linton and Maxwebers a stable network in which he can carry on his charismatic leadership help us to understand daily activities, he challenges the social order them better. The concept of norm oriented in some way. It may be through individual non- movement of Smelser is useful for these conformity and it may cause him to be movements as well in contradistinction with punished as a criminal or hailed as a genius. value oriented movements like Nazism, But if his dissatisfaction is shared by, and Fascism and Marxism. The movement like communicated to other in the society, a social Sapha Hor, Sardari Movement, Birsa movement may develop. However, frustration, movement Tana Bhagat movement and Hari or shared frustration and the resultant random Baba movement were also norm oriented as behaviour are not sufficient for the development well as millenarian, Chiliastic (Stephen Fuchs) of a social movement. They may lead only to and revivalistic and perpetuative (the concept short-lived crowd behaviour in which an of Linton. They also demonstrated the ephermal organization may develop. For a characteristics of solidarity movement] Sub- social movement to develop “there must be a nationalism and Infra-nationalism (Roy vision, a belief in the possibility of a different Burman). state of affairs and there must be an enduring However, It is also evident that attempts at organization devoted to the attainment of this 22 classification of the movements into neat vision.” This is the active nucleus of the conceptual categories are a heuristic device to movement – the leadership group followed by enhance our understanding of their nature, members and sympathizers. movements, goals, etc. But no movement fits Materials and Methods into such categories for more than one reason. While concentrating on the topic various Sometimes the motivations, causes, and goals are more than one and overlap. Sometimes a books of eminent scholars were consulted. movement changes its goals or adds new ones Recourse has also been taken to make an in midway. At the start, a movement may be depth study of the published works of the agrarian but may end up as a messianic one or author. Reviews of the works by eminent it may begin as a reform movement and end up scholars and critics have also been widely with political overtones. A revitalization consulted. movement may emanate from economic Results and Discussions exploitation and gradually, be transformed into A brief analysis of the definition, genesis a movement demanding autonomy or and scope of social movements as stated separation from the state. Hence, a multi- above enables us to characterize the tribal causal approach and combined methodology th remain the best choice. movements in the last decade of 19 century in Jharkhand & Bengal. If we put these theories to For this; it is essential to have a bird’s eye- empirical test taking the tribal movements of view on the historiography and the historical Jharkhand and Bengal we find a deep co- context of tribal movements of Jharkhand and relation with several theoretical concepts. The Bengal. early tribal movements were a response to the The period of such Movements was the

-16- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 colonial period in world and Indian History and non – tribal communities and penetration of India had to swallow the bitter pills of the external influences. It is evident that in the semi colonial rulers. However, it is ‘a historical – exposed tribal regions, the historical fallacy’23 to assume that India during British rule portrayals of a tribal as a ‘Noble Savage’ did not undergo a fundamental transformation, innocent of the operation of the historical or that it remained basically traditional. Form processes was both naïve and untenable, but mid–18th century and, in particular, from the this led to build up a myth that has bedeviled all beginning of the 19th century, India had been historical writings on Chotanagpur and Santal gradually integrated into the world of modern Parganas and tribal Bengal. This simplistic capitalism though in a subordinate or colonial method served to justify the British Raj and the position. Thus as, Prof Bipan Chandra points role of missionaries as the protectors of the out, India under Britain was not basically tribals against the non–tribals.24 similar to Mughal India, nor was its The second set of assumptions postulated backwardness of the same kind as the latter, that the tribes were a sub–system of the Hindu because in the intervention of years India had system. The Hindu mode of absorption was undergone a long and full course of colonial spelt out by an Anthropologist, namely N. K. modernization. Nor was it like the pre – Bose in terms of their integration into the capitalist stage of today’s developed countries economic organization of the caste. However because the latter had never undergone there was very little Hindu about this mode of colonial modernization of the Indian pattern. It absorption. The tribes were, in fact, getting was also not pre- industrial for it had felt the full integrated into a Secular System of production, impact of industrial capitalism, though without market system, as it was extended to the tribal industrializing in the process. The basic fact is region. that the social, political and economic process that produced industrial development and The region of Chotanagpur and Santal social and cultural progress in Britain, the Parganas saw many basic changes in the metropolis, also produced and maintained Socio–Economic system during the British economic underdevelopment and social and period. The Britishers adopted a different cultural backwardness in the India, the colony. policy towards tribal India. Unlike Africa, which adopted the system of indirect rule, namely, Thus, any study on modern Indian History the rule through the traditional Chiefs in many must be made in the context of colonialism. territories, a large part of the tribal region and Colonial modernization involved not only the most of the tribal population were integrated Indian economy but also the patterns of social, within the administration of the provinces of political, administrative and cultural life and we British India or within that of the Indian states must keep this historical context in mind. where the British residents kept a watch on the As to historographical context, two sets of tribal situation. However, there were areas of assumptions have been developed by the tribal concentrations, which were enclaved to historians, anthropologists and ethnographers ‘reclaim to civilization’ the tribes who had often about the tribals. rebelled or were difficult to pacify. Santal The first set of conceptual framework was Parganas and Chotanagpur and Jungle Mahal developed by the British administrators – were such enclaves. It was in these enclaves turned ethnographers and anthropologists. that the concept of protection of tribes as an They conceived tribal community as ‘isolates’ ethnic community developed in many stages, and tribals as ‘Noble Savages’ and their and is known as Non-Regulation system. Its primitive condition was described as a state of main features were – ‘Arcadian Simplicity’. History, as we understand (a) The paternalistic rule of the district it today, was not a strong point of these officers– the tribes needed a government scholars and economics has never been the by men and not by a system. strong point of scholarship in this area though (b) Keeping tribal areas out of the operation of some of them were sensitive to historical regular laws, which were alien to tribal dimensions. These scholars overlooked the ethos. operation of historical processes that led to the formation of state, the emergence of a complex (c) Laying down a set of simple rules to settle regional system in the of wake of migration of disputes and restriction of the jurisdiction

-17- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 of the courts which enforced normal laws (Known as Jhoom and Kurao) and swindle (d) Special agrarian and tenancy laws. agriculture which were associated with the system of communal ownership of land and Such type of ‘protective’ administration is use of collective labour. To facilitate the seen in Santal Parganas and Chotanagpur as commercial exploitation of the forest, shifting the systems of Cleeveland and Wilkinson. The cultivation was forbidden in Santal Parganas British colonialists settled tribes, opened up and Chotanagpur. The pressure of population the tribal world, laid lines of communication increased and the carrying capacity of the land established chatties along highways to supply diminished. The peasantry coming up form the the army which brought in merchants, traders plains introduced the concept of agricultural and peddlers and developed into market later, seasons and new crops, implements and and setup cantonments and centers of practices related to wet and dry land – farming. administration–the pace of urbanization gradually went up. A further stage in the development of peasant system was the penetration of Thus the colonial system ended the demand of tribal economy by market. The relative isolation of the tribal society, brought it colonial system created a demand for money into the main stream of the new administrative in non – money economies to pay land – revenue setup, policy and programmes. They also and other levies, to defray expenditure of forced the tribes to spare with their surplus various kinds and to buy necessities. The production by creating a new system of traditional form of barter died away, the production relations. The colonial system, as primitive economy came gradually within the elsewhere, followed the dual policy of framework of the market system. strengthening the feudal crust of tribal societies, formed by the rajas, chiefs and With the market, came the middleman, zamindars and simultaneously creating merchants and money – lenders. The concept conditions in which their economy and political of Diku, the aliens, becomes crucial to the system were undermined by the rampaging understanding of agrarian relations. A Diku market forces. was a creature, of the colonial system, who performed a variety of functions as a middle The chief causes of tribal revolts are man in administrative matters, as a money – enumerated as the exploitation of Zamindars lender, as a trader, who controlled production merchants, traders, Dikkus or non-tribals and of food – grain through the system of advance the corruption of police and court clerks. credit and as a land – grabber. However, it must be kept in mind that the traders and money – lenders were the However, Dikku, a dregogatory term creations of the colonial system and the police coined by the tribals and spread by the and court – clerks also supported them. colonialists, traders, and merchants were not Moreover, the land revenue system as the basic cause of or even the most important enforced by the company government did not cause of the tribal revolts. In Chotangpur, suit the tribal ethos. The land – tax in the British tribute paid by the tribals and indigenous period was different form that of the Mughals or people to the rulers had been converted into later Mughals. In the pre – British period, the rent shortly before the advent of the British. land tax was basically a tax on the crop while During the British rule the rent rates were not the Britishers imposed a fixed burden as land only enhanced but the enforcing agency was tax on a definite area. This did not suit the tribal made more effective. However, the basic concept of land cultivation. Hence, we need to distortion in the social organization came due investigate this point: British revenue policy as to the colonial policies. a factor in causing the Santal Kol, Bhumij, The basic ‘social fabric’ which underwent , Sardari and Birsa Movements. a change was the ‘village community’. The The other important feature of this period relation between peasants and landlords was was the breakdown of communal mode of not unknown to the British, but the kind of production and the emergence of private relationship prevailing in pre-British rural India property in land. The first was generally related was a novelty to them. Although it was to a to the technology of hunting and food large extent disintegrating owing to the gathering, the slash and burn cultivation usurpation of politico-economic military

-18- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 powers by the Zamindars (revenue farmers) in As the noted anthropologist Prof B. K. Roy the last days of Mughal rules especially in Burman has categorically stated that “it was Bengal, the village community system was still the destruction of “community25 security a living phenomenon. Its self-sufficient, system” which caused intense discontent and autonomous and vegetatively reproducing frustration. Even though the tribute was character was noted in British parliamentary converted into rent during the later Mughal Papers in 1812, mainly on the basis of period, it was the community represented by information received from South India, the original settler’s lineage which was the Elphinstone in the Deccan in 1819, Rebertson recognized unit for paying it. During the in Western India in 1821 and so on from colonial rule, the state established its primacy company officials from all over India. The over the resources,- lands and forests – and essential characteristic of the village the individual was freed from the moral community system were– (a) The holding of constraints of the community system in the cultivated land in common by the villagers with utilization of resources and payment of rent. As usufructuary rights on the plots allotted to Prof Roy Burman points26 out “This freedom them, by the village council. (b) the election of was really a bondage as the individual was the council with its headman by villagers now brought under the direct subjugation of the themselves and entrusting of the council and state, without the community serving as the the headman to serve as the mouthpiece vis-à- cushion”. He also lost the security provided by vis the Zamindar and the higher echelons of mutual aid system in emergent situations. the feudal power correspondingly, the right of State control over forest deprived them of the the feudal power was to collect tax for the last resort for survival in the event of crop village as a whole from headman and to call for failure, Earlier, the tribal individuals could turn any para-military aid from the villagers through to the community in times of crisis but with the the headman; its direct representative for penetration of colonial domination, the these purposes being the Zamindar (revenue community was no longer in a position to help. farmer) who had different appellations in Money-lenders and traders now plugged this different parts of India. gap. Many of them were “undoubtedly greedy, However, during first phase of the rule of but it would be wrong to consider this as being East India Company, the system did not yield only the outcome of perfidious human 27 substantial monetary returns. It also proved to nature”. It was the fluctuating market be a political impediment to the colonial power. economy in expansionist phase of colonial rule For various reasons, therefore, of which the due to wars of conquest and punitive above two played the key role, the permanent expeditions which made. The commodity settlement of land was enacted in 1793 and the market unstable; and there were considerable previous revenue farmers were thus turned amounts of speculative transactions. The into landlords (=landowners) while retaining traders in the tribal area also wanted to make the previous epithet of Zamindar. Although the hay while the sun shined. If they would have forms of land settlement enated later by the been sure of a stable and secure market, they East India Company appeared to be would not have diverted their capital into mony- somewhat different in certain other parts of lending and in taking over the land when the India, the economic structure which emerged tribals failed to repay their loans. This under British rule was virtually the same for the argument is not meant for defending the whole of subcontinent; in other words the merchants and traders, hated as Dikkus, but to ‘village Community’ system disintegrated and point out that the primary cause was the a new set of relations between landlords and colonial system and not the non-tribals who peasants began to operate with the former had been residing there for a very long period. serving as the allies of the colonial It must be pointed out here that although Government. the Britishers in India following a pattern that The colonial policies of creating private had been established by Muslim rulers and right in land, introduction of money-economy, their predecessors as well but, the particular collection of rents in cash were detrimental to ideas of the British about property in 18th and the concept of village community. This caused 19th centuries were fundamentally different strains in the system. from that of the Muslim rulers. Both were

-19- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 interested in land – revenue but the British Kol and Bhumij insurrections, the Santal notion of individual property led to the evolution Revolt of 1855, the resistance offered by Gond of a civil government deeply bound up with zamindars in 1819 and in 1842, and the property ownership and property owners. Khonds’ resistance to the abolition of Meriah Thus, they created a social system which sacrifice from mid-1830, which culminated in placed a high valuation on the rights of the Revolt of 1857 which saw chero and Gond personal ownership of land and other forms of Zamindars revolt while other tribes kept out of property. And as such the system required it. elaborate process of law and Judicature based The second phase (1860-1920) coincided on British concepts. New problems were with the intensive phase of colonialism, which raised by new concepts and definition of saw a much deeper penetration of tribal and property and the courts were required to peasant economy by merchant capital, higher adjudicate them on European concepts. incidence of rent etc. All gains registered Inheritances, marriage, rights of succession during the first phase of the movement were were all Hindu or Muslim religious / tribal washed away. Not only those who had been customs, and in theory need not have been expelled came back but many more also came, affected by the changes brought about by the thus intensifying the exploitation of tribes. As a land – settlements of new concepts of property. result of this, there were not only a larger But, all these personal laws were quickly number of movements, represented by such influenced by the new arrangements since all evocative native terms as mulkui larai, fituri, of them were related to property. meli, ulgulan and bhumakal, involving not only In the abovementioned conceptual many tribes but also far more complex type of framework we propose to discuss the tribal movement, a curious mix of agrarian, religious Movements in Jharkhand & Bengal. and political issues. Kumar Suresh Singh has classified the Let us, first untangle the agrarian strand. three phases of tribal movements in India. The basic issues were high incidence of rent, commutation of rent, abolition of forced labour The first phase (1795-1860) of the tribal and praedial condition, the issues that affected movement coincided with the rise, expansion the peasants, who were particularly aggrieved and the establishment of the British Empire. It saw the rise of what we may call the primary against the zamindars. There were complaints resistance movement. Resistance is inherent regarding erosion of traditional rights in in all movements but during this phase it was forests, restriction on shifting cultivation, and spontaneous, elemental and wide-spread exploitation by the local functionaries. In this involving not only one tribe but many. They respect the agrarian movement among the played a dominant but by no means an tribes and peasants had many points of exclusive role in it; there were large sections of similarity. There was a typical ambivalence the non-tribals who also joined hands, lending towards the money lender: his records could the movements the character of a regional be burnt but his life was spared. In fact, there upsurge. It was led by the traditional chiefs and was little blood spilling in the agrarian their subordinates, who had been dispossessed movement, though the covert acts of violence of their property and thrown out of their were many. occupation by the new system. It was Unlike the peasant, the tribal movements resistance to the new system and to the new developed a religious and political overtone. classes of the people who were inducted by it, The failure of the first phase of the movement namely, the system of local administration and had made them look inward. They sought to taxation, evangelization and humanitarian restructure the entire social system; this was measures, the new landlords, moneylenders the beginning of revitalization movements. All and government officials, all of whom were to major uprisings of the first phase were followed be thrown out in a violent upsurge. This by the socio-cultural movements; the Santal formulation generally applies to all the insurrection by the Kharwar movements movements of this period, the Chuar rebellions (1871-95) and the Munda-Oraon Sardar (1795-1800), the risings of Chero zamindars movement (1869-1895) by Birsa Munda’s and and disturbances in Chotanagpur in 1820, the Tana Bhagats’ reformative movements (1895-

-20- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 1921). The movements also threw up the background of the mobility movement led by charismatic and “divinely-inspired” brand of Dinbandhu Prabar Singh33 in Purulia district in leadership. Birsa Munda among the Mundas 1930’s. (1895-1901) Sidhu, Kanhu, Bhagirath and The beginnings of the political awakening Dubu Gossain among Santals (1856-57, 1871- among the Santals in Bengal may be traced to 90) Jatra Oraon among the Oraons (1915-22), a meeting at Shaividanga in Midnapur district Gobind Giri among the Bhils, organized social in 1928. Mangal Soren, the santal leader, and political action for the restoration of their sought reliefs from burden under which tribals rights and founded cults and expressed suffered. thorough borrowed Hindu and Christian idioms Among the Lodha tribe of West Bengal, a for their people’s urge for freedom. All ended in violent clashes with the authorities. vaishnav Saint Brajendra Nath Das Brahma Avdhoot spread the message of love, 28 The Sardar Movement in Chotanagpur compassion and cleanliness. The Lodhas was meant primarily for restoration of were identified with the ancient Savar tribe. Khuntkatti rights of the Munda lands. They This was the only reform Movement among the adopted the legal way of petitioning and Lodha tribe34. fighting in the Courts. However, the movement failed but was succeeded by Birsa Movement. Conclusion Lastly, it is proposed to consider as to what The Birsa Movement (1895 - 1900) was a do such a movement like that of Birsa Munda in complex movement of the Munda tribe. It 29 a little known part of India tells us about the sought the religious revitalization of the social movement in general? The meaning and Mundas, the restoration of rent free Munda significance of such movement like Kol, Bhumij lands and violent expulsion of all British officials and missionaries from the Munda and Santal Revolts, Kharwar and Sardar homeland. In 1914, Jatra oraon of village movements and Birsa movement must be Chingri of pioneered the Tana sought in the analysis in the reasons as to why Bhagat30 Movement. In it’s religious aspects it did such large number of tribals participate in such movements. Thereby, a better resembled Birsa Movement. It was a milleniar st movement which spread among the Oraons of understanding of tribal problems of 21 Ranchi, Palamu and even in Sarguja in Century India could be achieved. It must be Madhya Pradesh. They contributed much to pointed out here that people still cherish the the National Movement of Mahatma Gandhi. A memories of such movements, and analyse similar movement called the Satya31 and the activities of such movements which may or Punya Movement developed among the Hos may not be relevant in the present situation but under the leadership of SinghRai Ho. In 1931- they are the sources of inspiration for struggle 32, there was another upheaval among the Ho against injustice. The tribals remember the and the Santal. This movement was against simple fact that their forefathers had resisted the worship of spirits or Bongas and also stood oppression, usually with some success. Thus, th for the restoration of tribal lands. The in the late 19 Century, the Santal remembered movement was led by Durga Ho called Hari the violence of 1855 and probably some also Baba32 who proclaimed himself a disciple of remembered the religious–revitalization Gandhi. Such movements synchronized with aspects of the Santal Revolt and Kharwar the National Movement. Another strand of movement. In the middle of the twentieth these movements developed a separatist tone Century, the tribals in Ranchi town named their in the concept of Jharkhand. movement and organization after Birsa even In West Bengal, the different phases of though the atmosphere was much more Sanskritization Movement among the Bhumijs secular and industrialized than it was at the from the last decade of 19th Century. A turn of 20th Century. Today, the people of Vaishnava mendicant Srinath, who lived at Jharkhand accept Birsa as an icon, against Madhupur, from 1886 to 1910 led this oppression and a fighter against the Britishers movement. In 1914 another medicant, a that too in a period when our National Bhumij disciple of Srinath, led the movement. Movement was in the stage of ‘Political They aspired for kshatriya status for the mendicancy’ – this is a glowing tribute to the Bhumijs. These activities formed the genius of Birsa.

-21- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 References 20. Burman B. K. Roy, Ethnicity in Chotanagpur 1. Dubey S.C., Understanding Change– with particular reference to the tribal Anthropological and Sociological perspectives communities, A source paper prepared for Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, 1992, p 59 a UNESCO Expert committee on Race Relations in Asia 2. See Lewis M. Killian in Robert E.L. Faris (Ed.) Handbook of modern sociology, 21. Faris Faris R.E.L., Social Psychology, Rand Mc Nally and Co, Chicago 1964, Ronald Press, New York, 1952, p 75 chapter XII, pp 426-455 22. Lewis M. Killian, op. cit 3. Cf. Ibid 23. Chandra Bipin , Nationalism and Colonialism 4. Ibid in modern India, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 1979, pp 3-4 5. Durkheim Emile , Les Formes ilimentaires de la vie religious Paris, 1912 (Eng. Tr.) J. 24. Singh K. S., Presidential Address, Modern W. Swain. The elementary forms of India Section, Indian History Congress, religious life, London, 1915 Bhubneshwar, 1977, pp. 393-395 6. Gustav Le Bon, La Psychologie des 25. Burman B. K. Roy, M.S.A. Rao (Ed.) foules, Paris 1895 Eng Tr. With the title Social Movements in India,Vol. II, ‘The crowd’, London, 1896 reviewed by A. Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1979, F. Bentley in American Journal of pp 106-107 Sociology, January, 1897, pp 612-614 26. Ibid 7. Henry Elmer Barnes (Ed) An introduction 27. Ibid to the history of Sociology, University of 28. For details See Mc Dougall John, Land or Chicago Press, 1947, pp 488-89 religion? The Sardar and Kharwar 8. Ibid Movements in Bihar (1858-1895), 9. Lewis M. Killian, op. cit Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1985 10. Ibid 29. Vidyarthi L.P.(Ed.), Religion in India–The article of Edward Jay–Revitalization 11. Parsons Talcott, Barnes H. E. (Ed.), An movement in Tribal India. Meerut, introduction to the history of Sociology, op. Kedernath, 1961. Sinha, S.P.–The life and cit. pp 304-305 times of Birsa Bhagwan, Government 12. Cf Lewis M. Killian, op. cit Press, Patna, 1964. ; Singh, Kumar 13. Ibid Suresh–Birsa Munda and his movement (1874-1901), Oxford University Press, 14. For details see Herbert Blumer–Collective Delhi, 1983 Behaviour In M. A. Lee (Ed.) Principles of Sociology New York, Barnes and Noble, 30. Dhan R.O., The Problem of Tana Bhagat, 1951, pp 167-222. Also H. Blumer in J.B. Bulletin of Bihar, Tribal Research Institute, Glitter (Ed.) Review of Sociology, New Ranchi. Mallick, S.C. (Ed.) Indian York, Wiley, 1957, pp 127-158 movements–Some aspects of dissent, protest and change, I I As, Simla, 1978 15. Cf. Lewis M. Killian, op. cit 31. Census Report, 1921 16. Ibid 32. Singh Kumar Suresh, Tribal Society, 17. Oom men T. K., Protest and Change: Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1985 Studies in Social Movements, New Delhi, Ethnicity, Identity and Development, Sage Publications, 1990 Manohar Publication, New Delhi, 1990 18. Cf. Lewis M. Killian – op. cit 33. Sing Kumar Suresh (Ed.), Antiquity to 19. Gustav le Bon, op.cit Modernity in Tribal India Vol. IV, Inter– India Publications, New Delhi, 1998, p 75 20. Bose N. K., The Hindu Method of Tribal Absorption, Science and culture Vol. 8, 34. Bhowmick F.K., The Lodhas of West 1941 Bengal, Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, 1963

-22- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 23-28 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Science and Technology in Arthasastra Dr. Prashant Gaurav Assistant Professor, Department of History Post Graduate Govt. College, Chandigarh

Abstract Science means the ordered arrangement of ascertained knowledge including the methods of which such knowledge is extended and the criteria by which its truth is tested. The older term natural philosophy, implied the contemplation of natural processes per se, but modern science includes such study and control of nature as is, or might be, useful to mankind. Speculative science is that branch of science, which suggests hypothesis and theories, and deduces critical tests where by unco-ordinated observations and properly ascertained facts may be brought into the body of science proper. Kautilya’s Arthasastra has thrown light on science and technology of the concerned period. The text discusses the causes and division of day and night. Mining technology has been discussed. The royal mining superintendent possessed good knowledge of science. A detailed light has been thrown on different types of ores. Impure metals were purified by certain scientific methods. The technology of minting coins was developed. Different types of mixtures were prepared. Various types of fruit were grown. The superintendent of agriculture possessed the knowledge the science of agriculture dealing with the plantation of bushes and trees. Five types of liquor – Medaka, Prasanna, Asava, Arista and Maireya were constituted and it was possible for a person who had good scientific knowledge of Chemistry. Some medicines were prepared by the physicians. Keywords : Nalikas, Purusas, Tiksha, Masaka, Kanani Introduction Dr. R. Shamasastry and by R.P. Kangle and Vachaspati Gairola have been consulted as The ordered arrangement of ascertained original source and several other books as knowledge including the methods by which secondary source. As it is related with such knowledge is extended and the criteria by philosophy of ancient India so the method used which its truth is tested. The older term natural is analytical and descriptive. philosophy implied the contemplation of Results and Discussions natural processes per se, but modern science includes such study and control of nature as is, Kautilya’s Arthasastra1 is an important or might be, useful to mankind. Speculative Sanskrit text which is used by the scholars for science is that branch of science which the study of Mauryan period. The text throws suggests hypothesis and theories, and important light on science and technology of 2 decudes critical tests where by unco-ordinated the concerned period. According to the text observations and properly ascertained facts both the day and night were divided into eight may be brought into the body of science nalikas (1½ hours), or according to the length of the shadow (cast by a gnomon standing in proper. Technique is skill and ability in an the sun); the shadow of three purusas (36 artistic, sporting or other practical activity that angulas or 27 inches), of one purusa (12 one could develop through training and inches), of four angnlas (3 inches) and practice. Technology refers to methods, absence of shadow denoting midday were the systems and devices which are the result of four one-eight divisions of the forenoon; like scientific knowledge being used for practical divisions (in the reverse order) in the afternoon. purposes. The scientific approach of Kautilya does not seem to be, perfect science. According to Meterials and Methods Shamshastri3 the text states the shadow Regarding the subject matter of the article lengths which give the eight divisions. That is various books of eminent scholars have been alright for the day time. But what about the consulted. Kautilya’s Arthasastra translated by night, when the gnomon gives no shadow ?

-23- The royal mining superintendent possessed Those ores which had the colour of a knowledge of science. He was experienced in conch shell, camphor, alum, butter, a pigeon the art of distillation and condensation of turtle dove, vimalaka or the neck of a peacock; mercury and of testing gems, aided by experts which were as resplendent as opal, agate in mineralogy and equipped with humming cane-sugar and granulated sugar; which had instruments. The superintendent examined the colour of the flower of kovidara of lotus of mines on the basis of their containing mineral patali, of kalaya of kshauma and of atasi; which excrement, crucibles, charcoal and ashes. was in combination with lead or iron were New mines were discovered by the disjoined grey or blackish white, and were superintendent on plains or mountain slopes marked with lines or spots, and which when on the basis of the richness of ores which could roasted did not split, but emitted much foam be ascertained by weight, depth of colour, 9 4 and smoke were silver ores . piercing smell and taste . The impurities of ores could be got rid of Liquids, which oozed out from pits, caves, and the metal melted when the ores were slopes or deep excavations of well-known 10 mountains, which had the colour of the fruit of chemically treated with Tiksha , urine and rose-apple (jambu), of mango, and of fan palm; alkalis (ksara) were mixed or smeared over which were as yellow as ripe turmeric, with the mixture of the powder of rajavrksa sulphurate of arsenic (haritala), honeycomb (clitoria ternatea), vata (ficus indica) and pilu and vermillion, which were as resplendent as (carnea Arborea) together with cow’s bile and the petals of a lotus or the feathers of a parrot the urine and dung of a buffalow, an ass and an or a peacock; which were adjacent to any mass elephant11. of water or shrubs of similar colour; and which were greasy transparent and very heavy were Metals were rendered soft when they ores of gold5. Likewise liquids which, when were treated with the powder of kandah dropped on water, spread like oil to which dirt (mushroom) and vajrakanda (antiquorum) and filth adhere, and which amalgamated together with the ashes of barley, black beans, themselves more than cent per cent with palasa (Butea Frondosa) and pilu (carnea copper or silver6. Of similar appearance as the Arborea) or with the milk of both the cow and above, but of piercing smell and taste was the sheep. Whatever metal was split into a bitumen7. hundred thousand parts was rendered soft when it was thrice soaked in the mixture made Those ores which were obtained from up of honey (madhu), madhuka (Bassia), plains or slopes of mountains; which were either yellow or as red as copper or reddish jaggery, kinva (ferment) and mushroom. yellow; which were disjoined and marked with Permanent softness was also attained when blue lines; which had the colour of black beans, the metal was treated with the powder of cows green beans and sesame; which were marked teeth and horn. Those ores which were with spots like a drop of curd and resplendent obtained from plains or slopes of mountains; as turmeric, yellow myrobalan, petals of a and which were heavy, greasy, soft, tawny, lotus, acquatic plants, the liver or the spleen; green, dark bluish, yellow, pale red or red were which possessed a sandy8 layer within them ores of copper. and were marked with figures of a circle or a swastika, which contained globular masses; Those ores, which had the colour of and which when roasted did not split but kakamechaka, pigeon or cow’s bile and which emitted much foam and shrok were the ores of were marked with white lines and smell like raw gold and were used to form amalgams with meat were the ores of lead. The ores which copper or silver. To make gold from silver and were as variegated in colour as saline soil or copper is not scientific. But it may be certain which had the colour of a burnt lump of earth that a systematic and scientific attempt was were the ores of tin. The ores which were of taken in search of metals from the land or orange colour or pale red or of the colour of the 12 mountains. flower of sinduvara were the ores of tiksna .

-24- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Impure gold was of whitish colour and was those of kola (small jujuba), those of badara fused with lead of four times the quantity of the (flacourtia cataphracta), those of sauvira (big impurity. When gold was sundered brittle jujuba) and those of parushaka (Grewia owing to its contamination with lead, it was Asiatica) and the like used to come under the heated with dry cow-dung. When it splitted into group of acid fruits18. pieces owing to hardness, it was drenched into oil mixed with cow-dung. Mine gold which was Long pepper, black pepper, ginger, cumin brittle owing to its contamination with lead was seed, kiratatikta, which mustard, coriander, heated with cloth and hammerred on a wooden choraka, damanak, maruvaka, sigru and the anvil or was drenched in the mixture made of like together with their roots were under the 19 mushroom and vajrakhanda13. group of pungent substances . Grains were heaped up on the floor; jaggery (ksara) was The gold which when heated, kept the bound round in grass rope; oils were kept in same colour, was as glittering as tender sprout earthenware of wooden vessels and salt was of the colour of the flower of kurandaka was the heaped upon the surface of the ground20. best. black or blue colour in gold was the symbol of impurity14. The superintendent of agriculture possessed the knowledge of the science of agriculture Pure or impure silver (tara) was heated dealing with the plantation of bushes and trees. four times with copper sulphate mixed with He was assisted by those who were trained in powdered bone, again four times with an equal such sciences21. Lands that were beaten by quantity of lead, again four times with dry foam were suitable for growing pumpkin gourd copper sulphate, again three times in pure clay and the like lands, frequently overflown by 15 and lastly twice in cow-dung . water, were suitable for long pepper, grapes and sugar-cane. The vicinity of wells was The coins were manufactured under the supervision of the superintendent of mint. The important for vegetable and roots, law grounds silver coins (karsapana) were made up of four for green crops, and marginal furrows between parts of copper and one-sixteenth part (masa) any two rows of crops were suitable for the of any one of the metals, tiksna, trapu, sisa and plantation of fragrant plants, medicinal herbs, anjana. These coins were a pana, half pana, a cascus roots, lac etc. Such medicinal herbs as quarter pana and one-eight pana. Copper grow in marshy grounds were to be grown not coins were made up of four parts of an alloy only in grounds suitable for them, but also in (padajivam)16. These coins were a masaka half pets. a masaka, Kanani (one-fourth masaka ) and The seeds of paddy were to be exposed to half a kakani17. mist and heat for seven nights. The seeds of The Arthasastra refers to mixture which moong, horse-pea etc. were treated similarly was made by combining any one of the for three days and nights in heat and mist. The substances, such as the juice of sugar-cane, seeds of sugar-cane and the like were jaggery, honey, the juice of grapes, the plastered at the cut end with the mixture of essence of the fruits of jambu (Euginia honey, clarified butter, the fats of hogs and Jambolana) and of jack tree-with the essence cow-dung22. of mesasrnga (a kind of plant) and long pepper, with or without the addition of the essence of Kautilya refers to five types of liquor. (1). 23 chirbhita (a kind of gourd), cucumber, sugar- Medaka was manufactured with one drona of cane, mango fruit and the fruit of myrobalan the water, half an adhaka of rice and three mixture being prepared so as to last for a prasthas of kinva (ferment). (2). Prasanna was month or six months or a year, constitute the manufactured with 12 adhakas of flour group of astringents. The fruits of those trees (pishta), 5 prasthas of kinva, with the addition which bore acid fruits, those of karamarda of spices (jatisambhara), together with the bark (carissa carandas), those of vidalamalaka and fruits of putraka.24 (3). Asava was (myrobalan), those of matulangas (citron tree), constituted with 100 palas of kapittha, 500

-25- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 palas of phanita and one prastha of honey. (4). knowledge of Chemistry. The experts knew Arista was the fourth kind of liquor. Kautilya that impure gold was of whitish colours. The states that the preparation of various kinds of gold which when heated, kept the same colour, arista for various diseases were learnt from was a glittering as tender sprouted, of the physicians. (5). The liquor named maireya was colour of the flower of kurandaka was the best. formed with a sour gruel or decoction of the Coins of different metals and size were minted bark of medasingi (a kind of poison) mixed with under the supervision of the officer who had jaggery (guda) and with the powder of long good scientific and technological knowledge. pepper and black pepper or with the powder of Different types of drinks were prepared and trphala. (6). Madhu was the juice of grapes. knowledge of Chemistry was essential for it. Its native names were kapisayana and harahuraka.25 The superintendent of agriculture possessed the knowledge of the scientific agriculture Arthasastra states that physicians who dealing with the plantation of bushes and trees. used to do medical treatment, without Liquor of more than five kinds were prepared intimating to the government, of dangerous and it was not possible for a lay man. Some disease and if the patient died, he was medicines were prepared by the physicians. punished with the first amercement. If the References death of a patient under treatment was due to carelessness in the treatment, the physician 1. Shamasastry R. (Translated), Kautilya’s was punished with the middle most Arthasastra, Mysore printing and amercement. Growth of disease due to pubilishing house, Mysore, 1967 negligence or indifference of a physician was 2. Ibid, Book I, Chapter XIX, pp 36-7 used to be regarded as assault or violent.26 Any physician who undertook to the treatment 3. Ibid, p 37 in secret, a patient suffering from ulcer, he 4. Ibid, Book I, Chap. XII, sloka 82, p 85 might be punished.27 Some physicians with surgical instument were sent to war-field for 5. Ibid the treatment of army.28 6. Ibid Conclusion 7. Tatpratirupaka mugra gandharasan On the basis of the fact mentioned above, silajatu vidyat. it may be concluded that Arthasatra is an 8. Arthasastra of Kautilya and Chanakya important text of the concerned period. Sutra (Hindi) Edited with introduction, Besides throwing light on the economy, society Hindi translation and Glossary by Shri and polity the text has discussed science and Vachaspati Gairola, Chowkhamba technology of the concerned period. The time- Vidyabhawan, , 1984, Book I, division of day and night as has been prakarana 28, Chap. 12, p 137 discussed in the text, is not fully acceptable today but it clearly seems that a few scholars 9. Sankhakarpursfatikanavanitakapotapar tried their best to study the movement of time. avatavimalakamayurgrvavarnah sasya- The royal minting superintendent is bound to kagomedaka gudama- tsyandikavarnah possess scientific knowledge regarding mining kovidarapadmapatalikalayakcchaumatas technology. On the basis of deep knowledge ipuspavarna sasisah sanjanah vistra and experience the superintendent with his bhinna svetabha krsna krsnabhah svetah associates searched the mines of gold silver, sarve va lekhabinducitra mrdavo copper, iron etc. The mining ores were purified dhyayamana na sphutanti bahuphena and refined by the persons who had good dhumasca rupyadhatavah. Arthsastra of

-26- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Kautilya. 2.28.12, p 137 of Kautilya, 2.29.13, p 144

10. Tikshna was human urine; Mutra was the 14. Chedascikkanah samavarnah slaksno urine of elephant, horse, cow and goat; but mrdubhajisnusca sresthah, tape others hold that Tiksna-ksara was the ash bahirantsaca samah kinjalka- varnah of plantain tree, Apamarga, barley and kurandakpurpavarno wa srestha. syavo sesamum; see Shamasastry, Kautilya’s nilascapraptakah. Ibid, p 145 Arthasastra, p 86 15. Taramupasudhhian va, asthitutthe catuh, 11. Sarvadhatunan gauravavdhan satva- samasise catuh, suskatulthe catuh, buddhih tesamasuddha mudagarbha va kapale trgormaye dvih, evam sapta- tiksnamutraksarabhavita rajavrk- dastutthatikrantan saindhavikayojjvalitam savatapilugupittrocananamahisakharkar etasmatkakanyuttarapasarita. a dvi- abhamutra landpinda-badhhastastpra- masaditi suvarne deyan, pscadra- tivapastadavelepa va visudhhah sravanti. gayogah, svetataran bhavati. Arthasastra Arthasastra of Kautilya, Adhikarana II, of Kautilya, 2.39.13, p 148 prakarana 28, Chap. 12, pp 137-88 16. Shamasastry (Kautilya’s Arthasastra, p. 12. Yavamastilapalasapiluksaraigorksirajaks 88) states that the alloy for copper coin irva kadalivajrakandarprativapo mardava- was made up of four parts of silver, eleven karah madhuma- madhukamajapayah parts of copper and one part of any other satailan ghrtagudakinvayutan sakand- metal alikam. Yadapi satasahastradha vibhin- 17. Laksnadhyaksah caturbhagatamra nan bhavati mrdu tribhireva tannisekaih rupyarupan tiksnatrapusisa anjan- godantasrngaprativapo mrdustambhanah anamanyatama-sabijayuktan karayet bharikah snighdo mrdusa prastara- panam ardhapanam padamstabhagamiti dhaturbhumibhago va pingalo haritah padajvan tamrarupan masakamard- patalo lohoto wa tamradhatu hamasakam kakanimardhakakanimiti. Kakamecakah kapotarocanavarnah Arthasastra of Kautilya, 2.28.12, p140 svetarajinadhho wa visrah sisadhatuh 18. Iksurasagulamadhufanitajambavapana usarakarburah pakvalostha- varno wa sanamanyatamo mesasrngipippalik- trapudhatuh kurumba pandurohitah vathabhisuto masikah sanmasikah pakvalosthavarno wa trapadhatuh. sanvatsariko va cidvitorvarukek-sukand- Karumba pandur- ohitah patvalos- amrafalamalakavasutah sudhho va thavarna wa trapadhatuh. Kuruba suktavargah. vrksamlakara-mardabhravi- pandurohitah sinduvarpuspavarno wa dalamalakamatulungakolavadara- takshadhatuh kakandabhujapatravarno sauvirakaparusakadih falam-lavargah; wa vaikrntakadhatu. Arthasastra of Arthasastra of Kautilya, 2.31.15, p 159 Kautilya, pp 138-39 19. Pippalimaricasrngiverajajikiratatiktagaur 13. Pandu svetan capraptakam, tadyenapra- sarsapakustumburucorkadamanakamaru ptakan taccuturgunena sisena sodhayet, vakasigrukanda- dih katukvargah. sisanvayena vidyamanan suskapa- Arthasastra of Kautilya, 231.15, p 159 talaidhmapiyet, ruksatvadibhadyamanan tailagomage nisecayet, akarodgatan 20. Uccairdhanyasya niksepo mutah sisanvayena vidyamanan pakapatrani ksarasya sanhatah. mrtkasthakosthah krtva gandikasu kuttaayet, kandaliva- snehasya prthavi lavanasya ca. Ibid. p163 jrakandakalke va nisecayet. Arthasastra 21. Sitadhyaksah krsitantrasulbavrks-

-27- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ayurvedagnastajgnasakho va sarvad- prasthas; Shamasastry, Kautilya’s hanyapuspafalasaka kandamu- lavalli- Arthasastra, Chap. XIX, pp117-18 kyaksaumkarpasabijani yathakalan 24. A species of tree in the country of grhaliyat. Ibid, prakarana 40. Chap. 24, kamarupa p 195 25. Shamasastry, op. cit., XXV, pp 133-37 22. Ibid, 2.40.24, pp 197-98 26. Ibid., Book IV, Chap. 1, p 233 23. One tula = 100 palas; 200 palas =1 drona; 1 adhaka was equal to one-fourth drona; 1 27. Ibid, Chap. XXXVI, p 164 prastha ws equal to one-fourth adhaka and 1 kudumba was equal to one-fourth 28. Ibid, Book X, Chap. III, p 403

-28- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 29-32 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Prince Dara Shikoh : A representative of Indian Cultural Synthesis Dr. Renuka Nath Reader, Department of History S. P. Mahila College, Dumka, Jharkhand

Abstract The eldest son of Mughal emperor Shahjahan, Prince Dara Shikoh was a liberal minded man. He had an inquisitive mind and critical insight from the early days. Lives of great saints and miracles done by them always attracted him. He was an ardent champion of Hindu – Muslim unity and honoured Hindu yogis and pandits as freely as he did the muslim mystics and scholars. His continuous search for the truth, took a steep turn when he met Baba Lal, who was a Hindu gnostic. His discourses with Baba Lal demonstrated his growing interest in comparative religion. Dara’s seven long discourses with Baba Lal were originally composed in Hindi and were later translated into persian by Dara’s chief secretary Chandrabhan Brahman. Baba Lal was founder of a small monotheistic order named after him as Baba Lalis. Many of the teachings orders can be traced to a distinct sufi influence. Keywords: Dara Shikoh, Baba Lal, Monotheism, Discourses Introduction Baba Lal was the pupil of Chetan Swami, who was a famous Indian reformer and a great Prince Dara Shikoh was the eldest and saint with many miracles to his credit. Once an beloved son of Mughal emperor Shahjahan. incident impressed Baba Lal and he became He was perhaps the greatest scholar of his age the disciple of Chetan Swami. This incident is and the most learned prince of the house of described by Wilson, “This person soliciting Timur. He established close and cordial alms of Baba Lal received some raw grain, and relations with mystics from various backgrounds. wood to dress it with lighting the wood, he Among these the name of a Hindu gnostic confined the fire between his feet and Baba Lal was most prominent, about whom he supported the vessel in which he boiled the himself wrote. Baba Lal was the founder of a grain upon his insteps. Baba Lal immediately petty modern Indian monotheistic sect known prostrated himself before him as his guru, and after him as the Baba Lalis, in the first half of receiving from him a grain of the boiled rice to the seventeenth century. eat, the system of the universe became Materials and Methods immediately unfolded to his comprehension.”3 The information for this paper have been Baba Lal, who now decided to remain with his taken from various books, journals and guru, came to Lahore with him. He also encyclopedia. Some materials have also been attained some perfection in religious drawn from websites. The method used is mediation. Here one day Chetan Swami in analytical and descriptive. order to test the progress of his discipline ordered him to bring some Gopichandan4 from Results and Discussions Dwarka, which is situated in Kathiawad Prince Dara Shikoh met with Baba Lal in peninsula and several miles distant from the year 1653 A.D, at Lahore. Baba Lal was a Lahore. It is said that Baba Lal had completed Hindu Yogi. He was a Kshatriya by varna and this Journey and returned with Gopichandan was born in Malwa in Rajputana, during the from Dwarka in less than an hour. Seeing this, reign of Jahangir.1 However, according to Chetan Swami understood that his disciple has Pandit Shivnarain, who claims to possess a now completed his education and it is not manuscript copy of his biography, Baba Lal necessary for him to remain with his guru. He was a Khattri, who lived at Asthan at Dhinapur gave him permission to leave apart from him near Batala.2 and settle independently as a master.5

-29- After departing from his Guru, Baba Lal work entitled Nadir-ul-Nikat, the conversation settled at Dhinapur, near Sirhind. He built a which took place between Lal Das and the hermitage here for himself and began to Prince during seven interviews between them, preach the people, who came to him.6 He also ……………...” Another painting of the meeting began to initiate people to his own creed. He between the Prince and the Saint is exhibited became very popular among his followers. His in the second Indian Historical Records followers called themselves Baba Lalis. They Commission.12 Another painting is found in believed in one god, without any form or Percy Brown’s book on Mughal Painting13. It is exterior cult. This doctrine of Baba Lal drew difficult to say that whether these paintings much from the Vedanta Philosophy and were made at the instance of the Prince or not sufism7. but these paintings are a strong evidence of Dara’s three meetings with this Hindu Saint Meetings with Prince Dara Baba Lal. In the Masnavi ‘Kaj Kulah’ of Baba Lal’s doctrine attracted the attention Anandghana Khwash, two verisified stories of Prince Dara Shikoh. While returning from his depicting the relations between Prince Dara unsuccessful expedition of Qandhar, Dara Shikoh and Baba Lal have been given.14 stayed at Lahore for three weeks till the middle Language of the Discourses of December, 1653 A.D. During this stay at Lahore seven discourses were held between The seven discourses were held in Hindi the Prince and the mendicant Baba Lal.8 and these were, it seems to be noted down by 15 Place of Discourses Rai Jadhavdas in a note book. Afterwards the whole thing was rendered into ornate Persian The Seven discourses between Dara by Rai Chandrabhan under the title of Nadir – Shikoh and Baba Lal took place at different 9 ul – Nukut. ChandraBhan had acted as an places . The first discourse took place in the interpreter during the whole courses of garden of Jafar khan at Lahore, the second dialogues and then he translated it into discourse took place in the Sarai Anwar Mahal 16 Persian. in Badshahi Bagh, the third discourse was held in Dhanbai’s garden, the fourth in the palace of Nature of the Discourses Asaf Khan near Shahganj, the fifth in the The discourses are mainly religious in hunting ground of Gawan near Niklanpur, the character, but they also touch slightly some sixth again held in Dhanbai’s garden and the topics on mysticism and pantheism. The seventh discourse which lasted for three days 10 subjects which they dealt with, are varied and at an unknown place. trivial and often their explanations are not Paintings depicting the meetings between clear, yet from the point of view of comparative Dara and Baba Lal mythology, they are of extreme interest. The topics which were mainly discussed during the A number of paintings of the Mughal age discourses were, characteristic of ascetic life, depict the meetings of Dara Shikoh with Baba different aspects of Hindu mythology, Lal. In the book, Court Painters of the Grand difference between Nad and the Veda, divine Mughals there is a miniature portrait of Prince 11 soul and human soul, idol worship among the Dara Shikoh sitting by the side of Baba Lal. Hindus, the significance of Kashi, significance The compiler also gives a short account of the of mind, on the Creator and Created, what is life history of Baba Lal in the following words, “ heart ? What is sleep ?, on salvation, on the Lal Swami was a Kshatriya, born in Malwa in 17 transmigration of the soul etc. the reign of Jahangir, he settled near Sarhind in the Punjab, where he built himself a hermitage Baba Lal was one of those Indian together with a temple and was visited by a reformers of the sixteenth and seventeenth large number of disciples. Among those who centuries, who like Kabir, Dadu and Akbar, were attracted by his teachings, was Dara endeavoured to find a purely monotheistic Shikoh and two Pandits who were in the religion, combining elements partly derived service of the Prince and have recorded in a from the beliefs of Sufi saints and partly those

-30- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 of the followers of the bhakti marga (devotional gold incapable of transforming others to its path).18 Baba Lal was impressed by Kabir, but kind. The second is like the alchemy which can he did not totally follow the path of Kabir. He did convert others to gold, but the latter, remains not share Kabir’s contempt for book-lore and ever devoid of the properties of the former. The yoga practices, nor did he, like Kabir, condemn third is like the sandalwood tree, which is fiercely idol worship and the externals of capable of endowing the qualities of its species religions. to trees of a particular receptive branch. The Religious Doctrine of Baba Lali fourth – the perfect preceptor – is like a candle, which is capable of illuminating a hundred The followers of Baba Lal were known as thousand candles. To this purport, I (Dara Baba Lalis. They do not believe in rituals and Shikoh) have said the following quatrain : they show their devotion in singing and reciting the name of God. They “are often included “The Gnostic endows you with illumination among the Vaishnava sect; this classification is – body and soul warranted by the outward appearance of these A Barren thorny mound be transforms into sectaries, who streak their forehead with the a rose garden . gopichandana and profess veneration for Rama. They are adherents of the Bhakti- The Perfect leads you out of the erroneous marga or the Devotional Path, though the path – doctrine of Incarnation has no place in their 21 teachings. Their attitude towards religion is A candle illuminates a thousand candles.” essentially monotheistic. Their chief characteristics Baba Lal told me, “ Be not a Shaikh, be not are a unitarian conception of Divinity, belief in a saint, be not a wielder of miracles, be rather a the Sankhya-yogic process of creation and in faqir, unpretentious and sincere.” the immortality of soul; salvation dependent on karma (action) and an adherence towards a Some extracts from the dialogue between medley of the Yogic, Vedantic and Sufi tenets, Dara and Baba Lal both in worship and meditation. This petty Dara Shikoh’s conversations with Baba offshoot of one of the major reformist school Lal deal with a fairly extensive range of viz. Ramanuja’s Sri Sampradaya, did not subjects. The Persian text of this interesting possess any individual spiritual force or any dialogue, Nadir-ul-Nukat, has come down to us special doctrinal formula, on the other hand, it only in mutilated and corrupt transcriptions. borrowed much from the tenets of its sister Some question – answers are given here, sects of the same spiritual origin like the Kabir- 22 which has been taken from the Wilson’s book. Panthis, the Khakis, the Muluk-Dasis and The interrogator is the Prince Dara and the Sena-Panthis, and played only a minor role in the contribution to the reformist upheaval of the respondent Baba Lal himself – Bhakti cult which shook the solid foundations 1. What is the passion of a Fakir ? - of Indian religious thought in the sixteenth and Knowledge of God. seventeenth centuries.”19 The sect of Baba 2. What are the lights of his mansion ? - The Lalis, which had its birth in the first half of the seventeenth century, is still to be in possession Sun and Moon. of a religious house at Baba Lal ka Saila near 3. What is his couch - The Earth Baroda.20 4. What are the duties of a Fakir ? - Poverty Dara Shikoh in his minor work “Hasant – 5. How do Paramatama (Supreme Soul) and ul- Arifin”, recorded one of the aphorism of Jivatma (living soul) differ? - They do not Baba Lal. differ, and pleasure and pain ascribable to “Baba Lal, to whom I have made a the latter arises, from its imprisonment in reference elsewhere, was a Mundya and the body : the water of the Ganges is the belonged to the order of Kabir. He told me that same whether it run in the rivers bed or be spiritual leaders are four-fold. First is like the shut up in a decanter.

-31- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Conclusion However according to Qanungo these discourses between the prince and the The above description presents a picture Hindu ascetic took place in the house of of the qualities of Prince Dara and Baba Lal. In Rai Chandralahan Brahman, situated in fact Dara was a gentle and pious sufi Niyula (Niyula seens to be the quarter of intellectual and a true representative of Indian the city of Lahore which is known as cultural synthesis. The doctrine of monotheism Naulakha). These discourses continued was the favourite topic between the discussion for nine days with two majlis or sittings a of Prince Dara and Baba Lal. Prince Dara held day, K.R.Qanungo, op. cit, p 334 number of question about obstruse principles of Hindu theology. The answers given by Baba 10. For a detailed description of these places Lal show the depth of this knowledge of Hindu and their location see Latif S. M., Lahore : theology/ Dara’s meetings with the Hindu Its History Architectural Remains and Antiquities, Lahore, 1892 gnostic proved quite enlightening. We can easily imagine as to how different the politics of 11. Binyon L., Court Painters of the Great Mughal India have been, if Dara emerged Mughals, Oxford, 1921, Plate XXII victorious in the war of succession. 12. Indian Historical Records Commission, References Volume II, Appendix, Page XXV 1. Wilson’s H.H., Article entitled “Sketch of 13. Brown Percy, Indian Painting under the the Religious Sect of the Hindus, Pub. In Mughals, Oxford, 1924, Plate XLV Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1832, Page 296; Also see K.R.Qanungo ; Dara Shikoh, 14. Ethe H., Catalogue of the Persian MSS in Published by M.C. Sarkar & Sons Ltd, India Office, Volume I, Oxford, 1903, Nos. Calcutta, 1935, P.232; Tarachand : 1725 , 2905 Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, 15. Hasrat B.J., op. cit, page, 244; However, , 1976, p 158 according to K.R.Qanungo these 2. Journal of the Punjabi Historical Society, discourses were held in , K.R. Lahore, Volume II, pp 27-28 Qanungo, op.cit, p. 334 3. Wilson’s H. H., Essays and Lectures 16. Dara Shikoh : Mukualima – i- Babalal Wa chiefly on the Religion of the Hindus, Dara Shikoh, edited by L. massignon and Volume – I, Edited by Dr. R. Rost (London, C.Hurat, published in Journal Aliatique, 1862), p 347 Paris, 1926 4. Whitish earth of Sandal Wood, sacred to 17. Hasrat B.J., op. cit, p 247 Vaishnavas. 18. James H. and John A Sellie, Encyclopaedia 5. Qanungo K.R., op.cit, pp 332-333 of Religion and Ethics, Volume III, 6. Wilson H.H., op cit, pp 348 Edinburgh, 1915, p 308 7. Qanungo K.R., op cit, p 333 19. Hasrat B.J., op. cit, p 240 8. However Wilson H.H. without any proper 20. Farquhar J. N., Outline of the Religious evidence dates the several interview as literature of India, Oxford, 1920, p 334 having taken place in 1649 A.D. 21. Dara Shikoh : Hasrat – ul – Arifin, (H.H.Wilson, op. cit, page 347) but this published by Mujtalai Press, Delhi, chronology is doubtful as Dara Shikoh A.H.1309. English translation quoted form was not present at Lahore in that year. B.J.Hasrat, op. cit, pp 242-243 9. Hasrat B.J., Dara Shikoh : Life and Works, 22. For more question and answer see H. H. Calcutta Ist edititon, 1953, Page, 242 ; Wilson, op.cit, pp 348-351

-32- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 33-36 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Economic Settlement of Tribal Women through Rubber Plantation: A case study of Tripura Sukanta Sarkar Lecturer, Department of Economics ICFAI University, Tripura, Agartala

Abstract The study makes an attempt to assess the economic settlement of tribal women through rubber plantation. The results indicate that rubber plantation is the one probable way for rehabilitation of tribal women. Rubber plantation has been able to change the socio-economic status of tribal women. During shifting cultivation most of them were earning less than Rs.1000 per month, but from mature rubber plantation they are easily able to get Rs.5, 000 per month. They now live in durable houses and are able to send their children to schools. Rubber plantation not only rehabilitates the tribal women but also works against deforestation. This paper suggests that rubber plantation is the way for socio-economic change of tribal women. Keywords : Development, Education, Income and Social life. Introduction cyclic rotation after normally for one year or two years, if soil fertility sustains. It is also known as Rubber is an important cash crop in slash and Burn or Rotation Farming. After Tripura. The rubber tree is sturdy, quick harvesting various vegetables and crops from growing and tall. It grows on many types of the field, jhumias shift to other lands for soils, provided they are deep and well drained. cultivation. Traditionally, most of the tribal Rubber trees have a well developed annual tap 1 people practiced shifting or jhum cultivation root and laterals. The Scheduled Tribes, and were termed as Jhumias.3 generally called tribal people, survived with their unchanging ways of life for centures. The Tripura is a small hilly state in North-east tribal people were the earliest among the India. In North-east India there are seven present inhabitants of Tripura. They are still in states of whom Tripura is the smallest. It is a primitive stage and are far from the impact of hilly tribal state and it has seventeen sub- modern civilization. They live in the forest divisions. Sabroom subdivision is a small areas, hilly regions, mountainous places and subdivision which is situated in southern part of deep valleys. They are known by various the state.4 names such as- primitive tribes. animists, Materials and Methods jungle people, adivasis, aboriginals, original inhabitants of India and so on. Gandhiji called In order to reach the desired goal, survey them “Girijans’. The Constitutions of India has has been conducted in Sabroom subdivision of referred to them as the “Scheduled Tribes”. In South Tripura. In Sabroom subdivision there Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh are two rural development blocks i.e. and Mizoram, majority of the population Rupaichari & Santchan. Tribal women’s i.e. belongs to Scheduled Tribes.2 primary data are collected from these two blocks. Before rubber plantation, tribal women were basically dependent on shifting The study is mainly based on the primary cultivation for their livelihood. Shifting data collected through field survey. Stratified cultivation is a form of agriculture in which the random method has been followed to give cultivated or cropped area is shifted regularly required shape to the study for obtaining to allow soil properties to recover under required result. Tribal women growers are conditions of natural successive stages of re- selected from various villages and surrounding growth. Jhum cultivation also is known as areas from sub-divisions where rubber plants shifting cultivation as because the jhumia are present. In Sabroom Sub-division total cultivators have to go on shifting their field in number of tribal women who are approximately

-33- rehabilitated are 500 approximately, of that Rubber cultivation which has already 300 women are selected i.e 60 percent. attracted large scale participation of tribal women is proving to be an effective means of Primary data collection was done in weaning away the ‘jhumiyas’ to settled stages. Repeated visits to the study area and cultivation. Considering this situation, the talks, observations at the level of the Rubber Board in collaboration with the Tribal households, and discussion with tribal rubber Welfare Department of the Government of growers, village political leaders and other Tripura is implementing a series of block officials and non-official agencies helped a planting programmes in which large blocks of great deal in understanding the place and tribal areas are planted with rubber initially people. This also enabled talking about the engaging beneficiaries as wage earners. The objective of this study to arouse people’s plantation on attaining maturity will be interest as well as cooperation. parceling out and handed over to the Results and Discussions beneficiaries and they will be collectively helped to produce and market the rubber from Rubber plantation programme is one of their individual holdings. Where compact the best programmes which are run by the blocks of tribal lands are not available, the Government of Tripura for the improvement of tribal families in each hamlet are being helped economic conditions of tribal women. Tribal to raise rubber plantation in their individual women live in hilly areas and their economic land holdings under the group planting conditions are not good. Generally they earn programme. Tripura Rehabilitation Plantation their livelihood from two sources i.e. from Corporation Ltd. (TRPC Ltd.) was formed with selling vegetables which are produced in jhum the main objective of economic rehabilitation land and from selling firewood collected from for the shifting cultivators and tribal marginal forest. The major problem faced by tribal farmers through rubber plantation. TRPC under administrative control of State Tribal women in hilly areas is the scarcity of water. Welfare Department is the 2nd largest For that reason they are unable to produce producer of rubber in the state. more vegetables. From firewood selling they Impact on Income Level are unable to earn sufficient amount for their bread and butter because of shortage of After rubber plantation economic status of markets. tribal women has changed as below, Table 2: Impact of rubber plantation on Although Tripura lies far outside the income level of tribal women’s traditional growing zone, the agro-climate n n o o

conditions in this state are more suitable for i n n i t t f f e e m m e e a a o o t g g o o

rubber plantation. m m r r v a a n r r i f f t t o o

t a e e l l n n e e b b W W u p e e Table: 1 shows the year wise extension in

l l m m c c C m m r

a a r r

5 o o e u u e e b b c c m

area of Rubber Plantation i i b N N P P r r n n u b I I T T h u

Sl J Year Area (in Hac) R No. Below 250 83.33 Below 0 0 1 1976-77 574 Rs. 1000 Rs. 1000 2. 1981-82 3590 Between 50 16.66 Between 0 0 3. 1986-87 10085 Rs. 1000-2000 Rs. 1000-2000 Between 0 0 Between 233 77.66 4. 1991-92 17860 Rs. 2000-5000 Rs. 2000-5000 5. 1996-97 23936 Between 0 0 Between 67 22.33 6. 2001-02 30576 Rs. 5000-10,000 Rs. 5000-10,000 Between 0 0 Between 0 0 7. 2006-07 35760 Rs. 10,000-20,000 Rs. 10,000-20,000 8. 2007-08 39670 Above 0 0 Above 0 0 Rs.20,000 Rs.20,000 9. 2008-09 46588 Total 300 100 300 100 Source: Rubber Board, Tripura Source: Field Survey -34- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 The above table shows that the economic Impact on Household Amenities: condition of tribal women have improved after During shifting farming tribal women were the beginning of rubber plantation. Before found using more traditional utensils made of rubber plantation i.e. during jhum cultivation, soil and bamboo. Their houses were empty 83.33 percent women’s income was below Rs. and there were no arrangement for sitting. 1000 but after seven years of rubber plant They were used to sleep on ground in their when the trees matured then 22.33 percent tong houses. At that time electricity was a families have income between Rs. 5,000- dream for them and they used to go for sleep 10,000. Those tribal women who previously very early at night. There was no existence of lived in small cottage and unable to collect two- kitchen in their houses and women used to square meals are now-a-days living in mud cook in the yard under the open sky. For houses with tin-roof and able to maintain good drinking water, they were dependent on standard of living. streams, pond and rivers and in maximum Impact on Educational Status of Jhumia's cases they used a polluted water. All families Children: used katcha toilet and it was dirtier. In both Earlier when tribal women depended on summer and winter period they suffered the shifting cultivation at that time income earned most because they did not have any by them was very less. They were unable to equipment for saving them. earn more because of uncertainty of rainfall. But objects of household amenities have Children of tribals did not go to school and they changed after the beginning of rubber helped their parents in paddy land. Very plantation. Every residence has durable freight negligible Children went to school during that like chair; table and those houses where period. electricity is present nearly all of them have But the situation has changed with the T.V., Fan, music system and mobile phone. beginning of rubber plantation. For their Steel and aluminum utensils are more superior financial condition, tribal women are common in kitchen. Nearly every family has now able to send their kids in schools. Now-a- separate kitchen and they do not cook under days tribal women are more conscious about the sky any more. Women now do not sleep on education of their children. Some times they ground and they are now more serious about even send their children in town for education. the drinking water and they generally collect Therefore rubber plantation has been able to drinking water from tube wells and wells. change the educational scenario in hilly areas. Nearly all families now have pakka toilet and it Impacts on Residential facilities is cleaner. So, tribals now live in healthy atmosphere. During the jhum cultivation tribal women lived in tiny prepared by cane & leaf and Impact on pattern of expenditure they faced problems during rainy season. During jhum cultivation they used to Almost every year their houses got broken collect food grains for their purpose from jhum when storm occurred in hilly areas. Parent & land and the forest. Their jhum cultivation was children living in this little used to sleep on totally dependent on rain water and they also the ground. Tribals in Tripura were scattered in consumed bamboo roots and soil potatoes. hilly areas and they lived in harmful conditions. Whatever they earned they generally spend it After rubber plantation, housing situation on food grains. When disease occurred, they of tribal women is transformed. Almost all tribal took credit from other persons in their locality beneficiaries have houses, which is built with and many times they were unable to collect tin-roof and mud wall. Their houses are now loan because people didn’t want to give loan to better and most of them have boundaries built them. They were unable to purchase good with cane. Water fall through roof is a historical dress and generally used narrow small cloth. dream to them. Their houses are neater and But after their initiation rubber plantation when cleaner than before. They at present live in they started earning more, their spending more comfortable condition as compared to patterns have totally changed. Now they are earlier. able to spend money on entertainment and

-35- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 clothes. At present they spend more money on and food grains and at the same time the types of 4. Carrying latex from the garden to house is consumption have also changed. Many a challenging work. women now do not prefer wearing the traditional dress and are willing to spend Conclusion money on buying modern dresses. At the same Rubber plantation is spreading in Tripura time they also save money because they are very rapidly. Government and private sectors quite concerned about their future. are engaged in Rubber Plantation. There are Impact on social status large possibilities of rehabilitating the tribal After rubber plantation social position of women through rubber plantation. Rubber tribal women has also enhanced to a great plantation has changed the life style as well as degree. Previously they used to feel social status of the tribal women in Tripura. It themselves inferior to others. They were shows them a new path to live a modern life. unable to communicate with other people in Although they are facing many problems in the society and their views on any social rubber plantation but it can be manageable if matters hardly mattered. They were generally they get good support from family members. isolated from the society. Rubber plantation Therefore, rubber plantation is the important has shown new path for earning and now they tool before government for economic feel more relaxed because scarcity of money is not a problem to them any more. They are settlement of tribal women. living in better environment and nearly all of References them are able to send their children to school. They feel more pleasure when they think that 1. Nair M.G. Sathees Chandran & Kumar they are now able to break the vicious cycle of K.G. Satheesh (Ed), Rubber Growers poverty. Companion, Published by Rubber Board, Challenges Faced by Tribal Women Kottayam, 2009, p 3 Tribal women are facing more challenges 2. Rao C.N.Shankar, Sociology: Principles for collecting latex from the rubber plantation, of Sociology with an introduction to social like as, thought, Sixth revised edition, S.Chand & 1. Though the time period of work is Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2009, pp 616- relatively low, tapping is heavy and 617 strenuous. Most of the women tappers are forced to undertake household work after 3. Sarkar Bibhuti Bhushan, Economic finishing the tedious job of tapping. Settlement of Tribal Youths in Tripura, Though most women tappers are getting First edition, Tribal Research Institution, up within the time period of 5 A.M to 6 A.M. Agartala, 1999, pp 51-52 many of them fail to go for tapping in time after doing some vital kitchen works like 4. Chakravarti Tapati, Economic Participation making tea, break fast etc. of Rural Women of Tripura: A Case Study, 2. Rubber plantations are generally present First edition, Tribal Research Institution, far away from the locality i.e. in isolated Agartala, 1999, pp 18-19 places. 5. Economic Review of Tripura 2008-09, 3. In many cases they are not aware about the proper technique for collecting latex, Government of Tripura, Agartala, p 130

-36- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 37-42 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Role of National Human Rights Commission in Upholding Children’s Rights Dr. Madhu Gupta Head, Department of Political Science Marwari College (Womens Section) Ranchi University, Ranchi

Abstract After being constituted in October 1993 , National Human Rights commission (NHRC) has worked hard to meet the menace of violation of rights relating to children. The commission has been concentrating its attention on preventing and eradicating the problems of child labour, child marriage, child trafficking and prostitution, child sexual violence, child rape etc. It was only after the initiative of the commission that the Government of India came up with legislation on free and compulsory education. Taking seriously the matter related to child trafficking, the commission launched sensitization programmes for judicial officers, police officers, administrative officers, functionaries of , NGO representative and civil society at large. Keywords : Juvenile, foeticide, Trafficking, Child labour Introduction scholars and critics have also been widely The ‘rights of children’, is one area on consulted. which the National Human Rights Commission Results and Discussions (NHRC) has tried to focus continuously ever The Commission, first and foremost, since it was constituted in October 1993. It concentrated on ending the problem of child observed from the very beginning that despite labour, especially those employed in there being major provisions in the hazardous industries. In order to provide Constitution of India for survival, development suitable remedies to the problem of child and protection of children as well as laws to labour, it made a special effort to study the safeguard their interests including the fact that plight of these children employed in the glass the Government of India had ratified the CRC, work and carpet making industries of Uttar children all over the country, especially those Pradesh, the beedi, match-sticks and fireworks belonging to weaker sections of the society, industries in Tamil Nadu and the slate-pencil were found to be vulnerable and their dignity making industry in Madhya Pradesh.It and human rights were often trampled. particularly paid attention on the glass work Though, the initial few months of the industry in the district of Ferozabad, Uttar Commission were spent on making an overall Pradesh, where some 50,000 children were assessment about the range of issues that reported to be working. For this, it evolved an affected children, but once this task was integrated programme, involving the completed, the Commission concentrated its coordinated efforts of a number of Central attention on preventing and eradicating the Ministries, the Government of , problems of child labour, child marriage, child Non-governmental organisations and other trafficking and prostitution, child sexual stakeholders. This programme was based on violence, female feticide and infanticide, child three inter-related concepts: income-support rape, HIV/AIDS in children and juveniles for the families from where children went to delinquency. work in the glass work industry; schooling, Materials and Methods including the creation of new facilities, for While concentrating on the topic various children weaned away from employment; and books of eminent scholars were consulted. rigorous implementation of the Child Labour Recourse has also been taken to make an in (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986, under depth study of the published works of the which there have been conspicuously few author. Reviews of the works by eminent prosecutions and lamentably fewer convictions.

-37- Simultaneously, the Commission consistently Commission’s continued efforts that education took a supplementary and, in a sense, a has today become a Fundamental Right for the different approach to that of the Government. children between the age group of 6 and 14 This approach laid emphasis on the provision years vide 86th Amendment of the Constitution. of free and compulsory education for children To end the scourge of child labour from the up to the age of 14 years, and the allocation of country, the Commission’s efforts have also an appropriate level of resources to achieve been directed towards generating greater this objective. awareness and sensitivity in the District This issue was of such critical significance Administration and Labour Departments of to the Commission that the then Chairperson concerned States. In order to create of the Commission addressed a letter in awareness among the masses, it has come out January 1996 to the Presidents of all the major with a ‘Know Your Rights’ series, in which one political parties in India. In it, he observed that of the booklets deals with the issue of child ‘despite the promise of Article 45 of the labour exclusively. Besides, it has issued Constitution, one incontrovertible fact faces specific directions to the concerned State the nation: the number of those who are Governments in respect of the detection and illiterate in the country exceeds the entire withdrawal of children employed in hazardous population of India at the time of occupations/processes, the admission of such independence. This grim reality enfeebles the children into the formal and non-formal system country in every way, whether civil and of schooling, particularly the schools political, or economic, social and cultural. It established under the National Child Labour affects the dignity and self-esteem of countless Project, the economic rehabilitation of the Indians and exposes them to constant affected families, and the prosecution of violations of their human rights. In its most offending employers. aggravated form, this finds painful expression The Commission through its Core Group in tens of millions of our youth working as child of Lawyers has also examined the draft labour, or even as bonded labour, in hazardous legislation – The Child Labour Prohibition Bill or utterly demeaning circumstances’. The that was prepared by the V.V. Giri National Chairperson thus urged that definite steps be Institute, an institution under the Ministry of taken to give comprehensive legislative Labour. The Commission is now pursuing with backing to the Directive Principle contained in the Government of India to enact a new law Article 45 of the Constitution prohibiting all forms of child labour. Now that In taking this stand, the then Department free and compulsory elementary education of Education deliberated on this matter has been made a fundamental right of every carefully and instead of all-India legislation on child up to the age of 14 years, the Commission free and compulsory education, it chose to hopes that all State Governments will ensure adopt a different strategy to achieve the goal of cent percent enrolment and retention of school the “universalization of elementary education”. going children, which alone can provide a Later, taking a cue from the landmark lasting solution to the problem of child labour. It judgement delivered by the Supreme Court on has also undertaken a study on the ‘Impact, 10 December 1996, in writ petition (civil) no. Community Response and Acceptance of 465/1986 M.C. Mehta vs. State of Tamil Nadu Non-Formal Education under the National and Ors., the Commission ensured that the Child Labour Project’ in the carpet weaving directions given in the judgment were districts and glass bangles region of implemented. In this task, the Chairperson, Ferozabad in Uttar Pradesh. Members and Special Rapporteurs of the In 1996-97, the Commission received Commission have toured rigorously to monitor disturbing reports of the employment of States where child labour is prevalent. These children below the age of 14 years as domestic States are Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya servants in the homes of government officials. Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Unacceptable as the practice is in any Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. It is due to circumstance, the Commission felt that the

-38- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 employment of such children as domestic help of these recommendations, the Government of in the homes of government officials was India introduced “The Prevention of Child particularly reprehensible. Following a Marriage Bill” in the Rajya Sabha on 20 meeting in January 1996, the Commission December 2004 incorporating all the decided to recommend that an appropriate rule recommendations of the Commission. Later, be included in the conduct rules of government the Bill was tabled in the on 29 servants, both at the Central and State levels, November 2005. The Bill was sent for which while prohibiting such employment examination of the Department Related would also make it a misconduct inviting a Parliamentary Standing Committee on major penalty. The Commission accordingly Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and requested the Minster of State in the Ministry of Justice. The proposed Bill is still pending. One Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions to of the reasons for this being that after the report take appropriate steps to introduce the rule into of the Parliamentary Related Committee, the the Government Service (Conduct) Rules Group of Ministers considered the amendments 1964, and proposed the precise wording requested by the Committee. Thereafter, required for this purpose. This view of the approval of the Cabinet was obtained on 21 Commission effected necessary amendments September 2006 for bringing about amendments to Conduct Rules of the Central and State in the Bill under consideration. It is now Government servants. By virtue of these proposed to move the Bill again in the Rajya amendments, employment of children below Sabha during the Winter Session of the 14 years by the government servants as Parliament in 2006. It is hoped that the domestic help now attracts disciplinary action. proposed Bill on becoming an Act would go a The widespread persistence of child long way in curbing the menace of child marriage in certain parts of the country coaxed marriage in the country. Pending the passage the Commission to examine this problem in its of the Bill into an Act, the Commission has enormity. On examination 56 of the problem, written to concerned Ministries/ Departments the Commission realised that the Child in the Central Government and the State Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (CMRA) should Governments/Union Territories to organise be recast so as to provide for higher penalty for mass-scale awareness programmes/ campaigns, the violations of the provisions of this Act and in association with the personnel of Integrated also to make the offence cognizable and non- Child Development Services, local self- bailable. In December 1999, it also considered governments/Panchayats and Legal Service the question of whether it would be preferable Authorities to educate and sensitise people to provide for compulsory registration of about the demerits of child marriages. marriages in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 Alerted by press reports to the alarming itself through appropriate amendments, increase in child trafficking and its ramifications instead of making such a provision in the like commercial sexual exploitation, pornography, CMRA. This was later discussed with the etc. in Tamil Nadu and Goa in the year 1995- Secretary, Legislative Department in 96, the Commission issued notices to the two September 2000. In order to know as to how State Governments as well as to the Ministry of many States had made rules under section 8 of Women and Child Development, Government the Hindu Marriage Act, the Chief Secretaries of India, calling for reports on the situation. of all the States were requested to send the Simultaneously, it also decided to have this requisite information. After considering the issue considered on a regular basis by a Core entire issue, the Commission decided to Group, consisting of representatives from the review and recast the CMRA. While reviewing National Commission for Women, the Ministry the CMRA, it recommended to the Government of Women and Child Development, UNICEF of India a number of amendments. Prominent and selected NGOs. The Core Group reviewed among them being the need to make a the existing laws and ways of improving their statutory provision for compulsory registration enforcement; it discussed the efforts made and of marriages as this would deter communities difficulties faced in rehabilitating children who from indulging in child marriages. In pursuance were victims of trafficking. Besides, it pressed

-39- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 for greater efforts at the level of SAARC to Action to Prevent and Combat Human strengthen laws as well as devise cooperative Trafficking with Special Focus on Children and measures so as to deal with trans-border Women. Ever since the Commission movements; and encouraged organisation of embarked on the Action Research, it has also workshops. Taking into consideration the been continuously sensitizing the judicial global consequences of this problem, the officers, police officers, administrative officers, Commission also represented itself at the First functionaries of Homes, NGO representatives World Congress Against Commercial Sexual and the civil society at large. A network of Exploitation of Children that was held in Nodal Officers, two in each State – one from Stockholm from 26-31 August 1996. the police department and the other from the In the year 2001, a member of the social welfare/women and child development Commission was designated to serve as a department, has been created to effectively Focal Point on Human Rights of Women deal with the problem of trafficking. including Trafficking. Under the guidance of Further, the Commission and the Ministry the Focal Point, an Action Research on of Women and Child Development, Trafficking in Women and Children in India was Government of India in partnership with conducted along with the UNIFEM. The main UNICEF have prepared a Manual for the objective of the Action Research was to find out Judicial Workers on Combating Trafficking of the trends and dimensions of trafficking, role of Women and Children for Commercial Sexual different law enforcement agencies in Exploitation. The purpose of the Manual is to preventing and combating trafficking, process sensitise the judicial officers to the actual of rescue/recovery, rehabilitation and reintegration situation of the trafficked victims and to provide and the role of other national institutions and them with a perspective so that they could the civil society in preventing and combating proactively safeguard the rights of victimised trafficking. The Action Research also women and children, through a sensitive examined the relationship between missing interpretation of the law. persons vs. trafficking, migration and trafficking, Sexual violence against children is tourism and trafficking and culturally another sensitive issue in which the sanctioned practices and trafficking. The Commission has taken concrete measures. report of the Action Research was released to Pained with the plight of child victims, vis-à-vis the general public on 24 August 2004. The the manner in which the issue was being report has brought forth startling facts, such as reported by the media, the Commission children are trafficked not only for commercial decided to intervene in the matter in the year sexual exploitation but also for various other 1998, when a two-month campaign was purposes. Based on the findings of the Action launched in New Delhi in collaboration with the Research, its report has made some useful Ministry of Women and Child Development, suggestions and recommendations to prevent UNICEF and non-governmental organisations. and end trafficking that could be seen on A mid-term appraisal of the campaign revealed Commission’s website (www.nhrc.nic.in). that irrespective of the medium, message or Taking into consideration these recommendations location, the campaign effectively raised as well as the recommendations of several other awareness about sexual violence against workshops on the issue of trafficking, the children. The respondents were however of Commission has evolved a Plan of Action to the view that in order to further enhance Prevent and End Trafficking in Women and awareness among the people at large, the Children in India and disseminated to all electronic media too would have to be involved concerned across the country. The and mobilised. As a result, the NHRC, in Commission is now working on this issue along partnership with Prasar Bharati and UNICEF with the Ministry of Women and Child held four workshops for radio and television Development, Ministry of Affairs and the producers. The participants for these National Commission for Women and is workshops were drawn from 20 States. It was collectively evolving an Integrated Plan of during the course of these workshops that an

-40- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 idea of bringing out a guidebook for the media problem of female feticide and infanticide. to address the issue of sexual violence against The violation of the rights of children has children emerged. Based on the deliberations been considered in the Commission from the of these workshops, the Commission and the angle of health too. In 2000 and 2001, the Prasar Bharati, with support from UNICEF, Commission organised a Workshop on Human jointly prepared A Guidebook for the Media on Rights and HIV/AIDS that was followed by a Sexual Violence Against Children. The main Consultation on Public Health and Human objective of the guidebook is to encourage Rights. Both these had direct relevance to the media professionals to address the issue of rights of children. Later, in the year 2004, the sexual violence against children in a Chairperson of the Commission addressed consistent, sensitive and effective manner, letters to the Union Ministers for Human consonant with the rights and best interest of Resource Development, Health and Chief children. The Commission currently is also in Ministers of all States/Union Territories urging the process of preparing guidelines for speedy them to take steps to prevent discrimination of disposal of child rape cases. children affected by HIV/AIDS with regard to access to education and health care. In Faced with the widely prevalent misuse of particular,the Commission asked them to sex determination tests to commit female enact and enforce a legislation to prevent feticide, the Commission approached the children living with HIV/AIDS from being Medical Council of India during the year 1995- discriminated against, including being barred 96, to take a position on the ethical aspects of from school. such tests. After reviewing the matter, the Council decided to suggest suitable amendments The Commission has been concerned to the regulations governing the code of about the plight of juveniles who come in medical ethics, in order to enable undertaking conflict with law and those who are in need of of disciplinary proceedings against errant care and protection in the country. Consequently, doctors. Thereafter, the issue of ‘discrimination’ the Commission in 1996 wrote letters to Chief as a cause of human rights violations was Secretaries Administrators of all States/Union examined in great detail in the Commission’s Territories on the reporting of deaths/rapes in Annual Report for 1999-2000, especially in Juvenile/Children’s Homes within 24 hours. relation to gender and caste-based On monitoring the situation, it was found that discrimination. In the light of recommendations some of the Homes were still not functioning made by the CRC Committee in its concluding properly. The 60 Commission, in 2002, thus observations with regard to the report on once again directed the Chief Secretaries/ children submitted by the Government of India, Administrators of all States/Union Territories to the Commission reiterated that there was an ensure prompt communication of incidents of urgent need to ensure that free and custodial deaths/rapes in Juvenile/Children’s compulsory education was provided as a Homes. This apart, the Law Division of the fundamental right to all children until they Commission has been dealing with cases of completed the age of 14 years. It also violations concerning the juveniles and the emphasised the need for undertaking a Research Division has been collating vigorous and comprehensive national campaign information about the status of implementation against female feticide and infanticide. During of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of the course of regional and national Children) Act, 2000 from all States and Union consultations on Public Health and Human Territories. For the latter purpose, it has Rights that were held during 2002- 03, the devised a format seeking information Commission again took up the issue of regarding implementation of the various combating female foeticide and infanticide. provisions of the 2000 Act. It has also The issue featured again when the Commission undertaken a research study on the subject organised a Colloquium on Population Policy – along with a non-governmental organisation. Development and Human Rights in January The study on completion will suggest 2003. To counter this problem, the Commission measures for better implementation of the Act. has maintained that vigorous and comprehensive measures be taken by all States and Union The Commission since its inception has Territories to put an end to the gruesome been handling complaints of different kinds

-41- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 related to children. Majority of the complaints economic, social and cultural way. It affects handled by the Commission so far have been adversely the dignity and self-esteem of on the issue of child labour, child marriage, countless Indians and exposes them to juvenile justice, child trafficking, child rape, constant violations of human rights. This finds missing children, exploitation of children of painful expression in millions of our youth varied kinds, deaths in juvenile/observation working as child labour in hazardous or utterly homes, etc. The Commission till 31 October demeaning circumstances. 2006 had registered 2,885 cases of children. References Out of these, 489 cases pertained to child labour, 266 cases were related to child 1. Bose A.B,The State of Children in India, marriage, 31 cases were of children who were Manohar Publishers, New Delhi, 2003 being misused for commercial sexual 2. Department of Women and Child exploitation, 385 cases were related to Development, MHRD, GoI Annual different kinds of exploitation and 61 cases Reports from 1986-87 to 2004-05 pertained to trafficking in children. The other 3. Government of India. 1974. National cases registered were related to disappearance, Policy for Children, New Delhi: Government deaths in juvenile/observation homes, sexual of India harassment/abuse, rape, etc. While dealing 4. India Alliance for Child Rights 2003. India with these cases, the Commission has – Every Right for Every Child : 2003 awarded a total compensation of Rupees Citizens Alternate Review and Report on 45,20,000/- to children who were victims of India’s Progress Towards CRC Realisation, different kinds of violations. New Delhi : IACR. The Commission has vigorously pursued 5. Kakar Sudhir, The Inner World – A with the Government of India to ratify the two Psycho-Analytic Study of Childhood and Optional Protocols to the CRC, viz. the Society in India, Oxford University Press, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Delhi,1982 Rights of the Child on the Involvement of 6. Luthra P.N.,The Child in India: Policy Children in Armed Conflict and the Optional Provisions and Practices in Child in India, Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the S.D. Gokhale and N.K. Sohoni (eds.), Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd, Bombay,1979 and Child Pornography. Accordingly, the 7. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India ratified the latter Protocol Annual Report, 1999-2000, Government on 16 August 2005 and the former Optional of India, New Delhi,2000 Protocol on 30 November 2005. It is the 8. Ministry of Women and Child Development, intention of the Commission to continue Government of India website ww.wcd. monitoring all situations where children’s rights nic.in are being affected. 9. National Human Rights Commission’s Conclusion Annual Reports – 1993-94 to 2004-05 Thus, it can be said that despite the 10. Planning Commission of India website promise of Article 45 of the Constitution the www.planningcommission.gov.in in particular number of those who are illiterate in the the Five-Year Plans country exceeds the entire population of India 11. Department of Women and Child Deve- at the time of its independence. This reality lopment, MHRD, GoI Annual Reports weakness the country in civil, political 2004-05

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The Reality of HIV/AIDS in Primary Schools in India after two decades Dr.Kalpana Sharma Head, Department of Home Science G.D.M.Girls P.G. College, Modinagar, U.P. Shikha Trivedi Research Scholar, Department of Home Science G.D.M. Girls P.G. College, Modinagar, U.P.

Abstract Life with HIV/AIDS is reality for the entire world and once an individual is infected; there is no cure till date. Young people are, an important group and potential resource for the prevention of HIV/AIDS. Many young people lack basic information about HIV and AIDS till today even after twenty five years of prevalence, and are unaware of the ways in which HIV infection can be prevented. Education is a valuable tool in the fight against pandemic. The health of children or kids is very important since they are the leaders of future. This implies that school curriculum should be such that increases the awareness it HIV/AIDS that equip the children with proper skills to combat this pandemic. Therefore, the Researcher has aimed to research on ‘The reality of HIV/AIDS in primary schools after two decades. There is a need to provide additional resources and conduct workshops for the students. Parents involvement on HIV/AIDS issues can really backup the understanding of HIV/AIDS among children. Keywords: Infection, Immune system, dificiency Introduction fight off the virus and does make some HIV/AIDS was first recognized as a new antibodies but these antibodies are not able to disease about twenty-three years ago. Since defeat HIV. then the disease became a ‘pandemic’ and Many young people lack basic information illness that is spreading quickly across the about HIV and AIDS, and are unaware of the world. India is one of the largest and most ways in which HIV infection can occur, and of populated countries in the world. It is estimated the ways in which HIV Infection can be that around 2.5 million people out of over one prevented. The case for education is largely 1 billion people are currently living with HIV . undisputed. Many countries have pledged their Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV) is commitment to provide universal primary a virus. It acts by gradually destroying the education, and the rights to education have immune system of the infected person and been clearly enshrined in the Convention of the after about 5 to 10 years the immune system Rights to the child. A general foundation in becomes so weak or deficient that it cannot formal education serves as a prospective fight off as earlier. HIV is found in body fluids barrier to HIV infection or in other words has such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids and negative correlation between HIV susceptibility breast milk. It is passed from one person to and education attainment. another through unprotected sex, infected blood and from infected mother to her baby. Schools are an excellent point of contact for young people- almost all people attend Illnesses caused by a virus cannot be school for some part of their childhood, and cured by antibiotics, although medicine may while they are there, they expect to learn new help to reduce the symptoms. People who information, and are more receptive to it than have virus such a cold, usually get better after they might be in another environment 2. a few days or weeks because of the white blood cells of the immune system, which are At the beginning of 1986, India had no responsible for fighting diseases successfully reported cases of HIV/AIDS 3. The first case of overcoming them. But when a person is HIV was diagnosed among sex workers in infected with HIV, the immune system tries to Chennai, Tamil Nadu and it was noted that

-43- contact with foreign visitors had played a role in school only average, below average and initial infections4. Since then HIV has spread above average students were selected. extensively throughout the country. In 1990 Chart 2: Whether students have heard there had been tens of thousands of people about HIV/AIDS? living with HIV in India; by 2000 this had risen to Yes millions 5. No In India, there is a discrepancy between the large amount of effort invested in HIV/AIDS 23.75% curriculums and training packages on a national level and the lack of actual education being carried out in many schools. Some 76.25% officials, social and political leaders including the society itself have been reluctant to encourage the effective AIDS Education system that can play a vital part to curb and combat to deal with HIV/AIDS, claiming that Pie chart 2 shows that 76.3% of students the problem is not significant. had and 23.8% had not heard about HIV/AIDS. This is giving a clue that after twenty three Materials and Methods years of these pandemic and continuous The study was carried out using efforts by the government to fight against this quantitative research method that uses disease, students are still lacking in basic objective measurements and numerical or information about this pandemic. statistical analysis in trying to explain the Chart 3: Respondents view on importance causes of the changes. The study was of teaching HIV/AIDS topic in class conducted at Gurgaon, Ajmer, Mumbai and Noida. Questionnaire was used to collect data. Yes No Questionnaire had two sections: Section A to get the background information about the 17.50% sample and Section B had some basic awareness questions to test the extent of awareness level of the samples. Data was analyzed using SPSS 17.0 version and results 82.50% are explained in the form of charts and tables. Results and Discussions Chart 1: Gender of respondents (Primary school) Data in pie chart 3 reveal that 82.5% students accepted that it is important to teach about HIV/AIDS, whereas,17.5% respondents did not see this as an important topic. Findings of the research are in line with the study which assessed the students’ knowledge on HIV and their needs to improve that knowledge. Result 45.00% 55.00% shows that 79% wished to learn more on HIV/AIDS. 38% suggested a book on HIV/AIDS to be distributed. 13% wished to have lectures integrated into their study course, while the rest of the students preferred to have both. It means that there is a need for Results in chart 1 shows that there were effective HIV/AIDS education campaign 55% male respondents and 45% female among the student community. This will help respondents. This simply may be due to the them to develop the skills for serving the 6 sampling of the students because from each infected .

-44- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Chart 4: Any other place of information in Yes No the school besides class room y y t t c c n n Statements to test n n e e e e c c

awareness level u u r r q q e e

60 e e P P r r F F 6. You can get Infection 26 32.5 54 67.6 t

n through shaking hand with e 40 HIV patient c r 68.8 7. It is important to use hand 69 86.3 11 13.7 e

P gloves when dressing a wound 20 31.3 Findings in table 1 show the responses on various statements.

0 Statement 1: 77.5% Indian students Yes No agreed that they do not mind if teacher teaching them is HIV positive. According to chart 4, 68.8% respondents Statement 2: 61.3 %(India) students had indicated that there were places in school other no problem in buying food stuff from HIV than class room where the information on positive shop keeper. This means that HIV/AIDS were displayed. It means schools students know that HIV/AIDS cannot be are trying to make sure to provide information contracted by simply be in contact with the HIV to the students within the school about patients. HIV/AIDS besides classroom. It can be Statement 3: True and 81.3% students inferred that the India is trying to build good responded correctly. basic foundation on HIV/AIDS related issues at Statement 4: True and 81.3% students primary level. Experts also agree that agreed. prevention through education is the best way to fight the transmission of human immune Statement 5: False. 61.3% students deficiency virus, which causes AIDS and that addressed it correctly. education must begin before young people Statement 6: False and 67.6% students initiate to sexual activity and certainly no later agreed. than seventh grade.7 Statement 7: True and only 13.7 % Table 1: Statements to test awareness level students agreed. of primary school students A study conducted in Iran also revealed that 67–96% students correctly answered the Yes No questions. However, many misconceptions y y t t c c were still noted relating to HIV/AIDS, with 9% n n Statements to test n n e e e e of students believing that children would never c c

awareness level u u r r be affected by HIV/AIDS, 10% believing that q q e e e e P P r r HIV-positive people can be recognized by their F F appearance, 9% and 11% believing that there 1. Would you like to be is a cure and vaccine for AIDS respectively.8 taught by HIV positive teacher? 62 77.5 18 22.5 Table 2: Awareness level of primary 2. Would you buy food stuff school respondents from shopkeeper who is HIV positive ? 49 61.3 31 38.8 Awareness level Frequency Percent 3. HIV is a virus causes AIDS. 65 81.3 15 18.8 Above average 31 38.8 4. HIV is spread through Average 17 21.3 sharing blades and needles. 65 81.3 15 18.8 Below average 32 39.9 5. HIV/AIDS is one and the Total 80 100.0 same thing. 31 38.8 49 61.3

-45- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Results of table 2 show that 38.8% HIV related issues. students’ awareness level was above average, References 21.3% average & 39.9% students showed 1. UNAIDS, 2.5 million People in India living below average level of awareness. with HIV.http://www.unaids.org retrieved Table 3: Mean of the awareness level of on 02/02/08, 2007 respondents 2. UNAIDS and WHO, Life with HIV/AIDS in Gender Mean Sub Saharan Africa. http://www. Male 4.9 unaids.org retrieved on 02/ 02/09, 2004 Female 5.3 3. UNAIDS, 2.5 million People in India living Total 5.1 with HIV, 2007. http://www.unaids.org retrieved on 02/02/08 The overall mean of the respondents was 5.1. Total mean for female was more (5.3) than 4. Kakar D.N. & Kakar S.N., Combating male (4.9). Schools can help to reduce the AIDS in the 21st century issues and vulnerability of girls to HIV and AIDS by challenges, Sterling Publishers Private empowering them with knowledge. Education Limited India, 2011 can contribute to female economic 5. Ghosh T.K., AIDS: A serious challenge to independence, delayed marriage, and family public health; Journal of Indian Medical planning. Several studies have demonstrated Association, Jan; 84:29-30, 1986 the fact that education can protect women from HIV. 6. Black J.L. & Jones L.H., HIV Infection: Conclusion Educational Programmes and Policies for HIV/AIDS is still a disease of major school personnel. Journal of School concern. After so many years, education Health, 58(8), 317-322, 1998 sector is not fully equipped with the resources 7. National AIDS Control Organization. (human & non-human) and to some people, it Combating HIV/AIDS in India, 2000-2001. is still a stigma. Basic information on HIV/AIDS Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, is given in primary schools but need to put New Delhi, 2001 more efforts in secondary schools. Topic does not need to stand alone but can be taught in 8. Tavoosi L., Zaferani. A., Enzevaei A., Tajik conjunction with other subjects as it is P., and Madinezhad. Z. Journal of Public happening in some of the schools. Teachers Health, 4: 17:10.1186/ 1471-2458-4-17, need to be positive while delivering lecture on 2004

-46- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 47-52 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Global Warming - An Ecological concept of Chipko Andolan Dr. Reeta Kumari Lecturer, Dept. of Psychology Marwari College, Ranchi

Abstract The growing Carbon dioxide gas increase global warming, which causes severe problems to human life like irregular climate change, irregular rain fall, skin diseases, rise of water level in the sea, effect on human and animal health etc. The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan is a socio-ecological movement that practised the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees in order to protect. A commonly cited goal is to stabilize Green House Gases (GHG) concentrations around 450-550 parts per million (ppm), or about twice pre-industrial levels. This is the point at which many believe that the most damaging impacts of climate change can be avoided. Carbon credits are a key component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One Carbon Credit is equal to one ton of Carbon dioxide. Leaders and climate experts met at the ten-day UN Climate Change Conference at Copenhagen on 10-18 December 2009 and more than 85 world leaders participated. The Copenhagen climate conference was one of the most important world summit since the end of World War II. Keywords: Green House Gases, Carbon Credit, Chipko Andolan, Bishnois, Khejri trees Introduction The most significant cause: The buildup of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, mainly from Glaciers are melting, sea levels are rising, our fossil fuel emissions, is the most significant cloud forests are drying, and wildlife is human cause of global warming. Carbon scrambling to keep pace. It's becoming clear dioxide is released every time we burn that humans have caused most of the past century's warming by releasing heat-trapping something, be it a car, aeroplane or coal plant. gases as we power our modern lives with so This means we must burn less fossil fuel if we called greenhouse gases (GHG), their levels want the Earth's climate to remain stable! And are higher now than in the last few years. We unfortunately, we are currently destroying call the result Global Warming. some of the best known mechanisms for storing those carbon-- plants. Plants, trees and If one wants to help stop global warming, oceans are main absorbers of carbon dioxide. one has to understand how his or her actions Due to deforestation trees are no longer are causing it. The main causes of global absorbing carbon dioxide and the oceans are warming, in order of the magnitude of their no longer able to store carbon as they had been impact, are : in the past. The ocean is a huge carbon sink, 1. Carbon Dioxide from Fossil Fuel, holding about 50 times as much carbon as the Deforestation , Failing Sinks. atmosphere. But now scientists are realizing 2. Methane from Cattle and Rice Paddies that the increased thermal stratification of the 3. Nitrogen Oxides from Farming oceans has caused substantial reductions in levels of phytoplankton, which store Co . 4. Other Gases 2 Increased atmospheric carbon is also causing Effects of Global Warming an acidification of the ocean, since carbon The planet is warming, from North Pole to dioxide forms carbonic acid when it reacts with South Pole, and everywhere in between water. The tiny plants of the ocean, the very Globally, the mercury is already up more than bottom of that vast watery food , are 0.8 degree Celsius, and even more in sensitive suffering from the effects of global warming, Polar Regions. which means they are becoming less able to

-47- store carbon, further contributing to climate congenital abnormalities from toxics in their change. Nearly 80 percent of greenhouse gas food and water, some of which may have emissions come from industrial activities originated hundreds of kilometers away. In including power generation; waste management, classic cases of rebound, pesticides exported transport, and building operations, while 20 from industrial country A (whose ‘aware’ percent come from deforestation, according to residents may have forced its government to the UNFCC. ban their use in their own country) to ‘developing’ country B, have been found in We see around us growing evidence of food items imported back from B to A. The human-caused harm in many regions of the ozone layer protecting the earth from harmful earth : solar radiation is being punctured and depleted by industrial emissions from industrial ?Dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, countries, causing abnormalities in wildlife and earth and living beings; skin cancer amongst humans. Ironically, fair- ?Destruction and depletion of irreplaceable skinned people are more prone to this effect. life forms and natural resources; And climate change brought about by global warming, is already causing changes in ?Major and undesirable disturbances in the weather patterns, threatening to submerge earth’s climate and protective layers; vast tracts of low-lying coastal areas and islands, and beginning to cause havoc to Gross deficiencies, harmful to physical, agricultural systems. mental and social health, in the living and working environments of humans, especially in The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan cities and industrial complexes. To large is a socio-ecological movement that practiced numbers of humanity, especially communities the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non- that have been termed ‘ecosystem people’ violent resistance, through the act of hugging (people depending on the natural environments trees to protect. The modern Chipko movement of their own locality to meet most of their started in the early 1970s in Uttarakhand, with material needs), natural resources are the growing awareness towards rapid deforestation. base of survival and livelihoods. Their material A group of female of Reni village, Uttarakhand, and economic sustenance largely depends on acted to prevent the cutting of trees and these. In India alone, around 70% of the reclaim their traditional forest rights. By the population directly depends on land-based 80s, the movement spread throughout India, occupations, forests, wetlands and marine The first recorded event of Chipko took place habitats, for basic subsistence requirements when 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi with regard to water, food, fuel, housing, fodder sacrificed their lives while protecting green and medicine as also for ecological livelihoods Khejri trees, considered sacred by the & cultural sustenance (TPCG and Kalpavriksh community, by hugging them, Hence we say 2005). Given this close interdependence of that Chipko Andolan has its root in “Bishnoi humans and their environment, it is not Andolan”.One of the prominent Chipko surprising that the culture of societies is so leaders, Gandhian Sunderlal Bahuguna took a greatly influenced by their environment. They 5,000 kilometer trans-Himalaya foot march in seek inspiration, knowledge, spirituality and 1981-83, spreading the Chipko message to a aesthetics within their natural surroundings. far greater area. One of Bahuguna's notable But it is not only ‘ecosystem people’ who are contributions to that cause was his creation of dependent on the natural environment. It is all the Chipko's slogan "Ecology is permanent humans, even the rich urban resident in Paris economy”. or Washington who may be under the delusion that he/she is buffered by the props of modern The state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan technology. In the growing cities of the Bahuguna, set up a committee to look into the industrializing world, millions of residents of all issue which eventually, ruled in favour of the classes are now prone to lung and skin villagers. This became a turning point in the diseases, water-borne illnesses, and history of eco-development struggles in the

-48- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 region. Over the next five years the movement nation. A unique agitation to save trees by spread to many districts of the region, and ordinary individuals in Karnataka was seen. within a decade throughout the Uttarakhand. Internal squabbles and external resistance The Chipko movement of India has gained have weakened many environmental enormous fame throughout the world's movements, yet the southern version of the environmentalist circles for its successful Chipko movement has seemingly waded its efforts against deforestation. The Chipko way through such predictable uncertainties. Andolan is also called as forest conservation Appiko was born that time and grew quickly movement based on people's power which has over the next three months. Appiko believes become famous for its work in preventing the that despite being submissive they are unlikely destruction of forests in India. to be psychologically swamped. Nature-based conflicts have increased in frequency and Materials and Methods intensity in India. They revolve around competing claims over forests, land, water and While concentrating on the topic various fisheries, and have generated a new books of eminent scholars were consulted. movement struggle for the rights of victims of Recourse has also been taken to make an in ecological degradation. The environmental depth study of the published works of the movement has added a new dimension to author. Reviews of the works by eminent Indian democracy and civil society. Practical scholars and critics have also been widely and theoretical considerations of activist- consulted. educators using environmental popular Results and Discussions education in indigenous social movements in India are explored. The responses of these The growing Carbon dioxide gases social movements to destructive developments increase global warming, which causes severe are linked with the theoretical dialogue on problems to human life like irregular climate environmental adult education, behavior change, irregular rain fall, skin diseases, rise of psychology and social transformation. water level in the sea or increase of sea level, effect on human and animal health etc. It Chipko Andolan was led by a group of becomes dangerous to all creatures including females of Reni village. Female determination human life, animal life, plants and herbs. We for a movement is stronger than male. But should realize and think to get immediate unfortunately females are low paid. The solution to reduce the problem. We should argument that men and women are 'equal yet learn from Chipko Andolan to protect the life of different' is articulated by some 'religious trees so that environment should be clean and feminists'. They argue that according to their trees can absorb Carbon dioxide. Infrastructural religious traditions, men and women are development of cities by cutting trees is not intended to have different social roles but that advisable but we are regularly doing it and these roles are considered to be equally widening of Road and urban and industrial important. Women are more environment developments are causing deforestation. We loving. Psychological and Environmental should stop it and common mass should ethics deals with issues related to the rights of protest such deforestation. Media is one of the individuals that are fundamental to life and well important tools to proceed in the field and high being. There concerns are not only the need of light the issue to protect environment by each person today, but also those who will stopping tree cutting. Our ancient people were come after us. It also deals with the rights of so educated regarding the protection of other living creatures that inhabit our earth. environment that they worshiped trees also “One is often amazed and extremely angry, like God in order to prevent trees from when people talk about Environment destruction. Education for the villages. It is the so-called, educated people who need Environment Chipko Andolan & its Psychological Education more than anyone else. impact: Chipako Andolan in Uttarakhand has given impact of its movement throughout the One thinks of forests as being degraded

-49- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 due to fuel wood collection by poor rural Many people and governments are communities, but forgets that the rich use already working hard to cut greenhouse gases, much greater quantities of timber Biomass and everyone can help. based industries that include cotton textiles, paper, plywood, rubber, soap, sugar, tobacco, Motor fuel accounts for 60% of carbon jute, chocolate, food processing and packaging. emissions over the past 20 years. In 1999 the These need land, energy, irrigation and forest transportation sector overtook Industry as the resources. Do each of us realise this when we biggest producer of carbon emissions in the utilise, use excessively or waste these United States, according to the Energy resources that we get indirectly from the Information Administration. Food shipment forests? We should study the behaviour of rich has a serious cost, both ecologically and people and advise them to change their needs. financially; the average meal on the plate in the US has travelled 2000 miles to get to them. The well to do educated urban dweller This helps to explain why every calorie of food consumes larger quantities of resources and they consume costs an average of ten calories energy, than the traditional rural individuals. of energy to produce. That imbalance is a Urban dwellers who are far removed from the major contributor to global warming, pouring source of natural resources that sustain their Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases lives thus require exposure to a well-designed into the atmosphere at a far greater rate than environment education program to appreciate the oceans and vegetation can store or these issues. While the rural people have a reprocess. Hence we should, buy local, eat deep insight into the need for sustainable use local. of natural resources and know about methods of conservation, there are however several Carbon credits are a key component of newer environmental concerns that are national and international attempts to mitigate frequently outside their sphere of life the growth in concentrations of GHGs. One experiences. Their traditional knowledge of Carbon Credit is equal to one ton of Carbon environmental concerns cannot be expected dioxide. Carbon trading is an application of an to bring about an understanding of issues such emission trading approach. Greenhouse gas as global warming, or problems created by emissions are capped and then markets are pollution, pesticides, etc. These people thus used to allocate the emissions among the require a different pattern of environment group of regulated sources. Since GHG education that is related to their gaps in mitigation projects generate credits, this information. approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners Solutions: The evidence that humans are and around the world. causing global warming is strong, but the question of what to do about it remains There are also many companies that sell controversial. Economics, Sociology, Carbon Credits to commercial and individual Psychology and politics are all important customers who are interested in lowering their factors in planning for the future. carbon footprint on a voluntary basis. These carbon off setters purchase the credits from an A commonly cited goal is to stabilize investment fund or a carbon development Green House Gases (GHG) concentrations company that has aggregated the credits from around 450-550 parts per million (ppm), or individual projects. Overall the carbon market about twice pre-industrial levels. This is the has "great potential" for cutting greenhouse point at which many believe the most gas emissions, but countries need to develop damaging impacts of climate change can be policies that would allow the market to thrive avoided. Current concentrations are about 380 past 2012, when Kyoto ends, the UNFCC said. ppm, which means there isn't much time to lose. According to the IPCC, we'd have to There are two distinct types of Carbon reduce GHG emissions by 50% to 80% of what Credits: Carbon Offset Credits (COC's) and they're on track to be in the next century to Carbon Reduction Credits (CRC's). Carbon reach this level. Offset Credits consist of clean forms of energy -50- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 production, wind, solar, hydro and bio fuels. atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations Carbon Reduction Credits consist of the in half, versus 2000 levels. collection and storage of Carbon from our atmosphere through bio sequestration The Copenhagen climate conference has (reforestation, forestation), ocean and soil four achievable goals, according to the collection and storage efforts. Both approaches UNFCC: are recognized as effective ways to reduce the 1. Make clear how much developed Global Carbon Emissions "crises". countries, such as the U.S., Australia, and The Kyoto Protocol is a legally binding Japan, will limit their greenhouse gas emissions-reduction treaty created in 1997 in emissions. Kyoto, Japan. The Kyoto agreement aims to 2. Determine how, and to what degree, reduce global industrial greenhouse gas developing countries, such as China, emissions by an average of 5 percent against India, and Brazil, can limit their emissions 1990 levels over a five-year period—from 2008 without limiting economic growth. to 2012. 3. Explore options for "stable and predictable The Kyoto climate treaty, which went into financing" from developed countries that force in 2005, was ratified by 185 nations but can help the developing world reduce not the United States. greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to Copenhagen Summit, December 2009 climate change. (COP15) 4. Identify ways to ensure that developing Between 10-18 December 2009 political countries are treated as equal partners in leaders and climate experts met at the ten-day decision-making, particularly when it UN Climate Change Conference. comes to technology and finance.

With more than 85 world leaders Conclusion participated, the Copenhagen climate was one Environmental Law is deeply intertwined of the most important world summit since the with Human Rights. There are two basic end of World War II, according to the conceptions of environmental human rights in International Institute for Environment and the current human rights system. The first is Development, an independent research institute that the right to a healthy or adequate based in London. environment is itself a human right. The What are the Copenhagen Climate second conception is the idea that Conference's goals? environmental human rights can be derived from other human rights, usually - the right to Their goal: to hash out a new game plan life, the right to health, the right to private family for tackling global warming. life and the right to property. “Environment” includes water, air and land and the inter- The UN Framework on Climate Change relationship which exists among and between aims to stabilize atmospheric concentrations water, air and land, and human beings, other of greenhouse gases to a level that will not living creatures, plants, microorganism and create "dangerous" interference with the property. Universal Declaration of Human climate. Right (UDHR) was declared on 10th Dec 1948 by United Nation and there are 193 members Though there is still debate as to what and signatory of this right including India. It constitutes "dangerous," the concentration of means India is agreed and bound to obey the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere before measures of Human Right. But the situation of the industrial revolution was 278 parts per human rights in India is a complex one million, contrasted with 381 today. because of the country's large size and By 2050 the UNFCC hopes to cut tremendous diversity, its status as a

-51- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 developing country and a sovereign, secular, 4. Mani Vaskam N., Environmental Pollution, democratic republic. We should develop our National Book Trust, New Delhi, 1984. selves to protect environment, educate our new generation about the proper use of fossil 5. Menon & Viegas P., Forests, Environment fuel, plan to plant trees in our areas, protect and Tribal Economy, Indian Social trees from deforestation, and follow the aims Institute, New Delhi, 1991 and objectives of Chipko Andolan, mass 6. Grieder P.K.F., Cosmic Rays at Earth : movement against industrialization and Researcher's References Manual and infrastructural development on the cost of Data Book, Elsevier, 2001 deforestation. Global warming is global issue; we should participate in climate protection 7. Haynes Jeffrey, The Chipko Movement conferences and share our views in the Politics in the developing world: a concise interest of the society for the generations to introduction, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002, p 229 come. 8. Hillas A. M., Cosmic Rays, Pergamon References Press, University Press, Oxford, London, 1972 1. Clay R. and Dawson B, Cosmic Bullets, Allen & Unwin, London, 1997 9. Shiva Vandana , The women of Chipko Staying alive: women, ecology, and 2. Gaisser T. K., Cosmic Rays and Particle development, Wiley-Blackwell, 1998, Physics, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, p 67 New York, 1990 10. Tickell Alex, Khejarli - Chipko Arundhati 3. Laeeq Futehally, Our Environmental Roy's The God of Small Things, by Pollution, National Book Trust, New Delhi, Routledge, 2007, p 34 1992

-52- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 53-63 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Attitudinal differences between the sons and their fathers: A study of generation gap Dr. Shashi Kala Singh P.G. Department of Psychology Ranchi University, Ranchi

Abstract Efforts have been made to examine the role of socio-economic status (SES), on the attitudinal modernity of college students (Sons) and their fathers. A dynamic model has been used in the present study. The model is based on the assumption that if the two generations continue to share the same education and environmental exposure the difference between them will remain static. The result showed that in low SES group the level of modernity is high in sons as compared to their fathers. Because in low SES group the fathers are illiterates or very low literates and their sons are educated and have above three years college education. The exposure of modernity is greater in sons as compared to their fathers. Keywords: Generation gap, socio- economic status, modernity Introduction have been undertaken by social scientists (Armstrong and Scatzin, 1974; Bengtson, In every age, since the dawn of civilization 1970; Bengtson, Furlong and Laufer, 1974; differences of some kind or the other existed Gallagher, 1979; Freedman1972; Lerner, between the generations. The last four 1958; Lerner, Pandof and Emery 1971; Lerner, decades show the differences between the Karson, Heisels and Knapp, 1975; Thomas, older and younger generation, which came to 1974). These studies have compared the be explained in terms of generation gap. Even attitudinal differences between adolescents from the time of Greek civilization, the older and their parents on contemporary issues. people expressed surprise and appeared to be annoyed at the behaviour of the younger Generation gap is not a result of single people (Clark and Clark, 1972; Erikson, 1968; factor. It has emerged basically because of Gassett, 1958; Feuer, 1969; Kakar and differences between the younger and the older Chowdhry, 1970; Sinha, 1972).Youth is given generation in respect of so many factors. The much attention in political sociology as the differences between the younger and the older representative of that force which can bring generations are in physiological, psychological about social change through new political and socio-cultural terms. attitudes or through conflict and revolt (Alan India is a developing country. The nation is France Brown 2005; Chaplin, 1991, Flacks, undergoing the process of modernization 1971; Jennings and Niemi, 1975; Keniston, characterized by rapid social and psychological 1968, McBrien, Julie 2009; Patel, 2002). In the changes. Growth of cities, increase in literacy context of conflicts or revolts they are obviously concerned with an investigation of rate, establishment of industries, mass media student’s movements (Feuer, 1969; Weinberg and introduction of Indian constitution based and Walker, 1969).The present age is on social equality and secularism are major characterized by youth rebellion. The concept social changes which certainly have very attracted the attention of intellectual scientists positive and strong impact on our attitudes and other academicians. The youth rebellion is taking us to modernity. a characteristic of an affluent age. Modernity denotes positive changes in This term has been also used to describe attitudes, beliefs and values. It incorporates inter-generational conflict and value crisis. The rational ideas, secular attitudes, belief in intensity of the inter-generational gap ranges human efficacy, and expression of personal from feelings of generational differences to a opinion on public issues, acceptance, of state of acute inter-generational conflict. democratic norms, political participation and Several systematic studies of generation gap exposure to new experiences.

-53- Modernization is actually a process of urban industrial exposure, mass media change in ways of perceiving, expressing and exposure and more importantly education. If behaving. Inkeles and Smith (1974) has the two generations will have significantly written “The modern is defined as a mode of different exposure to these forces the individual functioning, a set of dispositions to phenomenon of modernity will occur. act in a certain way.” Socio-economic status is one of the most Modernity is also employed to indicate the powerful determinants of modernity. One’s process of Westernization, particularly to position in the social hierarchy is correlated describe the impact in recent times of Western with attitudes, values, school achievement, countries on Eastern countries. The process of and child rearing practices, emotional stability, modernization first developed in Western aggressiveness and dominance, verbal Europe. It is quite often wrongly equated with behaviour and many other phenomena westernization with all its normative implication. (Gordon, 1952; Kohn, 1959). Modernity is, thus, supposed to be westernized Socio-economic status is also an styles and manners of dress, food, language important factor influencing modernity. High and custom. A man adopting the western style, positive correlation between degree of such as wearing of ‘jeans’, speaking English modernity and SES has been demonstrated in and using Dining table is supposed to be more many Indian studies. Jawaid , (1990) modern. The general view is that modernity is compared the attitudinal modernity of Hindu antonym of tradition. It includes abandonment and Muslim college students belonging to high of tradition and acceptance of new ways. , middle and low SES levels with their parents. So modernity is not an inborn quality of the He found that generation gap is the highest in man. It is an acquired trait, developed in course low SES groups, both in Hindu and Muslim of social learning. The important role of rapid religion. Several studies have examined the social change, brought in by urbanization, influence of SES on modernity. The SES scale, industrialization, education and mass media used is a combination of Parental occupation, exposure are determinants of generation gap. income, education, and caste status. The The concept of modernity became a topic modernity scale covers four dimensions, for discussion in the early 1960s due to a namely Personality, Socio- Cultural, Political number of disturbing social events as the and Health modernity. Singh (1984) found that "Barkely Phenomenon”; Civil rights on the SES to be the most powerful influence on campus in the west and elsewhere and overall modernity compared to the religion attempts were made to analyses the events by (, Islam and Christianity), residence social scientists. In the context of conflicts or (rural and urban) and Sex. The SES was found revolts they are obviously concerned with the to be the most powerful influence on modernity investigation of student movements (Feuer, in all the four ethnic religions namely Hindus, 1969). The present age is characterized by Muslims, Tribal Sarna and Tribal Christians. youth rebellion. This was true for total as well as for all the dimensions of modernity. Ashan (1988) has Several systematic studies of generation also found the SES to be more powerful gap and modernity have been undertaken by influence than rural urban residence, sex and social scientists (Armstrong and Scatzin, age in the Tribal Christian. The influence of the 1974; Bengtson, 1970; Bengtson, Furlong and SES on modernity has also been reported by Laufer, 1974; Gallagher, 1979; Freedman, other researchers (Alan France Brown, 2005; 1972; Hassan 1993, Ishrat, 1993, John and Chaplin, 1991 Gangrade; 1975, Hassan; 1993, Catherine 2008, Lerner, 1958; Lerner, Pandorf Ishrat; 1993, John, and Catherine, 2008, Mc and Emery, 1971; Lerner, Karson, Heisels and Brien, Julie 2009; Patel-Amin N 2002; Patel; Knapp, 1975; Patel 1992, Thomas, 1974). et.al., 1992; Singh; 1993, Waris; 1992). These studies have compared the attitudinal Socio-economic status as a determinant differences between adolescents and their of generation gap has been investigated in a parents on contemporary issues. number of studies (Clark and Seligman, 1968; We have argued that modernity is not a Centers, 1949; Cunningham, 1973; Gallagher, consequence of mere difference of age 1979; Gangrade, 1975; Halyal, and Mallapa, between the two generations. It is an impact of 1986; Holsinger, 1973; Sack, 1973; Sen,

-54- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 1962).High positive correlation between three stages. In the first stage, a sampling degree of modernity and socio-economic information questionnaire along with SES status has been revealed in many studies scale was administered to large number of (Inkeles, 1973; Kahl, 1968; Raghubansi, 1978; college final year students of all the degree Singh, 1984). There is evidence to show some colleges located in Ranchi city. The of the variance in the personality and attitudes information questionnaires were distributed to of children according to the social class all the B.Sc/ B. A./ B. Com. Final year (male) position of the child’s family (Sewell 1961). students present in their respective classes The role of education in facilitating the and were collected back soon after they filled development of modern attitudes and values them up. has been demonstrated in a number of studies Sampling questionnaires were administered (Armer and Youtz, 1971; Cunningham, 1973; to final year students. It was decided to select Holsinger, 1973; Inkeles, 1973, Kahl, 1968; only those students whose fathers were alive Klineberg, 1973; Lerner, 1958; Sack, 1973; as the data was to be taken from them also. Sen, 1962; Suzman, 1973; Waisanen and In the second stage 60 students selected Kamata 1972). on the basis of sampling questionnaires were Education has been found to be most the selected on the basis of sampling questionnaires effective agent of modernization. It is perhaps were contacted individually at theirs residence the most powerful means to bring about and the modernity scale was administered to changes in attitudes, values and behavior of them individually. Proper care was taken to see people. Many Indian studies on School and that their views are not influenced by their College students have also demonstrated the parents. modernizing function of education (Damle, In the third stage, fathers (Generation 1) of 1966, 1970; Dube, 1955, 1974; Gore et al,. those students were contacted. The same 1970; Inkeles, 1973; Malik et al., 1974; Shah, modernity scale was administered to fathers at 1964; Sharma, 1979 and Singh 1973). their residence. Table 1 gives the distribution of Education is the basic factor in producing sample. attitudinal differences between the young and old generation. Table 1: Sons and Fathers Sample In the present study generation gap has been measured in terms of attitudinal SES High Middle Low Total modernity which covers four dimensions, namely personality modernity, socio-cultural Sons 20 20 20 60 modernity, political modernity and health Fathers 20 20 20 60 modernity. Total 40 40 40 120 Materials and Methods The college students have been selected Tools: from Ranchi town and their fathers as our Information Questionnaire: The sample because of the fact that the research questionnaire obtained personal data of the on generation gap requires the choice of a students to identify their socio-economic sample suited to the purpose of investigation. status. On the basis of analysis of these Among different sections of the population questionnaires the students were selected to college students are expected to be exposed represent three SES groups i.e., high, middle to the highest rate of social change. On the and low. contrary the fathers of these students are not exposed to a similar degree of accelerated The Socio Economic Status (SES) change in their home lives. It is thus expected Scale: The sampling information questionnaire that the generation gap will be most apparent was supplemented by SES scale. The SES in this late adolescent population. It is for this scale combined four variables, caste, income, reason that we are naturally led to the occupation and education. investigation of college students and their The Attitudinal Modernity Scale: fathers. Consisted of four dimensions of modernity: The selection of sample has been done in personality, socio- cultural, political, and health

-55- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 modernity. Results and Discussions The four dimensions of modernity have Table-2 presents the mean scores of sons positive significant inter co-relations and and fathers in three SES groups. Here we mark therefore they were combined to make a total that the mean scores of various groups in high SES is higher than those of middle and low attitudinal modernity scale. SES groups in dimension of modernity.

Table 2: Modernity Scores of Sons and their Fathers MODERNITY (Mean Scores) SES level Socio- Personality Political Health Total Culture

Sons H 90.5 96.9 98.0 91.5 376.8 M 84.7 83.8 84.8 85.4 338.7 L 82.9 77.0 79.6 81.6 321.1 Fathers H 83.7 84.7 90.6 87.3 346.3 M 83.4 75.1 84.8 84.4 327.7 L 74.3 71.9 72.2 70.2 288.5 The mean scores of sons and fathers Here it is marked that all the three SES groups’ (Table 2) have also been depicted through sons have obtained higher scores. In all the graphs separately for high SES (Figure 1), four dimensions of modernity as well as in total middle SES (Figure 2), and low SES (Figure 3). modernity.

Modernity scores of Sons & Fathers (High SES)

Figure no. 1 Son & Father

120

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Personality 60 Socio-Cultural Political

40 Health

20

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-56- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Modernity scores of Sons & Fathers (Middle SES)

Figure no. 2 Son & Father

120

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Personality 60 Socio-Cultural Political

40 Health

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Modernity scores of Sons & Fathers (Low SES)

Figure No. 3 Son & Father

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40 Health

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-57- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Table- 3: Generational gap on modernity

Personality Socio-Cultural Political Health Total Modernity Modernity Modernity Modernity Modernity

SONS 86.03 85.88 87.42 86.17 345.50 (N=60) FATHER 80.47 77.23 82.53 80.63 320.83 (N =60) S : F 5.56 8.65 4.89 5.54 24.67

S : F = Son Father Generational gap between Sons & Fathers on Modernity Figure No. 4

120

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40 Health

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Table 4: Comparison of Sons and Fathers on Modernity Sons (N = 60) Fathers (N = 60) t Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Personality Modernity 86.03 11.34 80.47 11.26 2.69* Socio-Cultural Modernity 85.88 14.97 77.23 14.97 3.16* Political Modernity 87.42 15.95 82.53 16.50 1.65 NS Health Modernity 86.17 12.37 80.63 14.38 2.25 *** Total Modernity 345.50 48.20 320.83 49.37 2.77 *N.S.* Significant at 0.01 level *** Significant at 0.05 Level NS Not Significant

-58- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Variations in Generation Gap Table 5 Sons - Fathers Differences on Modernity

Personality Socio-Cultural Political Health Total Modernity Modernity Modernity Modernity Modernity

S - F 5.56 8.65 4.89 5.54 24.67

S - F = Son / Father

In this section we have tried to examine no higher generation gap between son the relationship of socio- economic status with (Generation II) and their fathers (Generation I) generation gap. What is the level of modernity in high SES groups. The reason is that the in various SES groups? We have tried to father of high SES groups has high income and examine the significance of generational has higher occupation as well as they are difference in different SES groups. We have educated. Most of the fathers of high SES groups are graduates. Thus the Generation I of computed t values between Son and Father in the high SES groups has been also exposed to different SES levels in each dimension of modernizing effects. On the contrary their sons modernity as well as total modernity. are studying in colleges and they are more Table 6 A shows the comparison of sons exposed to modernizing factors. Thus in high with their fathers belonging to high SES groups SES groups not only the sons are modern but in relation to personality, socio-cultural, also their fathers are modern though not as political, health and total modernity. The son much as their sons are. Hence most of the t – father difference is statistically significant only values comparing the modernity of sons and in relation to socio-cultural modernity. It is not their fathers have shown insignificant significant in relation to other dimensions of differences between them. Similar finding modernity as well as total modernity. This have also been reported by Halyal (1984), indicates the expected trend that there will be Jawaid (1990) and Manjari (1990).

Table- 6A Comparison of Sons and Fathers on modernity - (High Ses Groups) Sons (N = 20) Fathers (N = 20) t Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Personality Modernity 90.5 11.8 83.7 10.9 1.85 NS Socio- Cultural Modernity 96.9 17.1 84.7 19.2 2.07** Political Modernity 98.0 15.0 90.6 15.6 1.48 NS Health Modernity 91.5 14.1 87.3 13.9 0.92 NS Total Modernity 376.8 53.2 346.3 54.8 1.74 NS N.B.*** Significiant at 0.02 Level. NS - Not Significant

Table 6 B: present the means, SDs of sons significant difference in modernity among all and fathers of middle SES groups in relation to the comparison. This is in case of socio – four dimensions of modernity as well as total cultural modernity of sons and their fathers. modernity. There is only one statistically

-59- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Table 6B: Comparison of Sons and Fathers on modernity – (Middle SES Groups) Sons (N = 20) Fathers (N = 20) t Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Personality Modernity 84.7 12.2 83.4 11.1 0.34 NS Socio-Cultural Modernity 83.8 11.0 75.1 11.5 2.38 ** Political Modernity 84.8 15.8 84.8 15.8 0.00 NS Health Modernity 85.4 12.2 84.4 13.1 0.24 NS Total Modernity 338.7 45.2 327.7 44.1 0.76 NS N.B. ** Significant at 0.02 level. NS Not significant. Table 6 C show the mean and SDs of sons statistically significant. The difference is not and fathers belonging to low SES group. The significant in relation to socio- cultural son father differences in relation to personality, modernity. political, health and total modernity are

Table -6C: Comparison of Sons and Fathers on Modernity (Low SES Groups) Sons (N = 20) Fathers (N = 20) t Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Personality Modernity 82.9 7.6 74.3 9.0 3.17 * Socio-Cultural Modernity 77.0 6.5 71.9 9.1 1.99 NS Political Modernity 79.6 9.8 72.2 12.5 2.03** Health Modernity 81.6 7.3 70.2 9.4 4.17* Total Modernity 321.1 19.1 288.5 27.0 4.30* N.B. * Significant at 0.01 level. ** Significant at 0.02 level. NS Not Significant In the above mentioned three tables we and their fathers (Generation I). have marked that it is in low SES where the Conclusion difference between son and father are sharp and greater, reason being that low SES fathers From above discussions the following have little or no education and belong to lower facts may be drawn – caste with low occupation and poor income. ?There is no significant generation gap Their attitude has not changed as they have between sons and their fathers in high lesser exposure to modernizing effects. On the SES group. other hand the sons are studying in college ?The generation gap between sons and above three years and they have also greater their fathers is also not significant in exposures to modernizing factors. This is the middle SES group. reason that even generation gap is highest in ?The generation gap between sons and low SES comparisons and ultimately we find their fathers is significant in low SES much difference between sons (Generation II) group.

-60- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ?The sons and their fathers in low SES analysis. Journal of Social Issues, 30 (2), group do not differ significantly with regard 1974, pp 130 to the socio – cultural aspects of 7. Centers R., The Psychology of Social modernity. Class, Russell Sage Foundations, London ?The generation gap in relation to socio- 1949 cultural modernity is obvious and highest 8. Chaplin W.F., The next generation of in high and middle SES groups. moderate research in personality psychology, It should be noted that the main Journal of Personality, 50, 1991, pp 143- hypothesis of the present study was “Higher 78. the SES lower will be the generation gap “. 9. Clark S.M. and Clark J.P., Youth in Modern Thus, the generation gap will be highest in low Society, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New SES and lower in middle and high SES. Here it York, 1972 should be also noted that generation gap is the difference between sons and their fathers in 10. Cunningham I., The relationship between attitudinal modernity, in low SES sons differ modernity of students In Puerto- Rican from the fathers more as compared to middle High School and their Academic Performance and high socio- economic groups. We have Peers and parents, International Journal already discussed earlier that in low SES of comparative sociology, 14, 1973, pp fathers or very low literates and their sons are 203-220 educated and have above three year college 11. Damle Y.B., Communication of Modern education. The exposure of modernity is Ideas and Knowledge in Indian Villages. greater in sons as compared to their fathers in MIT Cambridge Massachusetts 1966 low SES groups. This is the reason why the difference in modernity is wider. 12. Damle Y.B., College Youth in Poona, A study of elite in the making, Mimeo References graphed, Poona, 1970 1. Alan France Brown, A book Understanding 13. Dube S.C., Indian village, Routledge and Youth in Late Modernity, 2005 Kegan Paul Ltd, London, 1955 2. Armer M. & Youtz R., Formal education 14. Dube S.C, Contemporary India and its and individual modernity in an African modernization, Vikas Publishing House, Society. American Journal of Sociology, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1974 76, 1971, pp 604-626 15. Erikson E.H., Identity youth and Crisis, 3. Armstrong R. and Scotzin E., Inter- Norton, New York, 1968 generational comparison of attitudes towards basic life concepts. Journal of 16. Feuer L. S., The conflict of generations. psychology.87, 1974, pp 293-304 Basic Book, New York, 1969 4. Ashan S. K., Socio-Economic Status and 17. Flacks R., Youth and social change, modernity in Tribal Unpublished Ph.D Chicago, Mar Khan, 1971 thesis, Ranchi University, Ranchi,1998 18. Freedman H. R., The generation gap: 5. Bengtson V. L., The generation gap: A Attitudes of students and their parents. review and typology of social- psychology Journal of counseling psychology, 19 (5), perspective, Youth and Society, 1970, pp 1972, pp 441-447 27-32 19. Gallagher B.J., Attitude differences 6. Bengtoson V. L., Furlong and Laufer, across three generations: Class and sex Time aging and continuity of social components. Adolescence.15 (53), 1979, structure, Themes and issues in generational pp 503-516

-61- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 20. Gangrade K.D., Crisis of Values. A 32. Jennings M. K. and Niemi R.G., Continuity studying generation gap, Chetna and change in political orientations. A Publications, New Delhi, 1975 longitudinal study of two generators. American Political Science Review. 69. 21. Gassett J.O.Y., The modern theme, 1975, pp 1316-1355 Daniel, New York, 1958 33. John D. and Catherine T. Mac Arhur, 22. Gordon M.M., The logic Socio economic Research Network on Socioeconomic status scales: Socio metric, 15, 1952, Status and Health from the University of pp 342-353 San Francisco, California, Measurement, 23. Gore M.S. Desai. I.P. & Chitins S., Field retrieved, 2008, pp 02-25 Studies in the Sociology of Education, 34. Kahl J.A., The measurement of modernism, NCERT, New Delhi, 1970 a study of values in Brazil and Mexico, 24. Halyal P.S., Generation gap : A University of Texas Press, Austin, 1968 comparison of attitudinal modernity of 35. Kakar S. and Choudhry K., Conflict and college students and their parents. choice. Indian Youth in a changing society, Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Karnataka Somaiya Publications, Bombay, 1970 University, Karnataka,1984 36. Keniston K., Young radicals: Notes on 25. Halyal P.S. Mallapa K.R., Generation gap: committed Youth, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, differences in attitudinal modernity. New York, 1968 Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Jan, 1986 Vol.12 (1) 37. Klineberg S.L., Parents, schools and modernity: An exploratory investigation of 26. Hassan P., Generation Gap: Attitudinal sex differences in attitudinal development Modernity of Muslim Students and their of Tunisian adolescents International parents. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Journal of Comparative Sociology14, Ranchi University, Ranchi, 1993 1973, pp 221-244 27. Holsinger B.B., The elementary school as 38. Kohn M.L., Social class and parental a modernizer: a Brazilian study, values; American Journal of Sociology, International Journal of comparative 64, 1959, pp 337-35 sociology, 14, 1973, pp 180-202 39. Kothari D.S., The changing role of 28. Inkeles A., The school as context for education, In P. Mehta (Ed.) The Indian modernization. International Journal of Youth. Somalia Publications Pvt. Ltd., comparative Sociology, 14, 1973, Bombay, 1971 pp. 157-162 40. Lerner D., The passing of traditional 29. Inkeles A. and Smith D. H., Becoming society, The Free Press, Glencoe, 1958 modern. Individual change in six 41. Lerner, Karson, Heisels, and K. Napp., developing countries. Cambridge University Actual and perceived attitudes of Press, Harvard, 1974 lateAdolescent and their parents, the 30. Israt, Generation gap, Attitudinal modernity phenomenon of the generation gap. The of Tribal female students and their Journal of Genetic psychology 126, 1975, parents, 1993 pp 195- 207 31. Jawaid A., Attitudinal modernity of college 42. Lerner R.M. Pendorf J., S. Emery A., students and their parents. A study of Attitudes of adolescents and adults toward Generation Gap Unpublished Ph.D thesis contemporary issues. Psychological Bihar University, Muzafferpur, 1990 Report. 28, 1971, pp 139-145.

-62- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 43. Malik .Y.K & Marquette J.F., Changing 54. Sewell W.H., Social class land childhood Social Values of college students in personality. Sociometry. 24, 1961, Punjab, Asian Survey 14 (9), 1974, pp pp 340-356 795-806 55. Shah B.V., Social changes and College 44. McBrien Julie., Mukadas’ Struggle; Veils Students in Gujarat, The M. S. University and Modernity in Kyrgyzstan Press,1964 46. Journal of the Royal Anthropological 56. Sharma S. L., Modernizing effects of Institute, Volume 15, 2009, pp 5127-5144 University,Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New (1) Delhi, 1979 47. Manjri M., Generation gap: comparison of 57. Singh A.K., Industrialization, modernization, modernity of urban Hindu college and economic development in India. students and their parents. Unpublished: Unpublished Manuscript mimeographed. Ph.D thesis Ranchi University, Ranchi, Ranchi University, Ranchi, 1973 1990 58. Singh A.K., Health Modernity and 48. Patel Amin N., Modernity and Childrearing correlates in South Bihar Report of ICMR in Families of Gujarati Indian Adolescents. 59. Project, P.G. Department of psychology, International Journal of Psychology, Ranchi University, Ranchi, 1984, pp 123 - Volume 37, 2002, pp 239-2459 (7) 126 49. Patel A. S. Smt. Kusumben., An analytical 60. Singh S.K., Generation Gap: Comparison study of attitudes of person of three of Modernity of Urban Backward Caste generation levels from same and different College Students and their Parents. families towards women status, Paper Unpublished Ph.D thesis Ranchi presented at 79th Indian Science University, Ranchi, 1993 Congress, Baroda, 1992 61. Suzman R., Psychological Modernity. 50. Raghubansi M.S., Education and International Journal of Comparative Modernity Ph.D. thesis Meerut University, Sociology, 1973, pp 273-287 Meerut, 1978 62. Thomas L.E., Generational discontinuities 51. Sack R., The impact of education on in beliefs : An exploration of the generation individual modernity in Tunisia, International gap. Journal of Social Issues. 30(3), 1974 journal of comparative sociology. 14, 1973, pp 245-272 63. Waris H., Socio Economic Status and Modernity in Muslims Unpublished Ph.D 52. Sahay M., Modernity in Tribal Hindus. thesis Ranch University, Ranchi, 1992 Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Ranchi University, Ranchi, 1989 64. Waisanen F.B. & Kamata H., Education Functional literacy and participation in 53. Sen. L.K., Social dimensions of development. International Journal of modernization in four Indian villages. comparative Sociology. 13 (1), 1972, Unpublished Ph.D thesis University of pp 21-35 Wisconsin, 1962

-63- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 64-67 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Prehistoric Jharkhand: Stone Instruments and areas of their procurement Dr. Anil Kumar Lecturer, P.G. Department of History Ranchi College Ranchi

Abstract Almost the whole of the pre-historic Jharkhand was covered with forests. These forests were spread in foothills and the density of the trees was as such that the visibility was not more than 5-6 metres. Nature here not only attracted people by her beauty but also made available all things necessary to people for livelihood in abundance. Due to this, hunters, fruit-choosers and cave dwellers used to reside in these areas. All these activities date back to 20000 years. That period of time was termed as Stone Age. People of that age used to construct instruments of stone. Some of these instruments are axes, arrows, javelin, digging equipments, knives, hammers etc. Life of that age people highly depended on fruits, flowers and hunting. Going by the views of historians, Stone Age in India dated back to 35000-10000 years ago. Period of Neo-stone age goes back to 10000-5000 years. Keywords: primitive, stone, instruments, Jharkhand Introduction instruments drew conclusion about the period to which any given stone instrument belongs. Pre-historic tribes residing in Jharkhand The instruments were found mostly on the used varieties of stone instruments for bank of rivers as tribes settled on the bank of protecting them from violent beasts and river due to availability of water. fulfilling other necessities. Stone pieces were easily available to them. It is a well known fact Materials and Methods that in this region lies the oldest reserve of While concentrating on the topic various rocks like granite etc. Geologists claim that books of eminent scholars were consulted. these rocks belong to Pre-Cambrian or Arcian Recourse has also been taken to make an in age; it goes back to one and half billion years. depth study of the published works of the Experts are of the view that this segment author. Reviews of the works by eminent of the earth is in existence from the ancient scholars and critics have also been widely period. For the tribes residing at that very consulted. period of time, stone pieces were easily Results and Discussions available for constructing instruments. Stone Stone made instruments have been found pieces were made useful by value addition. in this region effortlessly. It was after the Some thus made instruments were used evaluation by the experts that the importance occasionally for attacking animals. Here it is to and significance of these instruments were be pointed out that these tribes had to face established. terror of violent animals. Keeping this fact in The case was not different with the mind they used pointed stone pieces to attack Captain Witching. It was in 1868 AD when the animals who were cause of terror. Witching was moving towards Kyonjhar from With every changing moment these Ranchi with 10th Madras Infantry that he saw instruments witnessed some sort of some stone made instruments on the bank of a development. This apart, life style of these river near Chakradharpur. He collected them people also changed in positive direction. carefully. Similar instruments were also found Historians and Archaeological experts after on the bank of the river near . Chirt going through structures of stone made flex and plastered knives were significant

-64- among them. He mentions about this in his significant among these instruments were article. For Captain Witching, these instruments axes, arrows, chisels, hammers etc. All these had no special significance; hence he handed instruments were made up of stones. over these instruments and relevant information Polished and plastered axes have also to Professor Dr. Valentine Ball, who was a been procured from Barudih of Singhbhum specialist in this regard. Going by the readings Distruct. Pick-axes, chisels, cutting tools, of Dr Ball, all these instruments were stone pestles- these instruments were also manmade and belonged to the Stone Age. found in these areas. It was very difficult to point out the Going by the facts, SC Rai has concluded instruments that belonged to the Pre-stone that at the period of time when the Indus Valley Age. Instruments belonging to Neo-stone Age Civilization was passing through Copper Age, were quite good in number. Some of these Chhotanagpur, which is now a part of instruments were of the tribes who were quite Jharkhand was passing through Neo-stone near but far from ‘Asur’ tribe. They left their Age Civilization. marks of existence but vanished in some phase of History. Prof Ball had procured ‘Asur’ is the oldest existing tribe of number of Stone Age instruments. Significant Jharkhand, which had its effect from Neo- among them was a beautiful stone-silt, which stone age to Copper Age. Various types of was found in Budadih village under Tamar instruments and equipments have been found Police Station in 1870. Some stone silt was where this primitive tribe resided and is also found in Singhbhum. It was in 1874 when residing even now. These instruments were Prof Ball has procured significant stone made of quartz and strong stone pieces. Some instruments which relate to Munda or Proto instruments such as axes and javelin have also Austroloid Tribe. He had also procured bricks been found in Jharia Coal Mines. Similar made of quartzite and black stones. instruments were found near Badrinath hills. In Instruments related to Stone Age have Ranchi and adjoining areas, instruments were also been found in North eastern region of made of quartz and ornaments made of copper Santal Paragana of Jharkhand. Some of these have been procured in Asur area. Microlyth instruments are axes, hammers, arrows etc. instruments have been found in South Koyal Some of them are called shoulder headed silt. Valley and Sonahatu. Stone made 21 axes Here one has to be clear that the instruments, have been procured from Bartola village under which have been declared to be of Old Stone Basia Police Station near Ranchi Hills. Similar Age by Dr. Ball proves that human civilization five axes have been found in Dargama village existed on the bank of the river in near Khunti. This apart, pieces of brass made Chakradharpur in Pre-stone Age. These stone pots and copper made ornaments were also made instruments were also used for procured from this region. encountering violent animals by the then people. These procured items were sent to the Geological Survey of India for verification as Prof ball has also concluded that they did well as identification in 1915. J Gogin Brawn not know how to construct building. This was responded to it and concluded that these items the very reason that they did not stay at one belonged to transitional phase when the clock place for a very long period. They kept was moving from Neo-stone Age to Copper wandering from one place to another. The Age. Clay made utensils, though found in story relates to the civilization that was found pieces are quite enough to prove that ‘Asur’ about 20000 years ago. people were skilled artisans and used to make This apart, in 1875 instruments were attractive earthen pots on earthen wheels. found in abundance, which dated back to Neo- Certain similarities have been found stone Age. Prof. J Uda Maison says that among the instruments and other equipments

-65- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 procured from across Jharkhand irrespective Journal of Literature and Science III, Part of regions like Chakradharpur, Chaibasa, II, Madras, 1866 Ranchi and Santal Parganas. Similarity was Catalogue of the prehistoric Antiquities in found in a special brick and stone silt used in the collection of Government Museum, abundance while shaping the instruments and Madras, 1901 other equipments. These were used by Proto Austroloid Tribes. Munda, Santal, Bhumij, Ho, The Foote's collection of Indian prehistoric Turi, Asur, Mona Khmer, Anami etc. and proto historic Antiquities catalogue. Government Museum Madras, 1914 Conclusion The Foote's Collection of Indian The work of excavation has been carried prehistoric and protohistoric Anti-quities out in Jharkhand or erstwhile South Bihar by notes on their Ages and Distribution. the historians at individual level. But, Government museum Madras, 1916 instruments procured are more or less incomplete and meaningless. As soon as 4. Ghos A.K., Studies on Palaeolithic culture Jharkhand came in existence as 28th state of of Singhbhum, Kolkata University, the Indian Republic, Government of India Unpublished Ph.D. thesis., 1964 established a branch of Indian Archaeological Palaeolithic culture of Singhbhum, Survey Department in the State Capital on Transaction of American philosophic June 02, 2003 to look into the archaeological society, New Series, Vol - 60, Part I, and historical facts of Jharkhand. The team Philadelphia, 1970 started its study in collaboration with Arts, Culture and Archaeological Department of 5. Indian Archaeology - A review, 1959-60, Jharkhand State. In 2004, stone made 60-61, 61-62, 62-63, 64-65 instruments were found on the bank of the river 6. Jain, K.C., Prehistory and prohistory of in the then Baharagora block under East India, Agam Kala Prakashan, New Delhi, Singhbhum. These instruments dated back to 1979 3000 years. Its relation is being established with pre-historical age. Archaeological experts 7. Journal of Bihar Research Society, opine that near about 50000 stone instruments Puratatva, 1970, No. 4 P 1-3 could be found in this area which would be of 8. Lal B.B., Indian Archaeology Since high historical importance. Here it is to be Independence, Delhi pointed out that 12 places have been identified in India where instruments belonging to Stone 9. Roy S.C., A Note on some Ancient Asura Age are being found in plenty. It may so Remains of , Journal of happen that the instruments found in this area Bihar and Orissa Research Society, could be oldest when compared to other Patna, Vol. I, 1915 places. Notes on stone implements found in References Ranchi Districts. JOBORS, Patna, Vol. II, 1916 1. Andersons C.W., Notes on Prehistoric Implements found in the Singhbhum Relics of Copper Age found in Districts, Patna : Journal of Bihar and Chotanagpur, JOBORS, Patna, Vol - II, Orissa Research Society III, 1917, p 344 1916 2. Ball V., 'Stone Implements found in Finds of Ancient Bronze Age articles in Bengal. Proceeding of Asiatic Society Ranchi, District JBORS, Patna, Vol. - Bengal, Kolkata, 1865 12, 1916 3. Foote R.B., 'On the Occurance of Stone Distribution and Nature of Asura Site, Implement in various parts of Madras'. JOBORS, Vol. 16, 1920

-66- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 10. Sankalia H.D., Indian Archaeology Today. 13. WHP Driver, Proceedings of Asiatic Bombay, 1962 Society of Bengal 1884 Prehistory and Protohistory of Indian and 14. Roy S.C., Main in India, Volume XVII, Pakistan, Decan College, Pune, 1974 pp 220-221 11. Sen D. & Ghosh A.K. (Ed), Studies in 15. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of prehistory, R.B. Foote memorial volume, Bengal, Kolkata, 1868 Kolkata, 1966 16. Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research On the Occurrence of Palaeolithic the in Society, 1915 Singhbhum, Man in India Vol. 40, 1960 17. Indian Archeological Review, 1955 12. Verma R.K., Bhartiya Pragaithasik 18. Garden D.H., The Pre-Historic Sanskrityan, Allahabad, Paramjoyti Background of Indian Culture, 1960 Prakashan, 1977

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Special British Provisons for Paharias Dr. Hitender Anupam Assistant Professor, Department of History Vinobha Bhave University, Hazaribag Rajesh Hansda Research Scholar, Department of History Vinobha Bhave University, Hazaribag

Abstract The topic ‘Special British Provisions for Paharias’ is an article based on the analysis of the documents present in the archives. Paharias constitute a significant socio-cultural segment of scheduled tribes of Santal Parganas in Jharkhand. The British Government cared about the occupancy rights of Paharias and encouraged them increasingly about plough cultivation after a nominal assessment of Paharia lands on hills. The administrators sincerely made an effort to protect the peace loving Paharias from comparatively hostile race of the Santals. The period between 1823-1916 has been covered. The British were cautious about their proprietory rights on the whole of Santal Parganas conceding only occupancy rights of Paharias, thus insisting for atleast nominal assessment of the Paharia hills. They were aware of the loss of forest cover due to Jhum cultivation. Keywords: Damin-i-Koh, Jhum cultivation, Sabaigrass cultivation, Stipendary hills, Tikridars Introduction Santals had brought the whole of cultivable Even before the demarcation of Damin-i- land in the plains and even upto the foothills Koh estates the Government of British East under cultivation. Now Santals have started to India Company declared its policy statement appropriate most of the hillocks also and were regarding Paharias that Government had no gradually creeping up the slopes of the high desire to interfere with the existing possession hills. Wood observed that the Santals were a of the Paharias of present Santal Parganas. It very prolific race who shall soon require more was announced that the Government shall not lands for extension of cultivation due to the assert any right which could be incompatible natural increase of their numbers. At the same with the free enjoyment of all which the time he had found that there was a tendency Paharias could obtain from that sterile soil.1 among Paharias to act as zamindars in the light This view is found in 1823 in records and again of Santal’s need for more land. in 1862 the company’s administration Materials and Methods reiterated that the rights of Paharias over the While concentrating on the topic various minor forest produce was substantial in the books of eminent scholars were consulted. eyes of Britishers. The lands used by Paharias Recourse has also been taken to make an in were decided to be safeguarded. The new depth study of the published works of the purchasers were debarred from acquiring 2 author. Reviews of the works by eminent waste lands used by Paharias. But in 1871 the scholars and critics have also been widely Government declared that it did not admit the consulted. right of Paharias to the whole of hills. They laid down that the rights of Paharias should be Results and Discussions adjusted, compromised and marked. In fact the Paharias were so far enjoying According to the provisions of Regulation around 250 square miles of territory without III of 1872, Wood conducted the first any assessment of land tax. Wood wanted that settlement in Santal Parganas between 1873- Paharias should not be assessed for their 1879. Wood in his report showed his concern Koorwar cultivation because such cultivation over the growing influence of Santals at the were only carried on the precipitious slopes on cost of Paharias. He wanted definite orders to hills by means of their Khunti or spades. At the be passed in regard to hill lands in the same time he wanted that some enquiry should occupation of Paharias. He observed that be made as to the actual requirements of the

-68- hill people. After such assessment the surplus proprietor of the hills except so far as it may lands should be set aside for extension of have transferred its proprietory right by the Santal cultivation.3 grant of Jagirs to the Chiefs. Beyond this, the Thus the British Company took the stand Paharias were given no rights except that of that the Government recognised only the right occupancy. The leasing out of land other than of occupancy acquired by Paharias and the the Jagir lands by the Paharia chiefs to Santal uninhabited hills in the Damin-i-Koh, and in no cultivators was in no case permitted. It was way treated such persons as having any decided that the Paharias should not be proprietory right to such hills. The Government disturbed in the occupation of such lands as agreed that Santals could take up all lands they require for their own support. They were to wherever they could use the plough, while the be encouraged for adopting plough cultivation Paharias should confine themselves to their without being enforced. The Government confirmed a settlement for 10 years with effect Koorwar cultivation on the slopes of the hills. 6 This is a matter of fact that the Paharias invited from April 1879. and induced Santals to settle on their lands This was soon followed by a report and had taken small payments from the new submitted by Oldham in March 1882, relating Santal settlers. In some areas the Santal to the problem of Paharia settlement. He settlers had undertaken to plough certain proposed that besides the rights of occupancy, areas of land for the hill Manjhis. Wood also which all the members of Paharia community mentioned that Paharia Sardars when asked possessed, the heads of villages were entitled to explain under what circumstances they gave to certain dues, which they called percentages such leases, they invariably claimed that the from the villagers. But he also made it clear that lands in question had been given to them as the authority of Paharia chiefs depended on Jagirs by previous administrators. But they the pleasure of Government and it was not were unable to file any authentic document necessarily personal or hereditary.7 relating to such grants. In June 1899 the then Dy. Commissioner Wood found that it was a very favourable of Santal Pargana, Carstairs was asked to opportunity to commence settlement operations prepare a report fully dealing with the subject of among the Paharias. He believed that Paharia rights. He was also asked not to make Paharias were not opposed being lightly settlement of the lands held by Paharias assessed on lands cultivated by plough and 4 without receiving their formal consent. In leaving their Korwa lands rent-free as before. response to this, Carstairs submitted his report After Wood, Barlow, then the Commissioner of in July 1899 dealing with the question of the Bhagalpur division made his observations on method to be followed with regard to Paharia Paharias. He in fact submitted a separate lands in the proposed settlement of Damin-i- report on this important subject. He wanted an Koh Government estate within, which the arrangement for disposal of land between Paharia lands were included. In his report Santals and Paharias based on some Carstairs had offered some observations on authoritative system. He wanted to demarcate the real meaning and intention of the promise lands between Santals and Paharias on the of 1823, which had been frequently referred to. basis of land cultivated by plough and those 5 He accepted that the course of action to be with the spades. On receipt of Barlow’s report followed by an enlightened Government the Government of Bengal resolved that about towards an inoffensive class of subjects one sixth of the Damin-i-Koh or an area of 200 namely Paharias should respect the peaceful to 250 square miles is occupied by Paharias. enjoyment of their hills and avoid oppression. The Santals had already extended their Carstairs was convinced that there was a least cultivation upto the foot of the hills and were possibility of any general agitation or objection beginning to occupy the slopes and that against the holding of a settlement by the consequently definite rules must be laid down Paharias. The fact that nearly all the Paharias for preventing the two races from coming into of Pakur have accepted a settlement since collision and also for extablishing proprietory 1883 and the experiences showed that the rights of the Government. The resolution terms of the Pakur settlement are not in clearly stated that it should be distinctly themselves unacceptable and may form a very understood that the Government is the good model for general adoption throughout

-69- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 the hills. Carstairs in his report also referred to foreigners on lands which were reserved for the system of shifting cultivation or Jhum them notably in connection with the Sabai cultivation, followed by the Paharias and grass cultivation.9 expressed the view that in the settlement of In the course of finding the breaches in Paharia area of Pakur subdivision, sufficient contract on the part of Paharias, Oldham had land has been left to provide for this type of pointed out that the Paharia area till 1836 cultivation and a proportion of waste land has comprised of about 1500 square miles but by also been provided for extension of this type of 1899 it had been reduced to 378 square miles cultivation. mainly due to the Paharias having broken their There were some other issues concerning part of the contract by introducing foreigners.10 the Paharia lands and one such issue was the But Oldham believed that the Sabai grass cultivation of Sabai grass, then being carried industry was only a recent and very partial on in the hills, largely by means of outside development and that too was confined to the labour. The Paharias were encouraged to northern part of the Damin-i-Koh. Infact the adopt this cultivation to the extent they can persons of non-paharia origin whom the conduct by means of their own labour. In fact, a Paharias had actually inducted into their areas large part of the hill land was planted with from 1833 onwards were exclusively the Sabai grass. They were nominally Paharia Santals. The Sabai grass cultivation issue land but were actually worked by means of became prominent only after 1836 when the capital and labour provided by traders of non- Santals had ceased to be considered as paharia origin. Carstairs had recommended foreigners. Secondly the Paharias on their part that if Government notwithstanding the viewed any officer with a kind of suspicion and considerations believed itself not to be justified generally rejected even favourable terms in ordering a general cadastral settlement of offered to them. In one of the large gathering of the hills, then it may order for atleast a survey Paharia Sardar and Manjhis at Dumka in 1882- and demarcation of village areas as proposed 1883 a public disapproval of British proposals by Oldham in 1883. The Government was were made. But individual Paharias gradually concerned with the Welfare of Paharias but came forward to accept settlement and was against the whole scale destruction of the assessment of their lands. In such settlements forests on the hills by Paharias which they made during 1868 and 1879 the Paharias were believed was recklessly being denuded for assessed like the Santals. In 1894-95 the their Jhum cultivation.8 The same position was Paharias of Pakur subdivision who had been upheld by H.C. Williams then Commissioner of foremost in rejecting the offer made to them by Bhagalpur Division. He expressed that from the Government in 1882-83 came forward for the earliest times the claim of Government to survey settlement and assessment of their be the absolute landlord except as regards to lands. But the lands belonging to Paharias certain Jagir lands, has been recognised. The were on tops, slopes and spurs of the hills and Paharias were entitled to the absolute use of were thus mixed up with the Government as much land as they could have made use of lands. Government and Paharia lands were their own labour. It was held that the so called similar within the village so it was not possible promise of 1823 shall be honoured by which it to draw a single line of demarcation between was understood that no settlement of Damin the lands belonging to the Paharias and the should be made without the consent of the Government. Therefore, a cadastral survey Paharias. was significant. The Government emphasised Policy decision was taken that the that proposal for assessment of some rent on Government will not force a settlement on the Paharias lands was not connected with the Paharias unless they apply or consent to the increase of the revenue of the Government, same. Accordingly when the headmen of but was for the establishment of a relationship certain Paharia village in the Pakur subdivision of landlord and tenant. The proposal of this applied for settlement then a total area of moderate payment which could not have 27,652 acres or about 43 square miles was covered the expenses of the Government over settled in the first phase. But soon after intended survey and assessment was Government realised that the Paharias have intended to give protection to the Paharias as broken their part of contract by introducing tenants of the Government.

-70- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Conclusion References Finally McPherson conducted settlement 1. Report of R. Carstairs, Deputy Commissioner, operations in the Paharia areas of Damin-i- Santal Parganas dated 1st July. Para 10. Koh in 1900. The areas occupied or claimed by Selections from Santal Parganas Paharias were divided into following groups – Settlement Papers, Vol. I. Ed. By (1) The Paharia hills which were already McPherson, Calcutta, 1919, p 64 settled (2) The stipendary hills which were not settled but for which stipends were drawn by 2. Letter No. 1214 dated 6th March 1862, the Paharia headmen (3) The Tikri hills which from the Government of India to the were not settled earlier and for which no Government of Bengal, quoted in stipends were given to the Paharias. Thus the Carstair’s Report, Para 11 Tikridars had no defined legal status, but 3. Wood’s Report, Para 40, Selection from applicants for portions of Godda and Pakur for Santal Parganas Settlement Papers, settlement were filed mostly by such Tikridar Vol. – I, p12 Paharias.11 The settlement was based on previously consented draft rules. According to 4. Ibid, Para 47 which the Paharia country was divided into 5. Barlow, Commissioner of Bhagalpur units called as Hills. Cadestral surveys of these Division to the Secretary, Government of hills were done on the model of Pakur Hill Bengal, Revenue Department, dated 1st settlement done earlier. The areas of each Hill March, 1880, Para 22 was divided into lands occupied by Paharias and others for cultivation including bamboos 6. Ressolution of the Government of Bengal, and Sabai grass and land not so occupied. A Revenue Department, Dated 19th April, village list was prepared of Paharias and 1880, Paras 13 and 14 others claiming to occupy land on the hills. The 7. Oldham’s note dated 8th March 1882, rest of the land, the claim to which was not Para 46 allowed under the above rule was claimed by the Government. The Government took care of 8. Ibid. Para 17 to 25 the fact that an enquiry was made whether the 9. Slacke, Secretary to Government of lands allotted to the Paharias on the hills were Bengal, Revenue Department to the sufficient for them. If it was not then land out of Secretary Board of Renenue, Land the Government’s portion were allotted to the Revenue Department letter No. 3043L Paharias on the hills as a reserve for cultivation dated Calcutta, 31st August 1899, Para 4 as they might need.12 Thus the Government confirmed the possession of Paharias and 10. Persons of non-Paharia origin ordered for eviction of all those who were found 11. McPherson’s note dated 21st December occupying without valid claims on land on the 1900, Para 3, Selections from Santal hills. The Government land, the village reserve Parganas Settlement papers, Vol. I and the Paharia land were demarcated. The efforts finally took shape between 1912-1916 12. Carstair’s note dated 29th May 1900, and gradually all the unsettled Paharias of selections from Santal Parganas Damin-i-Koh were also included into the Settlement papers, Vol. I, p 89 provisions.

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Political participation of women force in India : Spatio temporal analysis of female awareness Dr. Ranjeet Kumar Choudhary Lecturer, Department of Political Science K O College, Ranchi, Jharkhand

Abstract The present paper in an attempt to analyse and evaluate political participation of Women Force in India in a spatio temporal frame. In a democratic set up, right to participation in electoral activities is a fundamental right. Electoral participation of Women Force refers to those activities by which women voters select and elect their rulers, and through their elected representatives indirectly participate in the functioning of government. The present study intends to focus on women’s participation by their act of voting. The spatio- temporal analysis of participation of women force implies not only the act of casting the vote by women voters. It also includes their representation in Legislative Assembly. The trends of female participation is the thrust area of this paper. It is well known fact that larger the rate of literacy and higher the level of economic development, more significant will be the political participation of women force in the formation of government as well as the process of decision making. Keywords : Electoral participation, Legislative Assembly, Measurement of voters Introduction oppressive way of life and are poised to raise It is well known fact that Indian women pertinent questions that will make their lives more enchanting. have made headway in almost all the spheres of life. While on the one hand they are Materials and Methods wonderful educators, doctors, engineers, on While concentrating on the topic various the other hand they have proud themselves as books of eminent scholars were consulted. social workers, administrators politicians and Recourse has also been taken to make an in leaders. It means that women’s movement has depth study of the published works of the achieved a few counts of success or in other author. Reviews of the works by eminent words Indian women have become fairly scholars and critics have also been widely empowered. consulted. It is a paradox of modern India that women Results and Discussions hold power and position at topmost levels, yet Despite the discrimination against women large sections of women are among the most for last several centuries, the status of women underprivileged. Some women from the upper improved after the end of second world War. classes head political parties and command Several strands of thought and activism large followings, yet women’s lepresentative in merged to create the contemporary women's the Parliament and State legislatures has not movement in India. The spark was provided by been more then 10 percent. The roots of the Declaration of the UN Year of Women in discrimination against women lie in the 1975 and the release at the end of that year of religious and cultural practices of India. The the Status of Women Committee Report, a beginnings of changes started with the reform voluminous compilation of data, that blew apart movements in the 19th century, which the myth that post-Independence Indian addressed practices like Sati, child marriage, women were gradually 'progressing'. Faced life of the widows etc. The status of women in with stark facts on the abysmal status of the the contemporary context is reflected in the mass of Indian women, which suffered from state of health, education, employment and life poverty, illiteracy and ill health as well as in the society. The Indian women’s movement discrimination in both the domestic and the started with addressing the problems that public spheres, middle class women in the women normally faced. Today Indian women metros began to campaign against the worst have won several victories against an manifestations of sexism and patriarchy.

-72- Opinion on these issues built up gradually literacy campaigns initiated by the Central during the Emergency period and in 1977, Government was the sparking of an anti-arrack when the Emergency was lifted, women began movement in rural Andhra Pradesh after some to organise themselves into small feminist women read a literacy lesson that encouraged groups. They represented different sections of protest against liquor. This remarkable the society. movement has been documented in several The movement energised older association books and in, documentary films like. When such as the Young Women's Christian Women Unite. The State Government, which Association, the All India Women’s Conference enjoys substantial revenues from the sale of and the National Federation of Indian Women arrack and other liquor, strongly opposed the and in turn drew strength from their experience movement but for some years was unable to in organising. The emergence of the magazine stop the attacks on arrack vendors and protest Manushi and other feminist publications at auction sites. It was forced to impose a ban signified this ferment in women's minds. Early on the sale of arrack but withdrew it feminist activism questioned the practice of subsequently. Anti-liquor campaigns have dowry and protested the deaths of many young been successful in Himachal Pradesh, women by holding dharnas in front of police Haryana, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and other stations and the houses where the women states but have invariably faced suppression were burned to death. One of the first national from mafia, police and government. The level issues that brought the women's groups government's excise policy is regrettably together was the Mathura rape case. Four lawyers wrote to the Supreme Court to protest geared to actively promoting liquor, at the against the acquittal of policemen accused of expense of women and families. Struggles raping Mathura, a young girl in a police station. have been initiated for protection of the forests, The barrage of protests in 1979-1980, widely notably the Chipko movement and for rights to covered in the national media, forced the land and water. Ideologues such as government to amend the Evidence Act, the Vandana Shiva have built a strong case for Criminal Procedure Code and the Indian Penal environmentalism and campaigned against Code and introduce the category of custodial the World Trade Order. Strengthened by the rape. Incidents of Sati led to questioning of the ideological legitimacy given to women's links between patriarchy, religion and culture participation in political struggles, a few and the demand for stringent action against women have emerged as leaders of local communities that encouraged the practice of movements. Among them are Aruna Roy who sati. In recent years, female infanticide has heads the Right to Information Campaign become a major issue after amniocentesis emanating from rural Rajasthan and Medha tests enabled the detection of the sex of the Patkar who leads the powerful Narmada foetus in the mother's womb. Another issue Bachao Andolan. In a different mould are that was addressed was sexism in media, women like Ela Bhatt who leads the unique particularly films and advertising. Large scale poster campaigns and public protests were Self Employed Women's Association (SEW A), organised. A coercive population policy and a trade union of women in an unorganised the government's repeated moves to introduce sector. During the early 1980s, the larger, hi-tech hormonal contraceptives such as national level women's organisations had injectables and implants led to many come together in a loose alliance and were campaigns against hazardous trials of these known as the "seven sisters". The autonomous contraceptive devices. Women are an intrinsic groups held conferences biannually to discuss part of pro-people health activism in the movement issues and strategies. The Indian country. Association for Women's Studies provided Communalism became a major issue for activists and academic a forum to meet and the women's movement with the Muslim confer. The 1990s saw the consolidation of the Women's Bill. An interesting fallout of the women's movement.

-73- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Grants from foreign donor agencies questioning the oppression of Dalit women. enabled the formation of new non- Muslim and Christian women are strongly governmental organisations (NGOs). Money demanding equal rights. The war in Kargil has was available for research on women's issues spurred activism for peace. Women were the and for some forms of activism. Today first to lead a peace delegation to Pakistan in autonomous women's collectives are the the post-war period, breaking the ice and exception, the majority of groups are NGOs initiating people-to-people dialogues. Issues of identified with one or other individual. Many conflict and peace are important, given the NGOs have become part of the 'delivery' tremendous suffering of women in Jammu and mechanism of the government as they provide Kashmir and in the North East region. Cross- services such as reproductive health care to border trafficking of women and girls is a major women, or gender training to government problem that remains untackled. The functionaries and panchayats. As the number Constitution had promised free education for of new women's groups, NGOs and all Indian children up to the age of 14. This organisations grew throughout the country, promise is yet to be fulfilled. The National they felt the need for representation at the Commission for Women has made a series of national level. The United Nations' fourth recommendations for legal reform and other World Conference on Women, held in Beijing measures that deserve consideration but have in 1995, provided an opportunity in this regard. so far been ignored by the successive UN and donor funding enabled the formation of governments. Last year the Indian government a Coordination Unit to hold preparatory reported to a UN Committee on the status of meetings in different parts of the country. Post- implementation of the Convention on the Beijing, these groups formed the National Elimination of Discrimination of Women and Alliance of Women's Organisations (NAWO) was congratulated for bringing women into that played an active role in the Beijing Plus panchayats, but critiqued on other counts Five meetings held in New York. Women were including denial of rights to minority women. also organised through a task force set up with Activists have drafted a Bill on Domestic donor support for the Plus Five process. Violence after national consultations with women’s organizations and lobbied for its Conclusion passage. An official version is likely to be Both research and activism has focused introduced in Parliament shortly. The on the negative fallout of the process of Government declared 2001 as the year of globalization and liberalisation on women. Women’s Empowerment or Swashakti. A They have demanded that the investment in policy for the Empowerment of Women was the social sector be increased. But a drafted in 1996 but has been in cold storage. government bent on opening up the economy Having discussed the political participation of to foreign investment and free trade has paid Indian women, one wonders at the richness of no heed to these voices, although India has the tradition that one has. The Vedas and experienced industrial recession and a period Upanishads clearly state that on the spiritual of jobless growth in the past decade. Given the level, men and women are alike, or that, in their high levels of a large population below age 20, essential being they all embody truth, pure the demand for employment is growing and consciences, and bliss. Swami Vivekanand joblessness and accompanying frustrations had a firm belief that upliftement of women have contributed to violence, frequently would result in spiritual and material progress expressed as ethnic, caste, class or communal of the country. Acharya Vinoba Bhave conflicts. Women are the worst sufferers in endorsed the need to strengthen the spiritual such conflicts. Besides raising these economic power of women for a sustained struggle to issues, sections of the women's movement are root out the evils bessiting their lives.

-74- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 References 6 Janapathy Varalakshmi, Indian women 1. Doranne Jacobsen and Sussan S. through the Ages, Gyan Publishing Wadley, : Two House, New Delhi, 2002 perspectives, Manohar Publication, New 7 Parikh Indira and Garg Putin K. (edit), Delhi,1977 Indian women, An Inner Dialogue, Sage 2. Jain Jasbir and Singh Kumar Awadesh Publication, New Delhi, 1989 (ed.), Indian Feminisms, Creative Books, Delhi, 2001 8. Maria Mies Indian Women and 3. Delmont Sara, The Sociology of women, Patriarchy, Concept Publication, Delhi, An introduction, George Allen and unwin, 1980 London, 1980 9 Shivley Ardener, Prerciving Women, Dent 4. Gadially Rehana (ed), Women in Indian and sons Ltd., London, 1977 Society: A Reader, Sage Publication, New Delhi, 1988 10 Mill J.S., The Subjection of Women, 5. Pandit S.K., Women in Society, Rajat Virago Publisher, London, 1983. Publications, Delhi, 1998

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B.R. Ambedkar and his Feminist Idea : An appraisal Ishita Aditya (Ray) Assistant Professor, Bejoy Narayan Mahavidyalaya Itachuna, Burdwan University, West Bengal

Abstract Ambedkar, the symbol of revolt as pronounced by Nehru, waged a series of protests with a view to establish a just society based on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. His effort for the upliftment of women in Indian society was a part of his major project of establishing a just society.In this article, legal position of the women is examined in historical perspective. Legal ways for safeguarding women in different fields are analyzed critically. In view of such a pattern of social relationship where graded inequality and unjust social order prevails, Ambedkar’s vision of a just humane order becomes relevant. Here, Babasaheb’s contribution lies in focusing on the problems faced by Shudras and women and in emphasizing the gravity of the problem and his vision of a just humane social order carefully enquire the roots of social inequalities prevalent among women. Keywords: Manu, women, inequality Introduction Recourse has also been taken to make an in depth study of the published works of the Before understanding Dr. Ambedkar’s author. Reviews of the works by eminent feminist idea, it is necessary to comprehend scholars and critics have also been widely the philosophical basis of his thoughts. consulted. This study is conducted mainly with Ambedkar was schooled in a liberal political the help of an original book published by tradition which he absorbed through his Maharasthra Government - "B.R. Ambedkar interaction with western culture as he was writing and speeches" - and also with the use of amidst British moulded higher education in available literature in form of books, journals India. He was trained in Colombia University and periodicals on the issue. Discussion with and London School of Economics and Political renowned scholars in different universities in Science. But, unfortunately, he was obliged to the respective field has helped me a lot in subsist and suffer in an anti-liberal social shaping the article. environment. But liberalism induced him to dream of an ideal social order based on Results and Discussions individual right and dignity. Being an integral In this part, legal position of the women is part of that section of society which deprived examined in historical perspective. Ambedkar’s justice to individual and which for generations view on the position of women and legal ways had been victims of organized exploitation, he had the advantage of having a clear vision of for safeguarding women in different fields are the problems and complexity of the social analyzed critically. Ambedkar was a believer in system. women’s progress who gauged the progress of Dr Ambedkar had missionary dedication a community by the degree of progress which to revitalizing and emancipating the suppressed women achieved. He faught for human rights women classes of humanity from the bondage equally for men and women. He advised of Hindu social slavery. To achieve his women to learn, to be clean, keep away from objective, he fought relentlessly against the vices, give education to their children , remove unjust social order on social, economic, from them all inferiority complex, instil ambition religious and political fronts. to them, inculcate in their minds that they were Materials and Methods destined to be great and not to be in a hurry to While concentrating on the topic various many. He always said ‘never regard yourself an 1 books of eminent scholars were consulted. untouchables.’

-76- Ambedkar, the believer in the totality of principle of fixation of people within their social order, discussed women’s question in respective classes. The four classes -Brahmin, the perspective of totality of social structure. As Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra are not on a social philosopher, Ambedkar had developed horizontal plane rather they are on a vertical a logical structure of interrelated ideas and he plane-not only different but unequal in status- used those as a theoretical framework to one standing above other. In the scheme of explain the social phenomenon. According to Manu, Brahmin is placed first, Kshatriya, Babasaheb, women’s question was related to Vaishya and Shudras are placed below it the system of organized exploitation which is respectively. This order of precedence among inherent in Hindu Social order. Along with classes, according to Babasaheb, is not only Shudras, women became victims of such an conventional but also spiritual, moral and order which placed Brahmanical Class at a illegal. It is regulated by principle of graded position of supremacy, secondly developed an inequality. Babasaheb found the same graded inbuilt mechanism of its maintenance, inequality in the law of marriage. To quote him justification, and thirdly placed women and “Manu is of course opposed to inter marriage. Shudras at sub-human level. Ambedkar made His injunction is for each class to marry within a detailed analysis of the Hindu Social order. his class but he does not recognize marriage For him, an important pre-requisite of a free outside the defined classes. He is particularly social order is that it should treat individual as careful not to allow inter marriage to do harm to the ultimate goal and society is not above the him to his principle of inequality among individual and aim of society is the growth of classes. Like slavery, he permits inter- individual as well as development of his marriage but not in the inverse order. A personality. Ambedkar attacked the prevalent Brahmin when marrying outside his class may social tradition which makes women marry any woman from any of the classes”.2 subservient to men. He was aggrieved to Since there is no sphere of life which is not observe the social order in which women did regulated by these principles of graded not have the opportunity either to be inequality, hence woman as a part of their sex recognized as an individual or to develop her must suffer from this principle and remain as personality which ran contrary to his belief. victims of such inequality. So the system of According to him, women in condition of graded inequality as fundamental principle of servility are not only kept away from the the Hindu Social order affects the nature and process of personality development but also character of the social inter personal inter- relationship. forced to survive in animal like surroundings. Such a reality was very much against his Religious code regarding position of valued idea of a person and personality. He women in society and Ambedkar’s idea : observed that the social order doesn’t provide While analyzing the position of women in ideal condition by which they can attain such Indian society, Ambedkar pays attention to the heights of individuality. The exploitation of religious code which, according to his opinion, women and injustice meted out to them is the is responsible for not only degrading their result of their social grouping, sex of which they position but also for creating a social are a part. acceptability for such degradation. The low It was the fact that women were subject to status of women, according to Babasaheb, is a social discrimination. Babasaheb explained it reflection of social perceptions as developed in terms of very nature of the social order which over centuries where women and Shudras did not recognize equality and not only were denied the basic human rights. Like practiced inequality but justified it as the Shudras, women had been the target of highest code of religious, moral order. In view religious code, especially Manu’s wrath. Manu of Dr. Ambedkar, Hindu Social order is based not only shows contempt for women but also on three different principles – principles of establishes their mental inferiority by declaring graded inequality, fixity of occupation for each them as slaves and their existence is class and its continuance by heredity and considered as useful for the pleasure of men.

-77- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 A thorough analysis of Manusmriti helped far as sacramental marriage is concerned, I am Dr. Ambedkar to realize that women were quite convinced in my own mind that no man looked upon as objects for seducing men3, able who examines that institution in a fair, honest to lead astray in (this) world not only a fool, but and liberal spirit can come to the conclusion even a learned man , and to make him a slave that our sacramental marriage satisfies either of desire and anger4 and hence it was enjoined the idea of liberty or of equality. What is the upon men to strenuously exert themselves to sacramental ideal of marriage? It is polygamy guard women 5, knowing their disposition – for men and perpetual slavery for the women love of ornament, impure desires , wrath, because under no circumstances can the dishonesty, malice, and bad conduct- which woman get her liberty from her husband, lord of creatures laid in them at the creation to however, bad he may be, undesirable a person be such6 . Consequently, day and night women may be.’’ Ambedkar reacted against Manus’s must be kept in dependence by the males of code and its impact on social practice as it their families and if they attach themselves to reduced a substantial part of human society to sexual enjoyments, they must be kept under a sub-human level. Ambedkar finds similarity one’s control7. They needed to be controlled between the position of women and the vigilantly by their guardians. They did not have Shudras. Like the Shudras, the women were right to divorce. A wife was reduced by Manu to deprived of the basic opportunities required for the level of a slave in the matter of property. the development of human personality. She was also subjected to corporal Women were not to have any intellectual punishment as the husband had the right to pursuits, or free will, or freedom of thought. beat his wife. Women did not have the choice She was denied the right of education and in selecting a spouse; the father had the right to even practice of religion was restricted in case settle the marriage of his daughter. She had to of women. The study of Veda was forbidden to worship a husband faithfully even if he be a her by Manu as it was to the Shudras. By debauch or a man devoid of virtues and other practicing restrictions on women’s right, Manu human qualities8. Manu made another new has sought to make them inferior in the society rule which stated killing a woman was only an but at the same time, he had aimed to upapataka, that is, it was only a minor offence. legitimize the inferior position for them by developing and propagating a moral value Ambedkar with a strong liberal background structure by which women develop a and great respect for individual freedom found dependent character. The ideal Hindu woman Manu’s code objectionable because it for centuries together is not what Ambedkar projected a low opinion regarding women and would consider ideal. In accordance with his it imposed a large number of restrictions on the liberal value frame work, Ambedkar would freedom of women. have liked ideal women to be free, not a slave, Babasaheb is stunned not only at the loss to be independent, nor dependent on man, to of liberty of women but also at the unfair be a person in her own right and not to be behaviour imposed on them. The established identified in any relation to a man, to be notion was that marriage is sacrament and can assertive and not to be submissive. not be breached by either of the two parties. Babasaheb draws attention towards the Expressing his view on the nature of Hindu unfairness, injustice and immorality and Marriage, he makes it clear that for Manu, such insensitivity of social order to the young girl. sanctity for marriage was there only for Even, she does not attain the minimum proper women. It is only women who do not have a age of marriage, she has to be married. And right to divorce. Men are allowed by Manu’s strong sanction was provided to proper age of laws not only to give up their wives but also to marriage which for Ambedkar, was ‘improper sell them. According to Ambedkar, the sanctity age’ from all universe and standards. granted to marriage as a sacrosanct institution Babasaheb finds the norms relating to was one of the ways by which women were widows’ life in Indian society both as immoral permanently made bound up with the man and inhuman. A widow is not only advised to while keeping men free. Ambedkar argued, ‘‘so lead a life of celibacy but also is advised to

-78- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 reject the material pleasures of life. Moreover, Babasaheb’s effort in elevation of the even if a widowed woman desires motherhood status of women : and wishes to achieve this desire through When Babasaheb became a member of marriage, it is subject to religious prohibition. Constituent Assembly and chairman of its Ambedkar observed that women enjoyed drafting committee, he was among the more honorable life before Manu’s code came pioneers of the constitution for giving it a liberal into being. Ambedkar made detailed study to direction. The constitution incorporated the establish his point that women enjoyed better principles of liberty, equality and fraternity and status in the period when Manu’s code was not justice. Establishing the principles of equality established. He observed that in the day of before law and equal protection of law, liberty Kautilya, the marriages where post-puberty of thought, speech and expression and justice, and Kautilya’s scheme didn’t justify polygamy. a way was paved for social progress. Women In those times, women could claim divorce and along with Shudras were granted constitutional there was no ban on a women or a widow status equal to the rest of the society and any remarrying. Ambedkar wanted to suggest the type of discrimination based on social ground hollowness of the claim that Manu’s code was was constitutionally disallowed. divine in origin. Ambedkar challenged the One of the most important contributions of divinity of Manu Smriti and wanted that social Dr. Ambedkar in relation to elevation of status analysts, social reformers and common people of women in India was his initiative to draft and should change their orientation from religious introduce the Hindu Code bill in the Constituent to rational so that they can understand social Assembly. Being India’s first Law Minister and problems in an objective manner and reorient Chairman of the drafting committee of the social relation on the basis of fair and rational Constituent Assembly he thought it appropriate human values. to free women from the age old enslavement In view of Ambedkar, emergence of by reforming the Hindu Social laws created by Buddhism brought a great change in the status Manu. The code sought to confer on women of women as well as Shudras. Like Shudras, the right to property and adoption which had Buddhism also provided a path for the equality been denied by Manu. It put men and women and freedom for a woman. Thus, according to on an equal level in all legal matters. Ambedkar, under the Buddhist regime, “she In spite of his efforts, Ambedkar was not could acquire property, she could acquire successful in getting the Hindu Code Bill learning and what was unique, she could passed into law. The bill was let down as become a member of Buddhist order of Nuns discussion could not be complete. Although and reach the same status and divinity as a Babasaheb failed to convert the Hindu Code Brahmin”9 Therefore, Buddha’s approach Bill into law and he felt frustrated, yet it was on towards women was, on the other hand, the basis of his effort only that the Hindu Code progressive in terms of admitting women into was subsequently enacted. The Hindu Code ‘sangha’ and allowing them to receive bill as prepared by Dr. Ambedkar was later split education along with men. into four bills and the same were put on the In his analysis, Ambedkar argues that statute book by Parliament. The Hindu inhuman treatment towards women in Hindu Marriage Act 1955, Hindu Succession Act Society is related to the caste. Therefore, 1956, The Hindu minority and guardianship Act instead of treating women’s issue separately, 1956 and Hindu Adoption and Maintenance he attacked the caste system which he thought Act 1956 are the four enactments which was degrading the basic human values. So incorporate the ideals of Dr. Ambedkar. They Babasaheb felt the need to change the Hindu gave independent status to women and Society radically by changing the mechanism empowered them with the right of adoption, of social order. As he felt that all problems succession and property which were related to women were generated from system completely denied by Manu. Ambedkar, ‘A of caste, he joined the issue with the social symbol of revolt’ as called by Nehru due to reformer while supporting social reform movement Babasaheb’s social philosophy, was fully because he felt that only revolutionary change dissatisfied with the existing social pattern. of caste system would be beneficial for Identifying caste as the central mechanism of women. this order, he went on to argue that there was -79- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 no scope for a just social order either for not serve much purpose. Social inequalities Shudras or for women unless the system of have been widened; women are suffering from caste was abolished. He had a deep faith in social deprivation. In view of such a pattern of fundamental human rights, in the equal rights social relationship, Ambedkar’s vision of a just of man and woman, in the social and economic benevolent order becomes relevant. Here, justice in the promotion of social progress. For Ambedkar’s contribution lies in focusing on the Ambedkar, the problem was not only restricted problems faced by Shudras and women and in to elevate the status of the down-trodden by emphasizing the gravity of the problem and his way of changes through law and constitution. vision of a just humane social order carefully For him, the problem was to raise the social enquires the roots of social inequalities consciousness of the people to such a level prevalent among woman. It is the responsibility where they would be ready to transform the of the new generation of progressive men and very core of social order which creates women to carry forward the assignment of Dr. inequalities. His attack on Brahmanism was Ambedkar with renewed vigour and fortitude. mainly aimed to create social consciousness References which would accommodate Shudras and women as full human beings. 1. Keer Dhananjay, Ambedkar : Life and Mission, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, Ambedkar also tried to generate self- 1962, pp 104-105 respect among the dalit women. He said that he measured the progress of the dalit 2. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar: Writing and community by the degree of progress which speeches, vol 3, The Women and counter dalit women had achieved. Probably – revolution, pp 429 Ambedkar was the only leader who had 3. Vide Manusmriti, II, 213: ‘It is the nature of strongly advocated birth control moving a women to seduce men in this (world) ; the resolution in the Bombay Legislative Assembly wise are never unguarded in the company on 10th November, 1938 regarding the of males.’ measures of birth control. This resolution had a bearing on the health problems of women. 4. Id.II.214: ‘For women are able to lead astray in (this)world not only a fool, but Conclusion even a learned man, and (to make ) him a Ambedkar needs to be acknowledged slave of desire and hunger.’ both for his analysis or explanation for 5. Id IX. 16 degrading situation of Hindu women as well as effort to give appropriate right and place to 6. Id IX. 17 women, particularly by introducing Hindu Code 7. Id IX. 2 Bill in the early 1950. Non-Brahmin social 8. Vide, Encyclopaedia Britannica: ‘‘The reformers made noteworthy efforts for the very word ‘women’ etymologically meaning emancipation of women highlighting the a wife, sums up the long history of problems of women but they failed to link up dependence and subordination’. Also, women’s exploitation with that of caste system. compare Gibbon’s statement quoted in Ambedkar waged a series of protests with a M.H. Sheikh Kidwai, Women under view to establish a just society based on the different Social and Religious Laws, principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. His (1976) p.3: ‘Such was the stern and effort for the upliftment of women in Indian haughty spirit of the ancient law that society was a part of his major project of women were condemned to the perpetual establishing a just society. tutelage to the priests ,husbands or At the dawn of 21st Century, after six guardians: a sex created to please and to decades of independence when the state obey was never supposed to have through its legal constitutional apparatus and attained the age of reason and through its welfare machinery, has taken a experience.’’ number of steps to lift up the position of 9. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Writing and women, we find that Babasaheb’s anxieties speeches, vol 3 were not unjustified. The law has failed to bring social justice and constitutional equality does 10. Ibid

-80- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 81-90 ISSN 0974 - 200X

A Study of Food Faddism and Faulty Food Habits among Women of Hazaribag Shyamasri Sanyal Research Scholar, P.G. Department of Home Science Vinobha Bhave University, Hazaribag, Jharkhand

Abstract Mysticism and food faddism are probably as old as civilization itself. Knowledge regarding the food habits of man is provided by many disciplines. The social scientist, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists and cultural geographers have been concerned with man’s culture, social activities and food habits. A number of factors influence food habits. This study of food faddism and faulty food habits among women from Hazaribag district of Jharkhand was carried out. A total sample of 300 women was selected for the purpose. The sample were divided into high educated and low educated women which were further sub- divided into high, middle and low income families. The result reveals the food faddism and faulty food habits were more common in low educated and low income group as compared to high educated, high income and middle income group. The quality of food was better of women of high income and high educated group, compared to middle income, low income and low educated group. Keywords: Food faddism, Faulty habits, Nutrition Introduction established. There is evidence of over- consumption by some food faddists, and the Food has been a basic part of our addition of St. John’s worth, Echinacea, existence. Food is that which nourishes the ginseng, ginkgo balboa and other ingredients body. Food may also be defined as anything to food has produced allergic reactions, eaten or drank, which can be absorbed by the coagulation disorders and interfered with the body to be used as an energy source, building, actions of immunosuppressants. If a compound regulating or protective material. In short, food is listed as a dietary supplement rather than a is the raw material from which our bodies are functional food, the rules are different and, made. Food is a prerequisite of nutrition. effectively, far less restrictive. Nutrition is the science of foods, the nutrients and other substances therein, their According to Dowd & Dent, food fads and action, interaction and balance in relationship fallacies can be combated with increasing to health and disease, the process by which knowledge. It is hoped that with increased the organism ingests, digests, absorbs, knowledge the generation of today, will prove transports and utilizes nutrients and disposes itself less gullible and more capable of of their end product. In addition, nutrition must intelligently evaluating food and nutrition be concerned with social, economic, cultural information from all sources as well as the and psychological implications of food and status of the proponents of so called food fads. eating. Materials and Methods Knowledge regarding the food habits of man is provided by many disciplines. The A sample of 300 women was selected for social scientists, anthropologists, sociologists the purpose. The samples were divided into and cultural geographers have been high educated and low educated women which concerned with man’s cultural social activities were further sub-divided into high, middle and and food habits. low income families. The high educated groups Food faddism is an exaggerated belief in constituted women with minimum degree level the impact of food and nutrition on health and education or above and low educated group disease. Food faddism insist that food and were constitute women who have read upto nutrition are more significant than science has ninth class or below. The income range of high

-81- income family above Rs. 10,000 monthly, monthly and low income family constitute middle income family Rs. 5000 to 10,000 income below Rs. 5000 monthly.

A Complete sample design has been below :- High Income family Middle income Low income Family Above Family Rs. 5000-10,000 below Rs. 10,000 Monthly monthly Rs. 5000 monthly High Educated 50 (Group-I) 50 (Group-II) 50 (Group-III) Low Educated 50 (Group-IV) 50 (Group-V) 50 (Group-VI)

All the women were selected from urban forms is followed by discussions. A sample of area of Hazaribag district of Jharkhand state. 300 women from Hazaribag district have been Personal data questionnaire, questionnaire selected for assessing the food faddism and based on attitude to food faddism and faulty faulty food habits among women and also their food habits, use of diet chart and calculation of impact on nutritional quality of their food. The nutritive value of their foods were the main sample of 300 women is divided into two main methods used for the study. The stratified groups as women with high education (150) random sampling technique was used under and women with low education (150). These study. two main groups are further divided into three each sub groups on the basis of high income, The use of personal data questionnaire middle income and low income. The high was to get information concerning sampling educated group constituted women with criteria. Questions such as name, religion, minimum degree level education or above and caste, age, address, level of education, nature low educated group constituted women who of employment etc were asked. had read up to ninth class or below. The income range of high income family is above The questionnaire based on attitude to Rs. 20000/- monthly, middle income family Rs. food faddism and faulty food habits such as 10000-20000/- monthly and lastly the low religious value of food, traditional belief in food income family constitute income below Rs. habits, idea about hot food and cold food, 10000/- monthly. health value of food, any negative or bad experience of particular food, pica eating The respondent were administrated habits and other food fad and cults, use of diet personal data bank and questionnaire or chart give the broad information about the diet schedule for collecting information regarding pattern of woman, what are the food stuffs food faddism and faulty food habits among mainly consumed by them twice or thrice a women and their impact on nutritional quality of week, weekly and monthly. Diet chart also give food. the details of portion of food stuffs eaten such as leaf, stem, root, skin and cooking methods Table No. 1 shows the religions of adopted. Data on food consumption of respondents. 111 (37%) women respondents common Indian foods and less familiar foods were Hindu, 73 (24.33%) Muslim, 45 (15%) are separately tabulated and for assessing the Christians and 71 (23.66%) belong to schedule nutritional quality of their diet the book Nutritive tribe or scheduled castes. This indicates the value of Indian foods by C. Gopalan has been majority of women respondents under study used. were Hindu and second major Muslim and Results and Discussions schedule caste or scheduled tribe. Less percentage of Christian women respondents The analysed data presented in tabular were under study.

-82- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Table - 1 DETAILS OF RELIGIONS OF RESPONDENTS S.N. GROUP TOTAL NO HINDU MUSLIM CHRISTIAN SC/ST 1 Ist 1-50 23 9 4 4 2 IInd 51-100 24 17 8 11 3 IIIrd 101-150 20 11 16 13 4 IVth 151-200 21 10 8 11 5 Vth 201-250 16 12 9 13 6 VIth 251-300 7 14 10 19 7 Total 300 111 73 55 71 8 Percentage 100% 37% 24.3% 18.3% 23.6%

Table No. 2 shows the types of family of had Nuclear family system and 153 (51%) respondents. 147 (49%) women respondents women respondent had joint family system. Table - 2 DETAILS OF TYPES OF FAMILY OF RESPONDENTS S.N. GROUP TOTAL NUCLEAR JOINT 1 Ist 1-50 36 14 2 IInd 51-100 33 17 3 IIIrd 101-150 27 23 4 IVth 151-200 22 28 5 Vth 201-250 18 32 6 VIth 251-300 11 39 7 Total 300 147 153 8 Percentage 100% 49% 51% Table No. 3 shows the vegetarian or non- (64%) respondents were vegetarian and 98 vegetarian food habits of respondents, 192 (32%) respondents were non-vegetarian.

Table - 3 DETAILS OF FOOD HABITS (VEGETARIAN/NONVEGETARIAN) OF RESPONDENTS S.N. GROUP TOTAL VEGETARIAN NON-VEGETARIAN 1 Ist 1-50 25 25 2 IInd 51-100 28 12 3 IIIrd 101-150 31 19 4 IVth 151-200 33 1 5 Vth 201-250 36 14 6 VIth 251-300 39 11 7 Total 300 192 98 8 Percentage 100% 64% 32.6%

-83- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Health is related to the food consumed. To purpose whole sample on the basis of high maintain good health, ingesting a diet educated and low educated were divided into containing the nutrients in correct amounts is two groups. essential. These are different concepts of Sample consists of high educated females nutrients. The most commonly studied aspect (N=150) and low educated females (N=150). is the one based on laboratory research on The questionnaire discussed above has been how the various food components of our diet used in all the females. In order to get the are digested, absorbed and metabolized to answers of the above questions, frequencies carry out various activities of the body. It also and percentage of scores have been computed helps to understand the various diseases which have been shown in Table No. 4. which occur due to malnutrition and deficiency. There are 18 questions to determine the To determine the nutritional knowledge or nutritional knowledge and information of nutritional awareness among respondent few respondents and each question had 1 score for questions have been framed. For the above Yes and zero for No. Table - 4 AWARENESS AND NUTRITIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONDENTS REGARDING FOOD CONSUMPTION & THEIR USE ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V

I E E V I C C

-

AWARENESS AND - - - - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 1 Food is necessary for body (yes) 50 49 40 139 92.6% 50 33 27 110 73% 2 Knowledge of nutrients (yes) 50 47 40 137 91.3% 50 17 11 78 52% 3 Nutrients are present in food (yes) 50 42 37 129 86% 50 11 5 66 44% 4 Protein is the most important nutrient 50 38 26 114 76% 50 10 7 67 4 4 % of our body (yes) 5 Carbohydrates give energy to our 50 39 22 111 74% 50 10 6 66 4 4 % body (yes) 6 Fat is necessary for regulatory 50 30 13 93 62% 50 6 4 60 4 0 % function of our body (yes) 7 Vitamin & minerals protect our body 50 27 17 94 62% 50 5 3 58 3 8 % from deficiency diseases (yes) 8 Vitamin A is necessary for proper 50 25 16 91 60% 50 3 1 54 3 6 % functioning of our eyes (yes) 9 Vitamin D & Calcium is necessary 50 22 15 84 56% 50 2 0 52 34% for growth & development of our bones & teeth (yes) 10 Iron & folic acid is needed for blood 50 20 13 83 54% 50 2 0 52 34% formation in our body (yes) 11 Knowledge about balance Diet (yes) 50 20 12 82 54% 50 10 6 66 44% 12 Effect on health due to lack of 48 44 42 134 89% 26 17 11 54 36% nutrients (yes) 13 The sources of nutrients (yes) 45 41 38 124 82% 22 15 8 45 38% 14 The food groups (yes) 39 36 35 110 73% 11 5 2 18 12%

-84- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V I E E V I C C

-

AWARENESS AND - -

- - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 15 Non-veg, dry fruits & pulses are 47 45 42 114 76% 29 18 5 52 34% good source of protein (yes) 16 GLV & fruits are good sources of 40 38 36 114 76% 20 15 4 39 26% minerals and vitamins (yes) 17 Water & fibre are required for the 39 34 32 105 70% 19 12 9 40 26% digestion in our body (yes) 18 Cereals are good source of 50 49 47 146 97% 35 23 11 69 46% carbohydrate (yes) TOTAL SCORE 858 646 523 2004 73.94% 712 214 120 1046 38.94% Table - 5 MEAN/SD’S OF SCORES OF AWARENESS AND NUTRITIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONDENT REGARDING FOOD CONSUMPTION AND THEIR USE ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V I E E V I C C

-

AWARENESS AND - -

- - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 1 Food is necessary for body ? (yes) 50 49 40 139 92.6% 50 33 27 111 73% 2 Knowledge of nutrients? (yes) 50 47 40 137 91.3% 50 17 11 78 52% 3 Nutrients are present in food? yes) 50 42 37 129 86% 50 11 5 66 44% 4 Protein is the most important nutrient 50 38 26 114 76% 50 10 7 67 4 4 % of our body? (yes) 5 Carbohydrates give energy to our 50 39 22 111 74% 50 10 6 66 4 0 % body? (yes) 6 Vitamin & minerals protect our body 50 27 17 94 62% 50 5 3 58 3 8 % from deficiency disease? (yes) 7 Vitamin A is necessary for proper 50 25 16 91 60% 50 3 1 54 3 6 % functioning of our eye? (yes) 8 Vitamin D & calcium is necessary for 50 22 15 86 56% 50 2 0 52 3 4 % growth & development (yes) 9 Iron & folic acid is needed for blood 50 20 13 83 54% 50 2 0 52 3 4 % formation in our body? (yes) 10 Knowledge about balance diet? (yes) 50 20 12 82 54% 50 10 6 66 44% 11 Effect on health due to lack of 48 44 42 134 89% 26 17 11 54 3 6 % nutrients? (yes) 12 The sources of nutrients? (yes) 45 41 38 124 82% 22 15 8 45 38% 13 The food groups? (yes) 39 36 35 110 73% 11 5 2 18 12%

-85- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V I E E V I C C

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AWARENESS AND - -

- - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 14 Non-veg, dry fruits & pulses are good 47 45 42 114 76% 29 18 5 52 34% sources of protein? (yes) 15 GLV & fruits are good sources of 40 38 36 114 76% 20 15 4 39 2 6 % minerals & vitamin? (yes) 16 Water & fibre are required for the 39 34 32 105 70% 1 12 9 40 2 6 % digestion in our body? (yes) 17 Fat is necessary for regulatory 50 30 13 93 62% 50 6 4 60 4 0 % function of our body? (yes) 18 Cereals are good sources of 50 49 47 146 97% 35 23 11 69 4 6 % carbohydrate? (yes) MEAN 47.66 35.88 29.05 111.44 73.94% 39.55 11.88 6.67 58.17 38.72 STANDARD DEVIATION (SD) 3.958 9.521 11.811 19.763 13.425 13.833 7.795 6.028 18.560 12.045 Table - 6 FOOD FADDISM AND FAULTY FOOD HABITS AMONG RESPONDENTS ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V I E E V I C C

-

AWARENESS AND - -

- - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 19 Eat non-veg. If no it is due to religion 35 23 11 69 46% 39 40 43 122 8 1 % belief (yes) 20 Eat GLV daily. If no it is because it is 11 17 23 51 34% 40 43 48 131 8 7 % the food for poor people (yes) 21 Low cost foods are very nutritious like 47 43 40 130 86% 38 35 30 103 68% papaya, guava, carrot, amla, maize etc (yes) 22 Over and under both are the causes 46 44 40 130 86% 20 18 11 49 3 2 % of malnutrition (yes) 23 We must take our food at proper time 50 50 50 150 100% 41 32 25 98 6 5 % interval (yes) 24 Raw rice is less nutritious than 41 37 32 110 73% 25 14 10 49 3 2 % polished rice (yes) 25 Masoor dal is the richest source of 50 50 50 150 100% 42 40 35 117 7 8 % protein (yes) 26 Vitamin are lost during improper way 47 43 41 131 87% 33 28 19 80 5 3 % of cooking (yes) 27 GLV and other vegetables must be 46 43 40 129 86% 26 22 17 65 4 3 % cooked in covered pan (yes)

-86- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V I E E V I C C

-

AWARENESS AND - -

- - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 28 Soyabean is the richest source of 45 42 39 126 84% 31 26 20 77 51% protein even more than animal protein (yes) 29 Fruits especially citrus & tomato are 40 38 37 115 76% 45 47 49 141 94% too acidic to be handled by the body (yes) 30 Food cooked in aluminium vessels 23 25 28 76 50% 38 40 43 121 80% will cause the body cancer (yes) 31 Garlic cures high blood pressure ? 30 33 35 98 65% 40 43 47 130 8 6 % (yes) 32 Beetroots build blood ? (yes) 25 27 29 81 54% 36 41 45 122 81% 33 Combination of milk & citrus fruits are 20 22 24 66 44% 33 35 37 105 7 0 % poisonous? (yes) 34 Combination of milk & fish are 40 42 45 127 84% 47 49 50 146 9 7 % poisonous? (yes) 35 Raw cucumbers without salt 41 43 44 128 85% 46 49 50 145 9 6 % are poisonous? (yes) 36 A good way to diet is to skip 45 45 45 135 90% 46 46 47 139 9 2 % Breakfast ? (yes) 37 Honey is not fattening (yes) 42 44 45 131 87% 46 47 49 142 94% 38 Meat gives strength ? (yes) 41 44 47 132 88% 47 50 50 147 98% 39 Fruit juice do not contribute calories 43 40 38 121 80% 30 26 20 76 5 0 % to the diet (yes) 40 Toast has fewer calories then 44 40 40 124 82% 38 37 36 111 7 4 % bread? (yes) 41 Vegetable fats and oils can be used 21 25 27 73 48% 37 42 48 127 84% in any quantities and are not fattening (yes) 42 Adults need no milk? (yes) 33 35 39 107 71% 40 43 47 130 86% 43 Skimmed milk has no nutritive 23 27 30 88 53% 42 45 47 134 89% value? (yes) 44 Curd is an aid to retain youth & 45 45 45 135 90% 47 48 49 144 96% beauty? (yes) TOTAL 974 967 964 2913 74.20% 993 986 972 2951 75.26% An observation of the table above less nutrition knowledge or awareness among indicates that the frequencies and percentage low educated respondents as compared to of high educated women are higher than those high educated. of low educated females in relation to On the basis of observation on the nutritional knowledge, and awareness among frequencies and percentage of scores of both respondents on the basis of analysis of data groups it is known that educated sub-groups in given in Table No 4 indicate that there were variably scored higher in nutritional knowledge

-87- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 or awareness compared to low educated sub- questionnaire discussed above has been used groups. This trend indicates that education in all the females. makes one, better known about nutritional In order to get the answer of above knowledge or awareness. questions, the frequencies and percentage The second approach for judging the role were calculated through scores shown in table of education is to compare the educated & no. 6. The mean and SD’s have been given in uneducated sub-groups on their mean scores Table No. 5. and SD’s shown in table 5. The scores given above have also To get the real response about food supported the above findings obtained from faddism and faulty food habits among the frequencies and percentage. The respondents, the comparison have been made frequencies and percentage scores shows that between high educated and low educated sub- high educated groups scored higher values groups. For measure of the above, compared to low educated sub-groups in food questionnaire have been developed by the faddism and faulty food habits. The analysed researcher comprising of 26 item questions data have been given in Table No. 6 & 7. On the which have been framed relating to food basis of above observations, it can be said that faddism and faulty food habits among women education makes a man more modern. In other respondents. word, it can be said that education helps to minimize the food faddism and faulty food Sample consists of high educated females habits. (N=150) and low educated females (150). The TABLE – 7 MEAN/SD’S OF SCORES OF FOOD FADDISM AND FAULTY FOOD HABITS AMONG RESPONDENTS ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V I E E V I C C

-

AWARENESS AND - -

- - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 19 Eat non-veg. If no it is due to religion 35 23 11 69 46% 39 40 43 122 8 1 % belief (yes) 20 Eat GLV daily. If no it is because it is 11 17 23 51 34% 40 43 48 131 8 7 % the food for poor people (yes) 21 Low cost foods are very nutritious 47 43 40 130 86% 38 35 30 103 68% like papaya,guava, carrot, amla, maize etc (yes) 22 Over and under both are the causes 46 44 40 130 86% 20 18 11 49 32% of malnutrition (yes) 23 We must take our food at proper time 50 50 50 150 100% 41 32 25 98 6 5 % interval (yes) 24 Raw rice is less nutritious than 41 37 32 110 73% 25 14 10 49 3 2 % polished rice (yes) 25 Masoor dal is the riches source of 50 50 50 150 100% 42 40 35 117 7 8 % protein (yes) 26 Vitamins are lost during improper 47 43 41 131 87% 33 28 19 80 5 3 % way of cooking (yes) 27 GLV and other vegetables must be 46 43 40 129 86% 26 22 17 65 4 3 % cooked in covered pan (yes)

-88- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ) ) % % ( (

I Y Y I I I I V I V I E E V I C C

-

AWARENESS AND - -

- - -

G G

N N L L

P P P A A E E P P A A NUTRITIONAL P U T T U T T U U U U U S.N. U O N N O O O O Q Q O O KNOWLEDGE OF O E E R T T R E E R R R R C C G G R R G G G RESPONDENTS G R R F F E E P P 28 Soyabean is the richest source of 45 42 39 126 84% 31 26 20 77 51% protein even more than animal protein (yes) 29 Fruits especially citrus & tomato 40 38 37 115 76% 45 47 49 141 94% are too acidic to be handled by the body (yes) 30 Food cooked in aluminium vessels 23 25 28 76 50% 38 40 43 121 80% will cause the body cancer (yes) 31 Garlic cures high blood pressure ? 30 33 35 98 65% 40 43 47 130 86% (yes) 32 Beetroots build blood ?(yes) 25 27 29 81 54% 36 41 45 122 81% 33 Combination of milk & citrus fruits 20 22 24 66 44% 33 35 37 105 70% are poisonous ? (yes) 34 Combination of milk & fish are 40 42 45 127 84% 47 49 50 146 97% poisonous? (yes) 35 Raw cucumbers without salt are 41 43 44 128 85% 46 49 50 145 9 6 % poisonous? (yes) 36 A good way to diet is to skip 45 45 45 135 90% 46 46 47 139 9 2 % breakfast? (yes) 37 Honey is not fattening (yes) 42 44 45 131 87% 46 47 49 142 94% 38 Meat gives strength? (yes) 41 44 47 132 88% 47 50 50 147 98% 39 Fruit juice do not contribute calories 43 40 38 121 80% 30 26 20 76 5 0 % to the diet (yes) 40 Toast has fewer calories than 44 40 40 124 82% 38 37 36 111 7 4 % bread? (yes) 41 Vegetable fats and oils can be used 21 25 27 73 48% 37 42 48 127 84% in any quantities and are not fattening (yes) 42 Adults need no milk ? (yes) 33 35 39 107 71% 40 43 47 130 86% 43 Skimmed milk has no nutritive 23 27 30 88 53% 42 45 47 134 89% value?(yes) 44 Curd is an aid to retain youth 45 45 45 135 90% 47 48 49 144 9 6 % & beauty? (yes) MEAN 37.46 3719 37.08 112.04 74.19 38.19 37.92 37.93 113.5 75.27% STANDARD DEVIATION (SD) 10.54 9.102 9131 27.161 18.316 7.184 9.9 13.328 29.71 19.86%

-89- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Conclusion public, have an opportunity to recognize forms of food faddism and educate the advocates of From the basis of above observation and such dietary regimes. analysis it is made clear that less awareness of nutritional knowledge, more faulty food habits Refrences among low educated female respondents were judged with the help of above 1. Manay N.S. and Shadaksharaswamy, observations and analysis of data. The Foods facts and principles, New Age findings and result of above observation and International (P) Ltd. Publishers, New analysed data makes it clear that really the Delhi, 2001, pp 1,3 & 513 high education helps women respondents to have more nutritional knowledge or nutritional 2. Swaminathan M., Essentials of Food and awareness as well as less food faddism and Nutrition, The Bangalore printing and less faulty food habits. publishing Co. L.T.D. Maysore Road, Hence Food faddism is a challenge to Banglore, 1974, pp 374 - 375 nutritionists and dieticians. It is necessary to 3. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition make women aware about the bad effects of food faddism and faulty food habits, establish 27 October 1974, Printed in U.S.A, pp. the relationship of nutrition with health, 1071, 1072 & 1074 motivate them to get away from wrong 4. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition traditional beliefs regarding few food stuffs, Nutrition education and importance of balance 27 October 1975, Printed in U.S.A, pp diet, through media can help women to 1083-1084 overcome faddism. Thus, the popular 5. Takanori Kasari, Foods Food Ingredients movements towards food faddism present a challenge, to nutrition and allied health leaders J.Jpn. Vol - 208, No - 08, 2003 to become cognizant, concerned, and involved 6. Colin Berry, Journal of Association of as educators, Nutritionists and dietitians, with physiciand, 2002, QJM, Med 2002, p 640 their knowledge and direct contact with the lay

-90- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 91-93 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Development of weaning food items from locally available food grains Sunita Kumari Kamal S.M.S (Home Science) Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chianki, Palamau Dr.Satyendra Prasad Medical Officer in charge PHC- Quazidewar, Gonda, UP Bharti S.M.S (Home Science) Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Giridih

Abstract The weaning food item were developed from locally available food grains in maize and wheat bases with combination of gingelly seed, groundnut, pulses and sugar. These foods are acceptable, digestable, palatable and low constable. In anthropometric measurement weight and height of infant were during feeding (6-12) month in three treatments varied from in last six month 7.2- 9.2 kg and 68-72 cms.The energy of weaning foods in three treatments varied from 250 - 448 k.cal. Cost of weaning foods is cheaper than locally available weaning foods. Keywords: Maize, Groundnut, Weaning food, Staple food Introduction important nutrients like protein and iron. These foods are important for the learner to chew and Malnutrition among infant and young accept different tastes and textures. children is common in developing countries due to the high price of weaning food and Materials and Methods unavailability of low price nutritious food. Materials: Maize (Zia maize), Wheat Protein energy malnutrition generally occurs (Tritium aestivum), Whole mung (Phaseouslons during the transitional phase. aureus roxb) Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), In Indian context too protein deficiency is Gingelly seed (Sesanum indicum) and sugar the most common problem. Since Indians were used for treatment. All materials are mainly depend on staple food to meet their easily available in local market. nutrition requirement, the staple grains must Preparation of materials be improved for quality. Maize, one of the Maize : Maize grains were under different staple foods in India has been improved for processing points. Maize grains were soaked, quality protein. Hence, it can be best utilized for alkali treated, and sun dried and roasted. these developments of weaning food for Wheat: Wheat grains were soaked malnourished children. Keeping in view all the overnight and next morning washed 2-3 times. point, it has been planned to develop the All grains were sprouts obtained within 1-2 weaning food from locally available maize days, Drying in sun light and roasting till the based food. desirable flavor obtained. Weaning gradually introduces a range of Gingelly seed and Groundnut : Gingelly solid food. Weaning food should be started and ground nut seeds were cleaned, washed, with around six months old child along with dried, roasted and thus the digestibility and breast and formula milk. Weaning begins from pliability was improved. the moment supplementary food is started and continues till the child is taken off the breast Green gram: Green grams were soaked completely. (Sri Laxmi,2000).Weaning food is overnight in double amount of water. Grains needed to provide the body with enough were strained and kept in sun light for drying.

-91- Then there were roasted on low flame till the Results and Discussions desirable flavor was obtained. Children of Palamau district in general and T1- Unbalanced locally available weaning Block in particular are suffering food from malnutrition in rural area. Hence, it is T2- Balanced weaning food (maize- 60 recommended that farm women should feed gm, green whole mung- 15 gm, ground nut -10 their infants with prepared balanced weaning gm, sesanum- 5gm, sugar- 30 gm) food develop from locally available stapled food grains. These food are low in cost, more T3- Balanced weaning food (wheat -60 nutritious, palatable and digestible. gm, whole green mung-15 gm, ground- nut -10 gm, sesanum-5gm, sugar- 30 gm.) The Anthropometric measurement of infant (Weight & Height) taken during feeding Anthropometric measurement of height (6-12 month) in three treatments are given in and weight on all children table I and II. The body weight of infants in 1. Height (cm) : It was measured using three treatments (T1, T2& T3) varied in last six infant meter for infant. month from 7.2-9.2 Kg. Height of infants during last six month in three treatments (T1, T2&T3) 2. Weight (kg): weight was measured using varied from 68 - 72 cms. It was found that the baby weighing scale for infant. highest score in T2 treatment was weight Standard for reference : The height and 9.2Kg, height 72.0 cms and then T3 and then weight obtained during study were compared T1 treatment respectively. with NCHS standard. They were also classified by Gomez classification using weight for age Table I which is based on percentage deviation from Weight (Kg) of Infant (6-12 months)

the medium of the reference standard. Hence, t h h n h h t t t t based on this classification one can distinguish e n n n n o o m o o arbitrary cut of points. t m m a

m m

e 0 2 r

The details of Gomez classification is given in below 6 8 1 1 Gomez classification For children grades of T Nutritional status nutrition T1 5.0 5.9 6.2 7.2 T2 5.0 6.4 8.2 9.2 1.1.Normal > 90% of standard weight for age T3 5.0 6.2 7.9 8.8 2.Grade -1 (Mild) 75 – 89 % of standard weight for age Table II 3.Grade -11 60 -74% of standard Height (cms) of infant (6-12 months) t

(Moderate) weight for age. h h n h h t t t t e n n n n o o 4.Grade -111 (severe) < 60 % of standard m o o t m m a

weight for age. m m

e 0 2 r 6 8 1 1 Body mass index (BMI) = Weight (Kg) T Height (m) T1 60 64 66 68 T2 60 64 67 72 BMI Nutritional grade T3 60 63 67 70 < 16 .00 III degree – severe 16.0- 17.0 II degree – Moderate The given energy (Kcal) of weaning food 17.0- 18.0 I degree – mild (T1,T2&T3)varied from 250 – 448 kcal have been presented in table 3. The energy (kcal) 18.5 -20.0 Low normal –Low was given highest in T2 followed by T3 (448 20.0 -25.0 Normal kcal) and T1(250kcal). It was found that T2 25.0 -30.0 Overweight better and superior than T3 and T1 >30.0 Obese (farmwomen practice), sixty percent (60%),

-92- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 fulfill the weaning of infant and less risk of References mortality rate in malnourished infants. 1. Srilaxmi B., Food science. New Age Table III International (p) Limited Publishers, New Energy (k.cal) of weaning food developed from locally available food grains. Delhi, 2000 Treatment Energy (K.cal) 2. Srilaxmi B. , Dietetics, New Age T1 250 International (p) Limited Publishers, New Delhi, 1997 T2 452 T3 448 3. Lillion Hongland Meyer, Food Chemistry, CBS Publishers and Distributions, New Cost of weaning food is more comfortable Delhi, 1998 and cheap. Costs of weaning food have been shown in table IV. Maize base weaning food is 4. Anita, Clinical Dietatics and Nutrition. cheaper than wheat base and farm women Oxford University Press, Mumbai, 2003 practice weaning food. Farm women save more money through development of weaning 5. Gopalan C., Sastri B.N. Rama and food from locally available food grains. Balasubramanian S.C, Nutritive Value of Table IV Indian Food. National Instiute of Nutition, Costs (Rs/Kg) of weaning food developed from Hyderabad,1995 locally available food grains: Treatment Cost(Rs / Kg) 6. Bamji M S, Pralhad Rao R., Readdy V, Text book of Human Nutrition, Oxford and T1 80 IBH Publishing Co. Ltd., Banglore,1997 T2 45 T3 50 7. Naidu A.N Rao, Demograpic and Socioeconomic Aspect of child in India, Conclusion Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, Weaning food prepared with maize base 1979, pp 383- 388 are cheaper in cost and body weight & height gain is more. It is also available in poor farmer’s 8. Gopalan C and Krishnaswamy E (Edit), house. Hence the majority of poor families like Nutrition in metabolic Diseases, Oxford to prepare weaning food with maize based University Press, New Delhi,1997 ingredients. Farmers like maize based weaning food because it is cost effective and 9. Bhat Ramesh V and Nagesware Rao R., gains more body weight, height and fulfill fifty Food Safety, The Bangalore Printing and percent K. cal of the children in similar Publishing Co Ltd., Banglore,1997 condition.

-93- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 94-97 ISSN 0974 - 200X

Bhagwadgita and Tao Te Chung: A comparative analysis Ajit Kumar Jha Freelance Journalist and Research Writer Ezine Articles.com

Abstract While Bhagwadgita teaches action Tao teaches inaction. The two terms ‘action’ and ‘inaction’ appear contradictory on a superficial reading. However, they are not. The ‘inaction’ as taught in Tao needs to be interpreted in the positive sense of choosing to stay in the direction of the flow rather than resisting the flow. The two terms ‘action’ and ‘inaction’ in the two philosophies do not contradict but serve the same purpose. In Bhagwadgita ‘action’ is the focus, the prime mover of every sentient being, while the same is ‘inaction’ in Tao. They point out at the same fundamental truth depending on the choice of our perspective. Keywords: Bhagwadgita, Tao Te Chung, Action, Inaction, Harmony Introduction among which “action” forms the core of his teaching. In comparison, we find yet another Both Bhagwadgita and Tao Te Chung Asian philosophy and religion “Taoism” which have drawn the attention of scholars translated literally means “way” or “path”. It is a internationally for the perennial Asian natural order of things, a force that flows philosophies relevant to contemporary as well through sentient beings throughout the as ancient times when they were originally universe; therefore, the focus here is on written. Unfortunately, both the works have “inaction” not in the negative sense but in the been misunderstood by a large segment of positive sense of choosing to stay in the western scholars as philosophies denying direction of the flow rather than resisting the motivation and action. However, a deeper flow. However, when we analyze the issue a reading of the two texts gives us a better insight little deeper we might experience a grand into the meaning of action and inaction revelation: that “action” and “inaction” as proposed in the two texts. Further, a described in the two philosophies do not comparative analysis of the two texts makes it contradict but serve the same purpose. They clear that they are not opposed in their merely point to the natural order or course of recommendations as generally believed. world. “Action” in Bhagwadgita is what might be Materials and Methods presupposed for every living being, while “inaction” in Tao is also a natural presupposition The study is mainly based on the use of that accords with the order of universe. available literature in the form of books, journals, reports etc. The approach followed in Krishna teaches two fold philosophy – this paper is purely textual. The materials used disciplined knowledge for philosophers, and have at times been drawn from the website and ‘action’ for men of discipline. Moreover “action” extreme care has been taken to be objective in is just inescapable: approach. “No one exists for even an instant Results and Discussions without performing action; In Bhagwadgita, we find Lord Krishna however unwilling, every being is forced sermonizing Arjun, the great warrior who has lost his courage and will to battle his kinsmen. to act by the qualities of nature.”1 He sees no merit in killing his teachers, (The Bhagvadgita-Barbara Miller) grandfathers, uncles, cousins and a host of other relatives drawn in a battle of clans. Lord In Tao Philosophy, the very first theme is Krishna, Arjun’s charioteer motivates him one of ineffability that takes us closer to the through a number of reasons to fight the battle, concept of “inaction”:

-94- The Way that can be told of is not an I would create disorder in society, Unvarying Way; living beings would be destroyed.4 (The The names that can be named are Bhagvadgita-Barbara Miller) unvarying names. While every one performs actions, the It was from the nameless that Heaven and ignorant ones perform them with attachment Earth sprang; and the wise men perform with detachment. When an individual actor thinks, “I am the doer The named is but the mother that rears the of action” he does the act with delusion or ten thousand creatures, each after its 2 attachment, while the wise men can kind . (Chap.1 tr.Waley) discriminate the actions of nature’s qualities. These are the first lines of the Tao Te While describing “action” Krishna also Ching. It says the Tao is ineffable, nameless, describes the qualities of men who perform beyond distinctions, and transcends language. these actions. There are two types of men: Of the two fundamental principles, Yin and wise and unwise; non-attached performer and Yang, the Tao philosophy focuses on Yin or the attached performer; men who are under feminine values- passive, solid, and quiescent- delusion and the men who are not. While both as opposed to active and energetic. The male of them perform actions, the action of the or Yang values such as movement, domination former leads to evolution, while the action of of nature, and positive action occupy the other does him no good. In fact it reinforces secondary importance even as emphasis is delusion. Wise men do not credit themselves upon maintaining a balance between Yin and for their actions. They offer it to God, and they Yang: “Know masculinity, Maintain feminity, 3 acknowledge God as the source of their action. and be a ravine for all under heaven” (chap 28, This mode of thought liberates them from the Mair). narrow confines of “self” as the doer of all According to Bhagvadgita, the goal of actions. detachment is attained when a man controls Krishna offers an advice to Arjun to get his senses through mind and “engages in the over the limited conception of “self” as the doer discipline of action”. Action is crucial to of action by offering sacrifice. The word existence because without action one fails to “sacrifice” here means offering of ones sustain his body. However, the action “actions” made to the ultimate creator. Krishna performed by an actor must be oriented to alludes to the primordial creator when liberate him. This is done best when a person explaining sacrifice as a necessary ingredient performs action without attachment. of “action” Therefore, Krishna tells Arjun that action must be performed as sacrifice. The theme of When creating living beings and sacrifice, sacrifice here is explained as serving a higher purpose. Sacrifice means returning to gods, Prajapati, the primordial creator, said : what they have given us. Krishna says, he as “By sacrifice will you procreate! the lord of universe also performs action. If he did not perform action, the world would Let it be your wish-granting cow! collapse, there would be disorder in society and the world would collapse according to him. Foster the gods with this, What if I did not engage and may they foster you, relentlessly in action? by enriching one another, Men retrace my path you will achieve a higher good. at every turn, Arjun. Enriched by sacrifice, the gods These worlds would collapse will give you the delights you desire; if I did not perform action; he is a thief who enjoys their gifts

-95- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 without giving them in return.”5 (The Self is fulfilled7 (Addis and Lombardo. Bhagvadgita-Barbara Miller) 1993) A logical connection is therefore seen to The fulfillment is seen through merging exist between sacrifice and action. Krishna the contradictions that are apparent. The explains “action” as a way, a path to be symbolism of stream merging into rivers and followed to attain the higher purpose of rivers into seas is akin to cosmic harmony of liberation. Although, there are several other Tao: Tao’s presence in this world paths to attain the highest goal, but for the Is like valley streams worldly men who are members of society, the path of “action” has been highlighted as the Flowing into rivers and seas. best means because it is the path of one’s We might notice action or inaction calling, of one’s duty. Fulfilling one’s duty is inherent in the overall harmony. We find supremely moral act according to Krishna movement and life in Tao. The perspective on irrespective of one’s station in life whether a “inaction” chosen by the interpreters of Tao humble farmer or a king. Diligently fulfilling texts can be equally interpreted as “action” one’s duties, tasks and goals towards those a because movement and life are indicative of person is duty bound is the highest form of action. We find the notion of “attainment” which action according to Krishna, provided this is possible only through the mediation of action is without any motive or self interest. “action”. While “attainment” is achievement of Krishna says, an individual has the right only a state of perfection, bounty, sacredness, over his duties or the actions he is supposed to fertility and purification, and so on, it is through perform, and not over the result of those a process involving movement and action: actions: “Be intent on action, Of old, these attained the One: not on the fruits of action; Heaven attaining the One avoid attraction to the fruits Became clear. and attachment to inaction!”6 (The Earth attaining the One Bhagvadgita-Barbara Miller) Became stable. When we compare Bhagwadgita and Tao, we notice the recurrent themes of emptiness Spirits attaining the One over existence, inaction over action, yin over yang. On the whole we notice a deeper Became sacred. philosophical underpinning informing the text Valleys attaining the One that is more akin to Buddhism. However, the overall position of this philosophy is one of Became bountiful. rhythm, harmony and balance. The apparent contradictions and dichotomies appear to have Myriad beings attaining the One been transcended in favor of monistic Became fertile. harmony. Let us consider some of the passages: Lords and kings attaining the One Heaven is long, Earth enduring. Purified the world 8 (Addis and Lombard.1993) Long and enduring There are a number of themes explored in Because they do not exist for themselves. Tao. One of them is philosophical vacuity or Therefore the Sage emptiness. Wu Wei in Tao tradition has been interpreted as “nonaction”. Some of the Steps back, but is always in front, eastern philosophies like Shunyavad philosophy in Buddhism has also explored this Stays outside, but is always within. theme of “form is nothingness” and No self-interest? “nothingness is form”. Nothingness or

-96- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 emptiness provides the background from “inaction” philosophy might appear which everything emerges, or an empty unappealing to many, therefore, a more canvas provides the background over which insightful interpretation allows us to see that picture emerges; similarly as “action” can arise “inaction” is merely a word to signify a higher out of “inaction”. That is how we need to level theme attained from the perspective understand the logical dichotomies in Tao. For of transcendence, where dualities and instance, “The sage has no heart of his own; he dichotomies appear merging. Krishna focuses uses the heart of the people as his heart.” upon “action” without attachment to fruits as (Ch.49 tr. Waley) the best form of action. From a broader perspective, there appears no distinction The philosophy of inaction leads to laissez between “action” and “inaction” philosophy faire state where the leader is seen to take no because as Krishna says “no one can ever action: remain a moment without performing action” So a wise leader may say: similarly as we find Tao ever in harmonious motion in the universe even as things happen “I practice inaction, and people look after of their own accord. Take “self attachment” or themselves.” the notion of “I am the doer” away from “action” and we might witness things taking place of But from the Sage it is so hard at any price their own accord. to get a single word References That when his task is accomplished, his work done, 1. The Bhagwad Gita-Barbara Miller.htm Throughout the country every one says: “It 2. Tao Te Chung translated by Waley happened of its own accord”9 (Ch.17. tr. Waley). 3. Chapter 28, Mair Conclusion 4. The Bhagwadgita by Barbara Miller Both Bhagwadgita and Tao Te Ching 5. Ibid embody the wisdom of the East, but appear 6. Ibid contradictory in approach. While Bhagwadgita is emphatic upon “action” as the prime mover 7. Addis & Lombardo, 1993 of this universe, Tao focuses upon harmoniously designed universe where things 8. Ibid appear moving beautifully in cosmic 9. Chapter 17, Waley resonance. The crude interpretation of

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Child Labour : A Social Curse with special reference to West Singhbhum (Jharkhand) Dr. S.N.M Topno Head, Department of Economics Mahila College, Chaibasa, Jharkhand

Abstract The future of any country depends on its children. Because children are the future power of the country. Every parent dream about the bright future of their children, and they try to make them well cultured, well educated and well behaved person so that the children become the good citizens of the country. But there are many children who never get the opportunity of being educated. Many parents are helpless and unable to do many things because of their severe poverty. The children of such families have to go to earn money for their family. It is curse for whole human society because it has become a severe problem. Like other problems it is very necessary to remove their problem also. Child labour is not the problem of today but it is find in the society from the ancient times. But in the period of globalisation its most firm has come before the society Government and Non Government organisations are trying to remove this problem. The problem of child labour in find not only in the under developed countries but in developed countries as well. The countries like USA, U.K., Germany are also facing the problems of child labour. So it is clear that the problem of child labour is a universal problem. It is a curse on civilised society. Singhbhum West is a tribal populated district of Jharkhand. It has to face many problems regarding child labour. Many attempts have been made to solve this problem but the efforts are very less in front of this serious problem. Keywords: Tribals, Poverty, Universal problem, Labour Introduction wage rate. The mental and physical It is true to say that children are the future exploitation of child labour is very common in of any country. There are a large number of this field. Dut to the bad economic condition children who are not getting the proper and misbehaivour the children become opportunity to achieve the goal of their lives the habituated to liquor, some children become goal which leads to a better future and secured terrorists and anti Socials. There are many life. Due to the poverty the children are factors, which are responsible for the child compelled to earn money at a younger age. labour, low level of education of the parents, The data shows that 30-40 percent children low and uncivilized way are of the parents, become the source of income for their families. large family, nature of work, are the main cause 60% child labour comes under the age group of of child labour. 10 years which come from rural areas. 26 Materials and Methods million child labourer are found in the whole world and 10 million children are working as The present study is based on the primary child labourer in India. Poverty and child labour as well as the secondary data. Primary data are inter related but due to globalisation and has been colleted by personal interviews. For industialisation the tendency of child labour is personal interview questionnaire method has growing day by day. Both the developed and been used. Simple average and percentage under developed countries are in the grip of method has been used to prepare the primary this problem. Children get jobs very easily in data on the other hand secondary data is danegerous industries and beneficial based on the use of available literature i.e. equipment making industries. The main cause books, journals and reports etc. behind is that the children are always ready to work at minimum wages. Their soft fingeres Results and Discussions are very adequate for sewing works as well as According to the census report 2001 out of their flexible body is very suitable for mining the total population of India 15.42% are industry. children so the problem of child labour is also Therefore the industrialists use these very serious. The following table shows the children to satisfy their ambition at very low situation of child labour in the world.

-98- Table : Child Labour in the World problem to prevent child labour. Supreme Continent Child Labour Child labour Court of India has listed some industries as (in Crore) in Percentage dangerous and where maximum number of 1. Asia 12.70 61% children are engaged as child labour, such Industries are :- 2. Africa 4.80 23% 1. Matches and Fireworks Industry Shivakshi, 3. Latin 1.70 8% Tamil Nadu. America & Carabiean 2. Diomond Polishing Industry, Surat, Gujrat Countries 3. Glass and Bangle industry, Firozabad, 4. Middle East 1.34 6% U.P. & North 4. Brass Industry Muradabad, U.P. American 5. Handmade Carpet (Kaleen) Industry, 5. Industrit 25 Lakh 1% Bhadohi (U.P.) Countries 6. Transitional 24 Lakh 1% appro. 6. Lock & Knife industry, Aligarh (UP) Economics 7. Slate Industry Mandsour (MP) 19 Crore 100 Children working in the above listed 97 Lakh industries are exploited by their employers. (Source : 12 June 2002 International Labor Organisation) They do not follow the Factory Act also. According to social reformers and activitists UNESCO has agreed that the main cause the root cause of child labour is poverty. of child labour is lack of education. 60% of the Capitalists earn maximum profit from these child labour come from the rural areas and they children and they never do any welfare for are below 10 years age group. 23% of child them. The government should take serious labour is engaged in trade and 37% of them step in the regard. and engaged in domestic work. In urban areas Different Types of Child labour children are seen working in canteen, restaurant, retail marketing etc. Approximately Child labour is a social evil Child labour is 50 thousand children in Tamilnadu are that part of population which is engaged in engaged in crackers fireworks and matches salaried a unsalaried works. Child labour is industry. Approximately 4600 children are found in three sectors :- working as labour in glass industry in 1. Unorganised Sectors : Hotels, Dhabas, Firozabad (U.P.) and 100000 children are Factory, Shops, Workshops, Domestic found in Kaleen or carpet industry. In Vanarasi Servant etc. 5000 children are engaged in Silk weaving 2. Organised Sector : Handmade carpet industry while 6000 children are seen in (Kaleen Weaving) Matchbox, Fireworks Dhabas, tea stalls in Delhi. Millions of children Handloom. Leather, Glass work, Building are working in Mirzapur (U.P.). They are construction, lock industry, Zem industry punished physically, economically and are the main centres where a large mentally for even a small fault. National number of child labour is found. Sample survey report 1986 shows that there is a large number of child labourer i.e. 1 Crore 73 3. A Curse : International Labour Organisation lakh approximately. According to the census has defined the child labour as the worst report of 2001 this data is 1 crore 25 lakh form of labour : approximately. According to the data given by (i) Selling of children and trafiking, National Labour Institution between 6-14 age agricultural slaves, forceful compulsory group 22 crore children have been shown is labour, which 22% of the total population. In India 2 (ii) Child prostitution crore 26 lakh children are working as fully child labour and 1 crore 85 lakh children are working (iii) To involve the child in beggering, as partially child labour. The data shows that theft, pick pocketing, illegal work. the problem of child labour is mainly found in (iv) To take work from very underaged some states and industries. It is serious children.

-99- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 (v) Physical exploitation of children. Children working in brick have been Here in this paper focus has been given on shown in the following table : the child labour problem in Singhbhum West. Block No. of Children is well known for its forest Chakradharpur 460 and tribal population. Singhbhum means land of Lord Sun. The district has already been Manoharpur 31 divided into two more district i.e. East Bandagaon 315 Singbhum with its headquarter Goilkera 05 which is famous for its steel industry. Saraikela Kharaswan with its headquarter Saraikela and Sonua 232 is well known for its world famous Chhaw Stone Crushing work Dance. Singhbhum West, with its headquarter Block Name of No. of Chaibasa is well known for its famous forest work children Saranda and Iron ores Manganise, lime stone engaged etc mines. It is known as Kolhan also. It has only 15 blocks. A large number of child 1. Chakradharpur Stone Crushing 922 labourers are engaged in Brick making, Bidi 2. " Mining 07 Making, Stone cutting work, Crushers etc. But they get very low wages. They are expoited 3. " Crusher 00 physically mentally and economically. 4. " Kulie Driver 09 Sadar Block which is known as Chaibasa 5. " Gold Smith 22 block Chota Lagia and Bara Lagia are two 6. " Agricultural 119 famous villages where Tendu Leaf is plucked work and stored. A large number of children are engaged in this System. Gradually in the year 7. " Hotels 62 1994&95 Bal Sramik Vidyalayas were 8. " Seasonal Labour 84 established in the different parts of the district. The age group of 8-14 yrs children get 9. " Domestic Work 32 admission in these schools. Chakradharpur, 10. " Animal neaving 53 Sonua, Bandagaon, Goilkera and Manoharpur 11. " Others 576 are the places where these Bal Sramik Vidyalas were started. Many NGOs are also The table shows the number of children working among child labour to educate them. engaged in different works. The main NGO, which is working among the Block Name No. of child labour are Khadi Gramodyog Bhandar, of NGO Children Marsal Vikas Kendra and Kolhan Mahila Chakradharpur Khadi Gramodyog 05 Sangathan. The data shows the position of Bhandar child labourer in different blocks :- Mohanpur 05 Block No. of Children Chakradharpur Maskal Vikas Kendra 09 Chakradharpur 1421 Sanu Kolhan Sangathan 04 Manoharpur 187 Badagaon Kolhan Mahila 05 Bandagaon 268 Sangathan Goilkera 289 The centes are working in West Sonua 402 Singhbhum for child labours. These 28 centres These child labourer are engaged in brick are shown here : making and stone crushing work and they earn Chakradharpur - 14, Bandagaon 05, Rs. 30 to Rs. 40/- daily.

-100- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Manoharpur 05, Goilkera 05, Sonua 04 = 28 Table : 3 Position of Child Labour Main reason of child labour are in different places 1. Economic 2. Political, 3. Family Problem 4. Psychological 5. Social, 6. School related, 7. Chakradharpur = 2104 Hexadiatry, 8. Physical Manoharpur = 1250 According to the census report of 2001 Sonua = 857 total number of child labourers in the district is Bandgaon = 678 5445. There are 4771 children are engaged in Goilkera = 516 dangerous work while 6,74 children are found in non dangerous work. Chakradhapur Sub 5 1 division is known as the child labour zone. 6 6 Table : 1 78 2104 Literacy rate among child labourers 857 Il literate = 60%

Literate = 30% 1250 Educated = 10%

70 Table : 4 60 Children engaged in different sectors

50 on Child Labour 40 Sector No. of Child Labour 30 1. Bidi Making 2567 20 2. Bricks Making 1043 10 3. Store Work 922 0 IL Literate Literate Educated 4. Agricultural Labour 119 5. Seasonal Labour 184 6. Weaving 53 Table : 2 7. Domestic Servent 32 Block wise literacy rate 8. Goldsmith 22 9. Kulie & Driver 09 Sadar Block = 30% 10. Manufacturing Industry 07 Chakradharpur = 60% 11. Hotels 02 Jagarnathpur = 10% 12. Garrage 01 13. Others 576 Table : 5 NGOs Working in West Singhbhum with 10% Child Labour 30% Sector No. of Child Labour Name of the N.G.O. Unit 1. Khadi Gramudyog 10 60% Sangathan 2. Kolhan Mahila Sansathan 09 3. Maskal Vikas Kendra 09 Sources : Khadi Gramodyog Sansthan Kolhan Mahila Sanstthan Mankal Vikas Kendra -101- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 The above table shows that children are 3. Anandharaja Kumar P, Female child working in different sectors without knowing labour, A P H Pub. House, New Delhi, their rights, wage rates and problem. Their 2004 future is totally dark and they going into the grip of different social mental, and health problems 4. Bahara D S, Child labour : Dimensions and spoiling their own future. N.G.Os are and issues , Cyber Tech Pub, New Delhi, working in this area but the result is not very 2008 satisfactory. The above data shows that children of 5. Bhargava Gopal, Child labour., Kalpaz West Singhbhum are engaged in different Publication, Delhi, 2003 works as child labourer. It is also a to be noted 6. Bhargava Pramila H, Elimination child that many children have migrated to other areas of the country in search of livelihood & labour, whose responsibility?, Sage the number of such migrated children is 43. Publication, New Delhi, 2003 Labour project society is also working for the 7. Dak T M K, Child labour in India, Serial child labours and approximately 1300 children are getting education in child labour schools. Publication, New Delhi, 2002 Many acts have been passed by the 8. Dasgupta B, Child labour and society, government to improve the condition of child Oxford Univ Press, New Delhi, 1997 labour. But unless and untill social awarness is not created is the society, the children in would 9. George Ivy, Child labour and child work, be seen as child laboursers in different sector. Ashish Publication, New Delhi, 1990 Conclusion 10. India, Labour (M/o): Children and work, The problem of child labour is very India, Labour (M/o), 1995 important issue. Today government has passed the bill for Right to Education. But there 11. India, Labour (M/o): National conference is a need to rethink on the bill. There are so on child labour : Challenges and many causes of child labour such as poverty, response: A report., India, Labour (M/o), unemployment, underemployment, vested 2001 interest of employees, rigid timing and lack of proper infrastructure in education at institutions. 12. Kulusrestha J C, Child labour in India, Lack of general awarness among parents and Ashish Publication, New Delhi, 1978 society, illetracy in the society, over population, lack of proper food etc. It is very difficult to mark 13. Mehta P L And Jaswal S S, Child labour only one cause to be root the child labour and law, Deep & Deep Publication, New problem. Working status of parents and severe Delhi, 1996 poverty is also responsible for the above cited problem. Only making the rules is not the 14. Mishra Lakshmidhar, Child labour in India, solution but it should be implemented strictly. Oxford University Press, New Delhi , References 2000

1. Sharma Usha, Child Labour in India,Mittal 15. National Human Rights Commission On Publications, New Delhi, 2006 Of India, New Delhi, Know your rights : 2. Ahmad M, Child labour in Indian politics, Child labour, National Human Rights Kalpaz Publication, Delhi, 2004 Commission, New Delhi, p 1

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Nature : The end of Technology Dr Rajesh Kumar Reader, Department of English Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag

Abstract This paper presents the consecutive stages of the Nature-technology binary through the markers of literatures to demonstrate that the fracture between these two directories of human imagination is topical and inherently deceptive as well as self-contradictory. The divergence occurred at the primary stage of civilization and the chasm widened notionally as man has moved from prehistoric inventions to the steam engine to atomic control. Science fiction and fantasy literature foreshadow the eventual convergence when technological principles will coalesce with those of Nature in an integral manner and usher in a harmony of functional existence - man will then survive with Nature, not against it. Already, the intermediate setback is manifest in the altering literary response to the ecological assaults by the widening gulf between the elements of technology and Nature principles. Man's primary concern is to exercise supra-divine control over Nature - to retard or accelerate the forces at his express command. This is the gist of superman creations in literature, arts and the sciences. The transformation has already begun to take place and soon it will be a tangible reality. The route emblems abound in revealed texts, fantasy literature and science fiction. Keywords: Nature principle, Technology, Superman, Fantasy literature, Ecological sensibility Introduction itself. Each of our religious texts has abstractions personified as God—Srishtikarta Technology is man's quest for immorality in Hinduism, Allah in Islam, God in Christianity, approximation, Nature is its archetypal Sing Bonga1 in Santhals and Dharmes in touchstone - literatre is the wormhole between Oraons2. Since comparatively modern and these two parallel universes. Technology and highly organized formal religions like Nature are coterminous in the topically parallel Hinduism, Christianity and Islam have narratives of bionic and biological evolution, transformed grossly from their primal energies and the common imagining of a capricious owing to cross-cultural and inter-social celestial identity. However, Earth civilization influences, the best way to identify the has to be content merely with motility towards postulates of the commonality of technology and identification with the force-patterns of and Nature lies in a reading of tribal practices Nature, for equality with God – the Nietzschian and their non-formal literature. Several Übermensch avatar– appears to be intangible unalloyed tribal cultures still coexist convivially at the present stage of organic evolution. with Nature because their vision and Human technology, obviously, can never move technologies of life are simplistic, based on beyond the neural principles of Nature. purer artistic conjunctions and also because Main Thrust their avenues to redemption are not sullied by The impossible scale of divinity, and the abstruse philosophical engines. penultimate inevitability of Nature-Technology fusion, have always been present in our racial In most of the tribal cultures, nature and memory through aesthetic expression—in technology are not seen as separate elements, murals and morals, instincts and intuitions, art apparent in the following stanza from a Santhal and literature. The immensity of divine song: existence is potentially conveyed through the Chetatedah Chitanam gugurich kan? Sanskrit word for ‘Universe’—Brahmand—the gonads of Creator—inside which we are the Chetedah Boyom la - la mah kan? spermatozoa of molecular dimensions Towatedah chhitanam gugurich kan endeavouring to scan interstellar space which itself, in turn, is a molecular entity in a still larger Dehetedah Boyom la - la mah kan.3 vascular container, and so forth and so on till the inexorable failure of imagination manifests [A woman speaks about what her

-103- neighbour, Cheta, is washing and plastering Evidently, the less advanced materially a the floor with. Cheta is washing the floor with civilization is, the more spontaneousely milk and plastering it with curd. Nature friendly connected it is with the natural habitat. In technology is a hallmark of most of indigenous contrast, the advanced man’s literature is full of people and tribal cultures.] the noise of automobiles, washing machines, The Daffodils4 Daffodils no more5 I wandered lonely as a cloud I w[o]ndered lonely as a crowd that flows down streets and avenues That floats on high o’er the vales and hills, my spirit darkened by a cloud When all at once I saw a crowd of troubles I could not refuse, A host of golden daffodils; for I had looked for daffodils Beside the lake beneath the trees and found but few in England’s hills. Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. A poet could not help but sigh on seeing ……………………………………. how the world is changed A poet could not but be gay, and ask himself, or God on high, In such a jocund company: why humankind is so deranged I gazed—and gazed—but little thought it can destroy, for such poor ends, What wealth the show to me had brought. the world on which its life depends. Here is another example: Stopping by woods on a snowy evening6 Acid snow7 Whose woods these are I think I know, I looked out in wonder at new fallen snow, His house is in the village though; Then thought to myself, it’s acidic you know. He will not see me stopping here This wonder, this cleanser, this skier’s delight, To watch his woods fill up with snow. This mantle of brightness, this purity white, It is acidic you know. hair dryers and numerous other gadgets that and the Industrial Revolution. However, its usher in comfort and complexity simultaneously. fourth phase in the 20th century has brought The eco-sensitive literatures of today are mankind to the proximal realization that mostly laments. The two poems placed below technology ought not to be characteristically present a vital example of the eco-conscious antipathetic to nature but that human response-modification on the walkator of time: technology and nature techniques may be the siblings in the same domain. The fifth phase The consecutive stages of technological will see the fusion of human technology with development have been steps leading away nature in the most inclusive terms. The final from and then turning again towards the phase will be the use of the Nature Principles regimes of nature, even if the first stage of such itself as composite technology for mankind in a move was a minimal, mimetic, primitive tool diverse environs. industry in pre-history. The second stage introduced the fracture between technology A phenomenal distinction between Nature and nature when civilization entered the metal and human technology is that of pace. The age. The third phase began with the coming of variability of momentum and movement is a the Renaissance, culminating into Destruction key technique in the evolution of nature as the alternative power motif of Imperialism illustratives. On the contrary, Earth civilization

-104- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 believes in a misplaced and arbitrary speeding —Utopia in More’s work, Puritanism in up of what it terms ‘progress’ in its ideational Paradise Lost, Capitalism in Strife, ideology doodles, matter-energy constructs, and based radicalism in Yeats, Communism in The futuristic sin. As yet, human technology has not Animal Farm. Technology, in both positive and been fully able to integrate the force-pattern of negative terms, has consanguinity with such Nature simply because the metal age was concepts and literature. The cotextualisation of misled into a futile suborning of natural powers myth, art and technology brings forth the through the illusion of harsher and more realization in fantasy literature too that the comprehensive instruments of death. The acme of technology is the adoption of the changeover occurred at the culmination of the patterns of nature. Our fantastic characters like Second World War when, for the first time, Superman and our gods are considered humanity ironically grasped the dimensions of paranormal because they fast forward the realms beyond the metal world: force-patterns of nature in their human frames—this is the point of identity and ‘It is an atomic bomb. It is a harnessing of ambition for human technology in literature the basic power of the universe. The force from and in reality—to create a twister with the wag which the sun draws its power has been loosed of a finger and to atomize the enemy with the against those who brought war to the Far suggestion of a glare. East.... The battle of the laboratories held fateful risks for us as well as the battles of the Two subspecies of science fiction, air, land, and sea, and we have now won the apocalyptic literature and fantasy literature, battle of the laboratories as we have won the portray man’s ultimate dream/nightmare of other battles.’8 super-technology—to ride thought-waves, to teleport meditatively, to instantly create Fortunately, the advancement of technology regions of bio-sustenance on remote planets, is leading it towards the discovery and to generate personal envelops of controlled admission of the sciences like cyberkinetics, climate regimes, to cohabit virtually with nanotechnology, synthetic biology, photonics objects of erotic fantasy, to communicate and a myriad other manoeuvres that will be clairvoyantly with beasts and plants—to tested for compatibility with Nature patterns transcribe imagination directly into plastic and accepted or discarded accordingly. It is reality. It is striking to note that science fiction strange that man has always seen himself as and fantasy literature never run beyond the the persecuted protagonist in the mystery principles and patterns of nature, they narrative of nature, but so far, the episodic modestly quantify them. The transfiguration of units of man’s history have had acceptable a human being into a demon in five seconds is endings. Earth civilization is at the entry-curve based on the principle of cell-mutation, of the final relationship between nature and invisibility cloaks are growing from optical technology through a conscious understanding illusions of natural camouflage, virtual of what was once a shared, traditional entertainment pods have become simulating awareness among tribes and indigenous sensorial tools; the evolution of all implements peoples. The penal knock-on of the and technologies moves towards fusion with abandonment of ancestral wisdom has been nature principles by generating energy from the environmental expenditure incurred on and into most improbable coordinates. This is effective propaganda for eco-conscio- magic, this is sorcery, this is occult, this is usness—and no propaganda is without an godmanhood: agenda. It remains to be seen whether the anthropomorphic worry is a genuine genetic ‘Voldemort raised his wand and another concern or merely topical and polity-centric. jet of green light streaked at Dumbledore, who turned and was gone in a whirling of his cloak. It is literature, however, which serves as a Next second, he had reappeared behind constant for man’s migration into futurity. From Voldemort and waved his wand towards the scriptures to fantasy is a parallel journey of remnants of the fountain. The other statues mankind from technology to nature. Different sprang to life. The statue of the witch ran at civilizations in different parts of the world have Bellatrix, who screamed and sent spells nurtured political and social myths in literature streaming uselessly off its chest, before it as equivalences of technological advances dived at her, pinning her to the floor.

-105- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Meanwhile, the goblin and the house-elf 4. ‘The Daffodils’ by William Wordsworth, scuttled towards the fireplaces set along the 1804. wall and the one-armed centaur galloped at Voldemart, who vanished and reappeared 5. By Gorden J.L. Ramel, ‘Daffodils No beside the pool.’9 More,’ 2005. Such literatures around the world have a 6. ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ definite eschatological duality— immediate by Robert Frost, 1923. survival and everlasting extension: the human 7. ‘Everyone knows that acid rain damages brain wins against superior aliens by turning certain lakes and forests by making them the tables upon them at the climactic moment, too acidic for some organisms to live in. whether it is H.G. Wells’ War of the Worlds, the However, many people forget that during decimation of the Earth civilization due to the winter acid rain falls to earth as acidic technological turpitude in Deus X by Norman snow. Thus snow, like rain, can be Spinrad or the pan-Biblical survival of a lone destructive when air pollution makes it pair of humans existing in a post-apocalyptic acidic, and when it falls on ecosystems world in M. P. Shiel’s The Purple Cloud. This that cannot tolerate acid inputs. kind of literature is the ‘pre-Third’10 derivative —technology as a symbol of the catastrophe. A During the 1980’s, Professor Kenton M. rather regenerative approach is seen in works Stewart of the Department of Biological like The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy by Sciences, State University of New York at Douglas Adams in which the earth is destroyed Buffalo did pioneering research on this topic. but the human representative survives in a Collecting snow from many different rural and cosmos where mice are the real gods; urban sites in western NewYork state, he found technologies operate in this world on Nature that “the overwhelming majority (but not all) of principles. Movies based on themes of the samples were acidic.” supernatural prowess of aliens and those of To focus people’s attention on the fact that earth mutants, such as ‘The One’ and The X- snow, like rain, can become acidic, Professor Men series are also pointers to the techno- Stewart wrote the above poem. Inspiration nature convergences. came to him ‘while driving to Colorado in Conclussion January 1988, noticing the snow on the roads and fields, and thinking about that thin white Providentially, the beginning of this pre- acidic demarcation of earth and sky.’ When conclusive phase of the convergence is traffic on the interstate highways was light, he already patent in the world outside literature drove with his left hand and wrote lines on a too—in war machines, peace games, the race piece of paper with his right hand. for supremacy between transport and communication, generic amusement, myth This poem and the story behind it were ablation, morphing of inter-communal originally published in the Bulletin of the ecological sensibilities, and the rebirth of God. Ecological Society of America, Volume 71, Literature indexes the ultimate function of pages 89-90 (1990).’ www.ecology.info/acidic- technology, nurturing the soup of imagination, snow.html August 13. 2005 philosophy and science, and sustaining the 8. Speech by Harry Truman after the original metaecological destiny of man - dropping of the Atom bomb on Hiroshima, through epics, science fiction and divinely 1945.http://www.classbrain.com/artteens revealed texts. t/ publish / article 99. shtml. August 13, References 2005. 1. Santhals are a tribe in India, mostly 9. Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Order concentrated in the states of Jharkhand, of the Phoenix. Bloomsbury: , 2003. West Bengal and Orissa. 717. 2. Oraons are also a tribe in the same area. 10. J. G. Ballard often describes the present era as the ‘pre-Third,’ i.e. before World 3. A Santhal song. War III.

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Passing the barrier : A critical study of Alice Walker’s The color purple Mani Sinha Senior Reader,Department of English Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag, Jharkhand

Abstract The Color Purple is a much acclaimed novel by Alice Walker , winner of Pulitzer Prize for fiction (1983) and National Book Award . It was adapted into film and musical of the same name . The story revolves around celie a poor , black girl of fourteen , subjected to violence, oppression, and rape within her own home. As the story progresses ,she moves towards a transformed life of freedom , helped by the other woman character Shug Avery . Alice Walker’s main objective is to emphasize on the concept of “sisterhood” as a way to liberation, irrespective of race and culture. At the end of the story , Celie successfully fights her way, through not only the racist white culture, but patriarchal black culture too , and emerges as an independent commercial success , enjoying a life of peace, friendship and happiness. Keywords: Gender discrimination, Atrocities, Epistolary, Feminist Introduction to male domination .From her very childhood she is made to understand that she has to be The Color Purple signifies the author’s dumb and docile. She should never try to cross journey from the religious to the spiritual. The her limits. Through the story of Celie, the uniqueness of her journey unfolds to the central character of The Color Purple, Alice reader a spellbinding story of pain and joy, Walker wants to break this myth of gender oppression and freedom. Undoubtedly , this is weakness , and aims towards passing the an exploration of the self with positive findings. barrier of male domination. There must be a “ It remains for me” she writes, “the theological change in the society , and this change can be work examining the journey from the religion augured by women only. She believes in back to the spiritual that I spent much of my struggle for change, and agrees with Audre adult life , prior to avoid.”1 Lorde ,that , “change means growth , and The sources and inspirations of Walker’s change can be painful. But we sharpen self – stories can be traced back to the history of the definition by exposing the self in work and race , the social and the domestic background struggle together with those whom we define of the people who are part of it. She writes; “ I as different from ourselves. For Black and gathered up the historical and psychological White, Old and Young, lesbian and heterosexual threads of the life ancestors lived, and my own Women alike , this can mean new paths to our continuity … that wonderful feeling writers get survival .”3 sometimes, not only often, of being with a great Among the Black women novelists , Alice many people , ancient spirits, all happy to see Walker holds a distinct position , not only for me consulting and acknowledging them, and raising the issues of oppression of women in eager to let me know, through the joy of their the society and family , but also for her daring presence, that indeed , I am not alone. “2 effort to apply “ womanism “ as a transforming The main objective of this paper is to agency against the male- domination. The examine elaborately a black woman’s journey story of The Color Purple is not about a single from oppression , subjugation , violence ,and individual only , but the entire female gender, male domination, to a life of emancipation and bound together with the painful cord of racial , happiness .The Color Purple reveals the societal and domestic atrocities. How Celie author’s trust in the immense power inherent in passes this barrier of male- dominated women. It is a fact though, that she is not often boundary , and moves towards a life of freedom aware of her power, and helplessly surrenders , joy and peace , forms the plot of the novel.

-107- Main Thrust husband whom she calls “Mr.” When Harpo, the eldest son of “Mr.”(Albert) asks him why The most significant aspect of this novel is does he beat Celie , he says , “cause she my its epistolary form. The whole novel is written in 7 letter form; Celie’s letter to God ,to Nettie, wife . Plus she stubborn .All women good for” Nettie’s letter to Celie . The story takes place A female is restricted within this barrier of male mostly in rural Georgia during the 1930s in the domination. However , Walker wants to convey Southern United States focusing on black ,that the urge to struggle for freedom is never female life .Fourteen year old Celie , an lost. Harpo’s wife Sofia is strong willed. Both, uneducated young black girl , raped by her Harpo and his father try to treat her as an father several times , gives birth to children , a inferior creature , but she fights back . The girl and a boy who disappear mysteriously. She novel is also about the training and education assumes that her father has murdered them. of Celie towards freedom . In the beginning, She is pained and puzzled , unable to she encourages their bullying behavior, comprehend what is happening to her, and because she believes that it is a woman’s duty why ? To whom she can confide, is beyond her to take side of man, but when there is a understanding .It is useless to confide to her confrontation with Sofia, she realizes her sick mother .Asked by her mother about the mistake. Sofia’s strong spirit and her defiance identity of the man responsible for her of male domination make her envious. When pregnancy , Celie kept mum ; “She ast me bout Albert’s sister Kate asked him to buy some the first one, whose it is ? I say God’s. I don’t clothes for Celie , he reacted as if something know no other man or what else to say.”4 And impossible was asked , “he looked at me .It like looking at the earth. It need something ? his so ,she starts confiding in God .Moreover, her 8 father had threatened her; “You better not eyes say.” never tell nobody but God. It ‘d kill your Things start changing in Celie’s life with mammy .”5 the entrance of Shug Avery.She is a singer and Celie started writing letters to God Albert’s long term mistress. In the beginning, revealing her physical and mental torture . she too dislikes and disrespects Celie; she God is witness to things happening to her, and never misses a chance of abusing and may be He can give her some sign: humiliating her. But Celie is awed by Shug’s beauty and talent. Shug is to her, a perfect Dear God, symbol of an emancipated female. She is free I am fourteen years old. I have always , independent, and out of the barrier of male - been a Good girl. May be you can give me a domination. She really deserves the love and sign letting me know what is happening to me .6 respect shown by Albert and others. When she discovers that “ Mr” (Albert ) beats Celie , she She is forced into a marriage against her reacts , and wants to protect her. She inspires will, to Mr. Johnson, a middle aged man, and in her an awareness towards self respect and father to grown up children. Her younger sister confidence. With the help of Shug , Celie Nettie also moves to her new house because happens to recover Nettie’s letters hidden by she is also seeking to escape the unpleasant her husband ,and learns that her sister is not conditions at her home. As a matter of fact, dead. She had traveled to Africa with the there is no security for young women missionary couple Samuel and Corrine, and anywhere, and after Celie’s husband fails to their adopted children who were actually seduce Nettie , he forces her to leave his Celie’s long lost children .She also comes to house. Nettie, on Celie’s advice, goes to the know that her father (“ Pa”) was in fact her step home of the local pastor, promising to write to father .Their ( Celie and Nettie’s) biological Celie .However , no letters arrive, and Celie father, a store owner had been lynched by a assumes that Nettie is dead. mob of white men for being prosperous. From her very childhood ,Celie is made to Nettie’s letters acquaint Celie of truth understand that male domination is her about her life . The discovery that “Pa” was not destiny. She is frequently beaten by her her real father, relieves her of a burden that

-108- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 had been torturing her since she had been with Shug. Nettie is shown as the symbol of raped by him. A new sense of confidence and free, intelligent, and educated woman who empowerment fills her mind .She defies this life augurs hope for the downtrodden woman. The of subjugation, and releases her pent-up anger novel thus concludes on a very optimistic note: at “ Mr.” cursing him for the years of abuse that “But I don’t think us feel old at all and us so she has had to endure . He laughed ; “ who do happy. Matter of fact , I think this the youngest think you is he say .You black , you pore , you us ever felt.”11 ugly , you a woman. Goddam he say you 9 Alice Walker possessed from a very nothing at all.” Her reply, despite the young age , a mind which rebelled against any thrashing, and acidic words of “Mr”, reflects her kind of oppression, discrimination, violence, determination , courage, and rise of strong or , violation of human rights. In the 1960s, she spirit .She has, for the first time ,crossed the volunteered to be an activist for the Civil barrier ; “I’m pore, I’m black, I may be ugly and Rights Movement . On International Woman’s can’t cook , a voice say to everything listening. Day, on March 8, 2003, she marched with 5000 But I’m here.”10 activists from Malcolm X Park in Washington Shug , Celie and Squeak ( Harpo’s wife) DC to the White House. Later, she said , “ I was decide to move to Tennessee where Celie with other women who believe that the women begins a lucrative business, designing , sewing and children of Iraq are just as dear as the and tailoring pants. After sometime she visits women and children in our families , and that , Georgia, and finds that “Mr”. has reformed in fact, we are one family.” Undoubtedly she himself and his ways. The step father is dead thinks of women in general , irrespective of .The property , the shop, the house and the racism and nationalism. In one of her entire land had really been willed to Celie and interviews, she strongly expressed her Nettie by their mother. Celie moves to her own feelings against gender discrimination : house and property. At this phase of her life , MS: Do you ever consider The Color we see that she has actually passed the barrier Purple somewhat of a voice for those who of dependency, atrocity and contempt ,and have shared a similar experience? moved towards a life of freedom. The reader is delighted to witness the satisfactory AW: Absolutely . Definitely - I mean , it is reconciliation between “ Mr.” and Celie. They totally that. It’s a way to support men and remain however friends ,rather than lovers women who are in abusive relationships , you .Nettie , her husband Samuel and the two know ? Who are trying to figure out how we got children (now grown up ), also reunite with into this position , where after , you know , 400 them .Sofia happily reconciles with Harpo, and years of slavery, we’re still treating each other works with Celie. like slaves . You know , it’s very much that kind of supportive art .12 The main theme of this novel appears to be women empowerment. For Celie, Shug Thus , her emphasis in The Color Purple is acts like a catalyst. They are friends and obviously on the oppression experienced by lovers. Shug inspires, encourages, and black women in their relationships with black teaches her how to defy the male domination. men as fathers , brothers , husbands and In the world dominated by men , women have lovers, and the sisterhood “ they must share 13 no existence of their own. They are objects of with each other in order to liberate themselves .” pleasure for men ,and treated as downtrodden A very remarkable thing in this attainment creatures at every step .When the females of freedom is its effect on men also. Here, one unite together against male attitude , the result can see the delightful change in “ Mr.” also. He , according to Alice Walker, is positive. The is able to change himself, and his orthodox female relationships are friendly , sisterly, and attitude towards women. We see him as also sexual . Celia experiences real happiness Celie’s friend and supporter. Such in her life after sharing love and appreciation reconciliation between Celie and “Mr.” gives

-109- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 the impression that life becomes happier when Conclusion you freely accept a person as your friend , and On the whole, it would not be an there is also a sense of completeness , peace exaggeration to have with Alice Walker a and strength that does not require sexual strong faith in the nobility of the human soul relationship. The transformation of Celie from ,and in that inner strength of the mind that a fearing , docile and oppressed individual enables a woman to fight against all odds in who had accepted without complain her life. Through the character of Celie , Alice wretched fate as a woman, to a defying , Walker has set an inspiring example before liberated woman , sharing joy, peace and women in general to pass the boundaries of freedom with her friends and relatives, is race , sex and domestic violence , and to live a actually the story of passing the barrier from life of their own choice like any free human slavery to freedom , and this appears to be the being . main objective of the novelist. References In the Preface to the Tenth Anniversary 1. Walker Alice, The Color Purple: Phoenix Edition of the novel Alice Walker writes that the Orion Books Ltd. London , 2004: Preface book’s intention is “ to explore the difficult Written for The Tenth Anniversary Edition path of someone who stares out in life already P IX a spiritual captive , but who , through her own courage and the help of others , breaks free 2. Walker Alice, The Color Purple : Black Women Writers (1950—1980) Edt. Marie into the realization that she, like Nature itself , Evans: Anchor Books , Garden City , New is a radiant expression of the heretofore York, 1984, p 453 perceived as quite distant Divine .”14 3. Lorde Audre, Sister Outsider: The Color The novel started with Celie’s effort to Purple: A Study of Walker’s Womanist establish a link with God .She addressed all Gospel: Tyziline Jita Allan : Harold Bloom, her letters to Him describing her woes ,her Chelsea House, Philadelphia, 2000, p115 excruciating pain and misery , expecting a hint 4. Opcit, p 4 or reply . May be this belief of hers that God is witness to her suffering, and He is bound to 5. Ibid, p 3 give her some explanation regarding her 6. Ibid, p 3 condition that she herself is unable to 7. Ibid, p 23 understand. Definitely , an invisible bond is established between Celie and “Dear God” 8. Ibid, p 21 .This may be the reason of her being saved 9. Ibid,p 187 from falling into the dark abyss of lunacy .Her 10. Ibid faith, and her effort to open up her mind to God saved her from becoming mad .Perhaps , this 11. Ibid, p 261 is what Alice Walker means when she says: 12. http:// www.blackfilm.com/ 20030321/ features/alicewalker.shtml This is the book in which I was able to express a new spiritual awareness , a rebirth 13. Barbara Christien, Alice Walker ; The into strong feelings of Oneness, I realized I had Black woman: Artist As Wayward : Black experienced and taken for granted as a child; a Women Writers ( 1950 – 1980) Edt. Mrie chance for me as well as the main character Evans: Anchor Books , Garden City , New ,Celie, to encounter That Which Is Beyond York , 1984, p 469 Loving and to say : I see and hear you clearly, 14. Walker Alice, The Color Purple, Phoenix Great Mystery , now that I expect to see and Orion Books Ltd. London ,Preface ix hear you everywhere I am which is the right 15. Ibid P X place.15

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Absurd Drama with special reference to Harold Pinter Kumari Saswati De Research Scholar, Dept. of English Ranchi University, Ranchi

Abstract This article intends to bring into focus the main principles of ‘The Theatre of the Absurd’ and also to see how Harold Pinter has been categorized as an absurdist. A great number of dramas published after 1950s, including those of Harold Pinter, have strange similarity to the absurd plays written elsewhere. With reference to the development of the Absurd drama in the second half of the twentieth century England, the case of Harold Pinter as an absurd dramatist is a typical one. Keywords : Absurd , Metaphysical , Menace, Intruder, Vague Introduction consideration. However, focus has been given The ‘Theatre of the Absurd’ is a term mainly on the works of Harold Pinter in order to derived from Albert Camus’s essay The Myth get an access to the wide thematic range of his of Sisyphus (1942), and a clear and lucid plays. A contrastive methodology has been thought on the subject of absurdist drama is employed here, besides a deep textual found in Martin Esslin’s book The Theatre of exposition of Pinter’s dramas for illustrating our the Absurd (1961). This term has been applied point of view. to a group of dramatists in the 1950s who did Results and Discussions not regard themselves as a school, yet all As the three unities of time, place and seemed to share certain attitudes towards the action have never been followed in these predicament of man in the Universe. Albert absurd plays, so it is often unclear whether the Camus diagnosed humanity’s plight as action is meant to represent a dream world of purposelessness in an existence out of nightmares or real happenings. The action harmony with its surroundings. Awareness of within the same scene may switch from the this lack of purpose in all we do produces a nightmare to pure farce. Above all the state of metaphysical anguish which is the dialogues tend to get out of hand so that at central theme of the writer’s of the ‘Theatre of times the words seem to go counter to the the Absurd’ group represented by Samuel actions of the characters on the stage or Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Arthur Adamov, sometimes degenerate into lists of words and Jean Genet and Harold Pinter. phrases from a dictionary and then even take Giving his opinion about the plays of the the form of pause and silence. According to Absurd Theatre, Martin Esslin says in The these absurd dramatists there is no purpose Theatre of the Absurd : and meaning of human life and the existence of “In these plays, some of which are labelled human beings in this world. ‘anti-plays’, neither the time nor the place Samuel Beckett (1906-89), the Irish writer, of the action are ever clearly stated. (At was the most outstanding practitioner of the the beginning of Ionesco’s The Bald Drama of Absurd in English, but he long lived in Soprano the clock strikes seventeen). The Paris and wrote both in French and English characters hardly have any individuality with ease and felicity. Most of his later works and often even lack a name; moreover, were originally written in French. He used a halfway through the action they tend to deliberately formless language to present the change their nature completely.”1 meaningless void of experience as encountered by his characters. In fiction he Materials and Methods scored success by Murphy, Molloy and Watt For the purpose of this article the relevant and in drama his masterpiece is Waiting for published material has been taken into Godot (1953). It is an elusive tragic farce about

-111- two tramps – Estragon and Vladimir – for ever ‘normal’ values and the rite, which is central to awaiting the arrival of the mysterious Godot all the plays. It not only involves death and a who will in some unexplained way make sacrificial victim, but celebrates the triumph of everything different but who never comes. The ‘evil’, in so far as evil can be construed as the two tramps are still waiting for Godot when the converse of the values uphold by bourgeois play ends. Beckett’s other noteworthy society. creations include Krapp’s Last Tape (1958), Harold Pinter (1930-2008), born on 10th Happy Days (1961), Fin de Partie (1957) and October in Hackney, East London, is one of the Endgame (1958). Beckett’s plays develop greatest and most popular dramatist of the further the characters of the naked, poor, twentieth century whose works are deeply helpless, immobile character, yet by introducing allied to the Absurd Theatre. Pinter was a man dialogue of almost music hall comic pattern, as of multi-faceted genius. He was not only a well as by a shifting and disquieting symbolism successful dramatist but also a poet and a manage both to inject comedy into despair and challenging actor. His works have received a a curious ritual note, if not of hope, at least of number of awards along with the prestigious some further meaning somewhere. 2005 Nobel Prize for Literature. He has written Eugene Ionesco was a Rumanian born a number of plays for stage performance as dramatist, writing in French. He was a leading well as for T.V serials. Pinter’s plays have been figure in the ‘Theatre of the Absurd’. He dealt divided into three categories by critics and with such subjects as the breakdown of scholars as – ‘Comedies of Menace’, ‘Memory language, the proliferation of man, threatened Plays’ and ‘Overtly Political Plays’. from both outside and inside. His famous plays The plays of Harold Pinter that come under are The Bald Prima Donna, The Lesson, The the heading ‘Comedies of Menace’ depict Chairs, The Victims of Duty, How to get rid of it, certain common problems faced by the Rhinoceros, The Killer and Exit the King. The common man in his day to day life. These first three are among the most brilliant works in include the problem of communication the whole Theatre of the Absurd. In The Chairs, between characters, a feeling of threat and the inanimate chairs crowd out the imaginary insecurity of life from intruders and many other world of the two old men. He used empty chairs similar problems. to show man’s empty existence. The problem of communication between Arthur Adamov (1908-1970) was a Russia people or the failure in understanding each born dramatist who lived in France and wrote in other’s words has been made the theme of French. It was in his autobiographical volume many of Pinter’s early plays like The Room, L’Aveu that he first expressed the deep sense The Birthday Party and others. In his first play of alienation which lies at the centre of most of The Room, Rose tries to tell Mr. Kidd (her the plays of the Theatre of the Absurd. Among landlord) about the visit of Mr. and Mrs. Sands his famous plays are La Paradie (1945), as well as about her room but Mr. Kidd does not L’Invasion, Professor Taranne, La Ping Pong, listen to her and is busy in telling Rose about a Paola Paoli (1957) and Printemps 71 (1962). man who is waiting for her in the basement for After 1955, he abandoned the absurd in favour the whole weekend : of Brechtian Epic Theatre which perhaps “MR. KIDD. I came straight in. accorded better with his Marxist policies. ROSE (rising) Mr. Kidd! I was just Jean Genet was a famous French going to find you. I’ve novelist, dramatist and poet. Among his well got to speak to you. known plays are Deathwatch, The Maids, The Balcony , The Blacks and The Screens. He MR. KIDD Look here, Mrs. Hudd, has been classified both as a dramatist of the I’ve got to speak to you. Absurd and as a follower of Artand in his I came up specially. Ritualistic Theatre of Cruelty. The world of his ROSE. There were two people dreams is marked by violence and unnatural in here just now. They passion. It is at once hierarchical and ritualistic. said this room was It rests to an explicit degree on the inversion of going vacant. What

-112- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 were they talking oppression, torture, abuses of human rights, about? authoritarianism and realities of power and its MR. KIDD. As soon as I heard the abuse. van go I got ready to As Pinter is above all an absurd dramatist, come and see you. I’m often it becomes difficult for a superficial knocked out.”2 observer and reader to understand and Pinter has got a unique power of correlate the wordings and dialogues of his observation. Walter Kerr has written in his book characters. But a little bit serious and on Harold Pinter : intellectual person finds them quite meaningful and relevant. As for example, David Daiches “Objects observed in a Pinter play tend to has observed on the use of language in The generate something like awe. They may Birthday Party : be utterly commonplace, they usually are; yet they seem uncommon here because “The dialogue is a deadpan apparently they have not been absorbed into a aimless, for the most part aggressively pattern that explains them away as mere colloquial, with pauses and repetitions tools of a narrative or as looming symbols giving the impression of a relentlessly of conceptual value. Sometimes these slow build-up of cumulative meaning. This objects acquire such self-importance as to colloquial dialogue is at certain points in seem ominous, though that is not their the play, cut cross by the rhetorical initial function in a Pinter play.”3 sentimental speeches of one of the Some of the important works of Pinter characters, Goldberg, with its oddly include – The Room, The Birthday Party, The impressive mixture of establishment Homecoming, The Caretaker, Landscape, clinches and Anglo-Yiddish oratory.”5 Silence, Old Times, Mountain Language, Pinter has violated all the conventional Moonlight, Ashes to Ashes etc. rules of drama in his plays. He has got a unique Another important and noteworthy fact sense of presentation, be it the case of the about Pinter’s plays is that in all his plays, scenes or the characters. Like his scenes, Pinter has intentionally placed pauses and his characters are equally vague and silences because in a Pinter play these uncommunicative but it does not always seem pauses, silences and unspoken words have that ignorance is their reason for withholding got equal importance as dialogues and spoken information. About the characters of Pinter, words. About Pinter’s use of language with a Ronald Hayman says, sure sense of the dramatic effect of pacing, pausing and timing, Andrew Sanders has “They tend to be less benevolent, more rightly said, competitive, aggressive, perverse. They are liable to provide misleading “As in The Birthday Play, language is seen information for the sake of causing as the means by which power can be confusion and anxiety, disturbing the defined and manipulated to suit the ends of those who actually hold power…. audience at the same time as they disturb Where Pinter’s earlier work has allowed each other. Pinter constantly violates the for indeterminacy, his latest work seems to theatrical convention by which audiences have surrendered to an insistent demand can assume that characters are truthful for moral definition. The ideas of ‘them’ unless clear indications are given to the 6 and ‘us’, which were once open, subtle, contrary.” fluid categories, have been replaced by a Pinter has tried his level best to bring rigid partisanship.”4 before us the different types of problems of In the ‘Memory Plays’, Pinter explored common man which has always been there complex ambiguities, elegiac mysteries, comic surrounding him yet have not been given vagaries and other characteristics of memory expression and focus. And for making his effort which had a bearing on his life whereas in his a successful and fruitful one, he has made the ‘Political Plays’, Pinter vehemently criticised absurd drama his unfailing weapon.

-113- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Conclusion 2. Pinter, Harold, The Room, Methuen & Co. By way of summing up we may say that Ltd., London, 1964, p. 113 though the ‘Theatre of the Absurd’ emerged in the recent past, yet it has achieved 3. Kerr, Walter, Harold Pinter, Columbia tremendous success in bringing before us the University Press, London 1967, p. 11 true picture and condition of human life. Absurd 4. Sanders, Andrews, The Short Oxford drama has gained much popularity in the present time with the endless efforts of its great History of English Literature, Oxford exponents like Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter University press, London, 1999, p. 623 and others. Almost every work of Pinter reflects one or the other important principle of the 5. Daiches, David, A Critical History of Absurd Drama and reserved for it a permanent English Literature, Martin & Warburg Ltd. , place in the history of English drama. London, 1960, pp. 1115-1116 References 6. Hayman, Ronald, Theatre and Anti- 1. Esslin, Martin, The Theatre of the Absurd theatre – New Movements Since Beckett, in perspectives on Drama, (ed) James Martin & Warburg Ltd., London, 1979, Caldererod and H.Toliver, New York: p. 126 Oxford University Press, 1969, p. 186

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Psycoanalytic Feminism in the works of Arundhati Roy, Kiran Desai and Manju Kapur Amit Purushottam Assistant Professor University College of Engineering & Technology Vinoba Bhave University Campus, Hazaribag

Abstract The present research paper employs a gynocritical strategy to examine three novels by contemporary Indian women novelists, namely, Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things, Kiran Desai’s The Inheritance of Loss and Manju Kapur’s Difficult Daughters. The aim is to focus on women’s experiences as women in contemporary Indian society, which is in a transitional phase- holding on to the traditional views, yet inclining towards the forces of modernity like globalization, materialism, consumerism and feminism. Efforts are made to record the emerging female voices using the tenets of the new women-centered psychologists. Indian women writers emerged after Independence and they have made a significant contribution.Arundhati Roy, Kiran Desai and Manju Kapur are but a few names of women who have distinguished themselves with their innovative style, depicting social realities, advocacy of the emancipation of women and portrayal of feminine sensibilities. The abovementioned writers have delved deep into the psyche of their characters to reveal various dimensions of their personal ties and show the sociocultural realities that hamper the growth of women. The feministic issues raised are diverse and have rejuvenated the realistic novel by using it to explore and share their experiences and put forward their own point of view on life, especially through their female characters with all their pain, agony, helplessness, exploitation and suffering. For the women writers, writing is a form of self- expression. A perspective study of these novelists brings forth their concerns with women’s issues. This does not mean that they fictionalize only women’s problems or the female psyche; they also hold a mirror to women’s reaction to men, society and vice-versa. They discuss new themes, the complexities of man-women relationship and provide a deep analysis of the female world. Keywords: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, Man-Woman relationship, global sisterhood Introduction back to The Old Testament. Being dispersed among men, women have no separate history, Since time immemorial gender has played no natural solidarity; they have not combined a significant role in the lives of people. In pre- as other oppressed groups have. historic times when the stone-age man went out to hunt and gather food, the woman stayed According to Raman Selden, there are back to tend the home and cattle and do five men foci involved in most discussions of domestic chores. Thus a division of labour sexual difference: biology, experience, between the sexes was introduced as a matter discourse, the unconscious, social and of expediency. For feminists the disillusionment economic conditions. Arguments which treat with received ideas about sexuality has not biology as fundamental and which down only served to knock men down to size, it has socialization have been used mainly by men to also generated a major element of the anger keep women in their place. The saying ‘Tota that drives the women’s liberation movement mulier in utero’ (woman is nothing but a womb) on. The fundamental question of modern sums up this attitude. If a woman’s body is her feminism was established with great clarity in destiny, then all attempts to question attributed the year 1949 when Simon de Beauvoir’s. The sex roles will fly in the face of natural order. On Second Sex was published. When a woman the other hand, some radical feminists tries to define herself, she starts by saying ‘I am elaborate women’s biological attributes as a woman. No man would do so’. This fact source of superiority rather than inferiority. Any reveals the basic asymmetry between the extreme argument for the special nature of terms masculine’ and ‘feminine’. Man defines women runs the risk of landing up, by a the human, not woman. This imbalance goes different route, in the same position occupied

-115- by male chauvinists. This risk is also run by as central to the oppression of women. The those who appeal to the special experience of media has trivialized women’s liberation, as woman as the source of positive female values feminists rightly complain, by their constant in life and in arts. Since only women, the harping on our supposed obsessions with sex argument goes, have undergone those and our alleged inability to distinguish between specifically female life-experiences (ovulation, sexism and sexuality, but in taking up those menstruation, parturition), only they can speak issues they have done more than reflect a of a woman’s life. Further, a woman’s central political concern of the women’s experience includes a different perceptual and movement. The disruption of the Miss World emotional life; women do not see things in the competition and the plastering of advertisements same ways as men, and have different ideas with This Degraded Woman stickers all and feelings about what is important or not represent significant elements of recent important. The study of the literary representation feminist political activity. Indeed these are the of these differences in women’s writings has issues on which, perhaps, feminists are least been called gynocritics. The third focus, divided. The massive demonstrations in defence of the 1967. Abortion Act have brought discourse, has received a great deal of more women on the streets of Britain than any attention by feminists. Dale Spender’s Man other demand. Sexual Politics by Kate Millett Made Language, as the title suggests has been hailed as the most significant considers that women have been fundamentally document of modem feminism. She is the main oppressed by male- dominated language. The theoretician of the new feminist movement and psychoanalytic theories of Lacan and Kristeva hers is a learned analysis of the political have provided a fourth focus,the process of relationship between men and women—a unconscious. Same feminist writers have relationship she argues, is based on male broken completely with biologism by dominance and female submission. Miss associating the female with those processes Millett traces sexual politics through history, which tend to undermine the authority of male psychology, anthropology, religion and discourse. Whatever encourages or initiates a literature. She finds out society basically an free play of meanings and prevents closure is oppressive one, in which all human beings are regarded as female. Female sexuality is socialized to strict and limiting sex roles, revolutionary, subversive, heterogeneous, and regardless of their individual potential. Like open. This approach is less likely to run the John Stuart Mills, she regards the family as the risks of ghettoisation and stereotyping, since it model for all political relationships in which one refuses to define female sexuality; if there is a group dominates over another by birth-right. female principle, it is simply to remain outside Ultimately the politics of sex leads, in her view, the male definition of the female. Virginia Woolf to the denigration of traits regarded as was the first woman critic to include a feminine, and to the glorification of aggression sociological dimension (fifth focus) in her and violence, which are considered virile traits. analysis of women’s writings. Since, then, Millett used the term ‘patriarchy’ (rule of Marxist feminists, in particular, have tried to the father) to describe the cause of women’s relate changing social and economic oppression. Patriarchy subordinates the conditions and the changing balance of power females to the males or treats the females as between the sexes. inferior males. It has really been opined “But for They agree with other feminists in her sex, a woman is a man”. French-feminism rejecting the notion of a universal femininity.If has been deeply affected by psychoanalysis, sexual politics has been described as a especially by Lacan’s reworking of Freud’s significant area of struggle in contemporary theories. French-feminist by following Lacan’s life, the credit for this must lie with the major theories have overcome the hostility towards contribution made by early radical feminits.. Freud shared by most feminists. Before Lacan, Even the titles of these works—Sexual Politics, Freud’s theories, especially in U.S.A., had The Dialectic of Sex, The Female Eunuch, been reduced to a crude biological level. Vaginal Politics, The Body Politik—display a concern with the question of physical sexuality When both Irigary and Cixous speak of

-116- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 women’s body they speak in terms of its father an4 the mother. On the one hand, as morphology, meaning the way in which the writers they inevitably collude with ‘phallic shape or form of the female body is dominance, associated with the privileged represented in culture. Morphology is not father-daughter relationship which gives rise to given, its interpretation, which is not to say that the’ tendency towards mastery, science, it has nothing to do with our cultural philosophy,, professorship, etc.’ On the other understandings of biology. Freud’s morphological hand, ‘we feel everything considered phallic to description of the female sex as castrated, as find refuge in valorization’ of a silent lacking receives no more nor less ‘confirmation’ underwater body, thus abdicating any entry from biology than does positing of the female into history. sex as made up of (at least) two lips’ ! The difference is that Freud’s morphological Main Thrust description of the female sex amounts to the Feminism and the Subversion of Identity inverse of male morphology which is taken to (1990) is arguably the most influential be full, phallic; whilst Irigary’s description theoretical text of the 1990s. Her work distills presents the female form as full, as lacking forty years of French theory—from pioneer nothing. Both definitions are clearly ‘biased’ or feminist Simone de Beauvoir to Julia Kristeva, political but French feminists would deny that arid from Jacques Lacan and Louis Althusser, any discourse can be neutral or free from Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault—to political investments. For Cixous, the mutism explore how gendered identity is socially of women is a fundamental feature of Western produced through repetitions of ordinary daily culture. Women are forbidden speech, activities. particularly in- the public sphere13. Women are the assumed infrastructure of culture but In 'The God of Small Things' the novelist cultural production requires only the implicity advocates greater social reform in the acquiescence of their corporeality. Women are rigid positioning of women. The world of required to make their bodies available for Arundhati’s novel is captured in a state of flux exchange between men and for reproduction. where the values of the patriarchal society are Levi Straws claimed that culture is based on under attack from a new world in which self- the exchange of women between men. interest and self-aggrandizement and social Citizens of the fraternity are assumed to be equality are forcing their entry. Seen from a husbands and (at least potential) fathers. feminist point of view, the novel speaks of the Underlying the fraternal social contract, hidden violence perpetrated upon women and and repressed, in a sexual contract. The paternal tyranny engulfing the luckless fraternity of liberty and equality between men children. It ruthlessly unmasks the dual assumes a prior relation of domination and standards of morality in society in respect of subordination between men and women. men and women, the passive, submissive role Cixous opposes the sort of neutral bisexuality of a wife in a man-woman relationship, and the espoused by Virginia Woolf, and advocates vindictive attitude of a woman in prolonging the instead what she calls ‘the other bisexuality’ suffering and ignominy of another woman by a which refuses to ‘annul differences but stirs male. them up’. Cixous approach is visionary; The suffering and torture starts with the imagining a possible language rather than central female character, Ammu, accompanying describing an exciting one. her parents to Ayemenem after her father’s It runs the risk by other approaches, retirement. Being deprived of an education, already discussed, of driving women into an marriage for her also became a remote obscure unconscious retreat where silence possibility, for dowry could not be provided for. reigns interrupted only by uterine ‘babble. This Hence she had to wait at home and danger is well understood by Kristeva, who become gradually domesticated. Virginia sees women writers, rather the way that Woolf sees domestic life as almost exclusively Virginia Woolf saw them, as caught between social without any breathing space for worry,

-117- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 “The son of my house may be granted freedom been divorced. to develop his mind, he may have a room - but Baby Kochamma became Ammu’s sworn the daughter is expected- to be at everyone’s enemy as in her she saw a potential threat to beck and call. For domestic life cultivates the the safe niche she had created for herself over irrational side of a woman’s nature; it is the years. Her fear of being dispossessed distinguished by the primacy of feeling as increased with the rising number of persons in science is distinguished by the primacy of the house and she made no bones about her intellect. The domestic arts involve mainly the displeasure. Both Ammu and Chacko find fine discrimination of feelings and the ability to themselves in a similar position as far as their bring about adjustments in personal relations.” marital status is concerned. Arnmu had been Very soon Ammu started to feel hemmed physically abused while Chacko had been in by the restricted atmosphere of the house. dumped by his wife for his slothful, barren Worst of all were Pappachi’soutbursts of ways. But in Ayemenem Chacko rules the physical violence inflicted on Mammachi from roost, being a male and Ammu lives at his time to time. He beat his wife with a brass mercy for her and her children’s subsistence. flower vase every night till Chacko stepped in Legally, Ammu is debarred from claiming the and stopped it forever. He then smashed his property as outdated and outmoded favourite, mahogany rocking chair with a inheritance rights are weighed heavily against plumber’s monkey wrench because of a her. Even Mammachi, though physically blind, growing sense of frustration emanating from a turns a blind eye to Ammu’s plight and her blank retired life, more so, because of children’s sorry state of affairs. Instead, she Mammachi's success as a violinist and her relies heavily on the inefficient shoulders of popularity in the pickle-making business. Chacko, he being the only male member after her husband’s death. She even bears with his The only reprieve for Ammu, in the stifling ‘libertine relationship’ with the women in the atmosphere, was nuptial tie. While taking a factory and in a way absolves him from any pause at an Aunt’s place in Calcutta, she kindof onus by secretly paying them off. encountered a gentle Hindu Bengali from the Ammu’s humiliation is the consequence of her tea-estates in Assam, and without further marriage gone awry. Simone de Beauvoir consideration consented to marry him. Simone again asserts that: “Marriage is not only de Beauvoir remarks, ‘There is a unanimous honourable career and one less tiring than agreement that getting a husband—or in some many others: it alone permits a woman to keep cases a ‘protector’—is for her (woman) the her social dignity intact and at the same time to most important of undertakings she will free find sexual fulfillment as loved one and herself from the parental home, from her mother.” mother’s hold, she will open up her future not Though Ammu quarrels with her fate, yet by active conquest but by delivering herself up, she fails to attain anything substantial. She has passive and docile, into the hands of a new too many fronts to adjust-her private misery master”. The charm of marital bliss soon and her children’s upbringing. She has to love evaporated and Ammu became a victim of her them double because they have lost their Baba husband’s drunken rages. When they started and Chacko can’t fulfil their expectations even to affect the two-year-old twins, Ammu thought half-way. Ammu’s fault is that she is too gentle it proper to desert her husband. Mr. Hollick, the and meek to assert herself. Colette Dowling employer had also come up with a filthy explains: “it has to do with dependency: the proposal for Ammu. Finding herself vulnerable need to lean on someone. Those needs stay to male villainy and lechery, she returned with us into adulthood, clamoring for fulfillment reluctantly to her parents’ home. right alongside our need to be self-sufficient. . Here, she was more of a trespasser and Any woman who looks within knows that she less of an inmate of the house as she had been was never trained to feel comfortable with the married. According to Baby Kochamma, ner idea of taking care of herself, standing up for Aunt, “she had no position at all”, as she had herself, asserting herself.”

-118- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Thus, Ammu moves around without being to the birth of the Indian nation in 1947. Among noticed. The male tyranny that is unleashed on the many writers who form part of this literary her takes a vicious turn in her parents’ tradition, Manju Kapur now occupies a new home—it is a battering that does not show but and prominent position. corrodes one from within. The arrival of Sophie Set in the early part of the twentieth, Mol seems to ignite the so far contained and century, Kapur’s novel, Difficult Daughters suppressed conflicts. The preferential chronicles the history of a middle-class Hindu treatment shown toward Chacko’s widowed family whose oldest daughter chooses to study ex-wife and their daughter is openly displayed, beyond the accepted high-school education throwing Ammu and her twins into complete that even the most reform minded middle-class isolation. Ammu finds this step-motherly families deemed quite sufficient for most treatment hard to digest, so she looks away women at that time. The educational revolution only to find that Rahel has already escaped to for women was a function of the nationalist the animated world of Velutha— a world of movement that envisaged education as warmth and sincerity. Velutha recognized empowering for women, in that it would enable Ammu as a woman and realized that he had them to have a voice at least in the matters of something to share with her and that she too the household, where, until, that time, they did had gifts to give him. not have one. The ideas of women’s education Not having any right on anything with its rhetoric of monolithic empowerment, whatsoever and constantly being made to feel and the spaces in which this education was dejected and low, Ammu is captivated by imparted, in the context of the nationalist Velutha’s arresting look. Unable to restrain movement through Manju Kapur’s Difficult herself she demolishes all the barriers and Daughters. Would be examined within the walks across to the salubrious company of the framework of the text, issues of female identity despised Paravan. She did not care for the as concerns the body and sexuality, and how consequences, for nothing could be worse this ties in with the Nationalist movement. I than what she had already faced. would also be explored in the light of the nationalist movement because this disconnect There is a curious parallel between Ammu between the drive for women’s education and and Velutha. Since she had no stand in the social displacement that it caused was the Ayemenem house and the Paravans had no most perceptible effect of the move towards an stand in the class-ridden society, both of them expanded vision of women’s education. There were socially doomed and discarded. was no context provided by these nationalist- Virginia Woolf too, “frequently compared educators for the translation of this education women to persecuted minorities, she could into empowerment for the women, in practical not, it would seem, name any down trodden terms and everyday life. group and underdog without pointing out the Manju Kapur’s first book is heavily parallel with women.” She implied that women populated with women. There is Virmati, the as a class “are comparable to the humblest protagonist: Kasturi, her mother; Shakuntala, domestic servants. Finally, ironically, Virginia her cousin and initial role model: Ganga, the Woolf suggested that women may be likened first wife of the man she marries, and Virmati’s to the lowliest, and most familiar subject race of own daughter, Ida, the narrator. The structure all.” of the book mirrors Virmati’s life itself: calm The interpellation of feminism with studies periods in her life are harshly interrupted by surrounding the development of Indian unease caused by the Professor lurking in the nationalism has excited much literary background. These abrupt interjections are expression as well as theoretical formulation. similar to the switches in narrative, from There is a strong tradition of the Indian novel accounts of the exploration of her mother’s written in English that operates within the past by Ida to the recounting of Virmati’s life in political, social and economic background of third person. While the narrative's voices are the nationalist movement, from 1883 onwards, mostly representative of the women’s side of

-119- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 the issue, the book itself is set up as a series of own fecundity is important to her, in spite of her binaries that contradict each other at some physical and mental inability to deal with it. point in the novel as well as in the social fabric Because of the importance that the other that is the background of the novel. There is women surrounding her—Lajwanti, her sister- female education that is deemed necessary, in-law, and her Grand-aunt attach to it. but can mar bourgeois respectability if it Virmati’s life is a homogenous compact oversteps what society has deemed adequate; structure that defines not only physical space marriage that is necessary for any woman with within the home, but also the abstract space an ‘adequate’ education, but which can be that a woman can occupy in society. Virmati’s regarded as an obstruction to, and be expectations from life are sculpted from what obstructed by education and sexuality that is she has seen in her mother’s life, and re- necessary within a marriage and for the molded and redefined according to her view of purpose of ensuring the continuance of the the lives of Shakuntala, her cousin, and family line, but can be destructive if the woman Ganga, the wife of the Professor. Thus, is unmarried or if the fruits of this sexuality are Virmati’s family, and the story of its women overabundant. become the active determinants of her future, Virmati, at seventeen, is a beautiful, young and also of her indeterminacy of what exactly woman in high school, engaged to be married, she wants from life. She learns from her and a well-educated catch by the standards of mother’s experience that being only a the time. Her family follows the Arya Samaj facilitator for future generations would not be model of education, popular during the period, fulfilling enough for her: she also understands which was in keeping with the models of from Shakuntala that being educated would progress that many middle class families bring her freedom. What Virmati discounts is aspired to. Women, like Virmati, though the fact that the “freedom” that her education betrothed in their early teens, were not married would ostensibly give her access to would be off until a few years later so that they could complicated if she had a husband. Here the acquire, in the intervening period, a basic personal certainly becomes the political, for education that would help them balance the the dilemma of having to choose between a household budget and keep track of their public life, with all the freedom that it would children’s moral and spiritual development. bring in its wake, and the traditional life, with The marriage would be conducted whenever social acceptance and “security” that a the male head of the family decided that the husband signified, was one that many women, education that the girl had received was at that time, had to face. This is the same space sufficient. It was also quite true that marriage that Shakuntala occupies, and for all her initial was always set up as the primary goal of any self-assuredness, her insecurity reveals itself woman, educated or otherwise. We hear of the in her curiosity to know later on about Virmati’s history of Virmati family and come to realize personal life and the exact nature of the that the history of her family is recorded in the relationship that she shared with the professor. pains and tribulations borne by its women, The Shakuntala, like Virmati later on in the reader is introduced to Virmati’s mother, novel, is not spared the taunts of the older Kasturi, the education that she received, her women in the family about her unmarried betrothal to Suraj Prakash, her travels to her status. husband’s home as his bride, and later, the story of her multiple pregnancies. The history It is also interesting that the narrative turns that is attached to every woman in the family is to the history of Virmati’s family only after she complicated and increases in importance begins to insist on gaining an education far because of the lives of the other women beyond the socially accepted paradigms of the attached to it. In the prominence that Virmati time. If her family had its way, Virmati would gives to the opinion of other women, Virmati is never have progressed beyond high-school. It similar to her mother and all the generations of is as though she is trying to create a sense of women before her. To Kasturi, for example, her history for herself, a female history that is

-120- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 marked by tribulations, pain and strength, no for escape begins with her exposure to matter that the progenitors of, and participants Shakuntala’s way of life, and develops from in, that history themselves shun her for her there. Slowly, but surely, she allows the ideas. Virmati’s first brush with “real” education Professor to establish his hold over her mental comes in the form of her cousin. Shakuntala-- a and physical space. She is first persuaded by “spinster” who teaches Chemistry in the the Professor to break off her engagement to metropolis of Lahore. The implied inadequacies lnderjit, the engineer her parents had found for of Shakuntala, as far as marriage, are explicitly her. When she is subjected to relentless expressed in terms of her achievement in pressure from her family to marry, she decides education. She has tasted “the wine of that her only alternatives are freedom to freedom” (DD 15) and has acquired the dress continue her education, or death. Trapped by habits of an English woman and the personal society and her parents, and the letters of her fiancé, she is forced to go to extremes to attributes which were commonly associated ensure her freedom: she decides to commit with, and confined to, masculinity: spending suicide by drowning in the family pond on her without restraint, smoking, and drinking liquor, grandfather’s estate. This is really a semi- in the company women, like her aunt and her serious attempt; it is more a desperate mother, whose only proof of existence was measure undertaken to convince her family to their continued fecundity. Virmati, at this time, give in to her pleas to remain unmarried. It is is engaged in the care of her mother who has debatable whether she is motivated by her love been wrung out by the exigencies of ceaseless for the Professor, or just the desire to explore childbearing. Shakuntala’s way of life signifies what the world has to offer if she has an to her freedom and escape from the education to aid her. monotonous routine of the marriage that has Significantly, she decides to go to her been arranged for her. death on her grandfather’s estate, a land which Right from the moment this desire for is at once the representation of the patriarchal, education, synonymous with freedom in as well as one that signifies safety for her. It is Virmati’s mind, is sparked, her mind is quite no wonder, therefore, that she is saved. The untainted by any idea of academic excellence. recovery of her body and her life is a recovery There are no references in the text to her of the patriarchal space and her family’s right to performance in college. It is quite anti-climactic it. It is an insurance that the family’s life in that the only times that there are references to general, and her younger female, siblings’ life her academics are when she fails an exam or is in particular, will continue without trouble. unable to perform competently. Her myopic Here the space is not just the land, but eyesight that attracts the married Professor is Virmati’s body itself, because a girl, until literally short sighted: she fails to analyze how married, is regarded as the property of her her education will alter her subjectivity and in father or the patriarch. what manner it will be a vehicle of empowerment. For Virmati, the word The Professor, however, is not yet ready to “freedom” is an undefined space, a pastiche of let go of her. He tracks her down once again words culled from the experiences of different and woos her with determination. The people,who, she thinks, have experienced Professor’s socially unacceptable Love once freedom. again lures her into its grasp. Once again, Virmati tastes of prohibited pleasure this time, Virmati’s desire for freedom begins to physical. escalate in her home, and all that it signifies: the suppression of women and the proliferation Under the Professor’s able guidance, she of children, and the cares of managing a house ventures into prohibited physical space. Just and attendant responsibilities. She begins to as the Professor is instrumental in Virmati’s see herself in her mother’s place, and refuses invasion of Ganga’s territory which include to occupy a reproduction of the space that her both her home and her husband, he also mother occupies in her own home. Her desire encourages her explore the hitherto uncharted

-121- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 territory—for Virmati—of the city of Lahore as married life. Mehendi was also popularly used well that of her body. by courtesans who became mistresses of the wealthy men who patronized them. These While she cries a little bit after women were often well-versed in the arts of consummating their affair for the first time, she music and dance and in literature. It is rationalizes he was right, she was meant to be interesting that the place where Virmati loses his, what was the point in foolishly denying it on her virginity to the Professor , faces unwanted the basis of an outmoded morality?” (114). The pregnancies is loaded with such significance. wide, open spaces of the city are only for the The angan is what Virmati wants, while the Professor. Just as Virmati’s body becomes the mehendi stained hands, with all its attendent space that he can explore, irrespective of the lack of responsibility on the part of the man and fact that he is married, so also the city offers the fulfillment of the immediate physical desire, him the freedom of masculine expression. All seems to be more important to the Professor. Virmati’s explorations are under his watchful eyes. Thus even her freedom is circumscribed The Professor’s continued insistence on a in that she is allowed to see only what the sexual relationship with Virmati, without the Professor warns her to see, while she is given social position accorded to a wife, leads the impression that she is actually, completely Virmati to an isolated town where she free. becomes the head mistress of a girls’ school. The deciding factor in her decision is the reality The fact that their passionate sexual of having to undergo an abortion when the encounters take place in a guest- house that Professor is absconding, spending time with belongs to the Professor’s friend, is quite his family. The fact of Virmati finishing her BT significant. It is described as a “red- brick poses yet another problem for her family—they house, with a small angan at the back and a have to find another socially acceptable place garden in the front. The high, green, mehendi for her. Virmati consents to go to the remote hedge all around made it look reassuringly school because she sees no sign of private to Virmati’s apprehensive eyes” (DD commitment from the Professor. The space 113), “Angan” is the term in Hindi used for a that she occupies there is indicative of her backyard, a place traditionally associated with position in society. She is the academic head of the women of the house. It is of particular the school, her house is isolated from the rest significance in Hindu culture because the of the populace, located high up on a hill. Her “angan” is the space where the “tulsi” or basil, education separates her from the others in that plant is grown. The tulsi plant is of religious place, and there is no sense of companionship. significance and a necessity in any religious There is not one person she is able to connect Hindu household. It is worshipped, and more to and her life is devoid of human contact. often than not, a lamp is placed next to it as a Virmati, clearly, never quite resolves the symbol of the family’s, especially the woman’s dilemma that she faces regarding her own obsience to, and belief in, the prosperity that it identity. As a result, she plays out her own can bring. This lamp is usually placed by the drama of confusion with her daughter. She is daughter-in-law of the household, or by any unable to disassociate freedom from married woman: alternately, female children education, and tries to force Ida into fitting into who have reached adolescence perform this her own model of social propriety and function. Thus the mention of the angan is correctness. What Virmati fails to realize is that loaded with significance because it would her own struggle for freedom and space has symbolize purity and traditional family values little to do with education and more to do with to a girl like Virmati. It is equally significant that love, and a desire to be accepted in spite of, the house is enclosed by mehendi hedges. and for, her difference. Mehendi, also known as henna, is of great 'The Inheritance of Loss' discovers some importance in Indian culture. It is used to color of the important issues of present globalized the hands of the bride the evening before her world. The novel covers both the countries, weddlng and signifies her imminent entry into India and U.S.A, and takes up some of the

-122- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 important issues from feminism to the problem identity, clash of cultural values with the of immigration. The novel brings out the search western influence, the economic inequality for suppressed identity and the fight of a group leading to exploitation of third world migrant in of people against the hopelessness created western countries. after independence when the agitation of Kiran Desai infuses in the novel her own Gorkhaland was at its peak. The time segment experiences of leaving India. Unlike Arundhati is 1980 when the political ferment inside the Roy’s The God of Small Things this novel is not country leads to dislocation of a normal life and an autobiographical novel of Kiran Desai, but it further loss on all fronts. It also explores the provides an imaginative experience of Kiran uncontrollable temptation for fashionable life Desai as she migrates to other western that leads to restlessness, economic injustice, countries. multi culturalism and the agony of being a foreigner. India is the birth place of Kiran Desai where she spent first fourteen years of her life The novel oscillates telling simultaneously and in this novel she visits her past stories between two places- Indian hill station experiences in Gujarat, the place from where in the north-eastern Himalayas and the ghastly her father and grandfather came and place in New York. The first place consists of a Kalimpong, her aunt’s home. After spending retired judge, his young granddaughter, his the first fourteen years in India, Kiran Desai cook and his pet dog, and a small group of migrated to England and then to America for people amidst political turmoil resulting in higher studies. Thus Kiran Desai successfully suffering for each and every character. It links her experiences with India’s colonial and highlights the impact of blending of people postcolonial history, which brings out from different cultures and social strata, the splendid stories of impact of globalization, episode of love and hate due to loss of fundamentalism and extremist violence. confidence, and further to retrieve from uncertainty. The experiences of women cannot be uniform, though feminists talk of global The second place covers the saga of Biju, sisterhood. Female subordination is a fact of the son of the judge’s cook, who has illegally history, but in order to understand the material entered America and fears for being an illegal reality of the every-day struggle of woman, it is immigrant, keeps on changing low profile jobs, necessary to contextualize the analysis. The has to face the apprehension and injustice of women novelists Manju Kapoor and Arundhati the ruthless world where on one side he is Roy, living in contemporary India, are familiar projected by his father as a monarch and on with the oppressive dominant culture, but, the other side spends a miserable life. The though they offer no solution to the problem, cook Panna Lal connects the two storyline in they successfully expose the old value system. which the unlike characters share the common However, they do not recommend a shift away jolt of embarrassment and loss on all fronts. from the community or transgression, but Though India got freed from the colonial rule, suggest, by foregrounding women’s experiences, the impact of colonialism and the suppression a return to the inner source of strength by of poor country like India by the West assimilation into the female community and influenced the future of the Indians in the post compromise with the culture so that the colonial era. woman-centred model is given its due place with the male-centred perspective within the The storyline takes place in the 1980’s dominant culture. when the agitation for Gorkhaland for an independent state was at its peak. The novel Recent psychologists carrying out their has several attached stories in which personal research at the Stone Center, USA, have and political elements are blended and takes recognized women’s inner strength and the up several issues like the impact of value of women’s basic psychological colonialism, the status of women, post colonial structure. Some of the findings of Carol hopelessness where there is a search of lost Gihigan, Nancy Chodorow and Jean Baker

-123- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Miller are suitable for the Indian situation and reading of these novels reveals that the girls, can well be applied to Indian women. This often sensing their mothers’ suffering due to study has sought to see how women’s intrinsic the absence of reciprocal care and nurturing, virtues have been devalued by a patriarchal to not be like their mothers. Ammu, Virmati, society and how the novelists try to raise their Ida, Sai negate care, assert their protagonists’ consciousness by highlighting independence, refuse to identify with their the centrality of the feminine experience. The mothers and suffer when the basic demands of introductory chapter focuses on this issue. their selves clash with the dominant social values. Ammu rebels thrice: first, when she After placing the three women novelists marries against her parents’ wishes; second, and their novels within the corpus of Indian when she walks out of her marriage; and third, writing in English, the first section traces the when she develops ties with Velutha. The evolution of women writers from Arundhati Roy ultimate result is death and destruction — other first-generation novelists to recent ones physical for Ammu and Velutha, and like Manju Kapur and Kiran Desai. Change is psychological for Estha and Rahel. Virmati’s visible in their representation of women revolt leads her into a meaningless marriage. protagonists. The next section on feminism prepares the ground to discuss the applicability Care and nurturing are natural to the of the gynocritical approach to Indian literature. female psyche. If allowed to blossom, they The term gynocriticism was first used by may lead women to self-actualization but Showalter for woman-centred literary criticism unfortunately, these are imposed from without as against ‘phallocriticism’, which provided a as female attributes that must be adhered to; predominantly male point of view. As more and any deviation is seen as threatening. more women started seeing women as women Conditioned by society, women follow these and not as, what Freud termed, ‘castrated norms and inflict suffering on themselves. men,’ gynocriticism gained more acceptability. Feminist psychologists regret that the The theories propounded by women values of care, empathy, tolerance and psychologists such as Carol Gilligan, Nancy nurturing, which are the fountainhead of Chodorow, and Jean Baker Miller saw strength and empowerment, should ultimately women’s intrinsic strength and showed the become a source of suffering. When women corroding effect on both the psyche of women care for others out of a fearful need to please and the psyche of society when strong others, as do the various protagonists humanitarian values like care, nurturing, discussed in this book, they lose their sense of empathy and sympathy are devalued by the self. In Carol Gilligan’s terms, this is the first patriarchal culture. The first chapter discusses stage of female development when women the centrality of the connection between look at the world out of their self-centred In the women’s basic values of care and empathy second stage, the ‘self makes bold to relate to and the development of their sense of ‘self’. others’, which Gilligan calls ‘self-in-relation’. These woman-centred psychologists probe how care, nurturing, empathy and other allied Empowerment comes when the ‘self’, values, central to the female experience, go through a mutual, relational process, unrecognized in favour of the so-called male enhances one’s own power as well as that of virtues of power, success and careerism. The others. empirical research of these psychologists Women reaching out to men with a brings to light that the practising of these selfless goal are often disillusioned in their patriarchal values leads to women’s devaluation relations, particularly in marriage. There is a and the devaluation, in its turn, leads to difference in the male model of independence women’s enslavement and society’s degeneration. and the female model of independence. Self-assertion is a positive quality. But Women want to live in a relationship and when self-assertion is practised at the cost of yet remain whole, which is not acceptable to negation of care and other positive feminine patriarchy. On the other hand, the male model values, it creates ultimate discontent. The of a completely independent person is one of

-124- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 abstract relations and autonomy. Since this cooperation and compassion. There should be does not conform to the female model, the redistribution of responsibility where “we do result is either women’s invisibility or silence. not give femaleness and maleness all the meaning we presently give them. There is no The sexist bias of society hinders the reason that serving others has to be a threat to freedom required to validate one’s self in case maleness. Men and women together should of women. The community grants enough join hands to create a way of life that includes freedom to men to develop their sense of self, serving.” but women have to juggle multiple responsibilities to prove themselves. The References study focuses on how various women 1. Miller Jean Baker, Toward a New characters — Virmati, Ammu, Sai and many Psychology of Women,Becon Press, others — are compelled, in the name of Boston, 1976 upholding the values and ideals of the traditional community, to repress their urge to 2. Selden Raman, Widdowson Peter, act according to their own will. Brooker Peter, A Reader’s Guide to Contemporary Leterary Theory,Pearson Through the fictional world, the novelists Longman, London, 1985 espouse the cause of women and show the physical and psychological suffering of 3. Laplanche J. and Pontalis J.B.,The susceptible women characters against the Language of Psycho Analysis, W. W. background of a rigid and conservative society. Norton & Company Ltd.,London,1973 The study reveals the importance of subverting 4. Kapur Manju,Difficult Daughters, Penguin and overhauling the present steely social Books India (P) Ltd.,New Delhi,1998 system to make way for a humane social order. 5. Sarangi Jaydeep, Indian Novels in The three novelists use different fictional English: A Socio-linguistic Study, Prakash techniques to recreate the world of their female Book Depot, Bareilly, 2005 protagonists. In The God of Small Things, 6. Leech G. and Short M., Style in Fiction. memory and a child’s perspective are used. Longman, London, 1997 Virmati’s story is recounted by her daughter, Ida, who makes profuse use of memory, oral 7. Roy Arundhati, The God of Small Things, material gleaned from relatives and printed Harper Perennial,New York, 1998 records of the partition. 8. Dhawan R.K, Arundhati Roy, the novelist Virmati’s story reveals to Ida the record of extraordinary, Prestige Books, New Delhi, a woman’s fight against invisibility. The most 1999 important thrust of the feminist agenda has 9. Desai Anita, Fire on the Mountain, been that of making women ‘visible’, and their Random House India, New Delhi, 2008 voices ‘audible’ in society. This study, by taking the gynocritical position, has tried to see how 10. Desai Anita, Clear Light of the Day, fiction retrieves women’s history and locates Random House India, New Delhi, 2008 women’s voices within the patriarchal 11. Desai Anita, The Zigzag Way, Vintage, discourse. London, 2005 Conclusion 12. Indira S., Anita Desai as an Artist, Creative Life is a web of relationships. This analysis Book, New Delhi, 1994 of texts makes one conclude that to forge 13. Tiwary Shubha, Critical Responses to healthy relationships, the morality of care Anita Desai, Atlantic Publishers, New centred on the maxim of not hurting others Delhi, 2004 should be universal and not restricted to 14. Tondon Neeru, Anita Desai and Her women, otherwise they will rebel and negate it, Fictional World, Atlantic Publishers and which, in turn, would evoke a cold and unsympathetic world. This problem can be Distributors, New Delhi, 2008 tackled only in conjunction with men. They 15. Albert Edward, History of English should help to build a society on mutual care, Literature, Oxford University Press, 2006

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The Social Vision in the novels of George Orwell Seema Prasad Lecturer, Department of English Ranchi Women's College, Ranchi Abstract George orwell possessed a great political awareness. He strongly believed that socialism was the only system in man's life. He was also of the opinion that the two world wars were the result of the conflict between two ideologies. He opposed all those policies which did not contribute to the progress of the poor. He dreamed of a free and just society, a society in which all the poor may prosper. Keywords: World-war, Socialism, Exploitation, Justice, happiness Introduction and nail opposed to the totalitarian regime of In 1948, after the second world war, the Stalinist Russia and Fascist regime of France theory of socialism was accepted by many in Spain. In fact, he was an English socialist countries of the world. Orwell observed that who was opposed to the continental Marxist many countries started to act under the type. According to him, the so called socialists influence of socialism. Britain was also one of of Russia and continental countries had them, but he realized that society was not free interpreted man as a mere economic entity. from problems. A correct society of which the Man is much more than that. He is loyal to socialists of the world had imagined was still far mankind. Orwell stuck to the simple and away from its goal. He was of the opinion that positive conception of Socialism based on the political parties that acted as govt, were not general ideas of brotherhood, fair play, honest purely socialist. Even the British Labour Party dealing, and he distrusted the involved was not a purely socialist one. This party metaphysics of marxist thought. He didn't belonged to trade unions. It laid its emphasis forget that socialism once aimed at human on the improvement of labourers. But it was happiness, nor did he confuse the means, once concerned with the welfare of the people of the considered necessary to this end with the final world at large. It took a step towards socialism aim. He did not believe in deliberately by settings up of a united states of Europe so destroying a relatively happy society simply that half of the skilled industrial workers might because it was not organised in a particular be united. But the background of this step was way. more political than socialistic because the Main Thrust British Labour Party which governed the George Orwell possessed a great political country during that time tried to expand its awareness. He has discussed the problems existence through this step. Therefore, the created by the capitalists in his various essays theory of socialism ceased to work in the and novels. He strongly believed that socialism actions of this party. Orwell was of the view that was the only system in man's life. He was also individual development made the general of the opinion that both the world-wars were the development. Neither he desired that the poor result of the conflict between two ideologies. should become rich nor did he think that the He opposed all those policies which did not rich should give up their prosperity. But he contribute to the progress of the poor. In Animal expected a harmony between the rich and the Farm old major tells other animals about their poor. He wanted to see a change in the exploitation at the hands of Jones. Old major mentality of common men. He laid emphasis tells, Man is the only creature that consumes on the fact that money is not greater than the without producing. He doesn't give milk. He virtues of men. He was of the opinion that this doesn't lay eggs. He is too weak to pull the fact could make man free from many problems. plough. He cannot run fast enough to catch Orwell thought that socialism is the most rabbits. Yet he is lord of all the animals to bring effective remedy to modern ills. He was tooth socialism to the farm. But Napoleon is a -126- hypocrite and he has secret ambition to project, facilities provided to the pigs, pigs become rich. Snowball is driven away by him attempts to unite human beings, killing of and he sets the opportunity to dominate the ducks and hens, death of Boxer etc are some farm. The policies that he adopts, are causing of the incidents, that are the symbols of the more and more sufferings to the animals. His tyranny of Stalin. The observation of the writer aim is to enrich the pigs only with modern is like that of a socialist. luxuries. He provides the pigs with all luxuries, Orwell's Animal farm presents a moral and at the end of the novel the pigs become lesson that equality in the economic field is an very rich while other animals fall to from the urgent need of every society. Equality is the poverty line. The novel ends on a pessimistic only object which can bring justice to the note. society. Through the revolt of animals against Russian Revolution of 1917 is the main the human beings the author does not convey, theme of Animal Farm. Orwell observed that the message that animals also desire to rebel Russian revolution of 1917 started with high against the exploitations of the human beings. hopes and noble or ideals. But Stalin, who was The causes that are responsible for the the leader of the revolution oppressed the miseries of lower class people can be removed common man of Russia with his tyranny. As a by the policies of govt. The author strictly political thinker, Orwell attacked the dictatorship believes in democracy. But at the same time he of Stalin -through Animal Farm. The novelist advocates socialism. According to him believed that equality at the economic level socialism aims at the development of the among people was not possible under whole of society capitalism proposes the communism. The novelist had belief in prosperity of a particular class. Socialism is the socialism. He doesn't appreciates capitalism best reply of the shortcomings created by the that is why he praises the Russian Revolution devil of capitalism. The novelist as a social which was based on high ideals. But after the philosopher measures communism with its revolution, the leaders could not put the merits and demerits. He finds that communism theories of communism into practice. They did also lays emphasis on the progress of a not pay any attention to the problems of particular class and aims at totalitarianism. common man. They were engaged in making The author is shocked to see the miserable money. condition of general people, ruled by Through Animal Farm the author laments communist. the death of those ideals which were the In fact, the novelist wants to convey only bedrock of Russian Revolution. He tells us that one message to the society that socialism is the common animals who stand for common the only way through which progress can be men began to suffer in the regime of Napoleon brought about. In animal farm nowhere does who represents stalin. As for others, their life, he condemn old major who represents Karl so far as they knew, was as it had always been. Marx. But he pays his best tribute to Karl Marx They were generally hungry, they slept on and Lenin by making the character of old major straw, they drank from the pool, they laboured more respectful and more outstanding. But as in the field in Winter, they were troubled by the a pro-socialist he could not believe that the cold and in Summer by the dries: sometimes people of Russia were the best fed and most the older ones among them racked their advanced. He disclosed the fact that the memories and tried to determine whether, in communist experiment in Russia was a lost the early days of the Rebellion, when Jone's revolution. expulsion was still recent, things had been better or worse than now. They could compare Orwell who saw the evil effects of two their present lives: They had nothing to guide world wars, was shocked to note the miserable them except squealer's lists of figures ,which condition of the common masses. Both the invariably demonstrated that everything was world wars were the results of the conflict getting better and better. The author tells us between exploiters and the exploited. Hitler, many other incidents that were related to the the remarkable personality of the second world tyranny of Stalinism. The episode of wind-mill war, attempted at the exploitation of lower

-127- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 strata of society. After a deep meditation the amnesia. It is Orwell's most formally novelist concluded that socialism is the only experimental novel, featuring a chapter written remedy of every type of injustice. The novelist entirely in dramatic form, but he was never dreams of a free and just society, a society in satisfied with it and he left instructions that after which all the people may prosper. He points out his death it was not to be reprinted. very humorously that in Animal Farm all After Orwell returned from Paris in animals are equal, but some animals are more December 1929, he used his parents' house in equal than others. Southworld as his base for the next five years. Keep the Aspidistra Flying deals with the Southworld is a small provincial town on the theme of money. The author could not keep his coast of East Anglia. The family was well experiences of life away even in this book, established in the local community and he Gordon comestock, the hero of the novel, became acquainted with many local people. decides to use his talent in the writing work. He His sister Avril was running a tea shop in the gives up an opportunity of a job in an town. Brenda Salkeld, a gym teacher at St advertising company. He joins a job of book- Felix School and the daughter of a clergyman shop assistant at two pound a week. Thus he is was to remain a friend and regular able to get time for writing. But he could not correspondent about his work for many years, continue his desire of writing because his although she rejected his proposal of poverty dominates his life so much that all the marriage. problems. He finds himself at war with earning Orwell was tutoring and writing at money and respect for money. He realises that Southwold and he resumed his sporadic society is insolent because he is poor. expeditions going undercover as a tramp in Coming up For Air was orwell's first book and around London. In August and September which achieved some success for him. In this 1931 he spent two months in casual work novel he advocates socialism. Basically the picking in Kent, which was a regular East novel contained two themes, first socialism End tradition. During this time, he lived in a and secondly the impacts of war. George hopper hut just like the other pickers. During Bowling the main character of the novel is the expedition he kept a journal in which sometimes nagged by his wife and another "Ginger" and "Deafie" are described, and time he is irritated by his children. He tried his much of this journal found its way into A best to make himself free from illusions. He is Clergyman's Daughter. At the beginning of very critical of the society in which he lives. He 1932 he took a job teaching at a small private is aware of the political and economic school in a manufacturing area at Hayes, West swindles, practised on him. He knows the London. This was owned by a manager in a effects of war. Thus unlike other orwellion gramophone factory and comprised only 20 heroes, he is old and sceptical and with a boys, the sons of local tradesmen and sense of humour about himself. shopkeepers. While at the school he became Nineteen Eighty Four the novel by Orwell friendly with the local curate and became is also a social sermon rather than a piece of involved with the local church. After four school orthodox fiction. Winston Smith, the hero of the terms he moved to a larger school with 200 pupils at Uxbridge, Middlesex a suburb on the novel, is a civil servant. He revolts against the north western edge of London. However, after system under which he works. The writer one term he was hospitalised with pneumonia imagnies that by 1984 everyone is to become a and in January 1934, he returned to coward, a spy or a betrayer. He also belives Southworld to convalesce and never returned that money and lust for power will dominate the to teaching. He started writing A Clergyman's society of 1984. Daughter in mid-January 1934 and had A Clergyman's Daughter is a 1935 novel finished by 3 October 1934. After sending the by English author George Orwell. It tells the work to his agent Leonard Moore, he left story of Dorothy Hare, the clergyman's Southworld to work part time in a Hampstead daughter of the title, whose life is turned bookshop. After various last-minute alterations upside-down when she suffers an attack of for fear of libel, Gollancz published A

-128- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Clergyman's Daughter on 11 March 1935. leopard, promising the skin to Elizabeth as a Burmese Days is a novel by British writer trophy. It seems a match made in heaven. George Orwell. It was first published in the Under the surface, however, Elizabeth is USA in 1934. It is a tale about the waning days appalled by Flory's relatively egalitarian of British imperialism after World War I. attitude towards the natives, seeing them as 'beastly' while Flory extolls the virtues of their Orwell spent five years from 1922 to 1927 rich culture. Worse still are his interests in high as a police officer in the Indian Imperial Police art and literature which remind Elizabeth of her force in Burma (now Myanmar). Burma had boondoggling mother who died in disgrace in become part of the British Empire during the Paris, poisoned by her painting materials nineteenth century as an adjunct of British whilst masquerading as a bohemian artist. India. Migrant workers from India and China Despite these reservations, of which Flory is supplemented the native Burmese population. entirely unaware, she is willing to marry him to Although Burma was the wealthiest country in escape poverty, spinsterhood and the Southeast Asia under British rule, as a colony it unwelcome advances of her perpetually was seen very much as a backwater. Among its inebriated uncle. exports, the country produced 75% of the Flory is about to ask her to marry him, world's teak from up-country forests. Orwell when they are interrupted firstly by her aunt served in a number of locations including and secondly by an earthquake. Mrs. Maymyo, Myaungmya, Twante Syriam, Insein, Lackersteen's interruption is deliberate Moulmein and Kathar. Kathar with its luxuriant because she has discovered that a military vegetation, described by Orwell with relish, police lieutenant named Verrall is arriving in provided the physical setting for the novel but Kyauktada. As he comes from an extremely not the plot. good family, she sees him as a better prospect Burmese Days is set in 1920s imperial as a husband for Elizabeth. Mrs. Lackersteen tells Elizabeth that Flory is keeping a Burmese Burma, in the fictional district of Kyauktada. As mistress as a deliberate ploy to send her to the story opens, U Po Kyin, a corrupt Burmese Verrall. Indeed, he had been keeping one but magistrate is planning to destroy the reputation had dismissed her almost the moment of the Indian Dr. Veraswami. The Doctor's main Elizabeth had arrived. No matter, Elizabeth is protection is his friendship with John Flory appalled and falls at the first opportunity for who, as a pukka sahib (European white man), Verrall, who is arrogant and ill-mannered to all has higher prestige. U Po Kyin begins his but her. Flory is devastated and after a period campaign by sending anonymous letters with of exile attempts to make amends by delivering false stories about the doctor, and he even to her the leopard skin but an inexpert curing sends a subtly threatening letter to Flory. process has left the skin mangy and stinking Flory has become disillusioned with his and the gesture merely compounds his status lifestyle, living in a tiresome expatriate as a poor suitor. community centred round the European Club U Po Kyin's campaign against Dr. in a remote part of the country. On the other Veraswami turns out to be intended simply to hand he has become so embedded in Burma further his aim of becoming a member of the that it is impossible for him to leave and return European Club in Kyauktada. The club has to England. His dilemma seems to be been put under pressure to elect a native answered when Elizabeth Lackersteen, the member and Dr. Veraswami is the most likely orphaned niece of Mr Lackersteen, the local candidate. U Po Kyin arranges the escape of a timber firm manager, arrives. Flory saves her prisoner and plans a rebellion for which he when she thinks she is being attacked by a intends that Dr. Veraswami should get the small water buffalo. He is immediately taken blame. The rebellion begins and is quickly put with her and they spend some time getting down, but a native rebel is killed by acting close, culminating in a highly successful Divisional Forest Officer, Maxwell. A few days shooting expedition. Elizabeth scores a hit with later, the body of Maxwell is brought back to the almost her first shot, and Flory shoots a town. This creates a tension between the

-129- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Burmese and the Europeans, exacerbated by modern era Like G. B. Shaw, his purpose of a vicious attack on native children by the writing was to present the shortcomings of spiteful Ellis. A large riot begins and Flory society in a humorous manner. But the element becomes the hero for bringing it under control of humour didn't affect the truth that he wanted with some support by Dr. Veraswami. U Po to convey. As a patriot, he loved his country Kyin tries to claim credit but is disbelieved and with its customs and traditions but did not Dr. Veraswami's prestige is restored. hesitate to condemn those traditions and customs which were responsible for the Verrall leaves Kyauktada without even miseries of common people. Because of his saying goodbye to Elizabeth and she falls for attempt at solving the social and political Flory again. Flory is happy and plans to marry problems of his era his idealism had been Elizabeth. However, U Po Kyin has not given mixed with an element of realism. Like other up; he hires Flory's former Burmese mistress literary figures, he too believed that materialism to create a scene in front of Elizabeth during was an obstacle in the achievement of peace the sermon at Sunday church. Flory is of mind. Therefore he laid emphasis on the disgraced and Elizabeth refuses to have spiritual impulses. His novels are the best anything more to do with him. Overcome by the criticism of the social and political problems of loss and seeing no future for himself, Flory kills his time. These novels highlight all major himself and his dog. problems of the modern era. Dr. Veraswami is demoted and sent to a References different district and U Po Kyin is elected to the Club. U Po Kyin's plans have succeeded and 1. Orwell George, Animal Farm: A Fairy he plans to redeem his life and cleanse his sins Story, Secker and Warburg, London, 1945 by financing pagodas. He dies of apoplexy 2. Orwell George, Nineteen Eighty-Four, before he can even start on building the first Secker and Warburg, London, 1949 pagoda and his servant envisages him returning to life as a frog or rat. Elizabeth 3. Orwell George, Burmese Days, Harper & eventually marries Macgregor, the Deputy Brothers Publisher, New York,1934 Commissioner and lives happily in contempt of 4. Orwell George, A Clergyman's Daughter, the natives, who in turn live in fear of her. Victor Gollancz Publisher, London,1935 Conclusion 5. Orwell George, Coming Up for Air, Victor Casting a simple glance at all the matters Gollancz Publisher, London,1939 mentioned above we can conclude that George 6. Orwell George, Keep the Aspidistra has not only conspicuous social vision but he Flying, Gollancz Publisher, London, 1936 also stands out as an interesting social critic of

-130- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 131-137 ISSN 0974 - 200X

A comparative study of Nayantara Sahgal's Storm in ChandigarChandigarhh andand ShashiShashi Deshpande'sDeshpande's ThatThat LongLong SilenceSilence :: AA feminist feminist perspective perspective Sharmistha Biswas Research Scholar, Department of English Ranchi University, Ranchi Dr. Ashutosh Roy Department of English St. Xavier's College, Ranchi

Abstract The paper is an attempt to see the point of divergence and convergence in these two works of literature from a feminist angle. The common feminist themes that these two novels deal with are marital discord, silence, lack of communication, quest for identity. The protagonists of both the novels are female: Saroj in Sahgal’s Storm in Chandigarh and Jaya in That Long Silence; they rebel against the dominating forces of the society that try to subjugate women. Sahgal and Deshpande have very similar views on marriage. They believe that the institution of marriage enslaves women and forces them to lose their identity, which is reflected in these two novels. Inder, Saroj’s husband and Mohan, Jaya’s husband are typical male characters who believe that women are born to carry on the dictates of their husbands. Both Sahgal and Deshpande have also created male characters like Dubey and Kamat in Storm in Chandigarh and That Long Silence respectively, who believe in women empowerment and help the heroines in their quest for identity. Thus both in theme and characterization both these novels have several points of similarity. Though the dissimilarity lies in the way the characters behave and take their decisions in life. Keywords: Feminism, Loss of identity, Woman Empowerment, Marital disharmony Introduction their feminist concerns by portraying the life of two married women, who are confined and Nayantara Sahgal and Shashi Deshpande suffocated in their marriages. The two are among the few eminent feminist writers in protagonists Saroj in Storm in Chandigarh and Indian writing in English, who have presented Jaya in That Long Silence are rebels. Their the inner urges of Indian women. At a cause of rebellion may be the same but their superficial level their novels may seem very ways of expression are different. Both Saroj conflicting; Sahgal on one hand is more and Jaya struggle for their individuality and She concerned with the political milieu in her novels speaks angrily about a woman's predicament and Deshpande on the other hand deals with to Kamat, but writes about it without passion, the domestic life of middle class women. But since as per Mohan a woman should not be when we delve deep into their works, we find a "angry". Kamat counsels her to avoid lot of similarity in their novels in terms of theme inappropriate, middle-class, bourgeoisie ideas and character portrayal. Both these novelists in her works and tells her: independence. are mainly interested in the portrayal of female These married women strive for their self- characters who are usually trapped in their identity against the set norms of the society. marriages. Main Thurst The present paper attempts to make a comparative study of the two novels Sahgal's Marital disharmony and lack of communication Storm in Chandigarh and Deshpande's That between husband and wife is a very prominent Long Silence from a feminist perspective. theme in both the novels. Saroj is the heroine of Women play a vital role in both these novels. In the novel who has grown up in a liberal these novels, Sahgal and Deshpande present environment. But after marriage she misses

-131- the liberty of her childhood as she is married to Sahgal in Storm in Chandigarh portrays a man Inder, who has no respect for her few other couples like Mara-Jit, Leela-Vishal, individuality and independence. She is Gauri-Nikhil who are also trapped in shattered after marriage as her husband incompatible marital relationships. One of the reacts violently to her pre-marital affair during basic reasons of misunderstanding between her college days. Inder treats Saroj merely as a the couples is the lack of candid wife - a possession, not a person. But Saroj communication between them. Vishal's own craves for a complete relationship where marriage with Leela was a loveless one, "a emotions would overflow into everyday life but vanishing search for communication". His Inder is not able to respond: affair with Gauri, Nikhil Ray's wife, has sprouted "mindlessly" in the turbulent years This, the touch without sexual significance, after Leela's death. In a similar way, apart from the cares of affection, was different. It cost Jaya and Mohan, Deshpande portrays others him an effort to make it.1 women characters who subjugated by the She is adaptable and submissive and tries husband like Mohan's mother, Vimla, Kusum, to please her husband to save her marriage but Vanitamami and several other. Mohan's Inder fails to sustain this genuine relationship mother is the traditional tolerant Indian wife, with Saroj. In a sense of disappointment, Saroj patiently bearing the burden of her husband's views their relationship as: authority over his household. Jaya's father and mother's marital life is not even a blissful one. ...no real bond between them, only the Both the novelists are aware of the mental accumulation of a life time's living habits. agonies a woman has to undergo after The enormous waste of it appalled her.2 marriage in Indian society and they have Saroj becomes a victim of male tyranny. presented it in their novels. Inder does not take a single step to let the Jaya's quest for self-assertion is one of the relationship flourish, in fact he never misses an central themes of the novel. In these long years opportunity to hurt her or abuse her. After long of marriage with Mohan, she has lost her years of marriage he always offended her by identity, she questions herself "who am I?", referring to her past relationship: Good God. "Mohan's wife. Rahul's and Rati's mother"5, Didn't you have any inhibitions, any sense of she is everyone else but "Not myself".6 She modesty?3 was named Jaya by her father, which means Deshpande's novel That Long Silence victory; after marriage her husband calls her by provides a sensitive and realistic dramatisation the name of Suhasini, which means "a soft of the marital life of Jaya and her husband smiling, placid and motherly woman"7 and also Mohan. Jaya silently accepts the role of a 'Seeta' the pseudonym she uses for her submissive traditional Indian wife, who has no articles. There are people who even know her authority to go against the will of her husband. as the mother of Rahul and Rati, her children. They fail to build a strong marital bond. Mohan Sahgal's Saroj in Storm in Chandigarh also does not respond to the emotional requirements asserts for her individuality but her quest is on of his wife. Their married life seems to be a a different plane. She is absorbed in her meaningless exercise of just living together, personal life being wife of Inder and mother of she admits in utter disgust: her kids, her struggle is for self-respect and virtuosity. Jaya's feminine dilemma has been We live together but there had been only appropriately put into words by Deshpande: emptiness between us.4 As if there is such a thing as one self; intact She is tired and frustrated to live in a and whole, waiting to be discovered. On relationship without respect and affection. the contrary, there are so many, each self

-132- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 attached like a Siamese twin to a self of My mother never raised her voice against another person, neither able to exist my father however badly he behaved to without the other.8 her.11 Her true self is somewhere lost between He expects Jaya to behave in a similar these identities. Jaya's attempt to recover that way. He did not approve of women losing self is a more challenging task than that of temper. Jaya when for the first time lost her Saroj. Sahgal's sense of self or her perception temper, saw a strange reaction on Mohan's of self is simplistic, presenting it as something face. She reminisces: which exists for and by itself, untouched by the He had looked at me as if my emotions myriad influences of life. had made me ugly, as if I'd got bloated into Deshpande in That Long Silence expresses them. Later, when I knew him better, I the position of woman in a patriarchal society - realised that to him anger made me someone without a clear sense of purpose and "unwomanly".12 without a definite sense of her own identity. From then onwards, Jaya imitated the Adele King comments in this context: womanly norms set by her husband: She does not place herself in the centre of It was when I first visited his home that I a universe of her own making, but rather is had discovered how sharply defined a always painfully aware of the demands woman's role was. They had been a and needs of others.9 revelation to me, the women in his family, Jaya is a typical Indian housewife, an so definite about their roles, so well embodiment of the modern woman seeking to trained in their duties, so skilful in the right redefine herself. The novel attempts to re- areas, so indifferent to everything else. I examine the selfhood of a woman trapped in a had never seen so clear, so precise a between age-old patriarchal assumptions clash pattern before, and I had been entranced 13 and liberal ideas of individuation. Saroj's by it. position in her family is very similar to Jaya's Deshpande has presented the social condition. She is always ill treated and abused construct of Indian society which is mainly by her husband. Saroj is horrified at the patriarchal, where women are a part of the thought that even after so many years of family just to fulfil the wishes of the male relationship; they are just, "two people who members. Her views are very similar to happened to live under the same roof"10 Beauvoir in The Second Sex, where Beauvoir suggests that marriage leads a woman's life to Jaya's husband Mohan is a traditionalist "aimless days indefinitely repeated, life that who has his roots firmly set in customs. He is slips away gently toward death without inconsiderate towards the suffering of his wife questioning its purpose".14 and towards his mother as well. Instead of being pitiful towards the suffering of his mother, Inder is very similar to Mohan as they are he is very proud to share the fact with Jaya that followers of the patriarchal norms of the his mother submissively followed the dictates society. Inder, is an insensitive, self-centred, of his father. Mohan could not see any pain in typically brusque Indian male. Gauri truly the life of his mother who used to sit for long analyses his character: hours at night before the hearth, awaiting her Inder belongs to the he-man school and I husband's return home to serve hot food. In suppose someone has to bow before the fact he considered it to be the real 'work' of a blast or there'd be an explosion".15 woman, whereas Jaya saw a lot of despair and misery in her life. He proudly tells Jaya: Therefore, there is no question of any

-133- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 freedom or self-expression for Saroj. Inder's that human relations can nurture only "with indifferent attitude towards his wife is because care, with love, when possible, and otherwise he considers his wife to be unchaste as she with time and interest. And always with had shared bed with a boy during her college truth..."20 days. Saroj, has to pay heavily for her honesty, Vishal's relation with Saroj was based on she becomes a victim of his frequent wrath and truth and honesty. As opposed to Inder he permanent suspect in her husband's eyes. On never saw Saroj as a sex object, as a means to one hand he accuses Saroj for her moral lapse fulfil his lust. He loved her truly and all he and on the other hand he enjoys an extra wanted from Saroj was "bone and sinew of marital relationship with Mara. Inder's feeling truth between them, the vital ingredient of his for Saroj cannot be called love, it was just a grand design, and from her nothing else would sense of belongingness. At one point when satisfy him."21 Dubey loved the company of Mara says him to leave Saroj, he says: "She Saroj and treasured the time spent with her belongs to me."16 Mara brings out the futility of and declares: "There is a great freshness and his possessiveness towards his wife by saying innocence about you that's very reviving."22 As that "Belongs to you? So does your shoes."17 a true feminist, Dubey hailed for humanity and Saroj and Inder live together, make love, have not for men and women. He declares that his children and even raise them, but their passion is for lasting human relationships and relationship lacks the bonding and warmth. the emphasis is on the term human: Inder's apathy and coldness leads her towards Vishal, who revives her faith in herself of being ...if I convince one person of my 'a virtuous woman'. acquaintance before I die that the world consists of human beings and not of men Vishal is the mouthpiece of Sahgal, and women in watertight compartments, through whom the novelist shares her I'd count it an achievement.23 thoughts. Vishal Dubey is the hero of Storm in Chandigarh; he has a passion for truth-living He abhorred the idea of distinction of and emphasizes its importance in all walks of human race into men and women based on the life, political, social or personal. He is a true narrow parameters of the society. He humanist and propagates a different code of encourages her that she should stress on the morality, which he calls higher morality. positive power of life, and should not be self- According to him it is: denying. Through Vishal, Sahgal propagates her thought that women in Indian society ..search for value, and an attempt to should never ignore their identity. They should choose the better value, the real value, in assert their dreams, wishes and desires and any situation, and not just do what's done live their life fully. Dubey tells Saroj life "was or what is expected.18 bigger than any system".24 He declares: If this statement is analyzed from a It was life's precious obligation to rebel, feminist perspective, it can be stated that he is and humanity's right to be free, to choose a person who is open enough to view a from the best light it could see, not person's worth not on the basis of sex but by necessarily the long accepted light.25 his or her true merit. Only because of this reason he could see the golden heart of Saroj, Dubey supported the idea of revolution or which Inder missed blatantly. He knows the rebel for the sake of one's right. As a man of importance of human relations, he believes liberal thought he considers that the that "excitement lay in human quality, in the individuality of a person should not be curbed search for the endless, delicate patterns at any cost and if it's done it is one of the between human beings...".19 He is conscious cruellest crimes. He says in this regard:

-134- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 It has taken a million years of evolution for submit before the unreasonable wants of their a person and his cherished individuality to husbands. Saroj is enlightened towards a new matter... and no terror must be allowed to self by Dubey, she is the 'new woman', who is destroy that.26 assertive and aware of her individuality. She finally decides to live her own life in her own Dubey felt annoyed to be a part of the way without any guilt and pretence, she says: 'taboo-ridden system'27, the noiseless chaos, the funeral march of Hinduism; he disgustingly There was only one way to live, without says: "A monolithic slab of antiquity had pretence. It would be the ultimate healing survived the ages. A way of life, wrongly called balm to the lonely spaces of the spirit, a religion, lay embedded in it."28 beyond which there would be no darkness.31 The character of Kamat in That Long Silence is very similar to Dubey, though he is She decides to leave Inder's house, which not as strong and powerful as Dubey. Kamat is a step towards personal freedom, a rejection has been the source of inspiration for Jaya as of the role of a traditional wife that was being Dubey had been for Saroj. Kamat is an forcefully imposed on her by Inder. Jaya on the intelligent and open minded person. He other hand is not afraid of anyone. Her creative understands Jaya and she in turn shares with impulse and artistic passion frees her from her him a spontaneous and natural relationship. suffocating and repetitive domestic and societal roles. At last she determines to break Kamat is both a friend and philosopher for that long silence by putting down on paper her Jaya. He even advises her in her creative field entire suppressed silence of seventeen years of writing. He insists her to make her writing which had fragmented her: more touching and realistic by expressing the anger that women feel in their day to day life. I am not afraid any more. The panic has He says: gone. I am Mohan's wife, I had thought, and cut off the bits of me that had refused Spew out your anger in your writing, to be Mohan's wife. Now I know the kind of woman, spew it out. Why are you holding it 32 fragmentation is not possible. in?"29 Thus Shashi Deshpande in this novel She speaks angrily about a woman's touches on two prominent feminist concerns - predicament to Kamat, but writes about it the revival of a unified female identity from a without passion, since as per Mohan a woman fragmented self and the review of silence as an should not be "angry". Kamat counsels her to approach to survival for women. In Deshpande's avoid inappropriate, middle-class, bourgeoisie novels, women redefine and rediscover their ideas in her works and tells her: own roles, position and relationship within their All this anger... Why didn't you use it here? given social and domestic world. Sara bit He had tapped the paper so hard that it Sandhu comments that Deshpandes's women had torn, yes the tear was still here, "Why characters "finely submit to the traditional didn't you use that anger in your story? role".33 Her women characters balance the There's none of it here. There isn't even a modern and the traditional values within them. personal view, a personal vision. I'll tell Considering the novel That Long Silence you what's really wrong with your story. It's Jehanara Wasi comments: 30 too restrained." Deshpande may or may not be a formal In their quest of life, both Saroj and Jaya feminist, but her novel is both actual gradually emerge as new beings, they are 'new feminine writing and potential feminist women' who are confident and are not ready to writing. It is apparently the work of a

-135- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 woman on the life of a woman in India. It is References also an attempt to psychoanalyse the 1. Sahgal Nayantara, Storm in Chandigarh, woman, till she reaches the self- Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2008, p 45 knowledge necessary to enable her to answer the question the novel enunciates.34 2. Ibid., p 202 Deshpande does not believe in breaking 3. Sahgal Nayantara, Storm in Chandigarh, relationships, she emphasises on the change p 116 of women's attitude towards their life. As a true 4. Deshpande Shashi, That Long Silence, humanist, she asserts that woman in Indian Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1989, p 185 society have to be aware of their inner power and stop submitting to the atrocities inflicted on 5. Ibid., p 69 them. But Sahgal on the other hand is staunch 6. Ibid and aggressive in her attitude; she believes that if we need to change the world we need 7. Ibid., pp 15-16 revolution. Women have suffered long by 8. Ibid., p 69 abiding to the rules and principles set by men in 9. Adele King, "Shashi Deshpande: Portraits the name of culture and religion, to change it of Indian Women", The New Indian we need to step ahead. Both Sahgal and English Novel, Vinay Kirpal (Ed.), Allied, Deshpande have advocated emancipation of New Delhi, 1990, p.163 women in order to free them from the injustice or inequality they face by their husbands or the 10. Sahgal Nayantara, Storm in Chandigarh society as a whole. Their feminism is rooted in Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2008, p 202 Indian culture and traditions, but is influenced 11. Deshpande Shashi, That Long Silence, p 83 by humanism and optimism. 12. Ibid., p 83 Conclusion 13. Ibid Both Nayantara Sahgal and Shashi Deshpande believe that the institution of 14. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, marriage enslaves women and forces them to 1974, p 502 lose their identity. Both have created two 15. Sahgal Nayantara, Storm in Chandigarh, different types of male characters. The first p 144 type i.e. Inder and Mohan believe that women are born to carry on the dictates of their 16. Ibid., p 124 husbands. The second type i.e. Dubey and 17. Ibid Kamat believe in Women empowerment and help the heroines in their quest for identity. 18. Sahgal Nayantara, Storm in Chandigarh, Thus both in them and characterization both Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2008, p 71 these novels have several points of similarity. 19. Ibid., p 78 Though there are glaring dissimilarities in the way the characters behave and take their 20. Ibid., p 80 decisions in life. Deshpande assorts that 21. Ibid women have to be aware of their inner power and stop submitting to the atrocities inflicted on 22. Ibid., p 170 them. Sahgal is staunch and agressive in her 23 Ibid attitude. She belives in revolutionary change in Women's attitude. Both Sahgal and 24 Ibid.,p 173 Deshpande have advocated women's 25. Ibid emancipation.

-136- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 26. Ibid., p 205 32. Ibid., p 191 27. Ibid., p166 33 Sandhu Sarabit, The Image of Woman in 28. Sahgal Nayantara, storm in Chandigarh, p 77 Shashi Deshpande's Novels, Prestige, New Delhi, 1991, p14 29. Deshpande Shashi, That Long Silence, p 147 34 Wasi Jehanara, That Long Silence, review, Indian Horizons, Vol.40, 1991, 30. Ibid p116 31. Ibid., p 182

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Federalism and Regionalism : Lessons From India Kantesh Kumar New Area, Sikandarpur Muzaffarpur Abstract This paper seeks to focus on regionalism as a problem to Indian federalism and how the Indian federal structure meets this problem. This study also focuses on what are the ways through which Indian federalism has preserved its unity, when many federal structures failed to keep their federal structures intact. This paper has also emphasized that there is pure model on Federalism which can be applied everywhere but federalism can be moulded according to the circumstances of the countries, where it is in force. Keywords: Federalism, Regionalism, Pluralism, National growth, Decentratlisation Introduction what Eric Hobsbown has called ‘nationsplitting’, India's relative unity and integrity and survival Federalism, being a concept of governance as a State is remarkable indeed. The problems is closely associated and accountable to the of regionalism and Federation will be dealt here people. The essence and distinctiveness of a under following heads. federal structure of government lies in its functioning and accountability in a nation state Materials and Methods with inherent diversities and the way it While concentrating on the topic various manages contradictions coming from across books of eminent scholars were consulted. various groups. The successful functioning of Recourse has also been taken to make an in a federal structure depends on its management depth study of the published works of the of contradictions among diversities. Although author. Reviews of the works by eminent there can be no single solution to problems of scholars and critics have also been widely federalism, there can be good policies to consulted. uphold the federal structure and India has achieved relative success in it. Results and Discussions Indian federalism has passed through Some of the scholars of west have various problems and achieved success doubted the credentials of Indian federalism. Is in maintaining its uniqueness. The post federalism natural to India, as it has acquired independence resurgence of regionalism in the concept from West ? We have certainly many parts of India baffled the observers of borrowed the institution from the west, about Indian politics, and offered as the basis society. India is a federal society and it always of prediction of the country's ‘imminent preserved pluralism. India is the 7th largest balkanization”. Indian federalism has played a country by geographical area, 2nd most grate role in ensuring India’s unity, stability and populous, 4th largest GDP (Purchasing Power survival as a polity in the face of persistent Parity) has the third largest military force and is regionalism, often verying on separation the 12th largest economy in the world. A country rooted in manifold and complex social and having the size of a continent, with an area of cultural diversity, and mass poverty, illiteracy, 13,654,000 sq. miles, India is inhabited by 16 extreme regional unevenness in development, percent Dalits known as Schedule Castes. and widespread inequality. The question has Around 8 percent of the population belongs to assumed special significance in the aftermath one of 461 indigenous adivasi groups. Many of the disintegration of multi-ethnic and multi Indian speak more than one language. The national Soviet Union, and the split up of the Indian census lists 114 language (22 of which Federal Republic of Yugosalavia. In the age of are spoken by one million or more persons)

-138- that are further categorized into 216 dialects The reason why they failed was not because (mother tongue) spoken by 10,000 or more federalism was adopted as a recipe but the speakers. There is a significant cultural way federalism was perceived and applied. diversity within the nation, as 40% of the population belongs to disadvantaged groups. Indian federalism has adopted the As estimated 850 languages are in daily use, simultaneously two processes to resolve the and the Indian government officially lists 1,652 problem of regionalism. The State Re- dialects. The teaching of Hindi and English is organization Act of 1956 was formed on an compulsory in most of the states and union ethnic linguistic basis. Besides states, India territories. Twenty two languages are legally was further divided into 610 districts for basic recognized by the constitution for various governance and administration, which were political, educational, ethnic-cultural and further divided into villages. Ethnic tensions regional purposes. About 80.5 percent of the were resolved by reorganizing the states into population is Hindu, 13.4 percent Muslim, 2.3 ethnic and linguistic line by means of the Act. percent Christian, 1.9 percent Sikh, 0.8 Several new states have been created out of percent Buddhist and 0.4 percent Jain and existing states since 1956. Bombay state was other. No doubt despite, diversity, Indian split into the linguistic Gujarat and Maharastra federalism remains intact for last 63 years. The states on May 1, 1960 by means of the reason behind this is that Indian federalism Bombay Re-organization act. The Punjab Re- allows space for pluralism. Indian federalism is organization Act of 1956, divided the Punjab better equipped to maintain a cohesive policy into linguistic and religious lines that created a amidst diverse interests and priorities. During new Hindu and Hindi-speaking state of 4th International Conference on Federalism in Haryana, Converting the northern districts of Delhi, former Lok Sabha Speaker, Somnath Punjab into Himachal Pradesh. Chatterjee said that ‘India is a great example in Nagaland was made in 1962, Meghalaya federalism that unity in diversity is the very and Himachal Pradesh in 1971, Tripura and kernel of India’s political ethos. Indian Manipur in 1972. Sikkim joined the Indian federalism permeates the process of social Union as a state in 1975. Similarly, Mizarom inclusion to different religions, languages, was made a state in 1986, and Goa and cultural and regional aspirations. Arunachal Pradesh in 1987. However, Goa’s Regionalism Versus National Growth northern enclavea of Daman and Diu became separate Union Territory in 1987, Goa which Is diverse regional expression in India and comprises one third of the population is conflicting interests of people hampering the primarily Christian, but it is not a Christian national growth ? Regional aspirations is State6. Chhatisgarh was created on Nov 1, legitimate and have to find a place in any 2000 from eastern Madhya Pradesh, federal system. Indian federalism has also Uttarakhand was created on November 9, sorted out its regionalism problems in its 2000 which was created by separating the hilly unique way. As a study of interaction between regions of North West of Uttar Pradesh and federalism and regionalism in India, the Indian Jharkhand was created on Nov 15, 2000 out of federalism applied the method of accommodation the Southern Districts of Bihar. to pacify regionalism in India. Federalism is The federation of India provided for seen here as a political equilibrium, which geographical flexibility so that additional states results from the appropriate balance between can be created without hampering national shared rule and self rule. In the post second interest. That’s why from 1956, India has World war period many post colonial countries consciously redefined its federalism along adopted federalism as a method of multicultural lines so that each state is governance in multi-ethnic contexts, but in projected as a distinct cultural entity with its majority of cases, the experiment failed own linguistic and social and historical identity. 5 resulting in territorial disintegration of some . Indian federalism believes in unity in diversity -139- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 rather than the concept of nation state, which governments at the hands of the state makes it capable to accommodate ethnically governments Khan also advocated the need distinct regions because while the nation state for urban and rural grass root democracy as a demand uniformity, federalism is based on the devolutionary measures as well as space for recognition of differences. the regions and sub-regional identities in his proposal for a new federal balance and identity Some of the scholars have pointed out in India. He described Indian federalism as a that some of the Indian states were carved out ‘bouquet’ that exhibits different flowers, each on the basis of religion. As is known there is with its individuality yet tied together as a single only one Muslim majority state in India, viz. whole. Jammu and Kashmir. This was not due to any reorganization of territory on the basis of The constitution now provides a framework religion, but to the fact that the Kashmiri for multi level panchayats in rural areas and Muslims have been living in Kashmir for municipalities in urban areas through its 73rd Centuries. Secondly, there are three Christian and 74th constitutional amendment. The type, majority states in India, all in the North-East size and organization of the local authority viz. Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram. depends on the area its serves, ranging from a These states again were created since the municipal corporation, with an average 1960’s by carving out of Assam, not on the population of a million people, to a gram basis of religion but as a method of recognizing panchayat serving between 20,000 and 70000 tribal ethnicity. In another context, Sikhs are people. These amendments established India concentrated in Punjab where they form a as a responsive multi level federal in which majority. Punjab was created in 1966 as a local government is part of constitutional result of reorganization of Indian territories on governance. They mobilized the power of ethno-religious basis. people at local levels, effecting change most notably in relation to the involvement of women Regionalism Versus Decentralization – and of disadvantaged communities. The The most distinctive aspects of the debates on Decentralization brought through 73rd and 74th Indian federalism since the 1980s are that amendment led the social inclusion of women apart from the persistent issue of state's rights, which was not previously done. The regional and local identities and decentralization decentralization provider, local answer at the have continuously been in the focus. The local level, where people grievances are official commissions set up for the purpose, sorted out. The decentralization has further whether at the federal or state level, have also democratizes the federal structure and gives recommended further state autonomy and people power in decision making. In the long Decentralization. Khan in his book said that term, it is certainly going to slow down the “Decentralization of real power to these local menaces of regionalism. institutions would thus help defuse the threat of centrifugal forces, increase popular involvement Conclusion all along the line, broaden the base of our democratic polity, permit, efficiency and India’s federal reconciliation of regional improve the health and stability of inter- identity with autonomy has a democratic governmental relations.7 aspect. It operates at two levels. Any political demand for statehood or sub-statehood, to To take a step further down state begin with, must, first, demonstrate identifiable autonomy local self-government as another popular support of mass mobilization, before tier of Indian polity has also been increasingly such demand are conceded to. The political emphasized in this period. Maheswari strongly institution achieved (whether a state argued in favour of making local government government, or a regional or tribal council) as an essential element of federalism in view of must be elected by universal adult suffrage in the ‘step motherly treatment of local every five years. As it is normal political

-140- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 practice for such representative institutions 5. Kumar Pradeep, Studies in Indian throughout India. Democracy rather than Federalism, Deep & Deep Publications, ethnicity is thus the legitimate basis of such New Delhi 1988 political institutions. 6. Chandra S, Mathur P C and Pande K D, References Regionalism and National Integration, Aalekh, Jaipur,1976 1. Kashyap Subhash, Our Parliament, 7. Mukherjee B., Regionalism in Indian National Book Trust, New Delhi, 2004 Perspective, K P Bagchi & Co, Calcutta, 2. Arora Guljit K., Globalisation, Federalism 1992 and Decentralisation Implications for 8. Rao G R S, Regionalism in India, S Chand India, BookWell Publications, New Delhi, and Co, New Delhi, 1975 2002 9. http://en.wikiindia.org/wiki/India 3. Nazeer H. Khan (edited), B.R. Ambedkar on federalism, ethnicity and gender 10. Khan R., Federal India : Design for Justice, Deep & Deep,New Delhi,2001 change, Vikash Publication, Delhi, 1992 4. Sharada Rath, Federalism Today,Sterling 11. Harrison S., India : The most Dangerous Publishers Pvt. Limited, New Delhi, 1984 Decades, OUP, Madras, 1960

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Jane Austen’s Novels - A study of Women-minds involved in their personal relationship Dr. Awadhesh Kumar Mishra Lecturer, Department of English Dr. R.M.A Sanskrit College, Muzaffarpur

Abstract Jane Austen acquires a unique place of prominence in the field of English literature, even though she belongs to that era that was largely dominated by the great champions of Romantic Movement, such as, wordsworth, coleridge, southey. Byron and others. A writer of six very popular and successful novels, Austen catches the attention of critics as well as readers simply because of her principal theme. Despite a spinster herself, she remains preoccupied with the business of making matches for her heroines. Keywords: Romantic Movement, Realism, Character Portrayal, Wit & Humour Introduction idiosynorasies, manners and other peculiarities, yet only the personalities of female characters Jane Austen (1775-1817) was a child of develop and blossom almost into a kind of the late Augustan Period. The daughter of a perfection. Each of her six novels deals clergyman, Jane Austen had the privileage of predominantly with the whole personality of being a contemporary to Elder Romantics like female character and it is through them that the Wordsworth and Coleridge. Jane Austen problems of women, femine views on love and started writing stories quite early in her life marraige are accomplished. For example, when she was, perhaps, only sixteen. But,She Sense and Sensibility exclusively deals with could enjoy the credit of being a publishing two female characters - Elinor and Marianne. author only in the last six years of her life, that The former represents Austen’s good sense is, from 1811 to 1817. While Pride and and rational mind, while the other embodies the Prejuidice, Northanger Abbey, Sense and romantic attitude and its hazardous consequences. Sensibility, Mansfield Park and Emma were Elinor is a critical observer of her own fellow published during her lifetime, Persuasion got beings in the spirit of regretful for bearnace. published only after her death. However, Lady She has tender solicitude for those who are her Susan remained either unpublished or was left nearest and dearest. unfinished. Pride and Prejudice describes the story of At times, Jane Austen, as a novelist, has been cirticised for having worked within strict Elizabeth Bennett who is involved in the limitations. It was largely due to the fact that intellectual complexity, often leading to serious French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars misunderstandings. Anne Eliot is the pivot passed in her time, yet she keeps their mention around whom the study of Persuasion out of her novels. But on the other hand, it can revolves. Her wounded love is healed after be treated as a glorious tribute to the calm eight years. accuracy that kept her focussed on her subject Emma, the novel called after the heroine that primarily dealt with personal relationships. Her literary reputation largely depends on her herself, portrays the self-delusion of Emma deep interest in human nature, her wide range wood house who has the rashness to consider of charactrisation, her comic view of life, her herself as an expert in match making, being realism and the images of love and marriage schooled by an arduous course of blunders being her main theme. and misadventures. Fanny price, a young unsophisticated girl, endeavouring to adapt to Main Thrust a society completely new and strange, is the No doubt, Jane Austen has delineated an focus of the novelist’s attention in Mainsfield array of characters with their district oddities, Park.

-142- Northanger Abbey is the story of when it is returned because that satisfies the Catherine Morland, who is taught sense by a vanity of the lover who feels grateful to him for series of misadvantures and disillusionments. preference. Thus, it seems more than apparent that it Jane Austen, of course, depreciates is the female characters that standout, like marriage of pure expediency, but at the same colossus, in the novels of Jane Austen. With time she also admits that sometimes it may them alone we penetrate into the riddles of life become absolutely necessary for a girl in love in each novel. It is the life of female characters with one person, to resent another for whom amidst all social pretensions, ambitions, visits, she can feel only a bit of liking. She seems to shopping sprees, gossips and other be convinced that disappointment in love does tremendous triffles, that is depicted in Austen’s not kill anybody and a second attachment is novels. As we pass through the people and the possible. If Edmund Bertram had married Miss events, we are acquainted with their hopes, Crawford, fanny price would someday have fears and speculations about love and accepted Henry crawford in Mannsfield Park. marriage. Therefore, it can easily be believed Anne Elliot, in Persusion, too contemplates, at that the study of Jane Austen’s novels is the one time, marriage with her cousin though she study of women-minds involved in their has never ceased to love captain wentworth. It personal relationships. is, perhaps, Austen believed that except in exceptional cases there was no wound of life Jane Austen’s women presuppose a close which could not be healed and no disater or understanding and acquaintance as the first mishap which might prove absolutely prerequisite for marriage, which has to be irreparable. sustained through occasional meetings. However, it does not mean that every contact Jane Austen never treated love as an of such type necessarily gives way to sincere exclusively personal affair. Marriage was a love. In the course of partial eclipse of time and social institution, and love and marriage, situation that seperates the pair of lovers, therefore were to be considered in the social continues to exist in their hearts. For example, perspective. She disapproved of passion it is the initial love bed on mutual contacts and which involved a denial of all social claims and understandings of Harriet Smith and Robert would make the life of a woman precariously Martin that wins the race in the end. It is true vulnerable. Her women are guided by social that Harriet for a certain period, loses contact convention which assures them social security with Martin and comes close to Mr. Elton, but also. Lydia Bennett, guided by strong passion Harriet does not develop sincere love for him. elopes with Wickham in utter disregard of all Jane Austen, like Fielding, seems to social conventions, but she is at last forced to emphasize gratitude and mutual respect marry him because she cannot adapt herself to grown out of mutual contacts as the basis of the new social situation. Marian, who is love. When charlotte lveas learns that Jane marked to James Rush worth too throws every loves Bingley but conceals her feeling, she sense of propriety to the winds and in defiance tells Elizabeth : of all social conventions, elopes with Henry craw ford. Naturally so, this results in her utter If a woman conceals her affections with ruin, her marriage with crawford ending in the same skill from the object of it, she may divorce. lose the opportunity of fixing him. There is so Conclusion much of gratitude or vanity in almost every attachment, that it is not safe to leave any to Thus, Jane Austen took a practical view of itself. We all begin freely - a slight preference is love and marriage. She approved only such normal enough, but there are very few of us kind of love as resulted in the best kind of who have heart enough to be really in love marriage. Her female characters possess without encouragement. (Pride and Prejudice) common sense and have a practical attitude towards life. So, they are never frustrated in This obviously shows how love in Austen’s their love as they always reunited in the bond of women begins as a preference and grows only marriage.

-143- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 The world she relates in her novels may 3. Wright Andrew , Jane Austen’s Novels: A be limited as far as variety of external incidents Study in Structure, Oxford University and of social types is concerned, but it is the Press, London, 1953 world of the human mind and heart seen in 4. Sherry Norman, Jane Austen(Literature relation to situations which are central in in Perspective), Evans Bros., London, human experience. To the presentation of 1966 human situation, she brings a wonderfully 5. Brown Julia Prewitt , Jane Austen's convincing creative imagination based on novels: social change and literary form, shrewd social observation and subtle Harvard University Press, New York, 1979 psychological insight. Thus on a close reading of her novels, one is not only superbly 6. Fergus Jan S. ,Jane Austen: the literary entertained but one’s understanding and career, Macmillan, London,1990 experience of life are also increased as is 7. Johnson Claudia L., Jane Austen: women, always the motive of the great works of art. politics, and the novel, University of Chicago Press,New York, 1988 References 8. Sulloway Alison G., Jane Austen and the 1. Austen Jane, Complete Novels of Jane province of womanhood, University of Austen, Rupa & Co.,New Delhi,1989 Pennsylvania Press, U S A, 1989 2. Judith O’Neill (edit.), Critics on Jane 9. Stokes Myra, The language of Jane Austen, University of Miami Press, Austen: a study of some aspects of her Oxford, New York, 1970 vocabulary, Macmillan, London,1991

-144- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 145-156 ISSN 0974 - 200X efJeefYeVe ÙegieeW ceW YeejleerÙe m$eer keâer efmLeefle [e@Ê Mebkeâj heÇmeeo hetJe& DeeÛeeÙe&, efnvoer efJeYeeie hešvee efJeMJeefJeÅeeueÙe, hešvee

meejebMe YeejleerÙe mebmke=âefle ceW veejer keâes Skeâ ceneved Meefòeâ kesâ ™he ceW Deeoj mecceeve efoÙee peelee jne nw~ Jewefokeâ keâeue ceW Fme osJeYetefce keâer veejer, meeceeefpekeâ, Oeeefce&keâ Je DeeOÙeeeflcekeâ #es$eeW ceW heg®

-145- Fmemes DeeÙeesË keâer Goej Âef„ keâe yeesOe neslee nw~ heg®

-146- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 $e+ÛeeDeeW keâe memJej hee" keâjleer LeeR~39 efJeJeen kesâ efueS efleuekeâ- keâvÙee keâer leueeMe ceW Deheves DeeefoceÙeeW keâes Yespee keâjles Les~46 Jej-JeOet onspe keâer heÇLee veneR Leer~ meyemes keâef"ve keâeÙe& Lee, keâvÙee kesâ meceeve keâe mepeeleerÙe nesvee ner heÙee&hle veneR ceevee peelee Lee, Deefheleg oesveeW ner meewvoÙe&, iegCe Deewj mecheefle-mecheVe Jej keâe ÛegveeJe~ peneB he#e Skeâ otmejs kesâ kegâue keâe Yeer OÙeeve jKeles Les~47 ceneYeejle keâeue lekeâ pevceiele JebMe keâe DeefYeceeve leLee JeCe& SJeb yegæ ves Fme yeele hej yeue efoÙee efkeâ veejer Yeer heg®

-147- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ™he ceW heÇefleef…le veneR jn mekeâe~ keÇâceMe: veejer YeesiÙee Ùee ceveesjbpeve yeeJesjer meenye Yeer KÙeele ngFË~ GvneWves Got& Deewj efnvoer ceW jÛeveeSB keâer Jemleg yevekeâj jn ieF&~ efheâj Yeer legkeâesË kesâ Deeves kesâ henues efm$eÙeeW keâeR~62 52 keâer DeJemLee Gleveer veneR efiejer efpeleveer yeeo ceW~ `ëe=bieej-heÇmebie' ceW YeejleerÙe Fefleneme keâe ceOÙekeâeue meeceevÙe ™he ceW keâuee Deewj m$eer keâes yeÇÿee keâer Deveghece me=ef„ keâne ieÙee Deewj `JewjeiÙe-heÇmebie' ceW SsÕeÙe& keâe keâeue Lee, Ùegæ-Yetefce ceW Lekesâ ùoÙeeW keâes Meeefvle Deewj megKe Gmes heg®

-148- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ef[hesâvme Dee@heâ Jeercesve'' Deewj je@yeš&Jee@vme kesâ ``S [eÙeuee@ie Fve YeejleerÙe veejer veF& efoMeeDeeW ceW veF& jeneW hej Ûeueer~ Gmekeâe meesÙee ef[hesâvme Dee@heâ Jeercesve SieWmeš cesefuememe ef[keäšsšme&'' ceW m$eer keâer ngDee DeelceefJeMJeeme Deewj Deelcemecceeve peiee~ Jen mJeeJeuecyeve, mJeepe&ve Deewj mJeefJekeâeme keâer Deesj GvcegKe ngF&~ meceevelee keâe peesjoej meceLe&ve efkeâÙee ieÙee~64 Ssmes kegâÚ ueesie Ùen Yeer ceeveles nQ efkeâ cesjer Jee@uemšesve kewâheâdšdme keâer hegmlekeâ ``S efJev[erkesâMeve yeermeJeeR Meleeyoer Dee@heâ o jeFšdme Dee@heâ Jeercesve'' kesâ meeLe ner m$eer-cegefòeâ Deevoesueve 19 JeeR Meleeyoer kesâ Gòejeæ& ceW Yeejle ceW m$eer-megOeej keâer Meg™Deele ngF&~65 yeeo ceW Fme hegmlekeâ keâes m$eer cegefòeâ Deevoesueve Deevoesueve ieefleMeerue jne~ Fme Ùegie ceW efpeve leerve efJeosMeer osefJeÙeeW ves JeeueeW ves `yeeFefyeue' ceeve efueÙee~66 Fme lejn heef§ece ceW DeªenjJeeR YeejleerÙe m$eer kesâ GlLeeve keâer efoMee ceW cenlJehetCe& keâeÙe& efkeâS, Jes nw - MeleeyoeR ceW heÛees&, hegmlekeâeW Deewj DeevoesueveeW kesâ Éeje m$eer-mJelev$elee ceejiejsš veesyegue (efpevnW efmemšj efveJesefolee kesâ veece mes peevee peelee Deewj meceevelee keâer yeeleeW hej yeue efoÙee ieÙee~ nw), Sveeryesmesvš Deewj ceejiejsš keâpeve~ meved 1914 F&Ê ceW heeMÛeelÙe peeie=efle Deewj Ûeslevee ves YeejleerÙe meceepe keâes Yeer Sveeryesmesvš keâe YeejleerÙe jepeveerefle ceW heÇJesMe ngDee Deewj meved 1917 heÇYeeefJele Deewj Deeke=â„ efkeâÙee~ YeejleerÙe peveceeveme ceW Yeer Keueyeueer F&Ê ceW YeejleerÙe je<š^erÙe keâebieÇsme keâer heÇLece ceefnuee DeOÙe#e efveJee&efÛele ceÛeer~ hee§eelÙe Deewj Deeke=â„ efkeâÙee~ YeejleerÙe meceepe keâes pewmes ngF&~ Gmeer Je

-149- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 keâer ieF&~ Yeejle keâer Deesj mes `efo vesMeveue hueeve Dee@heâ efheâefpekeâue ßeeruebkeâe oesveeW osMeeW kesâ Meemeve kesâ Meer

-150- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 peyeefkeâ heef§eceer peerJeve `jesceebefškeâ' Âef„keâesCe keâes ueskeâj Ûeue jne jKeleer? Deepe mesvee mes ueskeâj nJeeF& GÌ[eve ceW meeLe osves kesâ efueS Jes nw~ Yeejle kesâ Âef„keâesCe ceW `keâece' peerJeve keâe mJeeYeeefJekeâ SJeb menpe lewÙeej jnleer nQ82 m$eer ogye&ue veneR nw, yeefukeâ keâF& Âef„ÙeeW mes lees Jen Debie ceevee ieÙee nw peyeefkeâ heef§ece keâe Oece& leLee oMe&ve Gmes `heehe' heg®

-151- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Deekeâ

-152- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 veejerlJe - veejerlJe SJeb yegefæceòee ceW Ùeesie veneR neslee~ GoenjCeeLe& vemejle Yegóes, peneB meoele, Fcesuoe ceejkeâesme, Jesueslesve heefjJeej - heefjJeej Skeâ štšleer SJeb Ûejcejeleer mebmLee nw efpemes $esmkeâesJee, peewve heâesC[e, kesâš efceuesš Deewj iegefjuuee ueÌ[eketâ meceehle nesvee ner ÛeeefnS~ efJeuceeFmehej~ ceefnueeDeeW kesâ mlej-megOeej nsleg Devleje&<š^erÙe keâeÙe&keÇâceeW kesâ GösMÙe Fme heÇkeâej nw :- keâce& - Ùen mechetCe& peerJeve nw~ Gvekesâ efueS keâeÙe& leeefuekeâe, o#elee Deewj heeefjßeefcekeâ cetuÙeeJeeve nw~ pees kesâJeue ie=efnCeer nQ Jes (keâ) ceefnueeDeeW kesâ mlej-megOeej kesâ efueS yeveeÙes ieÙes DeefYemeceÙeeW Ie=Ceemheo nw~ keâer mebhegef„ keâjkesâ GvnW ueeiet keâjvee~ heg®

-153- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 9. heÇefle efle… efJeje[efme efJe

-154- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Shakambari Jayal, P 22 `veejer kegbâ[ vekeâj keâe', peesjve pet®efCe peiele keâer~ 40. veenj, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe jepeveweflekeâ SJeb meebmke=âeflekeâ veejer yewefjCeer heg®

-155- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 71. Ibid, p 370 - ßeceotle (ceeefmekeâ), mecheeokeâ : ceneJeerj Mecee&, 1975, mes 72. Ibid, p 370 Gæe, he=Ê 127 73. Encyclopaedia of Social Work in India, Vol. II, p 371 87. Milor Anton Ne, The Biological Tragedy of a 74. Woman, p 72 The Illustrated Weekly of India, March 2, 1975, p 5 88. 75. Raphael, Women in the Modern World, p 24 Encyclopaedia of Social Work in India, Vol. II, p 371 89. õ„JÙes

-156- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 157-159 ISSN 0974 - 200X jeieojyeejer keâe efMeuhe - meewvoÙe& [e@Ê ceerje "ekegâj [e@Ê DeejÊ SceÊ SÊ mebmke=âle keâe@uespe cegpeheäheâjhegj, efyenej

meejebMe jeieojyeejer ßeer ueeue Megkeäue keâer heÇefmeæ JÙebiÙe jÛevee nw~ ieÇece peerJeve hej pees Yeer GhevÙeeme Deewj keâneefveÙeeB efueKeer ieÙeer nQ, GveceW jeieojyeejer meJee&efOekeâ ÙeLee&Jeeoer GhevÙeeme nw~ Ùen Deepeeoer kesâ yeeo Yeejle kesâ ieebJeeW ceW pevceer efJemebieefleÙeeW hej Ûeesš keâjlee nw~ keâLee efMeJeheeueiebpe kesâ F&o-efieo& Ietceleer nQ~ Skeâ yeÌ[s veiej kesâ kegâÚ otj yemee ngDee efMeJeheeueiebpe keâer efpevoieer heÇieefle Deewj efJekeâeme kesâ mecemle veejeW kesâ yeeJepeto, efveefnle mJeeLeesË Deewj Deveskeâ DeJeebÚveerÙe DeeIeeleeW kesâ meeceves efIemeš jner nw~ jeieojyeejer, efMeJeheeueiebpe keâer keâLee kesâ ceeOÙece mes DeeOegefvekeâ YeejleerÙe peerJeve keâer cetuÙenervelee keâes menpelee mes DeveeJe=le keâjlee nw~ osMe kesâ ueeKeeW efMeJeheeueiebpeeW keâer keâceesJesMe Ùener keâneveer nw~ 1970 ceW Fme GhevÙeeme kesâ efueS ßeer ueeue Megkeäue keâes meeefnlÙe Dekeâeoceer hegjmkeâej mes mecceeefvele efkeâÙee ieÙee~ Fme DeeuesKe ceW jeieojyeejer kesâ efMeuhe meewvoÙe& hej heÇkeâeMe [euee ieÙee nw~ efJeefMe„Meyo - heueeÙeveJeeoer, efJeõthelee, GheÙeesefieleeJeeoer, peerJeveevegYetefle, ÙeLeeLe&Jeeoer Yetefcekeâe nQ~ Fmekesâ keâLeevekeâ Deewj Gmekesâ mecemle Iešvee-ÛekeÇâeW keâe kesâvõ nw - mJeeleb$Ùeesòej efnvoer kesâ JÙebiÙeelcekeâ GhevÙeemeeW keâer hejbheje ceW efMeJeheeueiebpe, efpemes uesKekeâ ves heÇkeâeMe-mlebYe keâer YeeBefle heÇmlegle ßeerueeue Megkeäue ke=âle `jeieojyeejer' mecemeeceefÙekeâ peerJeve ceW JÙeehle efkeâÙee nw, pees DeJÙeJemLee kesâ DevOekeâej ceW efJe[cyeveeDeeW keâes peefšuelee, efJeIeefšle peerJeve-cetuÙeeW keâe ceesn-Yebie, DemJemLe Deewj GodIeeefšle keâjves kesâ efueS heÇkeâeMe hesâbkeâlee nw~ efMeJeheeueiebpe ceW Jen heueeveJeeoer ÙegJee Jeie&, oeoeJeeoer efJeOJebme, GÛÚb=Keuelee,

-157- osneleer peerJeve keâer efJeotÇheleeDeeW keâe efmejceewj efMeJeheeueiebpe ceW efmevescee kesâ ievos ieerle, ceBgnheâš Ùener nw ™hheve keâe JÙeefkeälelJe~ efkeâvleg jeieojyeejer keâe keâLeelcekeâ leeveeyeevee yegvee ieÙee nw, peneB meye kegâÚ Devle ceW Jen heerefÌ[le DeOÙeehekeâ ceemšj KeVee kesâ iegš kesâ DeefOekeâejeW ieuele neLeeW ceW Dee ieÙee nw~ ieeBJe,

-158- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Oece&, veweflekeâlee leLee ceeveJeerÙe YeeJevee Deeefo meYeer JÙebiÙe kesâ cegKÙe nw GmeceW hee"keâeW keâes efJeÛeejeWòespevee ceW yene osves keâer DehetJe& #ecelee nw~ heÇnejkeâ ue#Ùe nQ~ Fme Âef„ mes kegâÚ kesâ GoenjCe ÙeneB õ„JÙe nQ - Yee

-159- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 160-165 ISSN 0974 - 200X keâefJe keâer keâesefšÙeeB SJeb meùoÙe : Skeâ DeOÙeÙeve [e@Ê Oeve_peÙe JeemegosJe efÉJesoer meneÙekeâ heÇeshesâmej mebmke=âleefJeYeeie, jeBÛeer keâe@uespe, jeBÛeer meejebMe keâeJÙe keâjves Jeeues keâes keâefJe keânles nQ~ keâefJe jme Deewj YeeJe keâe efJeceMe&keâ neslee nw~ DeefOekeâebMe YeejleerÙe DeeueesÛekeâeW keâer Âef„ ceW keâefJe keâe heÇOeeve keâeÙe& `JeCe&ve' nw~ Jewmes keâefJelJe kesâ oes DeeOeej mlecYe nQ - oMe&ve Deewj JeCe&ve~ Fve oesveeW kesâ hetCe& nesves hej ner melkeâefJelJe keâe Gvces

-160- MeesOe heÇefJeefOe Gmeer ceveer

-161- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 heÇLeceeb leeb menpesefle JÙeheefoMeefvle~ cenlee hegvejeneÙee&~ DeewheosefMekeäÙee: efvejer#eCepeefvele efvehegCelee SJeb keâeJÙeeÙeeme mes GlheVe heefjhekeäJe hešglee hegvejwefnkeâ SJeb GhesoMekeâeue:, Ssefnkeâ SJe mebmkeâejkeâeue:~ le Fces kesâ keâejCe Deheveer jÛevee ceW MeyoeLees& keâe Fme efJeue#eCelee mes efJevÙeeme $eÙeesÓefhe keâJeÙe: meejmJele: DeeYÙeeefmekeâ: DeewheosefMekeâ§e~ keâjlee nQ efkeâ GmeceW Deueewefkeâkeâ Ûecelkeâejkeâejer ëe=bieejeefo jmeeW keâer pevceevlejmebmkeâejheÇJe=òemejmJeleerkeâes yegefæceevmeejmJele:~ Fn DeJeleejCee DeveeÙeeme nes peeleer nw~ Jen Deheves GefòeâJewefÛe$Ùe mes pevceeYÙeemeesÆefmeleYeejleerkeâ DeeneÙe&yegefæjeYÙeeefmekeâ:~ leke&âkeâke&âMe DeLe& keâes Yeer ceveesnj yevee oslee nw hej MeeŒeerÙe efJe

-162- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 cenekeâefJe neslee nw - 1) ÙegieheÇefleefveefOe keâefJe - Ssmes keâefJe pees Deheveer jÛeveeDeeW ceW Deheves ``S

-163- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 yeleueeles ngS keâne nw efkeâ efpeme meceÙe keâefJe owJeer Devle: mhegâjCe mes peve&mÙe let

-164- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ``jcÙeeefCe Jeer#Ùe ceOegjeb§e efveMecÙe Meyoeved 5. efmebn [e@Ê melÙeJeÇle (JÙeeKÙeekeâej), ßeerceccešeÛeeÙe&efJejefÛele: heÙe&glmegkeâer YeJeefle ÙelmegefKeleesÓefhe pevleg:~ keâeJÙeheÇkeâeMe:, ÛeewKecyee efJeÅeeYeJeve, JeejeCemeer, 2009, leÛÛeslemee mcejefle vetveceyeesOehetJe& he=Ê 5 YeeJeefmLejeefCe peveveevlejmeewùoeefve~~''24 6. jeÙe [e@Ê ie*dieemeeiej (JÙeeKÙeekeâej), ßeerjepeMesKejefJejefÛelee efve

-165- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 166-168 ISSN 0974 - 200X [e@Ê jece efJeueeme Mecee& keâer efnvoer peeleerÙe Ûeslevee [e@Ê De™Ce kegâceej `meppeve' DeOÙeehekeâ, efnvoer efJeYeeie ueesÙeuee neF& mketâue, peceMesohegj, PeejKeC[

meejebMe [e@Ê jeceefJeueeme Mecee& Ssmes DeeueesÛekeâ kesâ ™he ceW mLeeefhele nQ, pees Yee

-166- efJeueeme Mecee& keâe ner DeefJe

-167- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 efkebâleg Jen efnvoer keâe ®he efJeke=âle nw~ [e@Ê jece efJeueeme Mecee& ves keâYeer keâe efJekeâeme mebYeJe veneR nw~ no lees Ùen nw efkeâ PeejKeC[ pewmes heÇosMe Yeer efnvoer keâes DebieÇspeer pees Deepe efnbiueerme keâe ™he efueÙee nw mJeerkeâej keâer mLeehevee ngS 10 Je

-168- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 169-171 ISSN 0974 - 200X mebieerleMeem$e kesâ efJekeâeme keâer Ssefleneefmekeâ Ùee$ee [e@Ê mejespe efÉJesoer efJeYeeieeOÙe#e, mebieerle efJeYeeie MÙeecevebove meneÙe ceneefJeÅeeueÙe, cegpeheäheâjhegj

meejebMe mebieerle keâe DeejcYe Deeefokeâeue mes nw~ meeceJeso ieerle keâe YeC[ej nw~ efpeme heÇkeâej Fme keâuee keâer GVeefle nceejs hetJe&peeW ves keâer nw, Jen Deepe Yeer Skeâ DeodYegle Ûeerpe nw~ jeie-jeefieveer keâe DeeefJe

-169- memJej ieÙee peelee Lee~ Gme meceÙe mJej kesâ leerve heÇkeâej Les : Goeòe, hegjeCe-ieÇvLeeW ceW Yeer mebieerle mecyevOeer meeceieÇer heÙee&hle cee$ee ceW Devegoeòe Deewj mJeefjle~ efMe#ee, heÇeefleMeeKÙe Deewj mJej-Jewefokeâer Deeefo efceueleer nw~ ceeke&âC[sÙe hegjeCe ceW

-170- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 leeueelcekeâ Deewj ueÙeelcekeâ~ Fme ieÇvLe ceW ieÇeceeW, cetÛÚ&veeDeeW, meboYe& mLeeveeW, meeOeejCe Je=efòeÙeeW, JeCeesË, DeuebkeâejeW, OeelegDeeW, ßegefleÙeeW Deewj 1. efJeMJeyevOeg (mecheeokeâ), $e+iJeso, efJeMJesMJejevevo Jewefokeâ peeefleÙeeW keâe cenlJe yeleueeÙee ieÙee nw~ MeesOe mebmLeeve, nesefMeÙeehegj, 1965 GheÙeg&òeâ efJeMues

-171- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 172-175 ISSN 0974 - 200X heÇmeeo kesâ veejer hee$eeW keâe JewefMe„dÙe [e@Ê mebieerlee oòee efpeuee keâeÙe&keÇâce mecevJeÙekeâ, ceefnuee efheâu[meWšj ceefnuee meceeKÙee, [eÙeše kewâcheme, [gceje, meerleeceÌ{er

meejebMe peÙeMebkeâj Heümeeo DeHeves veeškeâesb cesb veejer Hee$eesb keâes DeHes#eekeâ=le DeefOekeâ cenòJe osles nwb~ Ùeesb lees Gvekesâ veeškeâesb cesb meYeer Heükeâej kesâ Hee$eesb keâer Ùeespevee ngF& nw Hej Gvekesâ meceieü veeškeâesb cesb meleesiegCeer Gòecee veeefjÙeeB Hee$e ner Devlele: efJeefMe°lee HeüeHle keâjleer nwb~ Ùes Hee$e keâF& mLeueesb Hej osJelJe keâer meercee Yeer mHeMe& keâjleer efoKeeF& HeÌ[leer nQ~ #ecee, lÙeeie, oÙee, meefn

-172- Ssmes ner meceÙe cesb HeüeogYet&le neskeâj peÙeMebkeâj Heümeeo ves ve kesâJeue efJeheefòeÙeeW SJeb keâ„eW keâe OewÙe&hetJe&keâ cegkeâeyeuee keâjleer ngF& Deheves ceewefuekeâ veeškeâ efueKes DeefHeleg DeHeves veešdÙe–uesKeve kesâ Éeje Gvnesbves meleerlJe keâes yeÛeekeâj osleer nw~ Fme veeškeâ ceW jepÙeßeer keâer keâe®efCekeâ DeHeves mecekeâeueerve uesKekeâesb keâes Gme efoMee cesb Heüssefjle Yeer efkeâÙee~ meeLe peerJeve-ieeLee heÇmlegle ngF& nw~ Ùegæ ceW Gmekeâe heefle Jeerjieefle keâes heÇehle ner Üeme keâer ceveesJe=efòe keâes otj keâjves keâe Gvnesbves YejHetj HeüÙeeme efkeâÙee~ neslee nw~ Jen mJeÙeb osJeieghle Éeje yeboer yevee ueer peeleer nw~ yevoer-ie=n DeHeves veeškeâesb kesâ ceeOÙece mes Skeâ Deesj peneB Gvnesbves efnvoer keâer ÙeeleveeDeeW keâes Pesueves ceW keâYeer Jen Gheâ lekeâ veneR keâjleer nw~ megKe veešdÙe–uesKeve keâes veÙeer efoMee–ieefle oer, Jenerb otmejer Deesj Deleerle kesâ keâer meòee keâes Jen cenòJenerve ceeveleer nw~ ÙeneB lekeâ efkeâ Deheves YeeF& iendJej mes meeceieüer–ÛeÙeve keâj Gmes DeHeveer keâuHevee kesâ menejs Fme n

-173- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 mJeleb$e DeefmlelJe keâe hetje OÙeeve jnlee nw~ ceneceeÙee kesâ heÇefle efkeâÙee meceeve mvesn neslee pee jne nw~' Ûevõieghle kesâ heÇefle Gmekeâe heÇsce ieÙee Gmekeâe keâLeve Fmekeâe heÇceeCe nw - keâ"esj keâce&heLe ceW Deheves meeeflJekeâ Deewj heeJeve nw~ meùoÙe Deewj YeeJegkeâ nesves kesâ keâejCe Yeejle mJeeceer kesâ hewj keâe kebâškeâ Yeer ceQ veneR nesvee Ûeenleer~ Jen cesjs Devegjeie, keâer heÇeke=âeflekeâ meg

-174- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Yeer heÇkeâeMe keâer efkeâjCeW veneR~ leye Jener kesâ yeue Jener! nes heeieueheve, ™he ceW ner efJekeâeme heelee nw~ Yetue nes, og:Ke efceues, heÇsce keâjves keâer Skeâ $e+leg nesleer nw~ GmeceW meceieÇle : yeeefpeje keâe Ûeefj$e meleesiegCeer Gòecee veejer hee$e kesâ 12 Ûetkeâvee, GmeceW meesÛe-mecePekeâj Ûeuevee, oesveeW yejeyej nw~'' Deveg™he efJekeâefmele neskeâj efJeefMe„lee heÇehle keâjlee nw~ Mekeâjepe Éeje mebefOe-heÇmleeJe ceW keâer ieÙeer OeÇgJemJeeefceveer keâer ceeBie kesâ heÇefleefkeÇâÙeemJe™he keâescee ÂÌ{lee mes keâLeve keânleer nw - ``jepeveerefle keâe efve

-175- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 176-178 ISSN 0974 - 200X heÇeÛeerve YeejleerÙe meceepe ceW veejer [e@Ê hetefCe&cee Mecee& vÙet keâe@ueesveer, KeyeÌ[e cegpeheäheâjhegj, efyenej

meejebMe heÇeÛeerve Yeejle ceW efm$eÙeeW keâer efmLeefle keâes ueskeâj efJeÉeved hejmhej efJejesOeer efJeÛeejeW keâes ueskeâj meeceves Deeles nQ~ Deiej ceewefuekeâ ieÇvLeeW keâe DevegMeerueve efkeâÙee peeS lees Ùen %eele nesiee veeefjÙeeW kesâ mecyevOe ceW efpeve Deeheefòepevekeâ yeeleeW keâer ÛeÛee& Deeleer nw, Gmekeâe keâesF& heg„ DeeOeej veneR nw~ Deiej hee$eeW kesâ keâLeeshekeâLeve keâes DeeOeej yeveeÙee peeS Deewj heÇeÛeerve mebmke=âle meeefnlÙe keâe DeJeieenve efkeâÙee peeS lees mhe„ nesiee efkeâ meceepe ceW Gvekeâes DelÙegÛÛe mLeeve heÇehle Lee~ Ssmee mLeeve, efpemekeâer keâuhevee MeeÙeo Deepe Yeer veneR keâer pee mekeâleer~ ceelee kesâ ™he ceW veeefjÙeeW keâer efmLeefle lees meceepe ceW meJees&lke=â„ Leer~ helveer kesâ ™he ceW Gmekeâe cenòJe Lee efkeâ Gmekesâ efyevee efkeâmeer Ùe%e kesâ hetCe& nesves keâer keâuhevee lekeâ veneR keâer pee mekeâleer Leer~ keâvÙee kesâ ™he ceW Gmes ue#ceermJe™he ceevee ieÙee nw~ keâvÙeeoeve keâes Deveskeâ hegCÙekeâcees& mes Yeer ßes… yeleeÙee ieÙee nw~ Deiej keâvÙee ner ve nes lees keâvÙeeoeve keâer efmLeefle keâneB mes Glhevve nesieer? heÇmlegle DeeuesKe ceW heÇeÛeerve Yeejle ceW veeefjÙeeW keâer oMee keâe efJeMues

-176- efnvot meceepe ceW veeefjÙeeW keâe mecceeve Deewj Deeoj heÇeÛeervekeâeue ceneYeejle kesâ Devegmeej ceelee ßes… ieg® nw Deewj Gme pewmee keâesF& mes DeeoMee&lcekeâ Deewj ceÙee&oeÙegòeâ jne nw~ keâvÙee kesâ ™he ceW, helveer ieg® veneR nw~ mce=eflekeâejeW ves Yeer heefjJeej Deewj meceepe ceW ceelee keâer kesâ ™he ceW leLee ceeB kesâ ™he ceW Jes efnvot heefjJeej Deewj meceepe ceW DeeÂle cenòee Deewj meJees&ÛÛelee heÇoefMe&le keâer nw~ Ùee%eJeukeäÙe ves Yeer ieg®, LeeR~ Gvekesâ heÇefle meceepe keâer mJeeYeeefJekeâ efve…e Deewj ßeæe jner nw~ DeeÛeeÙe&, GheeOÙeeÙe, $e+eflJepe Deeefo mes ceelee keâes ßes… ceeveles ngS heefjJeej Deewj mecegoeÙe ceW Gvekesâ ]Éeje keâvÙee, helveer, JeOet Deewj ceeB kesâ Gmekeâes meyemes DeefOekeâ hetpeveerÙe ceevee nw~ ™he ceW efkeâÙes peeves Jeeues Ùeesieoeve keâe meJe&oe cenòJe Deewj ieewjJe jne helveer kesâ ™he ceW Yeer veejer keâer heÇefle…e meceepe ceW Leer~ heefle Deewj nw~ YeejleerÙe Oece&Meem$e ceW veejer meJe&MeefòeâmecheVee ceeveer ieF& leLee helveer keâe mecyevOe Jener jne nw pees efMeJe kesâ DeOe&veejerÕej kesâ ™he ceW efJeÅee, Meerue, cecelee, ÙeMe Deewj mecheefòe keâer heÇleerkeâ mecePeer ieF&~ osKee pee mekeâlee nw~ heefle-helveer mes keânlee nw - meeceJeso ceQ ntB, legce efMe#ee, Oece&, JÙeefòeâlJe Deewj meeceeefpekeâ efJekeâeme ceW Gmekeâe ceneved $e+iJeso nes~ nce oesveeW hejmhej efheÇÙe neW, Skeâ otmejs kesâ meeLe Ùeesieoeve Lee~ heg®

-177- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ye=nmheefle keâe GoenjCe osles ngS efueKee nw efkeâ helveer, heefle kesâ Oeve keâer meboYe& GòejeefOekeâejer Leer Deewj Gmekesâ ve nesves hej heg$eer, keäÙeeWefkeâ heg$eer ceveg<ÙeeW 1. efJeMJeyevOeg (mecheeokeâ), $e+iJeso, efJeMJesMJejevevo Jewefokeâ kesâ Debie-Debie mes GlheVe nesleer nw~ Jewefokeâkeâeue ceW keâvÙeeDeeW keâes hetCe& MeesOemebmLeeve, nesefMeÙeejhegj, 1965 mJeleb$elee heÇehle Leer~ Jes mJelev$eleehetJe&keâ Skeâ mLeeve mes otmejs mLeeve hej pee mekeâleer LeeR Deewj efyevee efkeâmeer heÇefleyevOe kesâ meeceeefpekeâ 2. meeleJeueskeâj [erÊ (mecheeokeâ), DeLeJe&Jeso, mJeeOÙeeÙe meceejesneW leLee GlmeJeeW ceW Yeeie ues mekeâleer LeeR~ keâvÙee keâe ceeve Yebie ceC[ue, metjle, 1958 keâjves kesâ efueS oC[efJeOeeve keâe GuuesKe Yeer Meem$eeW ceW heÇehle neslee 3. Mecee& iepeevevo, heÇeÛeerve YeejleerÙe meeefnlÙe ceW veejer, jÛevee nw~ ceveg ves keâvÙee kesâ mecyevOe ceW Pet"er Keyej GÌ[eves Jeeues keâes 100 heÇkeâeMeve, Fueeneyeeo, 1971 heCe oC[ keâe efJeOeeve efkeâÙee nw peyeefkeâ efJe

-178- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 179-181 ISSN 0974 - 200X Oetefceue keâer keâefJelee ceW mecekeâeueerve jepeveerefle Deewj DeekeÇâesMe heÇkeâeMe kegâceej JÙeeKÙeelee, efnvoer efJeYeeie ceejJeeÌ[er ceneefJeÅeeueÙe, jeBÛeer efJeMJeefJeÅeeueÙe, jeBÛeer

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-179- `Oetefce}' jepeveerefle kesâ meYeer otef

-180- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Jen peeveJej kesâ meceeve nes ieÙeer nw, pees Deveskeâ heÇkeâej mes mebMeÙe «emle "eskeâj ceej oes nw~ Gvekeâe Dehevee keâesF& DeefmlelJe Deewj efJeÛeej veneR nw~ Jen cee$e Deye Jekeäle Dee ieÙee nw efkeâ legce G"es GheYeesie keâer Jemleg cee$e nw Ssmeer ÚefJe pevelee keâer yeve Ûegkeâer nw~ Gvekesâ Deewj Deheveer Tye keâes Deekeâej oes ~ Devoj efJeoÇesn veece keâer keâesF& Ûeerpe veneR nw~ ›eâebefle pewmes Meyo Gvekesâ - heškeâLee ef}S keâesF& ceeÙeves veneR jKelee~ Ùen lees Gvekesâ ef}S Skeâ iee}er cee$e (mebmeo mes meÌ[keâ lekeâ he=… meb0-98) nw~ pevelee kesâ vepejeW ceW ›eâebefle keâe mLeeve keäÙee nw, keâefJe kesâ MeyoeW ceW efve

-181- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 182-186 ISSN 0974 - 200X YeejleerÙe cebefojeW keâer DeeefLe&keâ Yetefcekeâe Me$egIve kegâceej heeb[sÙe meneÙekeâ heÇeshesâmej, Fefleneme efJeYeeie, ceeKe&ce keâe@uespe Dee@heâ keâe@ceme& efJeveesyee YeeJes efJeMJeefJeÅeeueÙe, npeejeryeeie, PeejKeC[

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-182- keâer heÇeCe heÇefle…e keâer SJeb Gme cetefle& keâes cebefoj ceW mLeeefhele efkeâÙee~6 pees jepemJe mebyebOeer meejs leòJeeW keâes }eiet keâjlee Lee~ YeejleerÙe cebefoj pees ceOÙekeâe} lekeâ Ûejceeslkeâ

-183- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 keâj Jemet} efkeâÙee peelee Lee~15 DeeJeMÙekeâlee kesâ ef}S efveÙegkeäle keâj Jesleve kesâ yeo}s Yetefce oer peeleer cebefojeW keâes Yetefce Devegoeve kesâ keâejCe ner oef#eCe Yeejle ceW Leer~20 mJeeÙeòe efkeâmeeve #es$e (vee[t) pevcee~ vee[g heefjJeej SJeb heefjJeej cebefojeW ves JÙeeheeefjkeâ ieefleefJeefOeÙeeW keâes Yeer yeÌ{eÙee~ Oeeefce&keâ mecetneW kesâ mebyebOeeW hej hegveie&ef"le Lee~ keâ=ef

-184- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Gòeces¤j DeefYe}sKe cebefojeW keâer heÇpeeleebef$ekeâ SJeb Deevegheeeflekeâ mes efheÚÌ[s jepÙeeW ceW keâer peeleer nw~ Ùeefo osJeIej keâe ßeeJeCeer ces}e, ÛegveeJe heÇCee}er hej heÇkeâeMe [e}lee nw~ meòee kesâ efJekesâvoÇerkeâjCe keâe hetjer keâer jLeÙee$ee, heÇÙeeie, nefjÉej, heg

-185- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 15. Om Prakash, Early Indian Land Grant and State DeeefLe&keâ Fefleneme, efnvoer ceeOÙece keâeÙe&evJeÙeve efveosMee}Ùe, Economy, Exilance Publishers, Allahabad, 1988 veÙeer efou}er, 1992, he= 232 16. Fivet yegkeâ}sš, F0SÛe0 DeeF&0 - 01, Fefleneme, Dee"JeeR 21. Mecee& Deej0 Sme0, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ SJeb meoer mes 15JeeR meoer lekeâ, he= 16 DeeefLe&keâ Fefleneme, efnvoer ceeOÙece keâeÙee&vJeÙeve efveosMee}Ùe, 17. meneÙe efJeMJe¤he, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ SJeb DeeefLe&keâ veÙeer efou}er, 1992, he= 242 Fefleneme, ceesleer}e} yeveejmeeroeme, JeejeCemeer, 2000, he= 22. JeneR 504 23. 18. Fivet yegkeâ}sš, F0SÛe0 DeeF&0 - 01, Fefleneme, Dee"JeeR South Indian Inscription, III, Part 2, p 227 meoer mes 15JeeR meoer lekeâ, he= 24 24. Shivraman Murti, Some Aspects of Indian Culture, National Museum, New Delhi, 1969, p 121 19. Deesce heÇkeâeMe, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ SJeb DeeefLe&keâ 25. Epigrophy India, Part- 19, p 62 Fefleneme, efJeMJe heÇkeâeMeve, veÙeer efou}er, 1997, he= - 26. meneÙe efJeMJe¤he, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ SJeb DeeefLe&keâ 149/ meneÙe efJeMJe¤he, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ SJeb Fefleneme, ceesleer}e} yeveejmeeroeme, JeejeCemeer, 2000, he= DeeefLe&keâ Fefleneme, ceesleer}e} yeveejmeeroeme, JeejeCemeer, 506 2000, he= 504-505 27. JeneR 20. Mecee& Deej0 Sme0, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ SJeb

-186- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 187-190 ISSN 0974 - 200X mJeleb$elee meb«eece ceW PeejKeC[ kesâ pevepeeefleÙeeW keâer Yetefcekeâe efkeâjCe šeshhees Fefleneme efJeYeeie SmeÊSmeÊ cesceesefjÙeue keâe@uespe,jeBÛeer

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-187- pe¤jer Lee efkeâ pevepeeleerÙe #es$eeW keâes efveef

-188- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 menYeeefielee efoKeleer nw~ hej pevepeeleerÙe Deeboes}ve ceW ceefn}eDeeW keâe yeveJeevee, peceerve kesâ ef}S Deeboes}ve Keemekeâj mebieef"le nesvee, meYee pegÌ[eJe heg®

-189- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 mebie"veelcekeâ keâeÙe& kesâ keâejCe yeÌ[er mebKÙee ceW DeeefoJeemeer je„^erÙe 1998, he=Ê 187 Deeboes}ve kesâ Debie yeves~ cesMee heneefÌ[Ùee SJeb ieeboes}e} heneefÌ[Ùee 4. nmevewve veoerce, pevepeeleerÙe Yeejle, peJeenj heefyueMeme& SJeb keâes JÙeefkeäleiele melÙee«en, 1940 ceW Meeefce} nesves kesâ ef}S pes} ef[mš^erJÙetšme&, veF& efouueer, 1997, he=Ê 261, 325 peevee heÌ[e SJeb DeeefLe&keâ ob[ keâe meecevee keâjvee heÌ[e~ Yeejle ÚesÌ[es ›eâebefle ceW meblee}eW ves oeefcevekeâesn ceW efJeosMeer heÇMeemeve keâes "he keâj 5. Megkeäue jeceueKeve, hetJees&òeâ, he=Ê 268, K Singh, K.S. Colonial Tranformation of the Tribal of the Tribal efoÙee Lee~ mšsHeâve HeäÙetkeäme ef}Keles nQ efkeâ yebiee} SJeb efyenej kesâ Society in middle India, Proceedings of Indian History ›eâebeflekeâeefjÙeeW mes DeeefoJeemeer vesleeDeeW keâes heÇsjCee efce}er~ ceggb[e, Congress, 1977 GjebJe, KejJeej, ševee Yeiele Deeefo ves Fme mJele: mhetle& Deeboes}ve keâe 6. nmevewve veoerce, Ghejesòeâ, he=Ê 262 DelÙeefOekeâ heÇÛeej-heÇmeej efkeâÙee~ ševee YeieleeW ves DevÙe DeeefoJeeefmeÙeeW 7. efmebn DeÙeesOÙee, Yeejle keâe cegefòeâ mebieÇece, heÇkeâeMeve mebmLeeve, keâes mebieef"le efkeâÙee~ meeceÇepÙeJeeo kesâ heÇleerkeâ ÙetefveÙeve pewkeâ Gleej keâj veF& efouueer, 2009, he=Ê 299 mejkeâejer keâeÙee&}ÙeeW hej eflejbiee }njeÙee~ 8. Megkeäue jeceueKeve (mebÊ), hetJees&òeâ, he=Ê 211 efve

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-190- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 191-194 ISSN 0974 - 200X heÇeiewefleneefmekeâ keâeueerve jeBÛeer Oecee&Jeleer kegâceejer MeesOe Úe$ee, Fefleneme efJeYeeie jeBÛeer efJeMJeefJeÅeeueÙe, jeBÛeer

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-205- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 206-215 ISSN 0974 - 200X hetJe& DeeOegefvekeâ keâeue ceW YeejleerÙe Kesue leLee ceveesjbpeve kesâ heÇcegKe meeOeve [e@Ê kegâceej Mejo Fefleneme efJeYeeie DeejÊ [erÊ SmeÊ meeFbme keâe@uespe, cegbiesj meejebMe ceveg<Ùe Skeâ Ssmee meebmkeâ=eflekeâ peerJe nw, pees efJeefJeOe heÇkeâej kesâ Kes}eW Je ceveesjbpeveeW mes Deevevo keâe DevegYeJe keâjlee nw~ ceOÙekeâe}erve Yeejle Keemekeâj cegie} keâe} ceW yengle no lekeâ hetJe& DeeOegefvekeâ keâe} ceW efJeefJeOe Kes}eW kesâ Éeje efpemeceW o=MÙe Je heÇoMe&veerÙe keâ}eSB Yeer Meeefce} LeeR, kesâ Éeje jepee-cenejepe mes }skeâj Deece pevelee Yeer ceveesjbefpele ngDee keâjles Les~ lelkeâe}erve meceÙe mewefvekeâ heÇJe=efòeÙeeW mes DeefOekeâ heÇYeeefJele Lee, Fmeef}S Fme keâe} ceW Deeceeso-heÇceeso Deewj ceveesjbpeve ceW Yeer Fmekeâer Pe}keâ osKeves keâes efce}leer nw~ Fme keâe} kesâ mewvÙe hejkeâ Kes}eW ceW peneB hees}es, IegÌ[oewÌ[,heMegoewÌ[ Deeefo Kes} yeÌ[s }eskeâefheÇÙe Les, JeneR DeYÙeevlej ceveesjbpeve ceW Melejbpe, ÛeewheÌ[, Ûeewmej, leeMe Je pegDee keâe Kes} keâeHeâer }eskeâefheÇÙe ngDee keâjlee Lee~ efJeefYevve JeieesË kesâ yeÛÛeW Deheves ceveesjbpeve kesâ ef}S efJeefJeOe Kes} keâes Deheveeles Les, efpemeceW ieg}er-[b[e, ÛeÛejer, DeeBKe-efceÛees}er, keâyeñer Deeefo heÇcegKe ngDee keâjles Les~ Fme lejn, heÇcegKe ceOÙe keâe} ceW efJeefYevve heÇkeâej kesâ Kes} Je ceveesjbpeveeW kesâ efJeefYevve meeOeve ceewpeto Les, }sefkeâve efpemeceW kegâÚ Kes} lees jepee Je jepeojyeej ceW ner Kes}s peeles Les }sefkeâve pÙeeoelej Kes} Deece pevelee kesâ Éeje Deece }esieeW kesâ yeerÛe ceveesjbpeve kesâ efJeefYevve meeOeve ngDee keâjles Les, efpemekeâes jepÙe Éeje mebj#eCe efoÙee peelee Lee Je Fmemes Fve Kes}eW keâer efJeMes

-206- Melejbpe : Ùen Yeer Yeejle keâe hegjevee Kes} nw, pees Gme meceÙe ceW meceÙe ceW oes meew cegie} Deceerj Fme Kes} ceW Yeeie }sles Les~ Fme Kes} yeeoMeen, Deceerj Deewj peve meeceevÙe ceW Skeâ-mee heÇÛeef}le Lee~ leepe- keâer mees}n yeeefpeÙeeW ceW Skeâ cegkeâeye}e hetje neslee Lee~ Ssmee keâne Gue-cebmetj kesâ }sKekeâ nmeve efvepeeceer, Deceerj KegmejeW Deewj heodceeJele peelee nw efkeâ Heâlesnhegj meerkeâjer kesâ Ûeewkeâesj Deebieve ceW heÛÛeermeer kesâ kesâ }sKekeâ ceef}keâ cegncceo peeÙemeer ves keâF& peieneW hej Fme Kes} keâe KeeveeW ceW ieg}ece yeebefoÙeeW keâes ceesnjeW kesâ ¤he ceW, FMeejeW mes Ûe}ekeâj Gu}sKe efkeâÙee nw~ Ssmee keâne peelee nw efkeâ jepee jleve mesve Deewj Dekeâyej Ùen Kes} Kes}lee Lee~ Deewjbiepesye keâer yesšer pesyegefvvemee keâe De}eGöerve efKe}peer ves efÛeòeewÌ[ kesâ efkeâ}s ceW Melejbpe keâer yeepeer Yeer Ùen ceve hemebo Kes} Lee, Deheves Kee}er meceÙe ceW Jen Deheveer }ieeF& Leer, Deyeg} Heâpe} Gme peceeves keâe ceMentj efKe}eÌ[er Lee, mensef}ÙeeW kesâ meeLe ÛeewheÌ[ Kes}e keâjleer Leer~ Dekeâyej Yeer Melejbpe keâe Kes} hemevo keâjlee Lee~ cegie} meecebleeW keâe ÛeewheÌ[13 keâheÌ[s keâer iegefCeleekeâej efJemeele hej Kes}e peelee Lee~ Ùen efheÇÙe Kes} Lee~ `mšesefjÙee oes ceesieesj' keâe }sKekeâ cevegÛeer Fmekeâer heÇlÙeskeâ Yegpee Dee"-Dee" JeieesË keâer leerve hebefkeäleÙeeW ceW efJeYekeäle (1653-1708) pees cen}esb ceW peeÙee keâjlee Lee, ef}Kelee nw efkeâ nesleer Leer, efpeveceW mes yeejn Jeie& }e} leLee yeejn keâe}s nesles Les~ kesâvoÇ `Melejbpe kesâ Kes} kesâ Éeje Jes Deheveer-Deheveer ÙeespeveeDeeW kesâ yeveves ceW peneB YegpeeSB efce}leer Leer, Skeâ keâe}s jbie keâe yeÌ[e Jeie& neslee Lee~ efyeieÌ[ves leLee nej-peerle keâer yeeles meerKeles Les~ keâF& yeej yeeefpeÙeeB Ûeewmej kesâ heemes kesâ mLeeve hej FmeceW keâewefÌ[ÙeeW keâe heÇÙeesie neslee Lee~ }ieleer Leer Deewj Debleje&„^erÙe cegkeâeye}s nesles Les~ GoenjCeeLe&, Skeâ yeej Heâejme kesâ Meen meHeâer kesâ cegkeâeye}s ceW yeeoMeen keâer Deesj mes heÛÛeermeer : }eskeâefheÇÙelee keâer o=ef„ mes Melejbpe kesâ heMÛeeled 14 yeepeer }ieekeâj KeeveKeevee Kes} jns Les~ Jen jepeotle yeepeer nej ieÙee heÛÛeermeer keâe mLeeve Lee, pees ÛeewheÌ[ kesâ meceeve Kes}e peelee Lee, Deewj Mele& kesâ cegleeefyekeâ Gmes ieOes keâer yees}er yees}veer heÌ[er~' kesâJe} Gmekeâer efJemeele kesâ mJe¤he Je jbie ceW kegâÚ efYevvelee nesleer Leer~ heÛÛeermeer keâer efJemeele ceW Ûeej DeeÙele ngDee keâjles Les, efpevekesâ mebkeâjs Melejbpe keâe Kes} meeceevÙele: cegme}ceeveeW ceW leLee efJeMes

-207- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 efKe}eÌ[er Skeâ-Skeâ keâjkesâ Deheveer Ûeej ieesefšÙeeW keâes Deheves DeeÙele yee¢eevlej ceveesjbpeve kesâ efJeefJeOe Kes} keâer ceOÙe hebefkeäle mes Ûe}vee heÇejcYe keâjkesâ, kesâvoÇerÙe mLeeve kesâ meceerhe yee}keâeW kesâ Kes} : yee}keâeW kesâ Kes} yengmebKÙekeâ Les~ GveceW Jee}s Jeie& kesâ Ûe}les ngS, Jeiee&keâej keâer yeenjer hebefkeäle kesâ Ûelegefo&keâ, mes Deveskeâ lees Jes Deheves efnvot-heÌ[esefmeÙeeW mes ner meerKeles Les~ GveceW mes leye lekeâ Ûe}lee Lee peye lekeâ efkeâ ieesefšÙeeB Deheves Ûe}ves kesâ hetJe& mLeeve efvecveef}efKele Gu}sKeveerÙe nw:- hej vener henBBgÛe peeleer Leer~ ieesefšÙeeB Ùeefo yeÛeeF& veneR peeleer lees efJehe#eer Éeje heerš oer peeleer Leer leLee Gvnbs hegve: Ûe}vee heÌ[lee Lee~ Kes} leye DeOeer}pehe : `DeOeer}pehe' DeLeJee keâeBÛe keâer ieesef}ÙeeB keâe lekeâ Ûe}lee jnlee Lee, peye lekeâ efkeâ Ûeej ceW leerve efKe}eÌ[er Deheveer Kes} yeÛÛeeW cebs DelÙeefOekeâ }eskeâefheÇÙe Lee~ Fmekeâe Skeâ heÇkeâej ieesefšÙeeW keâes efyemeele kesâ ÛeejeW Deesj Iegceeves ceW meHeâ} ve nes peeles Les~17 `Fkeâhejer-meJemejer' Lee efpemeceW Deveskeâ ieesef}ÙeeB Skeâ Úso ceW HeWâkeâer peeleer Leer~ `ieesef}ÙeeB' Kes} ceW Jes oes efÚoÇeW ceW HeWâkeâer peeleer Leer~ Ûebo} ceb[} : `DeeFve-S-Dekeâyejer' ceW Skeâ DevÙe Kes} efKe}eÌ[er heÇlÙeskeâ yeej, peye Gmekeâer iees}er otmejer keâes heerš osleer Ùee `Ûebo} ceb[}' keâe Gu}sKe nw~ Ùen Jemlegle: `ÛeewheÌ[' keâe ner megOeeje efÚoÇ ceW Ûe}er peeleer lees Skeâ Ùee oes hewmes peerle ef}Ùee keâjlee Lee~ ieÙee ¤he nw, efpemeceW efKe}eefÌ[Ùees keâer mebKÙee 16 nesleer Leer leLee `Dekeâ} KJeepee' Yeer ieesef}ÙeeW oes ÚsoeW mes Kes}e peelee Lee~ FveceW GveceW yejeyej yejeyej yeebšves kesâ ef}S ieesefšÙeeW keâer mebKÙee 64 keâj oer efKe}eÌ[er keâer iees}er efpeleveer yeej otmejer iees}er keâes heerš oslee Ùee Úso ieF& Leer~18 ceW Ûe}er peeleer, Gleveer ner yeej Skeâ efievee peelee Lee leLee pees hen}s veo& : veo&19 DeLeJee Heâejme kesâ `yewkeâ iewceesve' Kes} keâes Yeejle ceW ome keâer efieveleer hetjer keâj ef}Ùee keâjlee Lee, Jen efJepeÙeer neslee Lee~ cegme}ceeveeW ves heÇÛeef}le efkeâÙee Lee~ Fmes }keâÌ[er kesâ Jeiee&keâej hešdšs nejves Jee}e efJeefJeOe heÇkeâej mes oefC[le efkeâÙee peelee Lee~28 hej Kes}e peelee Lee pees 24 Jeiee&keâej KeeveeW ceW efJeYekeäle neslee Lee~ DeeBKe-efceÛees}er : `DeeBKe-efceÛees}er'29,DeeBKe-efceÛeesveer neslee Ùen Kes} 30 ieesefšÙeeW mes Kes}e peelee Lee, pees 15-15 kesâ oes mewšeW Lee~ `DebOe}e yeeoMeen' DeLeJee `DebOeer yeeoMeener' Yeer Skeâ heÇkeâej ceW nesleer Leer leLee heÇlÙeskeâ mesš keâe jbie De}ie neslee Lee~20 Heâejme kesâ keâer DeeBKe efceÛeesveer nesleer Leer~ FmeceW Skeâ }Ì[kesâ kesâ Thej Skeâ Ûeeoj }esie Fme Kes} keâes `leKle-S-veeefojMeen' keânles Les~21 veo& kesâ ner [e} oer peeleer Leer, lelheMÛeeled otmejs }Ì[kesâ Gmekeâes Ûehele }ieeÙee vecetves hej ngceeÙetB ves Skeâ Kes} heÇejbYe efkeâÙee, efpemeceW ceeveJeer ceesnj keâjles Les~30 nesles Les~ yejes Úhepee : `yejess Úhepee' DeLeJee `Skeâ leeje-oes leeje' Skeâ Åetle-›eâerÌ[e : `Åetle-›eâerÌ[e' keâes `efkeâceej-yeepeer' DeLeJee DevÙe heÇkeâej keâer DeeBKe efceÛeewveer nesleer Leer~31 `pegDee-yeepeer' keâne peelee Lee~ Ùen neLeer oeBle kesâ 2 FbÛe }cyes Je 1/3 FbÛe Ûeew[s ÛelegYeg&peerÙe heemes Éeje Kes}e peelee Lee~ Fmekeâer yegPee-yegPeer : `yegPee-yegPeer' ceW Skeâ yee}keâ keâer DeeBKeeW hej YegpeeDeeW hej Skeâ, oes, heeBÛe leLee Ú: efyevog ›eâceevegmeej Debefkeâle nesles hešdšer yeeBOe oer peeleer Leer leLee Gmemes mheMe& keâjves Jee}s keâes henÛeeveves 22 kesâ ef}S keâne peelee Lee~ peye lekeâ Jen Ssmee keâjves ceW meHeâ} ve neslee Les~ yeepeer }ieeves kesâ ef}S heÇeÙe: leerve heemeeW keâe Skeâ mesš heÇÙeesie ceW 32 }eÙee peelee Lee~ Ùes neLeeW mes heWâkesâ peeles Les leLee }cyeeF& cebs efiejles Les~ Gmes ÚesÌ[e veneR peelee Lee~ Kes} ceW efkeâmeer Ùegefkeäle keâer DeeJeMÙekeâlee ve Leer, Ùen kesâJe} mebÙeesie Mesj yekeâjer : Mesj-yekeâjer DeLeJee yeeIe-yekeâjer, Mesj Deewj hej efveYe&j jnlee Lee~ meJeexÛÛe Debkeâ heÇehle keâjves Jee}e efJepeÙeer neslee yekeâefjÙeeW keâe Kes} Lee, efpemeceW keâYeer-keâYeer lesjn-lesjn yee}keâ Mesj, Lee~ leLeeefhe Ùen Kes} kegâjeve ceW Jeefpe&le Lee23 Deewj efyeÇefšMe keâevetve yekeâjer yevee keâjles Les~33 Éeje efveef

-208- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 keâyeñer : `keâyeñer'38 ceW }Ì[kesâ oes o}eW cebs efJeYekeäle nes peeles efm$eÙeeW keâe efheÇÙe ceveesjbpeve Lee~ heef#eÙeeW ceW leeslee, cewvee, }e}, Les~ Skeâ jsKee DeLeJee cesÌ[ Yetefce hej yevee oer peeleer Leer, efpemes hee}e MÙeecee leLee efJeMes

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-209- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 ne@keâer : ne@keâer kesâ Kes} keâe Yeer efpe›eâ heÇehle neslee nw~ yebie}e }esns keâer ieoeÙeW ef}Ùes jnles Les; Gvekesâ IeesÌ[eW kesâ Deeies kesâ efnmmes ceW meeefnlÙe ceW `OeesHeâjer' Kes}ves keâe Gu}sKe nw~ Jemlegle: Ùener `ne@keâer' }esns keâe yeKlej }ieeÙee ieÙee neslee nw~ Jes }esie IeesÌ[s hej }ieer peerve keâe Kes} nw, pees «eeceerCe #es$eeW ceW ieWo leLee `efmškeâ' mes Kes}e peelee ceW Fleves nukesâ Deewj Ûelegj nesles nQ efkeâ Jes IeesÌ[s hej meJeej jnles ngS Yeer Lee~57 `Ûeewkeâe' keâe Kes} Yeer Kes}les nw~''63 Fme Kes} ceW jepehetle Yeer yeÌ[s 64 ies¤ : ies¤ kesâ veece mes Kes}e peeves Jee}e Skeâ Kes} yebiee} kesâ o#e nesles Les~ cegie}eW keâes Yeer Fme Kes} mes heÇsce Lee~ yeÛÛeeW ceW yengle heÇÛeef}le Lee~ FmeceW }Ì[keâeW keâer oes šesef}ÙeeB nesleer leerjboepeer : mewvÙehejkeâ ceveesjbpeve kesâ efJeefJeOe meeOeveeW ceW Leer~ Skeâ šes}er keâer Deesj mes ieWo HeWâkeâer peeleer Leer Deewj otmejer šes}er leerjboepeer keâe Kes} yeÌ[e efheÇÙe Lee~ leerjvoepeeW Éeje efveMeevesyeepeer Gmes hekeâÌ[ves keâer Ûes„e keâjleer Leer~58 nesleer Leer pees Skeâ hegjevee Kes} Lee~65 hetjs cegie} keâe} cebs evf eMeeveys eepee r kegâMleer Je cegkeäkesâyeepeer : cegie} keâe} ceW kegâMleer Deewj keâe Ke}s DeeÙeees pf ele nels ee Lee~ Ùen meJe$& e }eks eâehf eÙÇ e Lee~ cegkeäkesâyeepeer59 ceve yen}eJe kesâ cegKÙe meeOeve Les~ efJepeÙeveiej ceW helebieyeepeer : nceejs DeOÙeÙeve keâe} ceW helebieyeepeer efm$eÙeeB Yeer kegâMleer ceW Yeeie }sleer Leer~ Dekeâyej cegkeâkesâyeepeer ceW DeefOekeâ Deefle}eskeâefheÇÙe ceveesjbpeve kesâ meeOeveeW ceW mes Skeâ Lee~ efou}er ceW ¤efÛe }slee Lee Deewj Deheves ojyeej cebs Heâejmeer Deewj legjeveer cegkeäkesâyeepe mecYeJele: MeenDee}ce heÇLece (1707-1712) kesâ meceÙe ceW Fme jKee keâjlee Lee~ JÙemeve keâes }eskeâefheÇÙelee heÇehle ngF& Leer~ heÇejcYe ceW Fves-efieves JÙeefkeäle 66 IegÌ[meJeejer : GÛÛeJeieeaÙe cegie} jF&meeW ceW IegÌ[meJeejer60 Yeer ner helebie GÌ[eÙee keâjles Les~ Ùen keâeiepe keâer otceoej helebie ngDee ceveesjbpeve keâe meeOeve Lee~ Fmekesâ ef}S efJeMes

-211- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 keâYeer keâYeer neefLeÙeeW mes ieW[s Yeer }Ì[eS peeles Les~ hejvleg `cegMeeÙeje' Meyo keâe leelheÙe& efJeMes

-212- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 meceejesn-mecyevOeer DeJemejeW hej ceveesjbpeve keâe Skeâ yeÌ[e meeOeve 3. peeHeâj SÊ MejerHeâ, keâevetve-S-Fm}ece, heefjefMe„, he=Ê 51, LeeR~102 vepeerj Deheveer keâefJelee `Meye-S-yeejele' ceW }esieeW Éeje Meye- DevegJeeo nke&â}esšdme peer0 S0 , }bove, 1832 S-yeejele kesâ DeJemej hej efo} Kees} keâj Fmekeâe Deevevo }tšves keâe 4. Jenerb, he=Ê 52 mepeerJe JeCe&ve keâjles nw~ Jes meYeer }esieeW keâes Deevevo heÇoeve keâjves 5. ÛeesheÌ[e, mece Ssmeheskeäšme Dee@Je meesmeeFšer SC[ keâuÛej Jee}s DeeefleMeyeepeer kesâ Skeâ ope&ve mes Yeer DeefOekeâ heÇkeâej kesâ heÇÛeef}le [dÙetefjbie o cegie} Sspe (1526-1707), Deeieje 1963, hešeKeeW keâe JeCe&ve keâjles nw~103 he=Ê 57 Oeve Ûekeäkeâj Deheves oce ceW keâneR ÛeKes Keeles nQ 6. efJeef}Ùece ›egâkeâ (mecheeokeâ), Fm}ece Fve Fbef[Ùee, šeWšs nJeeF& meeRie keâneR keânkeâneles nQ DeekeämeHeâes[&, 1921, he=Ê 336 peerheš peheš hešeKes keâneR ieg} ceÛeeles nQ 7. efvekeâes}es YeesvesefšÙeve ceevegÛeer, mšesefjÙeÙee oes ceesieesj }Ì[keâeW kesâ yeeBOe iees} keâneR }Ì[ves peeles nw (še^ me}šs [s Fve š t Fib e}f Me SC[ Se[f š[s , [yuÙe t FjeJf eve Fve Heâesj YeesuÙetce, pee@ve cÙetjer, }bove 1907-8) Yeeie-2, he=Ê keâjleer nQ efHeâj lees Ssmeer OetBOeejer Meye-S-yeejele~104 467 veeškeâ-veewšbkeâer : DeOÙeÙevekeâe}erve keâe} ceW veeškeâ- 8. peepe& mes}, o kegâjeve, ueove, 1844, he=Ê 89,93 veewšbkeâer, mJeebie (vekeâ}) Deewj cemeKejeW, efJeot

-213- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 24. Ùeeoieej-S-ieeef}ye , he=Ê 27 52. Jener, he=Ê 131 25. }Kevehee} heer0 Sce0, ``ieeef}Jevo cewve SC[ efnpe Jeme& 53. Jener, he=Ê131,132 efou}er, 1960, he=Ê 80 54. ÛeesheÌ[e, hegjer Deewj oeme, Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ, meebmkeâ=eflekeâ 26. kegâefu}Ùeele-S-vepeerj, }KeveT, 1951 he=Ê 442 Deewj DeeefLe&keâ Fefleneme, Yeeie-2, DevegJeeo, Yeejleer Deej0 27. peeHeâj SÊ MejerHeâ, keâevetve-S-Fm}ece, heefjefMe„-8, kesâ0, cewkeâefce}ve, efou}er, hegveceg&oÇCe-1993, he=Ê 60 DevegJeeo nke&â}esšdme peer0 S0, }bove 1832, he=Ê 54- 55. efjpeJeer, legke&âkeâe}erve Yeejle, he=Ê 8 55 56. Deyeg} Heâpe}, Dekeâyejveecee, Yeeie ~~, mecheeokeâ, ceew}Jeer 28. Jener Denceo De}er, efJeJe Fbef[Ùee, keâ}keâòee 1902, he=Ê 173 29. Jener 57. ÛeesheÌ[e, hegjer Deewj oeme, hetJeexkeäle, he=Ê 60-61 30. Jener 58. Jener, he=Ê 61 31. Jener 59. Jener 32. Jener, he=Ê 55 60. Jener 33. Jener, he=Ê 54, 55 61. efjpeJeer, hetJeeskeäle, he=Ê 172 34. Jener, he=Ê 56 62. meceo Deyogme, legpekesâ-S-peneBieerjer, De}erieÌ{ 1864, 35. Jener, he=Ê 54 DevegJeeo jewpeme& mecheeefole, JesJesefjpe }bove 1909, 1914, he=Ê 188 36. keÇgâkeâ efJeef}Ùece (mebÊ), Fm}ece-Fve-FefC[Ùee, DeekeämeHeâes[&, veF& efouueer, 1921, he=Ê 338 63. yeveea efpeÙeeGöerve, leejerKe-S-efHeâjespeMeener, efyeefy}ÙeesefLekeâe Fbef[Ùee, keâ}keâòee 1862, efjpeJeer DevegJeeo, mej mewÙeo 37. peeHeâj SÊ MejerHeâ, keâevetve-S-Fm}ece, Jener, DevegJeeo, peer0 Denceo KeeB (mecheeefole), Jener, he=Ê 464 S0 nke&â}esšdme, }bove, 1832, he=Ê 54 64. DeMejHeâ kesâ0 Sce0, Jener, efnvoer DevegJeeo }e}, he=Ê 263 38. Jener, he=Ê 55 65. leejerKe-S-oeGoer (F&0 SC[ [er0), Deyogu}e, De}erieÌ{, 39. ›egâkeâ efJeef}Ùece (mebÊ), Fm}ece Fve Fbef[Ùee, DeekeämeHeâes[&, he=Ê 9-10 1921, he=Ê 338 66. Mejj Deyog} n}erce, iegef}Mlee }KeveT, }enewj, he=Ê159 40. peeHeâj SÊMejerHeâ, keâevetve-S-Fm}ece, Jener, DevegJeeo nke&â}esšdme peer0 S0, }bove, 1832, he=Ê 56 67. kegâefu}Ùele-S-vepeerj, he=Ê 462-64 41. Jener, he=Ê 55 68. Jener 42. Jener 69. n}erce Mejj Deyog}, iegef}Mlee }KeveT, }enewj, he=Ê 156 43. Jener, he=Ê 54 70. Jener 44. Meem$eer GoÙeMebkeâj (mebÊ), oefjÙee S }leeHeâle, 71. Jener he=Ê 131 72. Jener, he=Ê 156 45. Jener, he=Ê 131-132 73. Jener 46. Jener, he=Ê 132 74. GheeOÙeeÙe jecepeer , heÇeÛeerve YeejleerÙe meeefnlÙe keâer meebmkeâ=eflekeâ 47. jbieerFvMee, he=Ê 54 Yetefcekeâe, F}eneyeeo 1966, he=Ê 960-61 48. oerJeeve-S-peeve-meenye, he=Ê134 75. oerJeeve-S-cegmenHeâer, Yeeie-6, heeC[gef}efhe, he=Ê 134 49. Meem$eer GoÙeMebkeâj (mebÊ), oefjÙee-S-}leeHeâle, he=Ê 76. n}erce Mejj Deyog}, iegef}Mlee }KeveT, }enewj, he=Ê 149 21,131 77. Jener, he=Ê 150 50. Jener, he=Ê22 78. Jener, he=Ê 154 51. Jener 79. kegâefu}Ùeele-S-vepeerj, he=Ê 473-74

-214- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 80. n}erce Mejj Deyog} , iegef}mlee }KeveT, }enewj, he=Ê155 94. ceerj lekeâer ceerj, efvekeâelegMMegDeje, mecheeokeâ ceew}Jeer Deyog} 81. Jener, he=Ê 146 nkeâ, (Deewjbieeyeeo oef#eCe 1935), he=Ê 147 82. Jener, he=Ê 138 95. Deeye-S-nÙeele, he=Ê 366, 369 83. Jener, he=Ê139 96. ßeerjece, KecejJeevee-S-peeJeero, efou}er, 1916, Yeeie 1, he=Ê 9,69 84. Jener 97. jnyej cegncceo oeTo, cegMeeÙejs keâe Delekeâe Deewj Gmekeâer 85. Jener, he=Ê 141 DenefceÙele, Got& Decew}, 1945, he=Ê166 86. heÇeFJesš }eFHeâ, he=Ê166 98. Jener 87. Mejj, he=Ê142 99. Jener 88. Jener, he=Ê 143 100.jnyej, he=Ê 166 89. Jener 101.Jener, he=Ê 168 90. Jener 102.Deeype&JesMevme, Yeeie-2, he=Ê55 91. Jener ,he=Ê 144 103.kegâefu}Ùeele-S-vepeerj, he=Ê 416-18 92. Jener, he=Ê 145 104.Jener 93. ÛeesheÌ[e, hegjer, oeme, Yeejle keâe meeceeefpekeâ, meebmkeâ=eflekeâ Deewj 105.efceßee peÙekeâevle, S efnmš^er Dee@Heâ cewefLe} ef}šjsÛej, Yeeie-1, DeeefLe&keâ Fefleneme, DevegJeeo Deej0 kesâ0 Yeejleer, KeC[-2 1949, he=Ê 289-90 hegveceg&oÇCe-1993 cewkeâefce}ve efou}er, he=Ê 62

-215- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 216-219 ISSN 0974 - 200X heÇeÛeerve YeejleerÙe Fefleneme ceW veejer keâer DeeefLe&keâ efmLeefle MJeslee kegâceejer MeesOe Úe$ee, Fefleneme efJeYeeie jeBÛeer efJeMJeefJeÅeeueÙe, jeBÛeer [e@Ê heg

-216- DeJemLee ceW Lee Deewj peye keâ=ef

-217- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 DeefveJeeÙe& mee Lee~ Fmeef}S Ùen yengle kegâÚ mecYeJe nw efkeâ heeefjJeeefjkeâ meoer F&. het. lekeâ efJeOeJee kesâ mecheefòe efJe

-218- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 pevemeeOeejCe ceW Ùen OeejCee Leer efkeâ heg$eer keâes efhelee keâer mecheefòe ceW onspe ceW heÇehle DeeYet

-219- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 220-223 ISSN 0974 - 200X DeMeeskeâ keâe Oecce : Ssefleneefmekeâ hegvejeJeueeskeâve Ûevove kegâceej heeC[sÙe MeesOe Úe$e, Fefleneme efJeYeeie efJeveesyee YeeJes efJeMJeefJeÅeeueÙe, npeejeryeeie

meejebMe Deefnbmee kesâ hegpeejer heÇpeeheeuekeâ DeMeeskeâ ceeveJeerÙe iegCeeW mes Deesle-heÇesle ceeveJeerÙe efnleeW keâer j#ee keâjves Jeeuee meodiegCe mecheVe Meemekeâ Lee~ neueebefkeâ Jen yeewæ Oece& keâe hejce Gheemekeâ Lee, efheâj Yeer Gmeer hejcheje ceW DeMeeskeâ ves Oece& kesâ Deveskeâ efmeæebleeW keâes Deheves {bie mes efJekeâefmele efkeâÙee~ Ssmes DeeoMe& Deewj JÙeJenej DeheveeÙes, pees ceeveJe peeefle kesâ meeLe-meeLe meceepe Deewj je<š^ kesâ efueS Les~ DeMeeskeâ ves yeewæ cele kesâ JÙeJeneefjkeâ he#e kesâ meceLe&keâ efmeæevleeW keâe heÇÛeej efkeâÙee~ Jemlegle: yegæ keâe Oeeefce&keâ efÛevleve Deewj leke&â yegefæJeeo hej DeeOe=le Lee~ GmeceW ve keâneR heejcheefjkeâ heeKeC[ Lee, ve DevOeefJeÕeeme~ yegæ ves keâne efkeâ efkeâmeer yeele keâes mJeerkeâej leYeer keâjves keâer yeele keâner ieÙeer nw peye Ùes yeeles DeÛÚer, Deoes

-220- ceeie& Deeefo keâe GuuesKe veneR nw pees yeewæ Oece& kesâ oeMe&efvekeâ efmeæeble Oece& cebieueeW keâes GlheVe keâjleer nw~ mebÙece leLee heefJe$elee kesâ ceue nQ~ Feflenemekeâej cewkeähewâue kesâ Devegmeej - ``Dhamma does not keâes DeefYeJÙeòeâ keâjles DeMeeskeâ ves meeleJeW DeefYeuesKe ceW efueKeJeeÙee nw - stand for Buddhism''~ DeMeeskeâ keâe `Oecce' heÇeefCecee$e kesâ efueS `mebÙece, YeeJeMegefæ, ke=âle%elee SJeb ÂÌ{Yeefòeâ efvelÙe DeeJeMÙekeâlee nw~ keâuÙeeCekeâejer Deewj DeeÛeejCe hej DeeOeeefjle Oece& Lee~ Gmekeâe Oece& DeMeeskeâ ves Deemeefòeâ jKeves keâes Deefve„keâj keâne nw~ Fmes yeewæ Oece& mes Yeer pÙeeoe efJemle=le Deewj Goej Lee~'' Ùen Skeâ ceeveJeerÙe `heeheceÙe DeeJesie' keâne nw~ DeMeeskeâ ves ceeveJe peerJeve ceW Gve oes

-221- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 keâeb[ cetuekeâ ™he keâer Dehes#ee Gmekesâ DeeÛeejcetuekeâ mJe™he keâes ner keâuÙeeCe kesâ kegâÚ Ssmes keâeÙeesË keâe GuuesKe nw pees `Oecce' keâer ßes… ceevelee nQ~ keâeÙe&heÇCeeueer ceW meefcceefuele Les~'' Fmekesâ Deefleefjòeâ DeMeeskeâ ves efJeefYeVe OeceesË kesâ DevegÙeeefÙeÙeeW keâes Oece& heÇmeej kesâ efueS DeMeeskeâ ves DeeKesš Ùee$eeDeeW kesâ mLeeve hej Skeâ-otmejs kesâ Oeeefce&keâ ieÇvLeeW kesâ DeOÙeÙeve keâe GheosMe Yeer efoÙee, Oece&Ùee$eeDeeW keâe DeeÙeespeve Meg™ efkeâÙee~ Fve Oece&Ùee$eeDeeW mes leeefkeâ Jes Skeâ otmejs kesâ YeeJeeW keâes mecePe mekeWâ~ DeMeeskeâ keâe `Oecce' Oece&Je=efæ keâe keâeÙe& mJeYeeefJekeâ ™he mes ngDee~ JÙeeJeneefjkeâ Lee~ ``Jen ™efÌ{Jeeoer, keâce&keâeC[Jeeoer, yee¢e DeMeeskeâ ves yeewæ Oece& kesâ meceejesneW, veeškeâeW Deewj Oece& ßeeJeCe Dee[cyejhetCe&, ietÌ{, efkeÇâÙeeJeeoer, oMe&vecetuekeâ leLee met#ce leòJeehes#eer hej yeue efoÙee Lee~ Oece& ßeeJeCe keâe DeLe& Lee efkeâ jepee DeMeeskeâ veneR Lee~ Gmekesâ Oeeefce&keâ GheosMe JÙeehekeâ veweflekeâ efveÙeceeW kesâ mebkeâueve meceÙe-meceÙe hej heÇpee peveeW keâes Oeeefce&keâ GheosMe osles Les~ Les Deewj Ùes DelÙeble ner mejue, heefJe$e Deewj JÙeeJeneefjkeâ Les~ veeruekeâC" MeeŒeer kesâ Devegmeej - ``DeMeeskeâ keâe Oece& meeceeefpekeâ meoeÛeej kesâ Oece&heÇmeej keâe keâeÙe& Ùen Lee efkeâ DeMeeskeâ ves meeceüepÙe kesâ meYeer efveÙeceeW keâe JÙeJeneefjkeâ ™he mes mebieÇn Lee Deewj Fmekeâe Oece& DeLeJee YeeieeW ceW mlethe, ce" Deewj efJenej yeveJeeÙes~ Oece& kesâ heÇmeej kesâ keâeÙe& ceW Oece&Meem$e mes yengle keâce mebyebOe Lee~'' le=leerÙe yeewæ mebieerefle DeeÙeesefpele keâjJeeÙee~ yeewæ DeeÛeeÙe& DeMeeskeâ kesâ `Oecce' keâer Skeâ ceneve efJeMes

-222- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 meboYe& 6. ÛeewOejer jeOeeke=â

4. Mookerji Radha Kumud, Asoka, Motilal 10. Thapar Romila, Ashoka and the Decline of the Banarasidass, Delhi, 2002 Mauryas, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, P 169 5. ef$ehee"er jeceeMebkeâj, heÇeÛeerve Yeejle keâe Fefleneme, ceesleerueeue 11. yeveejmeeroeme, heefyueMeme&, efouueer, 1998 Shastri N.K., Age og Nandas and Mauryas, P 240

-223- Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 Anusandhanika / Vol. IX / No. I / January 2011 / pp. 224-227 ISSN 0974 - 200X veeuevoe efJeMJeefJeÅeeueÙe keâe yeewæ efMe#ee kesâvõ kesâ ™he ceW efJekeâeme heg

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