Message of the President

On March 21st, the great festival of Norouz will be celebrated all over the world, specially here in the ECO region, with great enthusiasm and joy. It has been celebrated passionately for several millennia, by the people living in the "Norouz territory", because in essence, it is interlaced with the awakening or rebirth of the nature itself, after a barren winter. Today, nations and countries need the guidance of universal values. They have to make the transition from a culture of disintegration to a culture of dialogue, peace and cooperation. We, in the ECO region, are very fortunate. We share so much in so many diverse fields, apart from the bonds of faith and culture, history and heritage. We have strong commonalities in arts and crafts, language and Literature, prose and poetry. These are in evidence in many of our precious manuscripts, ancient mon- uments and historical land-marks, which are living symbols of a history shared, of a common past, of a life linked and lived together. Their glowing sparkles have illuminated the whole world for centuries. That is why I call ECO region as the "Land of Sun". I never forget these words of my professor of political Philosophy in Lyon University of France who used to say: "We live in the West and you live in the East, but the sun of knowledge and science shines from the East".

At the threshold of the great ancient festivity of Norouz, ECO Cultural Institute is also commemorating the Anniversary of the signing of the its Charter by the ECO Member States in Islamabad, Pakistan, in March of 1995. ECI has aims and objectives which bear directly on ECO's image and standing. It has a role most fundamental and important - a role in strengthening the foun- dation that holds ECO's edifice of regional cooperation. This edifice rests on a shared history, on a shared heritage, a visible affinity in culture and a continuing commonality in faith. These are the bonds that bind us in one fraternity, in one family. ECI's function is to strengthen these ties, to sustain these linkages, to expand these connections, to deepen this connectivity. It is with great pleasure for me to state that ECI's performance has improved steadily and visibly in the past few months. It has taken some bold actions in the areas of arts and culture which has already won the appreciation from the 20th Regional Planning Council, held in Antalya, Turkey, 16-18 Feb. 2010. While RPC has greatly welcomed the new set of forward-looking initiatives taken up by the Institute, it has also called on Member States to fully join ECI. That is indeed nec- essary, for cultural cooperation cannot be confined, cannot be compartmental- ized. It has to be inclusive, to have a fuller, regional impact. At the conclusion, let me say that Norouz brings tidings of a happier year - a year which, I hope, will be more peaceful, more prosperous for our people, for our land, for our region and indeed for all people of the Earth. I extend to all of you my heartiest greetings and my warmest felicitations on this great occasion of joy and elation. May the spirit of cooperation and peace prevail over the forces of segregation and despair. Amen!

Hojatollah Ayoubi The views expressed by the writers/ 6 ECO Heritage Holds Round- authors of the articles, published in Table Discussion “ECO Heritage” do not necessarily represent the views of ECI, but are the personal views of the authors 12 Glory Of Norouz themselves.

Economice cooperation organization 20 Colorful Jashn-e-Baharan is an inter-govermental regional organization established in 1985 by Celebrations in Pakistan Islamic Republic of Iran, slamic Republic of Pakistan and Republic of The Development of Turkey for the purpose of promoting 26 economic, technical and cultural Yasawiyah Path cooperation among the Member States. It was the successor organiza- tion of what was the Regional 36 ECI Co-Sponsors UNESCO Cooperation for Development Workshop on (RCD), founded in 1964, which ended activities in 1979. In the fall of Memory of the World 1992, the ECO expanded to include seven new Members, namely Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Republic of 40 The Evolution of Persian Azerbaijan, Republic of Kazakhstan, Painting Kyrgyz Republic, Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Republic of Uzbekistan. ECO’s secre- 56 Finding Hope After tariat and cultural department are located in Tehran. ECO Cultural Displacement, Institute (ECI) is affiliated with ECO Afghan Refugees in Iran and aims at fostering, understanding and the preservation of the rich cul- tural heritage of its members through 60 Ishak Pasha Palace, common projects in the field of the Turkey Splendor in Isolation media, literature, art, philosophy, sport and education. ECO HERITAGE Isuee 12 . Vol 4 . Winter 2010

Published by ECO Cultural Institue Managing Director Dr. Hojatollah Ayoubi President, ECI Head of Supervisory Board Hafiz Muhammad Jamil Owaisi Exeletive Director Senior Cultural Advisor AlSeyyed Mostafa Abtahi Editor in Chief & Project Manager Ali Sabzalian Editorial Board Parisa Firouzkouhi Fereydoun Tarapour Printing Mohammad Reza Alidoost 66 Elements of Persian Carpets, Graphic Design Designs, Patterns & Motifs Seyed Kianoush Saadatmand Seyedeh Sara shafiee Photography 72 Pakistan's Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Kaveh Farahmand The Dust of Passing Days Taimaz Kaviyani

Tehran Museum of Contemporary Advisory Board 76 Abdol-Ghafour Arezoo - Afghanistan Arts Hassan Aminian - Iran Hassan Anooshe-Iran 86 Tajikistan's Rich and Old History of Ali Akbar Ash'ari-Iran Mehdi Sanaee - Iran Arts & Crafts Mohammad Ali Shoaee-Iran Mohammad Rajabi-Iran 96 Turkmen's Tamdyrlama, Galym Bokash - Kazakhstan A Delicacy for a Patient Gourmet Ali Arif - Pakistan Mirza Molla Ahmad - Tajikistan Shahmansoor Khajaev -Tajikistan 100 The "Turkish House" Of The Ali Temizel - Turkey Ottoman Period

Address No. 27-Pardis St., Mola Sadra Ave, Tehran, (I.R. Iran) Post Code \ 1991953181 P.O.Box \ 19395-6414, Tehran(I.R. Iran) Front Cover: Tel \ (+98-21)88795330-1 Patients in the Hope of Cure, Unknown Fax \ (+98-21)88792379 Artist, Sa'adi's Boustan 2164, Email \ [email protected] 1562, Golestan Palace Museum, Tehran ECO Heritage Round-Table Discussion The Ancient Cultural & Commercial Ties in the Region & It's Role in the Integration of ECO Countries Translation by: Ali Sabzalian

From Left to Right: Mr. Shah Mansour Khojaev (Tajikistan), Mr. Hasan Anoosheh (Iran), ECI President Mr. H. Ayyubi (Iran), ECI Exec. Dir. Muhammad Jameel Owaisi

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Opening Remarks by ECI President, Mr. Hojatollah Ayyubi :

ne of our most impor- tant objectives in ECO Cultural Institute is hold- Najeeb Mayel Heravi ing of such meetings (Afghanistan) Owherein compatible Among the contemporary human The 1st round table experts would gather; present their beings, those who base the foundation discussion, focusing on views, so that the results of their of their faith in the Hijra and pre- Hijra the "history of cultural thoughts and ideas get published. cultural eras, are on the belief that and commercial ties Although we have active centers of human being's true homeland are the among the countries of Western, Eastern and U.S. studies mother- earth and the surrounding uni- ECO region and its rele- here in Iran but surprisingly, we do verse. vance toward today's not know enough about our neigh- Due to the distress caused by the integration of the boring countries, which are actually political upheavals in the world, we are Member States" was part of our own cultural heritage. organized by the "ECO forced to take well-planned cultural Heritage", ECI's English Today, if we want to inquire about measures, to benefit ECO's political insti- language quarterly cul- our luminaries and legendaries, we tutions, through people with sensible tural /research Journal at would have to travel to our neighbor- political understanding. Because, eco- the conference hall of ing countries, where we have many nomic development would come about, the ECO Cultural common customs and traditions, and only when culture has a chance to Institute, on Monday, 21 if we decide to revive the Norouz rit- thrive. The reverse process is also true, December, 2009. uals, we will have to both visit our as it was witnessed in some societies in Mr. Najeeb Mayel own cities and provinces as well as the past. Heravi, a prominent travel to regional countries, because I will try to offer a reference, scholar from we would find much of our forgotten expressed in the make-believe debate, Afghanistan, Mr. customs, languages and traditions Shahpour Ravasani, an between an "arrow and a pen" (teer va Iranian Professor of his- there. ghalam), composed by Masoud Ghomi, tory in German universi- Therefore, meetings of this sort, during the reign of Husain Byram, which ties and Mr. Hasan have the capacity to even attract uni- fortunately has been published and is Anoosheh, a well known versities to get involved in such issues. available. This collection attests to the research scholar from Furthermore, I am on the opinion that fact that no politics or economy would Iran, presented their such a small meeting could be benefi- bear fruits without cultural considera- points of view on the cial to all countries of the region, if it tions. subject matter. The was held on more specialized basis. Therefore, institutions aspiring toward meeting was moderated In the past, Dr. Rajabi, (ECI's ex- a globalized world through political by Mr. Shah Mansour President), paid great attention to this Khojaev of Tajikistan. means, should strongly consider culture ECI President, Dr. H. matter, and I hope this trend would as a viable tool in their undertaking. Ayyubi, formally inaugu- continue in the future, as we have the Especially when "homeland"(vatan), does rate the Meeting, wel- capacity to engage in such activities. no longer carry the same meaning as it comed the guests and ECI's two existing journals could be used to have, for a great majority of briefed the floor about proper channels to cover this devel- people today. Yesterdays' "homeland" future ECI programs. At opment. There are also good grounds with its thick ancient wall has shown its the conclusion, the for publication of books. Yesterday, value for the whole ECO countries. speakers entertained we inked a Memorandum of Therefore the collective cultural body of some spirited questions Understanding with one of the impor- the organization should not allow the posed by the tant publishing houses here; likewise, fortification of the existing political walls audience. we spoke with other publishing com- among the member states. On the con- panies and tried to encourage them trary, they should emphasize on their to identify ECO region's prominent lit- commonality rather than any possible erary figures and help them to publish their work and books. to us, in such a way, that we would feel the sense of affinities among us and dis- cover the existing commonalities among us. The kind of researches which should be considered at ECI, are those which discord among them. would focus on descriptive and synchro- fied versions of these works. I hope ECI According to well documented evi- nized actions, which would allow us to would succeed in addressing those cru- dence, the commonalities among most have a better understanding of our cial issues which are the common dilem- ECO members, have well existed before today's state of affairs and give us a clear ma of all culturally involved people of and after Hijra, and there is no need to perspective of the cultural situations our region. Thank you for your atten- be verified again. In the article, "let us among the ECO member states. tion. pass this difficult night" (Bogzar ta az in The culture of ECO region, with its shabe doshvar bogzarim) which I have vast and extensive setting seems so frail (Prof.) Shahpour Ravasani authored twenty years ago, I have point- that needs to be inspected in light. Does Today, the issue of unity among the ed out for the need to further examine this culture, in its totality, posses enough ECO Member States as well as Eastern the term: "homeland" in our region and strength to continue marching forward? countries is a necessity. It is no longer a its present day relevance. We should try to go beyond the kind of problem that could be left What kind of culture does "national sphere of "name" and enter the realm of to mere intellectual discus- homeland" carry? How urgent is the "adjective", a path which was experi- sions of our past literary need for the establishment of a "cultural enced in our culture throughout the his- works. The African homeland"? What values do the other Unity is currently being shaped. Why should in African coun- Tajikistan, Molavi's tries, based on Mathnavi or other their socio- cultural com- cherished literary monality are works of the luminaries establishing be read through alpha- "United States" of bets which makes it Africa. impossible to reach Since ten their deep cultural years ago, reverberations. efforts have Najeeb Mayel Heravi been spent to create "Union of cultures, positioned along the way, can tory. Societies which remain stagnated South America". The teach and learn from us? in the stage of "name" do not know their recent development It is my wish that ECO Cultural "adjectives". When they are not cog- between Venezuela, Bolivia Institute can reach to such a high level of nizant of their "adjectives" then the and others is the product of their development that will enable it to pro- name also loses its merit. extensive discussions since twenty years vide a clear definition for culture, both Why should in Tajikistan, Molavi's ago. in terms of theory and in practice. Mathnavi or other cherished literary Considering our current situation, Comprehension of the two is interrelat- works of the luminaries be read through establishment of "United States", on the ed. alphabets which makes it impossible to basis of common culture and shared his- As far as region's culture is concerned, reach their deep cultural reverberations. tory among different people and nation- we have been overly neglectful. The Here, I would like to offer a modest alities, is no longer an option but a main part of this negligence lies in our proposal and a reminder to our friends necessity. It is not a detached classic dis- failure to truly get to know each other in ECI, even though; this may already cussion around cultural affairs. This and take advantage of the valuable eco- have been acted upon and that is, may urgency also applies to us. It is with the nomic and cultural capabilities available we send unified collections of all literary hope of taking the first steps in material- works of our legendaries to all the coun- tries of the region, where these works were authored, so that we all have uni-

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people of these countries since the ancient times, we will discover that the composition of their languages have been developed through a very logical and consistent pattern. For example; the Orientalists have developed for us, the izing the idea of "United States of East" ancient Persian map, the Safavid map, do research on the common culture of that I am addressing this gathering. the Achaemenian map, and etc. the "East", from a cultural perspective The Orientalists classified some peo- The efforts which ECO has initiated, and not from a political stance. ple as part of the Achaemenian dynasty to survey our history, deserves great and still categorized the same, as part of credit. It is not sufficient that we only Hasan Anooshe the Assyrians, so that they may fill the refer to our classic literature; rather we The cultural relations in this region history as desired. must appraise our ancient past, our art were so extensive that would defy any They Intentionally modified the histo- and religion as well. We should consider explicit boundaries or borderlines. There ry and for each of us fabricated a sepa- the start of our history from 8000 years was only one territory or region, known rate history, as they wished. When we ago and not simply refer to the present with a common language, faith and cul- look at the geographical boundaries of day border lines, so that we would not ture. countries from North Africa to plunge into a nationalistic racism. Abuali Sina, originally from Kharam Central Asia, all have been When we study our ancient history, area would leave his place of birth to created in the past 150 we realize that we had only territories become a Vezir(Minister) in Isfahan and years, while we realize identified as the Medes and Persians Hamedan. We don't find such a situa- these countries tion even in today's famous groupings, especially the ECO members, They Intentionally have a proven modified the history as history of at least 6000 they wished. years. It is a When we look at the great dis- geographical bound- crepancy indeed. aries of countries from Oil com- North Africa to Central panies and Asia, all have been cre- big govern- ments, based ated in the past 150

on their political Shahpour Ravasani years, interests, sliced up such as European Union, that a French fictitious maps and which did not have border lines such as man could become a Minister in accordingly created what we see today existing between Germany or a German individual could false historical identities for Iran, Afghanistan etc. They have had a occupy this position in England. them, which are not based on common culture for thousands of years, Renowned scholars such as Zaheer history religion or nationality and are whereas today we only look at their his- Faryabi, of Faryab and Kamal Khojandi not even based on geographical identity. tory since 150 years ago. It is for this rea- of Khojand would leave their home If, we study these countries' ancient son that we are manipulated by foreign town and chose to live in Tabriz. The history, we don't find any of these bor- political elements. famous Shoukat Bokharaei of Bukhara der lines. Political boundaries are fabri- I hope what this Institute has started, was buried in Isfahan. Likewise, great cated ones, meant to separate us. would continue in the future, so that we philosopher, Imam Fakhr-e Razi left Rey From the stand point of language, lit- would revive our true past identity. and was put to rest in Herat. erature, art and culture, we find aston- Fortunately, there are enough docu- So, such cultural and political interac- ishing similarities among the countries of ments and factual evidences to support tions did exist among our ancestors since the region. the undertaking. Unfortunately, we were a long time ago. Even if there were polit- By examining the languages of the deprived of this opportunity, because we ical disputes among the political elites of didn't have such a center in the past to do the relevant research on the subject. I hope we will have the opportunity to Turkish minorities who comfortably co- exist among us with no difficulties and we are not at odd with each other. But we know the bloodiest war of history were fought in Europe, like the 2nd World War, in which 4 million people those societies, the common ordinary were killed, 40 millions injured and a tory in Kashgar, but Iran never had any people did not have this problem. great part of human cultural heritage political sovereignty over Kashgar. For example, although the Persians were lost. 2- The problem of "conspiracy had their longest war with the Ottomans Here, I am not suggesting that we theory" , a mental disease which has from Safavid's Shah Abbas to should build new relationships among us been negatively affecting the countries of Mohammad Shah of Ghajar dynasty, from the scratch, but rather we should the region and doesn't allow these coun- nevertheless there were normal cultural revive our past linkage. tries to get to know each other better, inter-relations among the people of both Although, our relations have been specially, when we have commonality in sides. greatly enhanced since the Soviet disin- language, culture and to a large extent in In Central Asia, the indigenous gov- tegration, but those are not enough. our common belief. ernments, from the Sheibanese to There are two main problems, which Although, some positive steps have Manghities, were supportive of Persian have adverse effects on our inter-relation been taken to remedy the situation, but culture and the same was true among development: it seems, they are not enough. Last year, the Persians. 1-"Nationalistic Chauvinism" which Sultan Saleem's collection were pub- Today, we have many poets in has been growing steadily in the Central lished which is a positive step forward. Azarbaijan who compose Turkish poet- It is my hope that cultural collabora- tion would enhance other kinds of col- Abuali Sina, originally laboration (among the ECO countries) from Kharazm area and help people easily travel within the would leave his place member states without Visa require- ments! of birth to become a Vezir(Minister) in Question & Answer Session Isfahan and Hamedan. Q: Many of our luminaries and leg- We don't find such a endaries do not belong to any particular situation even in political persuasions and therefore divid- today's famous group- ing them on the basis of national bound- ings, such as EU aries, like Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Hasan Anooshe etc, would hurt cultural unity of the region, because they all played roles in ries. Among the most famous of such Asia and to some extent in today's Iran. the formation of civil and cultural fabrics poetries is "Haidar Babai Salaam". There Of course, this notion has political roots. of our region. How do you address this were similar trend in trade. It is true that we have had a distinct problem? Transportation and commerce enjoyed cultural entity, known as "Persian cul- favorable conditions during that time. ture", but that should not be mixed with Hasan Anooshe: I think all such For example, they would export melon, "political culture". barriers could be removed if we only a perishable fruit, from Bokhara to The Persian culture had penetrated as reject illusion and egocentricity. The era Bagdad. Fabrics of Shushtar were sold in far as Bengal. Sudi Busnavi wrote com- of Pan-Turkism, Pan-Iranism, Pan- Maghrib-Aghsa. mentaries on Hafiz and Saadi's Gulestan Arabism etc, have expired. They could In the Seyyedai Nasafi's collection, I and Bustan in Bosnia - Herzegovina. no longer can be revived or supported came across a word: "Sar esbeki" which Albania's Naeem Farshidi composed his and should be left to the history. Every is in common use in Mazandaran poetries in Persian language. Persian country should live within its borders, be Province in northern Iran and implies to culture and Persia language (Farsi) had friend with its surrounding neighbors do something in a hurry. Today, we have once reached near the borders of and still by means of those neighbors numerous Turkmens, Kazakhs and (today's) Italy. In Kashgar, (China), should seek the friendship of other Saadud-din Kashgari composed poetries and authored many books in Farsi. Haidar Mirza also wrote his book on his-

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tasl, but if we don't start, it will never get done. We have a duty to enlighten dif- ferent stratum of our society about his- torical facts. For example, here in Tehran, we have an Iran- Pakistan- Afghanistan Friendship Association. We countries. could invite them to discuss about their The end result of 50 years of work current problems. There are many stu- led to the formation of the European Q: There was a suggestion by some- dents of Central Asia, we could invite Union. They did not create the EU one in the panel for the formation of them and talk about their common cul- through the gatherings of their politicians "Eastern Union". How can you achieve tural heritage. alone. Paris and London have had a such an ambitious goal? It took the European Union, more deep political dispute but now they than 50 years to be formed. They started don't talk about it. But we, in our history, Shapour Ravasani: "East" is a cul- from kindergartens, grade schools and had an imagery war with the Turks, as tural term. Can't we bring together stu- family circles. In their universities, they narrated in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh but dents, cultural experts, anthropologists, established research centers, allocated we continue to pass on the story to our of the countries of East and collectively budgets for them and required a student new generations. start doing research on our ancient histo- to investigate about a particular country. ry? Of course this would be a difficult Glory Of Norouz "The International Day of Peace" & The Common Cultural Heritage of ECO Countries Compiled by : ECO Heritage Staff Memmbers

Perspolis, Iran - depicting Norouz Festivities 12 ECO HERITAGE Issue 12 - Vol 4 13

he ECO region is a token of more than seven thousand years of human history and it has nurtured major human civilizations of the world. In fact nowadays we can consider this vast geographical area as the common homeland of all nations resid- ebrated as the seventh great feast of the Ting in this region, which enjoy profound historical and cultural year and it was known as the New Day. commonalities. Among the many ceremonies and festivals cel- The reason is that Norouz is the symbol ebrated by the people of ECO region, undoubtedly Norouz of hope and the day which brought stands as one of the oldest and most significant one. with it happiness to man who was tired Norouz or as it is called Novruz, Nowrouz, Nooruz, of and challenged by the "mixed uni- Navruz, Nauroz or Nevruz in other ECO countries, is cele- verse" and gave him new courage and brated on 21st of March, which is considered as New Year capability. holiday and the beginning of Spring. There are various cere- The ancient ceremony of Norouz is monies, rituals, and cultural events held within every family beyond the call of refreshing the memo- and community. ry of a long-standing civilization. In fact It enjoys traditional games, special cuisines, respect for it is a tie between the past, present and nature, performances in music and dances, oral expressions future. It is said that ancient feasts are and literature, handicrafts and painting masterpieces (in partic- directly rooted in culture, history, geog- ular miniature arts). Values of peace and solidarity, reconcilia- raphy, and religious and moral fabric of tion and neighborhood, cultural diversity and tolerance, society. According to some ancient tales healthy life-style and renewal of living environment are pro- and narratives, the creation, fall of moted and transmitted from generation to generation during Adam, and the Prophetic Mission of this cultural event. Women play a major role in the cultural Prophet Mohammad (pbuh), have all event, by managing the ceremonies and disseminating the tra- taken place on Norouz. Also, the ditional knowledge to the youth. It is a part of and strengthens ancient people believed that along with the cultural identity of the states parties involved. the renaissance in nature, the souls of International Recognition the dead return to the material world and spend a couple of days among their Beside being inscribed in 2009 on the UNESCO relatives. Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of All of the factors aforementioned Humanity, on Feb. 24, 2010 with adoption of a resolution in have caused Norouz to be a long-stand- the United Nations, Norouz was named as International Day ing and enduring ceremony in the of Peace. The resolution was adopted in consensus by mem- course of time in ECO region and it is ber states of the UN among them most ECO countries were thus celebrated joyously to express grati- represented. In a joint initiative with Azerbaijan Republic, tude for all the blessing God has grant- Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and ed. These nations celebrate the arrival of Kyrgyzstan, Iran's permanent representative to the United the New Year in the form of colorful Nations, prepared the resolution. All these countries celebrate ceremonies resting upon their own reli- the day as a national day. Norouz Day was approved in the gious, cultural and historical back- UN General Assembly on its February 23, 2010 meeting in grounds: New York in the framework of "Peace Culture." "Norouz is not just a day in the calendars, but is a deep- rooted culture which brings hope, peace and happiness to millions of human beings on earth" said the Resolution. Norouz ( Also spelled Norooz, Narooz, Nawruz, Newroz) The Origin of Norouz In the ECO Region To know the origin of Norouz, it may be stated that the invention of Solar Calendar was a major step forward in the Norouz marks the New Year and the process of understanding time and having foreknowledge of beginning of spring across a vast geo- the intervals between springs, summer, autumn and winter. graphical area covering, inter alia, Norouz is the name given to the first day of the first month of Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Solar Calendar, Farvardin which coincides with March 21st. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Beginning of the spring and the other at the outset of autumn, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, were the two significant origins for greatest feast Norouz. Uzbekistan and elsewhere in the world. Norouz was in fact honored as the symbol of fire and was cel- It is celebrated on 21 March every year, a date originally determined by astro- smoothly the year ahead would be a prosperous one. Season cleaning and performing different kinds of contests such as Bozkashi are among the other ceremonies in this country.

Norouz in Azerbaijan: nomical calculations. Norouz is associat- The people in Azerbaijan have deep enthusiasm and inter- ed with various local traditions, such as est in celebrating Norouz; therefore, they make various the evocation of Jamshid, a mythological arrangements to welcome the ancient tradition. They com- king of Iran, and numerous tales and pose songs; plan puzzles, praises and curses, proverbs and legends. The rites that accompany the advice, and wits; prepare the Norouz ceremonial settings festivity vary from place to place, rang- (Sofreh-ye haft Sin), etc. ing from leaping over fires and streams Buying new clothes, performing the season cleaning, weav- in Iran to tightrope walking, leaving lit ing new carpets, and floor covers are among the customs ful- candles at house doors, traditional filled prior to Norouz. Also, people pay more attention than games such as horse racing or the tradi- ever to rituals such as fortune telling etc. For instance, on the tional wrestling practiced in Kyrgyzstan. eve of last Wednesday of the year, young single girls would Songs and dances are common to make a wish and hide themselves behind a half ope n door. almost all the regions, as are semi-sacred They believe that, should the first words heard be favorable; family or public meals. their wish would come Children are the pri- true in the New Year. mary beneficiaries of This encourages the the festivities and take people to avoid back- part in a number of biting and reminding activities, such as deco- unpleasant things as rating hard-boiled eggs. much a' possible. There Women play a key role are impressive and in organizing Norouz memorable customs and passing on its tradi- practiced among the tions. Norouz promotes people in Azerbaijan the values of peace and such as sending large solidarity between gen- tray (Khan) of erations and within "Samanoo" throwing of families, as well as rec- fur hats to the doors, onciliation and neigh- hanging cloth bags borliness, thus con- through the holes in the tributing to cultural roofs to demand gifts, diversity and friendship etc. among peoples and var- ious communities. Norouz in Iran: Each page of Iran's Norouz in history testifies that Afghanistan: Norouz has been the The famous banner most ancient tradition named after Imam Ali Buzkashi during Norouz in Afghanistan and one of the most (A) is erected in the celebrated day among morning of Narouz, and by so doing Iranians. It is the heritage of the days to which nothing can sail the ceremonies of Jahanda Bala officialy but legends and myths. Norouz has been a spiritual change in starts and last for 40 days and nights. the monotonous circle of years and serves as a mental flour- During this period, all of those who ishment- particularly by the Iranian nation who owes its very have a heartfelt wish and the ailed stay existence through the ups and downs of history to this sensi- at the foot of the banner and crave for ble and ancient tradition. Interestingly enough, Norouz their wish to come true. It is said that became even more attractive in Iran upon the emergence of many of the patients have recovered Islam, since it became closely interwoven with Iranian culture. under this very banner. They also It even appreciated Norouz, for it mirrored admiration for believe that should the banner be held beauty, human values, affection, and amity.

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Norouz in Kazakhstan: In Kazakhstan, Norouz is considered to be the point of ver- nal equinox, a time, during which everything becomes refreshed and when the whole world is filled with joy and happiness. The Kazakhs believe that Norouz is the beginning of the year and they have beautiful saying regarding it: Nonetheless, senior citizens in the vil- "Norouz has been awaited for one whole year; Blessings lages are in charge of the ceremony in descend at Norouz; and finally: The Azure gem of Samarqand the rural areas. The feast is held in the will melt at Norouz". The Kazakhs perform season cleaning big squares of the cities as well as vast before Norouz, for they believe it will push away all ailments lands around the villages. Cooking spe- and problems. They light two candles and hang it above the cial dishes such as "Besh Barmaq", door since the moment of New Year to "Shab-e-Qazir". On "Mantah", "Borsak", and "Katma" is very the New Year eve, the Kazakh girls cook a dish with the last popular, particularly that the food is dis- portions of the horse meat called "Oyqi Ashar" and serve their tributed for free among the people. beloved boys. The young men exchange presents such as There are a number of contests going on combs, mirrors and perfume as gifts. They believe that this at Norouz as well. interchange of gifts would increase love between them. Another ceremony performed by young men is saddling an Norouz in Pakistan: untamed horse and Norouz is called sting a dull-their hand- "Alam Afrouz" in made product- on it. Pakistan meaning the They let the horse gal- new day that illumi- lop through their place at exactly three in the morning to wake the Norouz became even people up. This is a symbolic show repre- more attractive in Iran upon senting the arrival of the emergence of Islam, the New Year. since it became closely There are well- interwoven with Iranian known contests among Kazakhs on the occa- culture.It even appreciated sion of Norouz, among Norouz, for it mirrored which "Qol-Tozaq" is admiration for beauty, one performed between men and human values, affection, women. Should the and amity. women win, they believe the New Year to be one filled with nates the world with its prosperity and blessing. arrival. It has an exclu- However, if the men sive importance among win, they consider it to the people, and there- be unfavorable year. Norouz Celebration in Kazakhstan fore, different social "Koekpar", picking goats and religious groups by men riding on horses, "Avdar Yespaq", wrestling, "Qiz Qov" elucidate in details about it in the calen- and "Alti Baqan" are instances of other contests and games dars they publish. The calendar is called held on Norouz. Jantri. Season cleaning, putting on new clothes, preparing certain sweets such as Norouz in Kyrgyz Republic: "Luddoo", "Golab Jamen", "Rus Malai" , Only one day is celebrated as Norouz in Kyrgyzstan. The "cake", "Barfi" , "Shekar Pareh", "Cream entire ceremony had been forgotten under the Soviets; how- Roll", "Souhan Halva", and giving and ever, upon the collapse of the ex-USSR it has gained further receiving gifts (Eidi) is among the cere- importance and is celebrated in a better way each year. It is monies practiced in Pakistan. During the government that takes care of the celebration in the cities. Norouz, people avoid unfavorable talks On this day, Hakim-Bashi (the court doctor) would prepare a certain medicine called Norouzieh that included 40 sub- stances. It was believed that the drink would reinforce the physical strength and heal many of illnesses. Norouz is consid- ered to be the revitalization of nature. It is also believed to and follow a kind attitude towards each coincide with the holy night of Qadr', Innocence; the birthday other. Composing and reciting poems in of Imam Ali (a.s), and his wedding with Hazrat Fatima (s). It is Urdu, Dari and Arabic are quite trendy worth noting that Norouz was appreciated among the Turks as well. Pakistani people believe that until the prime of republicanism; however, it gradually lost its hope, peace, and amity in the Islamic significance and presently exists in northern parts of Turkey. world are the destinations of Norouz. They believe that this way freedom, for- Norouz in Turkmenistan: tune, happiness, fraternity, and equity The arrival of the New Year is celebrated twice in would rest in the souls-and hearts of the Turkmenistan: once in January when the international people. Christian year begins, and the other in Norouz as a marker of reviving the ancient tradition in the country. They believe Norouz in Tajikistan: that when Jamshid, the fourth king in the Pishdadian dynasty, Norouz is of great importance among called the day of his take over as Norouz. The Turkmens cele- the people in Tajikistan- brate Norouz by cook- particularly for those ing special Norouz dish- from Badakhshan who es such as "Norouz consider it as the Koja", "Norouz Bameh", national tradition of "Samani" and perform- their ancestors. They ing different games and consider it to hold the contests by the youth. secrets of amity and There are several other name the day as "Khidir races held on Norouz Ayam" (the great Eid). such as horseback rid- People in Tajikistan and ing, wrestling, leaping, particularly in rooster fight, sheep Badakhshan, perform fight, chess, Mohre Bazi season cleaning, and and swinging. Visiting wash the dishes. relatives and friends According to an old tra- twice, has an elevated dition the lady in each position among the house strikes two red- Turkmens. dish brooms, which have been collected Norouz in from the mountains in Uzbekistan: the fall, outside the Norouz known as door when the sun has Navruz in Uzbekistan is raised as much as two celebrated as a popular beams of light. They occasion. consider red to be Norouz Celebration in Tajikistan Rokim's book and bringing luck for the Gulzori Kutub, which people. Cooking certain dishes and are collection of poetic scripts were published in Bukhara in sweets is also customary among the 1915. It described the traditions and customs of Norouz, peo- Tajiks. Contests such as wrestling, swing- ple's relationships and in particular, the fact that the celebra- ing, egg rolling, goat-killing, rooster and tion of the event would unite all people regardless of their partridge fight are also popular at this religions and nationalities. It describes how Navruz was cele- time of the yea brated in the XIXth century. Another famous book: "Navrouznoma" also depicted various events related to Norouz in Turkey: Navrouz. The very fact that it gives information on Navrouz Norouz was among the few occa- testifies that this was an important event and a well enjoyed sions Ottomans celebrated in Turkey. holiday even in those days.

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Norouz & Edible Ritual of Novruz in the eyes of an Samanu- Azerbaijani Pazan child By : Mohammad Mirshokraee The Anthropology Cente, Iran Cultural Heritage, Novruz is a great holiday in Handicrafts and Tourism Organization many Muslim countries. Novruz is a great holiday in Typology of foodstuffs, include the methods of preparation Azerbaijan, too. We usually and consumption, constitute part of our cultural identities. celebrate Novruz on the 21st Passed over from one generation to another, the foodstuffs of March as the beginning of generally produced and frequently consumed by communi- the New Year. With the com- ties, gradually give rise to development and subsequent propa- ing of Novruz the Sun begins gation of an accumulated state of respect and holiness among to shine brightly, the weather people. gets warmer and warmer, Throughout the "Norouz territory", wheat enjoys the stance snow begins to melt in the as the most basic frequently used crop. All aspects related to mountains and fields, the wheat, from the land on which it is cultivated and harvested, Earth awakes from her winter sleep, and birds of passage to the mill where it is ground, to the oven where it is baked, in return to their place and vio- one way or another, carry a ring of holiness and respect. lets and snowdrops begin to The whole range of the related activities encompass a rich peep through the ground in collection of traditionally and ritually respected customs, all of the gardens and forests. I must which having their roots deep in our people's sacred beliefs in say that every family does his the region. These include pouching, reaping, threshing, clean- best to meet Novruz as well as ing, dividing, weighing, grinding, kneading, baking, and in possible. Grandmothers and some cases, it involves the rituals related to the consumption mothers prepare fa sali: of the produced bread. shakarbura, pakhlava and This is why wheat, its flour, the grass-plot grown out of other cakes with great pleas- wheat grains (Sabze) and Samanu, the foodstuff prepared from ure. They dye eggs in different wheat sprout sap, all occupy a special place on the Sofreh colors: red, yellow, blue, Haft-Sin (the Norouz table arrangement) and this is why green and brown. On the eve Samanu always accompany Norouz festivities, wherever of Novruz people clean their Norouz is celebrated. It may be hypothesized that the first flats, houses, yards and gar- dens. Everybody takes a bath instances of familiarization with the sweet taste of wheat may before Novruz comes. On the have, quite possibly been through absorbing the silver sprouts, day of Novruz people put on grown out of the grains. The hypothesis could be further elab- their new clothes, relatives orated to suggest that guiding the experience with the mysteri- and friends visit one another, ous taste, may have caused to develope some kind of belief- congratulate each other based behavior among ancient people. Both the silver sprout heartily and wish every suc- and the sweet sap must have presented the believing people cess to each other; people with some thoughts about the Hereafter or the life after death. who are at odds with each People, then, acquired cooking, by way of which they were other reconcile on that day. able to turn the sap into Samanu, and the latter into a medi- Children like the Novruz holi- um linking them, the wheat consuming communities, to the day best of all. People meet holy bodies that had filled their worlds of religious beliefs. Novruz with great pleasure. Today, all of the communities scattered on Norouz territory Gazanova Gulsum, School # l64 sprouting in the few days to come. In Kulyab, Tajikistan, the containers are kept in mosques, around sacred places of pilgrimage, or on plains outside the villages, where they are looked after by men. The sprouts are then handed over to a gathering by neigh- regard Samanu, as well as a number of boring women, headed by their oldest who prays and guides other foodstuffs obtained from wheat the older women to cut and the young to mash them in sprout, as ritual of feast. large stone mortars. Nowadays the fibers are cut in electrical minces. The extract is then strained and filtrated and filled in the cooking pot. Cooking starts after some wheat flour is added. The mixture is continually stirred to be prevented Samanu from being burnt at the bottom. People take turns to stir the liquid with the skimmer while praying and vowing silently. Pazan The ritual which is respected throughout has the effect of preventing the dish from being destroyed. In some regions, The ceremony of men also take part in this stage. cooking Samanu The ceremonial cooking, together with a number of other regional rituals and tra- ditions, performed A collection of rites beside the pot, contin- within the magnificent ues until dawn. Norouz ritual of Samanu-pazan night rit- Samanu-pazan, is con- uals, include regional games for children, reli- The sprouts are gious recitals, especially recitals of the life of then handed over to Hazrat Fatimah Zahra, a gathering by neighbor- the Holy Prophet's ing women, headed by beloved daughter (espe- cially in central Iran), their oldest who prays dances and songs and guides the older (Tajikistan and women to cut and the Uzbekistan), folkloric comic plays (Kulyab, young to mash them Tajikistan), happy songs in large stone in praise of the Holy mortars. Prophet's birth (Kurd communities of As- Sulaymanayah, as well as other Kurd nations of stituted by relatively rich Iraq), and prayers and sets of componential vows for charitable ded- behaviors in different ications (the whole terri- regions. Samanu Pazan in Iran tory), among others. All nations involved with the ritual of Samanu-pazan con- Different Rituals sider it as a feminine-group job. In southern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan Samanu- However, at the initial preparatory pazan is called Jaan-i Samanu, Toy Samanu, and Mile Samanu stage with less ritual activities, men also (all roughly means Samanu feast). are engaged in the cooking process. Respecting the related rituals and traditions, at dawn, The usual cleansing and washing make Samanu is taken off the fireplace. In Iran care is taken to up the first step. The washed grains are cover the pot with a piece of cloth before sunrise, which is to then poured into containers, where remain there till the time Samanu is to be distributed in small they are kept moistened by a cover of dishes. Eastern and Central Iranian communities believe by wet thin cloth. The containers are, this time the trace made by Hazrat Fatimah Zahra's hand is then, transferred to a suitable place for

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detectable on the Samanu, who is believed to come at dawn to bless the dish for abundance by touching it. Among Western Iranian, including Kurdish societies the same effect is attributed to Prophet Khizer. The effect is so highly regarded that the claim prevails throughout that the sweet taste of the dish is obtained only after it has been blessed. Komaj-e Sen Here, the pot is taken to an empty room, where it is sur- Komaj-e Sen is specifically pro- rounded by mirrors, and henna, to wait until it is to be distrib- duced by Boaaqai nomads of Kerman uted at sunrise. By this time, the needy light candles around and Sirjan (South-east Iran) and con- the pot and leave the scene. The rituals for distribution are stitutes a principal component of mostly performed by one of the elders of the family or in the Norouz dish. The dough, formed of neighborhood. She starts with addressing the mentioned holy wheat grain and sprout flour, is spread religious figures and praying for all, especially those who have on a large frying-pan, covered with taken part in the ritual, to remain healthy. In Mukri Kurdistan another piece of the same size, and (near Mahabad, Iran) the woman calls Xeder Zinduk (everliv- dates, walnut, and special spices in ing Khizr) loudly to fulfill the practitioners' needs. In Kulyab, between. When cooked, the mixture Tajikistan, Samanu travels round a sacred place for three times is cut into small lozenges and added by men, then the job of to the components of distribution is started by the Norouz's Haft- women. seen. Originally, Nowadays, inhabi- Komaj-e Seen used to tants of large cities of be cooked on the Iran buy Samanu, occasion of Nowrouz. together with the other Today, however, con- components of Sofre- fectionaries of ye Haftsin, in Nowrooz Kerman produce it markets. However In throughout the year smaller cities, as well as among their tradition- among other nations, al regional cookies. however, the feast is respected together with Halva-ye Seen all of its traditions and The Iranian rituals: Kazakhstan, Zoroastrians produce a Uzbekistan,Tajikistan, special type of Halva Turkmenistan, (sweet paste) from the Afghanistan, Samanu dough, Azerbaijan, and known as Halva-ye Kyrgyzstan, are some Seen. The paste is dis- prominent examples. tributed among the poor on Norouz Norouz Cookies evenings, in celebrat- Foodstuffs of the ing the Farvardegan same nature Samanu Pazan in Turkmenistan Feast, for their dead to Traditional Norouz be forgiven. foodstuffs utilize wheat sprout in two different forms. The first is cooked extracted sap which is known as Samanu, Aangal or Aangmal and the other fresh or dried sprout mixed with wheat In Central, as well as Eastern, flour, out of which different cookies or forms of bread are regions of Iran, the Samanu dough is prepared. Sweet by the special taste of the wheat sprouts, first turned into a special kind of such cookies are prepared in Central, Eastern, and South- Halvaa (an extremely thin regional eastern regions of Iran, as well as some parts of the Central type of bread). The bread is, then, Asia and Afghanistan. These foodstuffs enjoy the sacred mixed with dates, fat, and spices and position like Samanu and, include Komaje Sen, Halva-ye the product, classifiable among Sen, Nan-e Samanu. and Koluae-ye Samanu, among other Nowrooz cookies, is known as Aangal varieties. or Aangmal. Compiled by : Dr. Sikandar Abbas Zaidi (ECI Staff Member) Jashn-e-Baharan (SPRING FESTIVAL) Celebrations in Pakistan

One of the key festivals of Pakistan is called the Jashan-e-Baharan usually begins in Jashan-e-Baharan or the Spring Festival. Jashan-e- mid February and continues till mid Baharan in Pakistan is Believed to be a pre-Islamic march. Though this festival is cele- spring festival that marks the onset of spring. The fer- brated throughout Pakistan but the tile province of Punjab has been intimately tied via most spectacular celebration of its agriculture to different seasons of the year. Jashan-e-Baharan is found in Lahore. The arrival of spring has always been an important event for all farmers and welcomed with celebration, Lahore is decked up appropriate hence the origin of 'Jashan' or celebration is meant to spring attire during this festival. There welcome the arrival of 'Baharan' or spring. Jashan-e- are a plethora of events which take Baharan is also known as the 'Basant' festival in some place during the festival which parts of Pakistan. include musical performances, art

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and flower displays, books and handi- Northern Frontier states of Pakistan par- tions of the Northern areas of Pakistan. crafts stalls as well as the Canal Mela ticipate in the Silk Road Festival but it is If you are contemplating a tour to during which decorated and illumi- attended by Silk Road countries like Pakistan, why not visit this unique nated boats and floats are displayed China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan,Tajikistan, Festival when you visit the country, and on Lahore Canal. Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. The arti- on your visit to Pakistan, don't forget to When you see artisans at work, you sans, crafts men and folk dancers and procure some beautiful handicraft gifts will be surely tempted to buy Pakistan's musicians from all these countries partic- for your loved ones from the different traditional crafts as gifts for your loved ipate in this prestigious Festival to show- gift stores in Pakistan. ones. The endless variety of folk furni- case their indigenous art and culture. ture, crafted utensils, embroidered gar- For centuries, the Silk Route remained Jashn-e-Nowruz (3 Days, ments, gemstones and carved wood the main trading route between the March 21-23) pieces are best gifts for a person who south Asia and central Asia. Nowruz is the traditional Iranian new loves ethnic things. This celebration of Silk Road festival year holiday celebrated in Iran, northern takes place for a week along the Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Silk Road Festival Karakorum Highway in the high valleys Albania, Georgia, the countries of This charming Silk Road Festival or of the Karakorum Mountains at different Central Asia such as Turkmenistan, Silk Route Festival in Pakistan has been locations. Today, Silk Road Festival pro- Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and recently introduced but it has gained vides a great opportunity for travelers to Kazakhstan, as well as among various unprecedented popularity in these few explore the un-spoiled natural beauty other Iranian and Turkic people in Syria, years since it’s introduction. The quin- rugged terrain of the Karakorum high- northwestern China, the Caucasus, the tessential feature of Silk Road Festival way and the erstwhile Silk route or Silk Crimea and the Balkans. Nowruz marks include cultural programs like the local Road. the first day of spring. It is celebrated on tribal dance and songs. They can also get a true insight into the day of the astronomical vernal equi- Not only the different tribes from the the unique cultural and ancient tradi- nox (start of spring in northern hemi- sphere), which usually occurs on the Basant an orgy of kite-flying, rooftop soirees, March 21st or the previous/following The Jashan-e-Baharan festival trans- garden parties and equestrian events. day depending on where it is observed. forms Lahore skies with a plethora of Lahorites and out-of-town enthusiasts In Northern Pakistan (Chitral, Gilgit colorful kites. Celebrations of Jashan-e- come with glamorous clothes, in the yel- and Baltistan), Nowruz is celebrated as a Baharan in Lahore is so famous that low and green of spring flowers bloom- socio-religious festival. It is also celebrat- people flock from all over Pakistan as ing citywide, to bid farewell to the frosts ed with much fervor in Baluchistan and well as different parts of the globe to and fogs of winter and usher in spring. in almost all of Pakistan's major urban take part in this vibrant Festival. Whole Nighttime kite-flying in the walled old centers. The day coincides with the sky wears a look of a colorful canvas due quarter around the 16th century Spring Equinox on March 21, but the to a celebration named Basant Festival. Badshahi Mosque and Lahore Fort celebration continues for weeks. The Basant Festival heralds the end of opens the festival. Ancient mughal In Baltistan, the main features of winter and arrival of spring in mid palaces throw open their doors for all- Nowruz are giving colored eggs to February. It is celebrated in the entire night parties to view the kites, illuminat- friends and polo matches. In Indian subcontinent and particularly in ed by spotlights, slashing the sky. Baluchistan, the festival is marked with Pakistan, with flying kites - perhaps Stars from the local film industry per- outdoor feasts and the traditional jump- because spring generally brings a clear form with classical Qawali musicians at ing over a fire "to wash away sins" and sky and just the right amount of wind. parties in traditional haveli (large stately usher in a fresh start. The origins of this For its fans, kite flying is pure fun. house homes). White paper kites shim- festival are pre-Islamic and dates back to The Festival is the quintessential fea- mer in the night sky, diving and soaring when Pakistan was part of the ture of Jashan-e-Baharan. Although as rival fliers joust in duels marked by Achaemenid and Sassanid Persian Basant Festival has no links with the battle cries of "Pecha"! And victory Empires. Islamic culture, it is becoming very pop- shouts of "Bo kata"! Bursts of drums and Nowruz is held in Gilgit with ular and being celebrated in Lahore, trumpets mark the cutting of a kite's Divisional Polo football, volleyball and every year with zeal and fervent by peo- cord. hockey tournament as the main high- ple of all religious backgrounds: In the city of Lahore, the festival lasts light added with folk dances, music, Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and Christians. three days. In most other cities, there is local games, wrestling, tug of war, acro- Traditionally, celebrants dress in bright only a one-day celebration. batics etc, coupled by exhibitions and yellow or green and many people fly Kite flying has been prohibited in traditional sports, exhibitions of handi- kites from rooftops. Pakistan in 2005 after a number of crafts, regional cuisines, dresses and jew- The city of Lahore marks the begin- deaths connected to the kite battles, but elry. ning of Spring with the Basant Festival, this temporarily ban has been lifted

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and house of relatives of the participants are fully packed with guests from all over the country. Moreover some five star hotels also arrange this function on their roof top for foreigners and other high class gentry. They also arrange variety of dishes with musical concert.

Lahore Horse and Cattle ized by the army to project the cattle Show (3 Days) wealth of the country in the early Cattle races, cattle dances, tent-peg- fifties. Today, it is an international ging, tattoo show, folk music, dances, event to which dignitaries from bands, cultural floats and folk games are abroad and many visitors and foreign held at Lahore's Fortress Stadium at the tourists come to watch. end of February or at First week of March. The show has been described as Dera Ismail Khan an eloquent expression of Pakistan's her- Located 340 kilometers from itage and an authentic account of its Peshawar, it features traditional sports, agricultural and industrial achievement's. exhibitions of handicrafts, dresses and The Fortress Stadium, the venue of jewelry, camel and horse the show is thronged by active partici- races/dances, bull racing, tent peg- pants, foreign visitors and people who ging, concerts, colorful stalls and fire- especially for this festival. Basant is celebrated in a big way and is an ideal time to exchange various gifts. Basant fairs are full of folk Basant fairs are full of folk dances, arts and crafts exhibitions, musical evenings dances, arts and crafts exhibi- and food festivals. Hot and delicious cui- tions, musical evenings and food sine is a treat to the taste buds. Men festivals. Hot and delicious cui- drape themselves in embroidered shal- war kameeze with matching ankle- sine is a treat to the taste buds length scarves, little boys strut in three piece suits and women coat their hands with henna and stack their arms with bangles. watch the Festival with great enthusiasm. It is said that Basant originated in A large number of them are interested in China about 5000 years ago. Hindus fly watching and appreciating the best kites at Basant Festival to enjoy it. Time breeds of livestock. passed and Muslims who were living Many derive pleasure by watching together with Hindus in the sub-conti- other activities such as parade of ani- nent also joined them in kite-flying. mals, dances by horses and camels, polo Since then Muslims are taking participa- matches, tent pegging, dog shows and tion in just kite flying at the time of their races, vaudeville acts of stuntmen, Basant calling it as Pala Urant. Now peo- mass display of military band and rhyth- ple of Lahore enjoy it by kite flying com- mically physical exercise performed by petitions and visiting the shrine of Saint the children. Madho Lal Hussein, where they assem- Tastefully decorated industrial floats ble to pay their benediction. and torch, light the tattoo shows. Lahore is becoming the main focal Additional attractions include a subtle point for the celebration of this festival in interplay of lights to weave enticing Pakistan. People traditionally fly kites on patterns at night and breath taking the roofs of their buildings. It is com- acts by foreign groups. The show monly observed that rest houses, hotels began as a modest exhibition organ- music concerts and colorful marts, puppet shows, tug of war, wrestling, tent pegging, bull racing and many other colorful cultural activities are held in Sindh during the last week of February.

Jashan-e-Larkana works. Large display of handicrafts, It is celebrated in Larkana, Sindh regional cuisines, one of the largest Province featuring traditional sports, displays of military bands and exhibi- exhibition of handicrafts, folk music and tion of floats and many other attrac- dances. tions are held here at the end of March till 1st week of April. Lok Mela It is a Folk Festival held at Islamabad Sindh Horse & Cattle Show for one week featuring Folk Music, At Shikarpur, about 42 kms from songs, music contests, folk dances, crafts- Sukkhar, cultural activities, exhibitions men at work, exhibition, and sale of and traditional sports, exhibitions of handicrafts. The Festival presents a handicrafts, dresses and jewelry, horse unique opportunity to watch the culture and cattle show, bull, camel and and craft of the whole country at one horse races/dances, tent pegging, place.

bloody feuds amongst the warring tribes, Sanderman encouraged the annual Jirga. The Festival is held during The Jirga still takes place today as the last week of March, next the Sibi Mela to promote an annual to the shrine of a famous gathering of tribes to exchange views and develop camel, horse and cattle saint outside Shalimar breeding in the area besides promot- Gardens, Lahore. ing handicrafts. The festival lasts for almost a week in mid-February and marks the beginning of spring, with tournaments, exhibitions, and trading. Sibi Festival Thousands of best camels from the deserts, horses and cattle from villages It is a festival of traditional sports, are brought to the show and tended handicrafts exhibition, folk music and colorfully by tribal people. The fair dances held in Sibi, Baluchistan, dur- attracts Baluch tribal elders besides ing the last week of February. Till the important figures from all over 15th century, the tribes in Baluchistan Pakistan, as well as tribesmen from used to meet annually in Sibi to dis- the surrounding areas and is an excel- cuss their internal feuds, which is lent place to shop for local Baluchi known as Jirga. The tradition contin- handicrafts. ued till the 17th century when large caravanserais were built to accommo- Chitral & Kalash Festival date the tribal chiefs and their colorful There are four main festivals which entourage. make up Chitral and Kalash Festivals. To During the British Empire in 1876, the people of Kalash tribes and the resi- Sir Robert Sanderman was appointed dents of Chitral, these festivals are the agent to the Governor General in culminations of religious life which they Baluchistan and in 1893 the Durand unite the people of that area. The spring line between British India and festival which is locally known as "Joshi Afghanistan was "fixed." To avoid the

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/Chilimjusht" takes place in the middle begins around mid December, the Utchal (1 Day) of May and lasts for four days. Chomos Festival starts. The Festival is It is the Harvest Festival, celebrated The spring festival celebrates the observed for the divine, the living and by Kalash people in Chitral, which boon of the fairies on their lives and also dead relatives, for the crops and the involves singing, dancing & feasting. provides mystical safeguards, the goats goats to be safeguarded, while the and shepherds before they go to the community, the village and the valley Shandur Polo Festival pastures. Every religious festival like are purified prior to the impending Held at the highest Polo Field of the "Joshi Chilimjusht" is accompanied by New Year. World at Shandur Pass (3750 Meters dancing and rhythmical chant to a beat above the sea level), this festive and col- of the drum. The women deck them- Chowas orful tournament is played between the selves up in their best traditional black Another festival to be mentioned top divisional teams of Gilgit, Chitral, robes and adorn themselves with col- here is "Kafir Kalash" Winter Festival to Hunza & Skardu. The polo played here ored necklaces. The tribal chiefs in col- welcome the first snow falls in Chitral is quite primitive and rough with very orful dresses hark back to the bygone Valley. All dance & music parties are few rules. The festival is mixed with folk days and events. held indoors due to heavy snowfall dances, music, local games, wrestling, and are celebrated in all the three tug of war etc. A tent village along Uchal Festival Kalash Valleys. "Kafirs" are said to be Shandur Lake will be set up in coopera- Uchal Festival in August marks the the descendents of Alexander's army tion with the local administration. jubilant occasion of the harvest of wheat who came into this region in 327 B.C. and barley and bringing down of cheese however this could not be verified for Mela Chiraghan (Festival of from the high summer pastures. It is cel- certain. Ever since, these people have Million Lamps) ebrated in the areas of Rumbur and never stepped out of these valleys and It is held during the last week of Bumboret. This Ucal Festival forms a their rituals, unusual habits & curious March, next to the shrine of a famous quintessential part of Chitral and Kalash customs attract thousands of tourists saint outside Shalimar Gardens, Lahore. Festival. There is also Phoo Festival from all over the world. Pilgrims from all over Pakistan gather which is only held in Birir area around here to celebrate the birth ceremony of end of September to celebrate the grape Phool the saint by offering one hundred thou- and walnut harvest. It is another colorful Kafir Kalash sand oil lamps at the shrine. The whole Last but not the least, the Chomos Festival celebrating the reaping of grapes area is decorated with lights and pilgrims Festival is a quintessential part of all and walnuts in all the three Kalash dance on the beat of huge drums. Kalash and Chitral Festivals. As winter Valleys of Chitral. Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, was the 12th-century head of a regional school of Sufism, a mystic move- ment in Islam which some believe began in the 9th century. He is regarded as a distinguished spiritual personality among the the people of Central Asians; particularly the people of Kazakhstan who have focused their attention on him as well as the city of Turkistan(Yasah), for the purpose of reconstructing their national identity. He was born in1093, and spent most of his life in Yasah, dying there in 1166. He is widely revered in Central Asia for popularizing sufism, which sustained the diffusion of Islam in the area despite the con- temporary onslaught of the Mongol invasion. The theological school he created turned Yasah into the most important medieval enlightening center of the area. He was also an outstanding poet, philosopher and statesman. Khoja Ahmed Yasawi (khoja corresponds to "master" in Persian) was interred in a small mausoleum, which became a pil- grimage site for Muslims. The town of Yasah was largely spared during the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia in the 13th century. Overtime, the descendants of the Mongols settled The in the area and converted to Islam. The town then came under the control of the Timurid Dynasty in the 1360s. To gain the support of local citizens, Timur adopted the Development policy of constructing monumental public and cultural buildings. In Yasah, he put his attention to the construction of a larger mausoleum to house Yasawi's remains, with the of Yasawiyah intention of glorifying Islam. The new mausoleum, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was begun in 1389. Timur imported Path builders from cities which he laid waste during his campaigns, includ- ing mosaic-workers from Shiraz and & It's Roots and stone-masons and stucco-workers from Isfahan. The master builders were led by Khoja Hosein Shirazi Causes in Central Asia from Persia. By: Dr. Mehdi Sanai*

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The Tumb of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi , Turkestan-Kazakhstan As a great personality and the founder of a School of mysticism, Khoja Ahmad Yasawi has left behind many years of Bolshevik rule, by studying the role played by these spiritual works for various communities Schools. of Central Asia. In his monumental For many centuries various Schools of Mysticism and work, "Manteq al-Tair", Farid al-Din Attar Sufism viz. Naqshbandiyah, Kobraviyah, Qaderiyah, and has referred to him as the "Pir-e Yasawiyah prevailed in the Central Asian region. From the A viewpoint of orientalists, as the symbols of "unofficial Islam", Turkistan" (lit. The Sage of Turkistan). He was a popular mystic among the the followers of these Sufi Schools played a major role in safe- various Central Asian communities and guarding the Islamic traditions, which constitute a significant the School of mysticism attributed to part of day to day life of the people of this region. him, which is popularly known as Throughout this period, the Sufi sages were considered to be Yasawiyah, is an important Sufi School the prime guardians of this "unofficial Islam" as well as guides that has played a significant role in the to their people. religious life of the communities of this Even though the advent of Islam in various Central Asian region. regions has taken place in different historical periods - in Keeping in view the fact that various some regions it dates back to as early as the years immediate- Schools of Mysticism and Sufism have ly following the Hejrah and in some other regions like some been instrumental factors in the spread parts of Kazakhstan, it dates back to as late as the 18th and and preservation of Islam in the Central 19th Centuries - the traditions and customs of these regions Asian region, it would only be possible are distinctively influenced by Islam. During the Abbasid to analyze the essence of religious reign, Transoxiana was regarded as one of the most important beliefs and traditions of a large number centers of the Islamic civilization, which presented the Islamic of Muslims of the region and the man- world with many scholars who left behind a large number of ner in which these beliefs and traditions valuable works in various fields of Islamic sciences. were safeguarded, during the seventy Following the downfall of the Ghazan rule in mid-sixteenth Century, Central Asia gradually came to be influenced and dominated by Russia. Nevertheless, until the early 20th Century religious activities were widespread in the region and It should also be kept in mind that it it was only after the establishment of the communist rule that would not be possible to deny the role Islam and Muslims came under suppression and mosques of the said bureaus and the official cler- The were demolished. ics all together, since they provided peo- The resistance put up by Muslims led to the emergence of ple and unofficial clerics with a suitable resistance put some Islamic movements in certain regions of Central Asia opportunity to disseminate true Islamic up by Muslims and Caucuses. This prompted the Bolshevik statesmen to traditions and values. These mystic and led to the think of containing Islam within an official framework. Sufi Schools, which shouldered the Therefore, based on a plan dictated by the Central rule, five responsibility of safeguarding and emergence bureaus (referred to as Qaziyat) were set up throughout the spreading Islam among the people, did of Islamic Soviet Union to cater to the affairs of Muslim population. not allow their circles of sages and their movements in One of these five bureaus was in charge of Central Asia and students and followers to break up. Caucuses, which was stationed in Tashkent, capital of The infiltration of the Russian culture certain regions Uzbekistan. This bureau had in turn established the two sem- in these regions, which started in the of Central Asia inaries (Mir Arab and Imam Bukhari seminaries) with the aim neighborhood of the Muslim societies and Caucuses. of training clerics. and then permeated into them, was As a matter of fact, with the establishment of Bolshevik considered an element of cultural hege- This prompted rule, the Islamic trend in this region, which previously influ- mony. As a result, the mystic and Sufi the Bolsheviks enced the social structure of the Muslims - and comprised Schools began to positively react to think of con- powerful mystic and Sufi sub-structures, was altered into two towards this cultural invasion and, thus, trends of official and unofficial Islam. The official Islam was became instrumental in safeguarding taining Islam governed by the above-mentioned bureaus, which were set the Islamic traditions and customs; since up by the Central rule but had no or very little impact on the in the absence of these Schools it would social life of the Muslims. be impossible to withstand the effects The unofficial Islam, on the other hand, which existed of the invading culture. through Sufi and mystic structures, had a deep impact on the As a matter of fact, in the former life of the Muslims. This trend could not be contained within Soviet Union, the official Islam com- a government framework, dictated by the communists and prised five bureaus with several Schools was, therefore, in inviting people to some sort of intra-com- governed by them. These bureaus were munal effort for safeguarding the original Islamic tradition and in charge of publishing books and practices. imparting theological training, aspiring

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Soviet Union has recorded his year of birth as 1105 AD. He was born in a small township called Sayram which was situat- young clerics. Although such activities ed on the east of himkent, capital of Ongtustik Qazaqstan could be considered as desirable to (South Kazakhstan) Province from where he migrated to the some extent, the fact remained that city of Yasah and joined the Sufi circles and observed ascetic these bureaus functioned in coordina- practices, which included forty days of fasting, meditation, tion with the Bolshevik government. prayers, self-denial, etc. The unofficial Islam, however, com- There are very few authentic and irrefutable evidences and prised spontaneous religious fervor of documents available on the personality and life of Sheikh the people, the activities of those cler- Ahmad Yasawi. Nevertheless, it is absolutely certain that he gies who were not recognized by the had greatly influenced the people of the region. This has official religious centers, personal rela- prompted many scholars and academicians to carry out sepa- tions with Islamic laws and values, and rate researches on him. finally, the existing communal traditions The city of Yasah, which was later on renamed as Turkistan and customs that facilitated and provid- (and continues to be known by this name) was one of the ed a framework for the preservation of active religious centers of Yasawi's times. Besides, Yasawah, Islam. which is referred to as the capital of Oghuz Khan in Kazakh The Mystic and Sufi Schools acted as legends, was one of the important Sufi Centers of the first and foremost institutions on Transoxiana. As per historical records, during this period a which people could rely for protecting particular mystic School was active in Turkistan, whose sheikh their religion and religious traditions. In was known as Arsalan Baba or Sheikh Baba Aslan. other words, though unofficial, these After receiving his elementary education, the young Schools provided the necessary guid- Ahmad left Turkistan for Bukhara. Those days Bukhara was ance to people on their social lives; par- under the Saljuq rule and was considered to be the greatest ticularly those who lived in remote Islamic center in the entire Transoxiana and thousands of stu- regions. dents had entered it from the neighboring regions in order to As mentioned earlier, one of the receive religious education. greatest Sufi and mystic sages whose Owing to his affiliation to the Khoja chain of mystics, influence spread over a vast Central Yasawi came to be popularly known as Khoja Ahmad Yasawi Asian region was Khoja Ahmad Yasawi. and since he was a student of Sheikh Yusof Hamadani, he According to historical records Yasawi was, in fact a disciple of the Iranian chain of Sufism. It is was born sometime in the fifth Century worthwhile to mention that since the 4th Century AH (10th AH. The Great Encyclopedia of the Century AD) Sufi thought, which was, in fact, an offspring of the Iranian mystic thought in Khorasan gradually permeated into the religious beliefs of the Central Asian Muslims. The Sufi School of thought, which emerged in an organ- ized form in Khorasan, during the 3rd Century AH (9th Turks. Led by Imam Baha al-Din Century AD), is in its general sense, a blend of neo-Platonism Naqshband, the Naqshbandis estab- and Gnosticism that aimed at revealing the hidden and eso- lished relations with the Yasawiyah with teric messages of the Holy Quran. a view to gaining some influence among In the mid-Fifth Century AH, Khoja Yusof Hamadani the Turks of the region. whose full name isAbu Ali Ya'qub bin Yusof Al-BazinjardiAl- From the viewpoint of some histori- Hamadani came to be the pioneer of Sufism in Central Asia. ans, Naqshbandiyah emerged as a reac- It is recorded that after studying in Arsalan Baba's School for a tion to the Yasawiyah School of few years Khoja Ahmad became a student of Khoja Yusof in Mysticism, which was greatly influenced Bukhara. From among numerous other students of Khoja by the Iranian culture. According to Yusof Hamadani who were contemporaries of Sheikh these historians the Naqshbandis made Ahmad Yasawi mention can be made of Sheikh Abdolqader efforts to create an independent ideo- Gilani who later on founded another famous mystic School of logical framework for the Turks. There thought. are also some historians who contradict From the viewpoint of Bartoled5 Khoja Yusof disseminated this view on the grounds that Khoja the dervish order in Central Asia and his students played a Ahmad Yasawi had adopted the Turkish The Mystic significant role in spreading Islam among the Turks. Yusof language and literature for the purpose Hamadani studied Islamic theology in Baghdad and subse- of propagating his thought. and Sufi quently settled in Marv where he became a Sufi under the The most important feature in Schools acted leadership of Sheikh Abu Ali Fariyomadi. As per what has Yasawiyah's thought and School of as the first been narrated Hamadani recited the Holy Quran ten thou- Mysticism is a blend that has been sand times, from the beginning to the end, and went to Hajj brought about between a kind of cul- and foremost pilgrimage thirty seven times. ture taken from the Iranian Sufism on institutions Yusof Hamadani died in the year 1140 AD and before his the one hand and the language and on which departure named four of his disciples as his successor. These approach used by the Turk communities disciples were: on the other. people could . Abu Mohammad Bukharai, Despite being well-versed with rely for pro- . Khoja Ahmad Yasawi, Islamic sciences as well as Persian lan- tecting their . Abdol Khaleq Qirwani, and guage and literature, Ahmad Yasawi . Abdullah Boraqi. chose to avail of common Turkish lan- religion and guage and literature for the purpose of religious tra- These four prominent students and disciples of the Sheikh propagating his thoughts. He adopted ditions. stayed with him and studied under him until the time of his the same approach for teaching his stu- death. Being appointed by Sheikh Yusof as his successor, dents and also composed poems that Khoja Ahmad returned to Yasah and began propagating his were commensurate with common own School of Mysticism. He founded a unique School of Turkish literature. These poems were Mysticism in Turkistan and gained outstanding popularity later on compiled in his most outstand- among the Kazakhs and steppe residing Kyrgyz. ing work entitled "Divan-e Hekmat". The dervishes of Khoja Ahmad's circle spread his teachings Since Sheikh Ahmad Yasawi lived and throughout the Turkistan region, up to Volga, Caucuses, and taught in a conservative environment, Asia Minor. Khoja Ahmad's unique teachings are now popu- he was compelled to adapt himself to larly known as Yasawiyah. Yasawiyah first spread to the banks the prevailing traditions and customs of Syr Darya, the surrounding regions of Tashkent, and among the people of the region. For Eastern Turkistan and later on, as the result of the popularity instance, there are some statements of the Turkish language and culture, disseminated to recorded in the works of his contempo- Transoxiana, Khwarazm, steppe regions, and the Bulgarian rary Naqshbandis, which indicate that regions. Despite the fact that Yasawiyah School of Mysticism in the Zekr (lit. remembrance) sessions had spread to such an extent that it even reached Anatolia in held in Yasawi's circle, in which all the 6th Century AH (12th Century AD), however, the emer- dervishes would gather, men and gence and spread of the Naqshbandiyah School in the 8th women participated simultaneously. Century AH (14th Century AD) reduced its position to a con- The influence of Sheikh Ahmad on siderable extent; even though it remained popular among the his community was so profound that

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was the master of eighteen thousand scholars Mohammad (PBUH) was the commander of thirty three disciples many poets that were not even his con- Mohammad (PBUH) fed and supported the poor and the temporary adopted his style of compos- hungry ing poems that was marked with He was a mercy on his Ummah Yasawi's style of poetry can be witnessed Mohammad (PBUH) remained awake till dawn in the poems of "Hakim Ata", "Abay", Many were guided through his light Makhtum Qoli Feraqi', and "Yunos Even the wrong-doers benefited from his blessings. Amroh" who are among the most prominent personalities of the Turkish Some research scholars have raised doubts that the book speaking Central Asian Republics and "Divan-e Hekmat" was compiled in Yasawi's life time and are are considered to be poets of eminence of the opinion that the book which is currently available and whose poems are very popular under this title is a collection of poems by his followers and among common people. disciples that have been composed in Yasawi's style of poetry. Sheikh Ahmad Yasawi's book "Divan- This claim is supported by the fact that no copies of "Divane e Hekmat" comprises wisdoms on ethi- Hekmat" have ever been found belonging to earlier than the cal and moral advice and guidance. 10th Century AH (16th Century AD). These wisdoms consist of advices to Gurdeluvsky who had traveled to Turkistan in the year people to strongly adhere to Islamic 1929 has recorded that while in Turkistan he heard of a very In the mid-Fifth laws, complains about the world and old manuscript of "Divan-e Hekmat", which had been written Century AH, worldly affairs, praise for the Holy on animal hide and was kept in Ahmad Yasawi's tomb before Khoja Yusof Prophet of Islam (Peace Be Upon Him), it was lost.8 Although it could be said with certainty that no and some narratives describing the con- copies of "Divan-e Hekmat" have been found belonging to Hamadani, ditions in the heaven and hell. earlier period than the 10th Century AH (16th Century AD), whose full- Khoja Ahmad's wisdoms are very there are some evidences that indicate the book was com- name is Abu popular among the people of piled during Yasawi's lifetime. For instance, in his book Kazakhstan as well as other parts of "Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara" (The Bukhara Inn), Fazlollah Ali Ya'qub bin Central Asia. There are many elderly bin Ruzbahan Khanji has mentioned that he had seen and Yusof Al- people who know these wisdoms by read Yasawi's book in his tomb. He further adds that the book Bazinjardi heart and recite them to youths and was written in Turkish and was Sufistic in essence. advise them on adhering to them. However, the author of "Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara" has Al-Hamadani These wisdoms are in the form some not mentioned the name "Divan-e Hekmat" and has not came to be the sort of oral conversations, which aim at referred to it being a book of poetry either. In the words of pioneer of disseminating Islamic and ethical values. Fazlollah Khanji: "One of the greatest divine blessings I have Sufism in "Divan-e Hekmat" of Khoja Ahmad received is that I got to read one of Khoja Yasawi's (May Allah Yasawi comprises seventy wisdoms two Sanctify His Dear Soul) books and it was written in Turkish Central Asia of which are quoted hereunder. language. I found so much knowledge on Sufistic truth in it that I doubt if a book of this magnificence has been written Wisdom No. 53: on the purpose of divine journey, its various stages, and phas- O son of Islam! what I am about to es that the seeker has to pass through in order to attain say is of immense importance! enlightenment, etc. At dawn when flowers blossom and Some western scholars including Damberry, Melliuransk, nightingales sing Martin Hartman, and Brokleman, who had carried out Rise from your bed; because you research on Islamic Mysticism, are also of the opinion that receive your sustenance at this moment "Divan-e Hekmat" belongs to the 5th Century AH (11th Those immersed in divine love know Century AD). These historians believe that the claim on the the joy of being awake part of some scholars that "Divan-e Hekmat" belongs to the at dawn. And it is at this moment that 16th Century lacks correct information.10 God's blessings can be witnessed Nonetheless, whether "Divan-e Hekmat" actually belongs At dawn the world is like heaven. to Sheikh Ahmad Yasawi or not there is absolutely no doubt Thus, praise and thank your Lord at over the fact that this style of poetry was initiated by him and dawns. subsequently spread through his disciples and followers and, Wisdom No. 37: therefore, it would be possible to understand Yasawi's Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him) thoughts and personality by reading such poems. Yasawi's wisdoms consisted of two basic elements. Firstly, Islam or what may be referred to as religious and Sufi ele- ment; and secondly, the national element of the common forty days should be prepared under ancient Turkish literature. While the first element determined the supervision of the Sheikh. the ideology of Yasawiyah School the second element had a In this School, khalvat consists of two profound impact on Khoja Ahmad's propagation methods as stages viz. 'khalvate shri'ah" and "khal- well as the style of his poetry. vat-e tariqah' and it is only after the It is due to this factor that Yasawiyah has been considered successful completion of the first stage to be the first and foremost School of Mysticism to have that the disciple is permitted to take on emerged in the Turkish regions, which was established by a the second stage. Turk Sufi and in a Turkish environment. Despite the fact that By devising certain rules and regula- many of Yasawiyah's beliefs are similar to those of tion Khoja Ahmad Yasawi had created Naqshbandiyah, yet it has its own unique framework of various circles of his disciples the num- belief system. The most basic fundaments of the Yasawiyah ber of which, according to some School of mysticism comprise "Ma'refatollah" (lit. knowledge sources, crossed ninety thousand and of God), "Nobility", "Honesty", "Fana Fillah" (lit, annihilation in many of whom were dispatched to God), and "Tawakkol" (complete reliance on the will of God). other regions as his representatives on The Yasawiyah has its own particular conditions for attain- completion of their training. ing the status of leadership and becoming a Sheikh and the Undoubtedly Khoja Ahmad Yasawi has person is required to have gone through the various stages of had great influence on the people of "Elm al-Yaqin", "Ein al-Yaqin", "Haq al-Yaqin", absolute trust in the Central Asian region and many sto- Islam, "Sabr" (patience), and "Taqarrob". The urge for enlight- ries have been narrated about him enment and steadfastness in Zekr are obligatory in this some of which have taken the form of School and there are a number of other recommended acts legends. For instance, it has been said and traditions that the disciples are expected to observe. that when he reached the age of 63, However, the first and foremost basic principle in this the age at which the Holy Prophet of School is absolute faith the Sheikh, respect for him, and Islam (PBUH) departed for his eternal complete humility before him. Yet another important ele- abode, he went into a well in his ment that disciples are to observe is "Khalvat" (solitude), monastery where he lived for 130 years which lasts for forty days and during this period the disciple and during this period exhibited has to strictly observe all the recommended obligations; it is numerous miracles. beyond the capacity of this paper to elaborate on this issue. The Yasawiyah School of Mysticism Even the food that the disciple is to consume during these enjoyed a great status in the region and

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His place is the best place for worshiping the Lord The cosmos drinks from his (divine) wine was instrumental in the emergence of The skies are radiated green with his light the Haidariyah School of Sufism in Khorasan in the 6th Century AH (12th Yasawi's tomb was renovated by some Iranian craftsmen Century AD). It also had a significant on the behest of Tamerlane towards the end of the 8th From role in the establishment of "Baba'i", Century AH (14th Century AD) approximately 230 years and "Takbashi" Schools of Mysticism, after his death. Several stories are narrated by the people of the viewpoint which emerged in the second half of this region about the renovation of the tomb by Tamerlane. of some the same century in Anatolia. For instance, it is being narrated that when the renovation historians, Following his death, Khoja Ahmad work of Khoja Ahmad's tomb began on the order of Yasawi's tomb has been a place of pil- Tamerlane it faced a lot of problems and the building col- Naqshbandiyah grimage for his followers who eagerly lapsed several times. as emerged as travel to Turkistan from various Central Finally, Tamerlane had a dream in which he was asked to a reaction to Asian regions with their vows and offer- make a tomb on the grave of Arsalan Baba, the Sheikh of the Yasawiyah ings. Certain special programs are also Khoja Ahmad, before he could make one for Yasawi's held in his shrine at different times of tomb.12 Arsalan Baba's tomb is situated near the city of School of the year the most important of which is Atra (the birth place of Farabi, the ruins of which still stand) Mysticism, held in winter in which thousands of about thirty kilometers from the city of Turkistan. As per tra- which was people gather around the tomb. The ditions the pilgrims first visit the tomb of Arsalan Baba and author of "Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara" pay homage to him and then proceed to Turkistan to the greatly influ- has highlighted the status of Khoja shrine of Khoja Ahmad Yasawi. Many pilgrims also spend a enced by Ahmad Yasawi and people's faith in night at Arsalan Baba's tomb and leave for Turkistan the next the Iranian him in a poem the informal translation morning. The building of Khoja Ahmad's tomb was con- of which is as follows: structed by the Iranian craftsmen in a magnificent style. The culture. author of "Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara" who had paid a O you who are caught in distress! visit to this place, describes it these words: "A mosque the Take refuge in the Sheikh of Yasah tall dome of which scrapes the sky and the excellence of its The one person who is the com- building reminds people of "Bait al-Aqsa". Its walls are remi- mander of the army of God niscent of the walls of great temples and its marvelous doors He is no one but the King of Yasah; open the gates of good deeds for the devotees; the Great Khoja Ahmad Jama' of Yasah is an excellent mosque. His shrine is the Ka'ba of hearts Fazlollah bin Ruzbahan Khanji then praises the building in a poem the unofficial translation of which is given below:

I say these words with sincerity and not out of whims Although it looks like a single building Go and see Khan's mosque in the city of Yasah from the outside, it is actually divided Its dome resembles the dome of the universe into eight parts. The main hall which Rather it is even more beautiful houses the above-mentioned pot in Its courtyard is similar to the cosmos the center is a magnificent construction Yasawi's tomb One can hear the whispers of the celestial beings that has two verandas on its right and Even if one claims that it is the mosque of Aqsa left. The main dome has a diameter of was renovated It would not be inappropriate; since it is located at the 18.2 meters and its height fromthe by some farthest place of the world tomb stands at 37.5 meters. Iranian crafts- The people of the region believe The names of the craftsmen who built this monument that three pilgrimages to Khoja men on the have been carved at different places of the building. Ahmad's shrine is equal to one Hajj pil- behest of Interestingly, the descendents of these craftsmen who had grimage and, therefore, they eagerly Tamerlane originally come from Tabriz, Esfahan, and Shiraz presently travel to Turkistan with lots of vows live in Turkistan. Khoja Ahmad's tomb and its neighboring and offerings and on return are treated towards the mosque have been compared, in grandeur, by some people like the Hajj pilgrims. There have been end of the 8th to the Mosque of Bibi Khanom in Samarqand. There is a many people who have claimed to be Century AH large bronze cooking pot, the like of which may be very few Khoja Ahmad Yasawi's descendent. (14th Century in the world, inside the shrine, which bears the name of its However, since his only son, Ebrahim craftsman i.e. "Abdol Aziz Sharaf al-Din Tabrizi". At present died during his own lifetime, therefore, AD) approxi- the pilgrims put their offerings in this huge pot which stands if at all, these people could only be his mately 230 as tall as a man of medium height. Interestingly, in the descendents through his daughter, years after his Turkish culture, pot is considered to be the symbol of hospi- "Gohar Shahnaz". Until recently many tality. This pot is 2.45 meters in diameter with a weight of people from both Turkistan as well as death. about two tons and is decorated with lotus flowers and the territories under the Ottoman Quranic inscriptions that have been carved on its outer wall, Empire such as Sheikh Zakariya which speak volumes about the rare mastery of its crafts- Samarqandi, Sha'er Ata of Escop (16th man. Century AD), Oliya Jalapi (17th After about six centuries the building of Khwaja's tomb is Century AD), and Khoja Hafez Yasawi still in its original shape and it has withstood dry cold, burn- Naqshbandi (17th Century AD) have ing sun, and natural calamities like floods and earthquakes. claimed to be descendents of Khoja

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America, China, Egypt, Iran, and Pakistan teach in this uni- versity and more than four hundred students as well as forty Ahmad Yasawi. teachers from Turkey are engaged in studying and teaching Following Kazakhstan's independ- in this university. ence from the former Soviet Union, lot Since Khoja Ahmad's School of Mysticism has played a of importance has been given to great role in the history of this region, there remains no Khoja Ahmad Yasawi and the city of doubt that its role in overcoming the future religious and Turkistan, which is being considered as social challenges of Kazakh people cannot be overlooked. the spiritual capital of Kazakhstan. Even though Yasawiyah did not become as famous and Yasawi is a means of national and popular as the other Sufi Schools and was overshadowed by Islamic identity for Kazakhstan, since Naqshbandiyah - once it had emerged - it has played a fun- on the one hand it distinguishes the damental role in preserving and spreading Islam among the Kazakh culture from the culture of steppe residing people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Russia and on the other hand, serves Owing to various reasons such as the nomadic way of life as an obstacle towards the permeation of the Kazakh community, which is scattered at different of other Schools of thought and trends places and as well as the spread of Islam to the northern that currently exist in Transoxiana, parts of the country (as claimed by some historians) it so Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. appears that the status of Islam in Kazakhstan is not as As mentioned earlier special atten- strong as it should be - when compared to Uzbekistan and tion is now being given to the city of Tajikistan. However, there is no doubt that in the process of Turkistan by the government of overcoming their existing national identity crises - following Kazakhstan. Turkey, too, has been the disintegration of the former Soviet Union - the Kazakhs showing keen interest in this city on have consciously turned to Islam and for this purpose they the ground that it has once been one are mainly relying on Khoja Ahmad Yasawi and his of the old centers of the Turks and Yasawiyah School of Mysticism. despite the fact that Turkistan is no more than a big village the government of Turkey has set up a university in the ______name Khoja Ahmad Yasawi next to his * The author is currently a member of Iranian Parliament. He was the ex-President of the ECO Cultural Institute, and an Associate tomb, which is gradually becoming Professor of Political Science at the University of Tehran. Prior to one the greatest universities of Central that, he was Iran’s Cultural Counselor in Kazakhstan. Asia. Currently, a number of university teachers from the United States of ECI Co-Sponsors UNESCO Workshop on Memory of The World Iran - Shahnameh Baysonqori, Bozorgmehr challenges the Indian envoy to a game of chess

Iran- Shahnameh Baysonqori

36 ECO HERITAGE Issue 12 - Vol 4 37

“We Should Not Just The 1st International and the 3rd National Workshop & Exhibition of Worry About Ancient "Memory of the World", was held at Iran's National Library & Archives, 17-19 Buildings, There Are Jan. 2010. During the 3-day event, co- sponsored by ECO Cultural Institute, in Other Kinds of Ancient cooperation with Iran's National Library and Archives and also Iran National Heritage That We Commission of UNESCO. Mr. Ray Edmondson, the Chairman Should Be Concerned of UNESCO Memory of the World Regional Committee for Asia/Pacific and About” (MOW CAP) and author of General Guidelines for the UNESCO Memory of Mr. Ray Edmondson, the World Program was present to lead the workshop". Also present at Excl. Interview: the workshop was Ms. Bolina Kapul, UNSCO's senior experts, Mr. Edmondson, What on "Memory of the World". brought you here from The "Memory of the World" Australia?! is UNESCO's program aiming at Well, I was invited by the preservation and dissemination Iran National Library and the of valuable archive holdings National Commission of and library collections world- UNESCO, to take part at the wide. Memory of the World Program Representatives from ECO workshop, so was Ms. Belina Member States of Azerbaijan Capul. The two of us were Republic, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Pakistan, and Turkey, brought here. I am the chair- participated in the workshop. man of the Asia/Pacific Memory At the Inaugural Ceremony, of the World Committee, of covered by the National news which Iran is a member and media, Mr. Ali Akbar Ashari, Ms. Capul is the immediate Past the Cultural Advisor to Iranian President and Council Member President and Head of Iran's of the South East Asia Pacific "Memory of the World National Audio Visual Archive Committee", and Dr. Saeid Association. Abadi, Head of Iran's UNESCO National Commission, spoke on the Would you tell us more about the nature of the importance of the "Memory of the Memory of the World Program? World" program. A Reception was also You know that UNESCO has a World Heritage List in held at the ECI Headquarters, in honor of the organizers and participants in the which mostly focuses on the preservation of buildings and World work-shop program, on Jan 18, sites of ancient value. But we should not just worry about 2010. The Editor of ECO Heritage had ancient buildings. There are other kinds of ancient heritage an opportunity to interview Mr. Ray that if neglected, would be soon extinct forever. Edmondson, the chairperson of One of them is the documentary heritage of nations. UNESCO Memory of the World Many libraries, archives and memory institutions are facing Regional Committee for Asia/Pacific serious challenges to preserve their invaluable archive hold- (MOW CAP): ings and library collections. That is why UNESCO launched Memory of the World (MOW) Program in 1992 as an inter- national cooperation strategy aiming at protection of the should be fully preserved and protected for all and, with due recognition of cultural mores and practicalities, should be permanently accessible to all without hindrance.

rare and endangered documentary What is MOW's main objective and how do you heritage and facilitating access to and achieve it? its use. Well, there are objectives behind any program. In this case, I could say that the program was mainly designed to How does UNESCO accomplish find ways of facilitating the preservation of the world's docu- the MOW Program? mentary heritage. We use direct practical assistance, distrib- To implement the Program across ute advice and information and encourage training. the world, the MOW Program is administered by a three-tier committee What methods do you employ to preserve the structure: international, regional and endangered documentary heritage? national. The basic purpose of the Well, we ourselves use contemporary technology to structure is to ensure that member reproduce the original version of the documentary heritage states are able to establish a mecha- on other media and then make them available for public nism at the national and access. We also encourage people regional levels in order to to make digitized copies and cata- facilitate the final selection logues of the heritage and share of the projects for the pro- them with others on the Internet, gram. publish books, CDs, DVDs etc. Where access has implications for Are there any subdivi- custodians, these methods are very sions through which useful. MOW could facilitate its performance? Is there any legal limitation Yes, Regional Memory of as to what you can or can not the World Committees have reproduce? been established to pursue Yes, MOW recognizes legislative the Program's goals in each and other limitations on the acces- region. These are major sibility of archives. Cultural sensi- sections of the Program. tivities will also be honored and They have been established private property rights are secured. to bring together people from two or more countries It seems public awareness is in order to pursue the crucial for their preservation, Program's objectives. how do you develop that? Azerbaijan, Al-Qanun Fi at-Tibb The grouping may be Of course, one of the objectives geographically based or based on other of the program is to increase the awareness of people parameters such as shared cultures or regarding the existence and significance of this documentary interests or grouped around regional heritage. That is why registers are developed for the offices of UNESCO. For the time Memory of the World as well as media and being, there are three regional com- promotional/information publications. mittees in operation: Asia-Pacific, Latin America-Caribbean and Africa. So, you are the chairperson of the Asia-Pacific Regional Committee, but what about your organization- What vision is the Program pur- al structure in other parts of the World? suing? Asia Pacific region is one of the five UNESCO regions The vision of the Memory of the across the Globe and includes 43 countries. Its Regional World Program is that the world's doc- Committee for Memory of the World (MOWCAP) is a sub- umentary heritage belongs to all, sidiary of the International Advisory Committee (ICA) of the

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MOW Program. It was set up in 1998 during its First General Meeting held in November in Beijing, China.

What role does MOW CAP play in this program? MOWCAP approves all inscriptions on the Asia/Pacific Pakistan Regional Register of MOW documentary heritage. It then - Jinnah Papers (Quaid-I-Azam) assesses the nominations received from member states for inscription through its concerned Subcommittee. Tajikistan - Manuscript of Ubayd Zakoni's How can one prepare and submit nominations to "Kulliyat" and Hafez Sherozi's "Gazalliyt" MOWCAP? (XIV century) Nominations for the Asia/Pacific Regional MOW Register may be submitted by any person or organization, including government and NGOs. However, priority will be given to nominations made by or through the relevant National MOW Committee, or filing that, through the relevant UNESCO National Commission. Priority will also be given to documentary heritage at risk.

ECO Members, Register Works at the MOW

The biennale of the "Memory of the World" is UNESCO's program aiming at preservation and dissemination of valu- able archive holdings and library collections worldwide. Each time, UNESCO receives two cultural works of national, regional, or international significance from each country and in case the works are qualified, they are registered in the "Memory of the World". Works registered by ECO Member States include:

Azerbaijan Rep. - Medieval manuscripts on medicine and pharmacy - Zakhirai-Nizamshahi (Supplies of Nizamshah) by Rustam Jurjani. - Al-Qanun Fi at-Tibb (Canon of Medicine, Second Book) by Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna). - Al-Makala as-Salasun (Thirteen Treatise) by Abu al- Qasim al-Zahravi (Abulcasis). A page of Al-Qanum - Turkey A page of Al-Qanum - Turkey Iran - Administrative Documents of Astan-e Quds Razavi Turkey - Rab'e Rashidi Endowment Document - Works of Ibn Sina in the - Shahnameye Baysonqori Süleymaniye Manuscript Library

Kazakhstan Uzbekistan - Collection of manuscripts of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi - The Collection of the Al-Biruni - Audiovisual doc, of the International antinuclear move- Institute of Oriental Studies ment "Nevada-Semipalatinsk" - Holy Koran Mushaf of Othman The Evolution of Persian Painting

By: Abd -ol- Majid Hosseini Raad Assistant Professor, Tehran University

The origins of Iranian painting unquestionably predate the advent of Islamic civilization in Iran. From the 3rd century (AH)* onwards, with the emer- gence of local ruling dynasties and the growing influ- ence of distinguished Iranian figures at the Abbasid court, Iranian cultural and artistic traditions, which had remained stagnant for several centuries, were reborn under the compelling influence of Islamic teachings. Because pre-Islamic Iranian art had been based on ancient Iranian wisdom, it had the potential to become purified after coming in contact with the monotheistic outlook of Islam. Hence, Iranian painters, quenching their thirst at the clear fountain of Islamic thought and mysticism, transformed their canvases into mirrors of divine beauty. Thereafter, until the downfall of the Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad in the 6th century (AH), Iranian artists painted a multitude of frescoes in mansions and palaces, illustrated innumerable books and adorned countless vessels, most of which have unfor-

*After Hijra

Majnun over dead body of Leyli, Unknown Artist, Nezami's Khamseh, 1536 - Tabriz School 40 ECO HERITAGE Issue 12 - Vol 4 41

tunately disappeared. Mongol hordes invaded and devas- tated Iran thrice during the 7th and 8th centuries AH. Genghis Khan's invasion Islam and adopted the indigenous began in 615 AH and lasted until 619 Iranian culture and civilization. Thanks AH. Holaku Khan's army marched into to the managerial skills and administra- Iran and razed Samarqand in 654 AH, tive experiences, the native Iranians before taking control of Baghdad and brought to the IlKhans' government, sci- overthrowing the Abbasid dynasty three entific and cultural activities flourished years later. Other bloody onslaughts by and cities began prospering anew. other outside invaders, at the close of During the reign of Ghazan Khan the 8th century AH left many Iranian (694-703 AH, who later changed his cities in ruins and innumerable people name to Mahmood), the physician and dead. historian Rashid-od-Din Fazlollah In the course of these savage inva- Hamadani (ca 645-718 AH) rose to the post of prime minister. He commis- Saqi, Reza Abbasi, Moraqqa'e Golshan, 1619 sions, wall paintings inside palaces were sioned and supervised the creation of destroyed and thousands of manu- the Rab-e Rashidi complex in the sub- scripts, both illustrated and non-illustrat- urbs of Tabriz, which became the gath- ed, were burned to ashes when ering place for numerous scientists, cal- libraries across the country were put to ligraphers, artists and writers who soon flame. This explains the present-day began producing and illustrating sundry scarcity of pictorial works from before manuscripts in its workshops. the Mongol invasions, either in the It was during that era (IlKhanid peri- form of illustrated manuscripts or wall od, 8th century AH) that the Tabriz paintings- an ancient Iranian tradition School of Painting reached full maturity. described in some ancient texts. This school best reveals its personality and particularities in the illustrated copy IlKhanid Painting in Tabriz Political stability gradually returned to Iran after the last Ilkhans embraced of the Jame-ot-Tavarikh, compiled by Rashid-od-Din himself and said to have been reproduced and illustrated in approximately twenty Persian and Arabic copies and in a copy of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh (ca. 735 AH), inaccurately referred to as the "Demotte" Shahnameh. With their tall figures clad in amply creased garments, their realistic depic- tion of men and horses and their use of contrasting dark and light colors to cre- ate the illusion of perspective, the illus- The illustra- trations in the three tions in a existing copies of the Jame-ot-Tavarikh, copy of created at the Rab-e Ferdowsi's Rashidi dated 707 Shahnameh, AH and containing created 70 paintings (Library around 735 of Edinburgh), anoth- er dated 714 AH AH for Abu and containing 100 Sa'eed, dis- paintings and a third play the full (a Persian translation) refinement dated 717 AH and maturity (Topkapi Saray, Istanbul) all display a of Iranian art visage of Iranian in their painting under the decoration, strong influence of coloring and Mongol art and far- composition eastern painting. By the end of the 8th century AH, this influence had decreased. For example, although they preserve some of the earlier characteris- tics, such as attention to realism and representation of human moods and feelings through their characters' pos- tures, the illustrations in a copy of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, created around 735 AH for Abu Sa'eed, display the full refinement and maturity of Iranian art in their decoration, coloring and com- position. Dancing of the mystic, Heidar Ali, Panj Ganj, 1521 - Tabriz School Their large format and the masterful

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traditions of Iranian art more than any of this country's other provinces. The Ayuqi manuscript contains 71 execution of their characters clearly paintings laid out in horizontal rectan- terms of composition and structure to indicate that 8th century AH Iranian gular frames in sequence with the those of the Varqeh va Golshah manu- painting had almost entirely shunned Persian poetic text. Vegetal designs script. The decorative features, palette the influence of far-eastern painting. In cover the uniform backgrounds of these and simple composition of the works addition, given the consistency of paintings and their characters and hors- produced by the School of Shiraz are expression between the illustrations in es are usually as tall as the frames' best visible in the paintings of a this manuscript and the stories in the height. In view of the characteristics of Shahhnameh created around 732 AH Shahnameh, in which its most dramatic this manuscript and those of other and today preserved at the Topkapi scenes are depicted, we can but rank manuscripts produced in southern Iran, Saray Museum in Istanbul (H. 1479). these paintings among the most superb we shall see that, during the IlKhanid examples of IlKhanid Iranian painting. period, notwithstanding the powerful Iranian Painting under the Undoubtedly, the paintings of other impact of Mongol dominion on the arts Jalayerids illustrated manuscripts produced in the of western Iran, notably on the School The end of Ilkhanid rule, after Abu- 7th century AH in Tabriz, such as a of Tabriz, this part of Iran was by and Sa'eed Bahador-Khan's death (736 AH), Kalileh va Demneh (ca. 775 AH) and a large able to preserve the traditions of provided an opportunity for local gov- Shahnameh (ca. 772 AH) preserved at Iranian painting and remain essentially ernments to emerge across Iran. This the Topkapi Saray Museum in Istanbul, unaltered by the Mongol presence. period, which lasted until the end of more clearly show the dominant role of the 8th century AH, was a golden era characteristics typical of Iranian paint- Persistence of the Traditions during which the painting styles of ing. of Iranian Painting in Shiraz western and southern Iran most effec- These can also be seen in the illus- (8th century AH) tively came together. In the interim trations of some 7th century AH manu- At the same time that painting and period between the downfall of the scripts, including those of the famous book illustration flourished in western Mongol Ilkhans and the onset of copy of Ebn-e Bakhtishu's Manafe-ol- Iran around Tabriz, painting continued Timur's offensives, the Jalayerid dynasty Hayavan. In this copy, illustrated in its evolution in southern Iran, undergo- enjoyed a more important position, Maragheh before the creation of the ing relatively different developments. In which allowed it to rule from Baghdad Rab-e Rashidi in the late 7th century fact, escaping unscathed from the to Tabriz for more than half a century AH, animals are realistically depicted in assault of Mongol hordes, the province (from around 740 -813 AH). This inter- landscapes filled with plants, trees and of Fars witnessed the natural evolution val allowed the artists of these two cen- colorful birds that more accurately rep- of Iranian painting traditions, free from ters, each of which boasted a vigorous resent their natural habitats. The Mongol influence and compositions and longstanding tradition in the art of notable characteristics of this manu- involving imposing figures, symmetrical the book, to better benefit from their script's illustrations is their marked structure, purer colors and more elabo- mutual experiences. edges and detailed figures, their repre- rate decoration were perpetuated by its Under Jalayerid patronage, especially sentation of relief by means of hatch- artists. The persistence of the painting during the reigns of Sultan Oveis (739- ings and their use of colored grays to traditions of this region, which was 776 AH) and Sultan Ahmad (784-813 depict animals and their natural behav- more in touch with the evolution of the AH), who were both keen supporters of iors. School of Baghdad than was Tabriz, is poets and scholars, this merger of expe- As we already noted, these scenes best exemplified in the illustrations of riences led to the emergence of a puri- invariably occur against a background the Varqeh va Golshah manuscript and fied style of painting at the Jalayerid in which the characteristics of Iranian is also clearly perceptible in the paint- court in Baghdad. In fact, contacts painting are dominant. This atmosphere ings found in a copy of Mohammad between the schools of Shiraz and is even more perceptible in works of ebn-e Badr-e Jajarmi's Muness-ol-Ahrar, Baghdad in the second half of the 8th the 7th century AH, Shiraz School of created around 741 AH in Shiraz. century AH and the transfer of artistic Painting (such as the illustrated copy of The illustrated pages of the latter experiences through the artists of the Ayuqi's Varqeh va Golshah at the manuscript, parts of which are now School of Tabriz to the Jalayerid court Topkapi Saray Museum), because Fars, preserved in different museums, consist deeply affected the development of with its wealth of ancient Iranian relics, of three horizontal illustrated bands and later schools of art, including that of has experienced and safeguarded the their paintings, which represent the Timurid painting. constellations of the zodiac, are all exe- cuted on a uniform red background. These paintings are quite similar in Mention must also be made here of Joneid's art, which masterfully com- bined the heritage of the Shiraz School with the experience of the artists of Shiraz enabled the painting school of Tabriz, producing superb works in the Herat to flourish. A fine point in Doost- late 8th century AH, including the illus- Mohammad's notes is his description of trations of Khaju-ye Kermani's Divan, Ahmad Mussa is "the revealer of the created in 799 AH. The works of image". He assesses the painting of his Joneid and Khajeh Abd-ol Hayy, anoth- time as the latter's patrimony and men- er painter active at Sultan Ahmad tions the Me'raj Nameh as being one of Jalayer's court, may be considered to his works. The illustrations in a copy of have paved the way for the develop- the Me'raj Nameh at the Topkapi Saray ment of the School of Herat. Museum in Istanbul, (H 2154) appear The extent to which the merger of to be the ones mentioned by Doost- the experiences of artists belonging to Mohammad. They are suffused with three major schools of art (Shiraz, the atmosphere, coloring and painterly Baghdad and Tabriz) in the Jalayerid characteristics of Iranian painting. In prepara- period contributed to the foundation of Timurid art and the emergence of the Shiraz School of Painting in tion of his highly regarded school of Herat may the 8th century AH new library be measured by the personal notes of The path toward the revival of the and work- the 10th century AH copyist and Iranian School of Shiraz, which shop in painter, Doost-Mohammad Govashi'mi. occurred in the second half of the 9th Herat, While introducing Ahmad Mussa as century, was paved during its first half, the developer and promoter of Iranian when Timur's sons, Eskandar Sultan Baysonqor painting under Abu-Sa'eed (812817 AH) and Ebrahim Sultan (817- Mirza also Khodabandeh, to whom he attributes 837 AH), governed Fars. After Timur's summoned the Abu-Sa'eed Nameh, Kalileh va death and Shahrokh's accession in several Demneh, Me'raj Nameh and Tarikh-e Herat, these two princes, both keen painters, Changizi, he notes that Amir Dowlatyar patrons of artists and writers, succes- and Shams-od-Din were his pupils dur- sively ruled Fars. book- ing Sultan Oveis Jalayer's rule in Fortunately, like many other descen- binders, cal- Baghdad. He then elaborates on dants of Timur, they were captivated by ligraphers Shams-od-Din's tutorship under Khajeh and immersed themselves in Iranian and illumi- Abd-ol-Hayy. After Timur's conquests culture and arts. Painting and book nators from and the fall of Baghdad, besides work- design acquired great esteem in their ing at Sultan Ahmad's court, Shams-od- courts. The illustrations of one of the Tabriz Din joined Timur's camp at Samarqand, most important manuscripts prepared where he began promoting his style of in 813 AH for Eskandar Sultan (Jang-e painting and that of his masters (the Eskandar Sultan) and those of a heritage of the schools of Shiraz, Tabriz Shahnameh prepared after him for and Baghdad) before turning to teach- Shahrokh's son, Ebrahim Sultan, are the ing students, notably Pir-Ahmad most significant products of the Shiraz Baghshomali, who joined Shahrokh's School of Painting in the first half of the court in Herat after Timur's death and 9th century. was active in Baysonqor Mirza's (802- Some artists active at the court of 838 AH) workshop until his death at these two princes had come to Shiraz the age of fifty. from Samarqand and Herat, contribut- In preparation of his new library and ing their experiences to the local school workshop in Herat, Baysonqor Mirza of art. As a result, a greater maturity is also summoned several painters, book- perceptible in this city's painting of the binders, calligraphers and illuminators first half of the 9th century. Works pro- from Tabriz. In this way, the artistic her- itage of the 8th and early 9th century AH schools of Baghdad, Tabriz and

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the work in approximately ten years (from 882 AH to 892 AH). The illustra- tions of the Khavaran Nameh display a duced during this period display more particularly rich palette. and rebellions among provincial gover- precise symmetrical composition, more They follow an easy, symmetrical nors, he eventually secured his rule refined landscaping and better relation- composition, as is characteristic of the overall Iran and Transoxiana. He ship between text areas and pictorial School of Shiraz. Their decorative devoted considerable energy to the elements. A lighter palette, the use of clouds with small windswept ends, their development of Herat and other cities, decorative elements, more masterfully golden backgrounds filled with vegetal thereby providing an opportunity for designed characters and refined silhou- patterns, the manner in which their the school of Herat to flourish. etting of rocks further add to their characters are drawn all bespeak the A manuscript created for Shahrokh refinement. prosperity of late 9th century AH paint- around 828 AH was Hafeze Abru's The characteristics of the School of ing in Shiraz. Some of the illustrations Majma'-ot-Tavarikh. Its surviving pages Shiraz at its peak during the second half of this manuscript bear the signature of are unfortunately scattered today. of the 9th century AH are best repre- Farhad, the painter from Shiraz. Several pages of this manuscript, pre- sented in the illustrations of a Khavaran However, as the paintings indicate, served at the Reza Abbasi Museum, represent the School of Herat at the time of Shahrokh. The illustrations of the Majma-ot-Tavarikh are simple compositions of large aligned or opposed characters depicted on a rel- atively bare background topped by a blue sky. Concurrently with Shahrokh, his son, Baysonqor Mirza, established a library of his own, where he gathered the most talented painters, book- binders, illuminators and calligraphers of his time. The painters Haj-Ali Mossavver, Amir-Shahi Sabzevari and Seyyed Ahmad Naqqash, the book- binder Qavam-od-Din Sahhaf and the renowned calligrapher Mowlana Ja'far Tabrizi were among the artists busy in the workshops of Baysonqor Mirza's library. Baysonqor Mirza was a man of let- ters and a calligrapher and the work- King Anoushirvan takes down Seghila Castle, Shiraz School King Anoushirvan takes shops under his patronage greatly con- tributed to the progress of the School Nameh dated 882 AH. The major part other painters have also collaborated of Herat. In fact, as noted above, this of this manuscript is preserved at the with Farhad. prosperity of the School of Herat took Golestan Palace-Museum, Tehran. place under the influence and as a Created and completed in 830 AH by Painting at Herat in the natural result, of the evolution of book Ebn-e Hessam Khossafi (d. 875 AH), Timurid Period illustration in the schools of Tabriz, the Khavaran Nameh is an epic poem Ninth century Iranian painting, Baghdad and Shiraz. The beautiful on wars conducted by Imam Ali (pbuh) inextricably linked with the name of paintings of two superb manuscripts and his generals. As some of the adven- Herat, is known as the Timurid School created in this period, a Kalileh va tures depicted in this book are but pure of Painting. Timur's son, Shahrokh, Demneh dated 833 AH (Topkapi poetic imagination, they have provided had been appointed governor of Saray Museum, Istanbul, No.1 022) an opportunity for the artist (or artists) Khorassan, Sistan, Rey and and the Shahname-ye Baysonqori pre- in charge of its illustration to complete Mazandaran in 799 AH. After Timur's served at the Golestan Palace - death (807 AH), he succeeded on the throne in Herat and ruled until 850 AH. Although initially faced with feuds tions of a Kalileh va Demneh pre- served at the Golestan Palace- Museum, Tehran (No. 2198) are Museum, clearly show the mastery of unclear. This manuscript contains a for the paintings of Behzad and his artists active in the first half of the 8th total of 35 unsigned illustrations which contemporary artists to develop. century AH in Baysonqor's workshops some experts attribute to Mowlana After Shahrokh's death in the sec- and the development of the School of Khalil and believe to have been creat- ond half of the 9th century AH, the Herat in that period. ed in Shahrokh's workshops in Herat workshops of Herat remained idle The famous Shahname-ye in the early 8th century AH. The illus- until Sultan Hossein Bayqara's acces- Baysonqori, dated 833 AH, contains trations of this manuscript bear great sion in 873 AH. Sultan Hossein's reign twenty-two paintings attributed to similarities to those of the above-men- over Herat, which lasted until 911 AH, three artists: Mowlana Ali, Mowlana tioned copy of this book preserved at witnessed the revival of artistic and lit- Qiam-od-Din and Amir Khalil. In an the Topkapi Saray Museum in Istanbul. erary activities. Assisted by his erudite extant report, Ja'far Tabrizi Their animals are realistically depicted minister, Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i (848-906 (Baysonqori), the calligrapher responsi- and their exquisite landscapes of col- AH), he gathered prominent artists ble for the texts of this manuscript, orful flowers and ragged rocks invoke and men of letters at his court, creat- writes about its paintings: 'The portraits a dream-like vision of the animal ing a circle of learned and talented fig- of this manuscript were created by world. If this manuscript was indeed ures in his entourage. Notable figures Mowlana Ali, whereas its scenes are produced in Shahrokh's workshops in in this circle were the famous calligra- the work of Mowlana Qiam-od-Din, the early 9th century AH, it probably pher Soltan Ali Mashhadi, the histori- because Mowlana Ali's eyes hardly served as a model for Baysonqor ans Mirkhand and Khandmir, the illus- gave him any service near the end of Mirza's artisits in their creation of the trious poet and mystic Abdor-Rahman his life. Amir Khalil is another painter Kalileh va Demne-ye Baysonqori. Jami, the painters Amir Roohollah of the Shahname-ye Baysonqori's illus- Two other manuscripts contain illus- Mirak and Shah Mozaffar, and the trations." trations which bear great importance greatest artist of the time, Kamal-od- With their original compositions, in the study of the School of Herat in Din Behzad. the rich palette of their natural ele- mid 9th century AH. One is Mir- The brilliant art produced by this ments, their indigo blue or golden Heidar's Me'raj Nameh, dated 840 AH talented team in the fourth quarter of skies, their colorful bushes, luminous and preserved at the Bibliotheque the 9th century AH illumined the blossoms and lush trees, their narra- Nationale in Paris. All the pages of this entire body of Timurid art, to which it tives, at times intense and at others manuscript contain illustrations whose owes the best part of its universal serene, the masterful design and exe- vibrant colors and brilliant gilding recognition. Fortunately, after the cution of their characters and sponge- make them excellent examples of the Timurid period, a considerable portion like rocks, their decorative architectur- application of the traditions of Iranian of this magnificent heritage was trans- al elements and their attention to pictorial art, in which the metaphoric ferred, thanks to Safavid patronage, to landscaping details, the paintings of atmosphere of Iranian painting is most Tabriz, where it gave birth to the most this manuscript constitute master- perceptible. The other is a Shahnameh sublime gems of Iranian art. pieces of their time. Similarly, the illus- created for another Timurid prince Some of the works produced in the trations of the Kalileh va Demneh well and known as the Shahname-ye late 9th and early 10th centuries AH, depict the fabulous atmosphere of its Mohammad-e Juki. including those of Kamal-ed-Din edifying scenes of animals' lives As concerns the particularities of Behzad, can be admired in the through their inspired coloring, fine Iranian painting in the first half of the Moraqqa-e Golshan and in a copy of decorative rendering of rocks and 9th century AH, one may say in gen- the Zafarname-ye Timuri dated 935 flowery bushes and realistic design of eral terms that they involve livelier, less AH (No. 807), both preserved at the animals. These illustrations are closely symmetrical scenes than their contem- Golestan Palace-Museum Library, related in design and coloring to those porary counterparts produced in Tehran. This copy of the Zafarname-ye of the Shahname-ye Baysonqori and Shiraz. Their sophisticated colors, the Timuri was written by Sultan the proximity of their creation dates precise design of their human and ani- Mohammad Noor and contains 24 suggests that some artists active at mal characters, their attention to the paintings attributed to Kamalod-Din Baysonqor Mirza's workshops probably reproduction of nature's idyllic land- Behzad and two illuminated fron- worked on both manuscripts. scapes and their relationship to archi- tispieces by Mir Azod. The illustrations Creation dates of several illustra- tectural elements constitute important in this manuscript bear all the charac- achievements of the School of Herat in the second half of the 9thcentury AH. Hence, this school paved the way

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teristics of Behzad's art in terms of their composition, the design and motions of their characters and their atmosphere. Although all or part of these paintings may not be the work of Behzad himself, the battle scenes and the warriors' postures in fight are typical of the master. Because little is known of Behzad's works after the advent of the Safavid dynasty and his transfer to Tabriz, the illustrations in this copy of the Zafar Namehe are crucial to the survey of Behzad's activity in the 10th century While AH. In their portrayal painting and of diverse characters book illus- in various postures tration and from different flourished angles, Behzad and in western his pupils have been keen to depict their Iran around individual tempera- Tabriz, ments as well. The painting characters of continued Behzad's paintings are alive, looking its evolution after their business- in southern es in their day-to- Iran, under- day environment. going rela- His treatment of his tively differ- subjects' faces tends to emphasize their ent devel- individual qualities opments and feelings. In Behzad's works, rather than mere backgrounds to historic or fabulous events, his landscapes and buildings are linked to the characters' actions and other aspects of the composition, creating a unified environment filled with life and motion. Behzad's palette is masterfully diverse, his compositions are balanced, and their constituent elements, including the text areas, all contribute to make the artwork a uni- fied whole. Festivities for the return of Timur to Samarkand, Attributed to Kamaloddin Behzad's style of painting and the Behzad, Zafarnameh-ye Timuri (No. 708), 1528 - Herat School launched a campaign towards Herat, which he soon conquered. Although some are of the opinion that, Shah innovations he introduced in the arts Esma'il had some of the artists of the century AH. Behzad's appointment to of his time influenced his contempo- workshops of Herat, including Behzad, the direction of the royal library raries and pupils, including move to Tabriz, this is quite improba- bespeaks the esteem in which Shah Sheikhzadeh and Qassem-Ali ble, because the stability needed for Esma'il held the master, as well as his Chehregosha. This influence remained the workshops of the Safavid court to desire for the royal workshops of perceptible, alongside that of the develop did not exist in Tabriz at the Tabriz to flourish, and indeed, superb School of Tabriz, in the works of Mir- time. More likely, as Mostafa Ali has works were created there under Shah Mossavver, Mir-Seyyed-Ali and their recorded in his Manaqeb-e Tahmasb. successors, Mohammadi and Reza Honarvaran, Shah Esma'il kept Behzad The Tabriz School of Painting, Abbasi. Although Behzad was the concealed in a cave during the chaotic whose illustrious artists were able to most famous artist of his time, only a days of the Ottoman armies' pillage of step beyond their heritage of Turkmen few paintings bear his distinctive signa- ture, '''Amal-e al-abd Behzad." The date of Behzad's death in Tabriz appears in an Abjad-encoded hemistich of a poem by Amir Dowlatshahi quoted by Doost- Mohammad as "Nazar afkan be khak-e qhabre Behzad," which yields the fig- ure 942 Clues to the importance of Behzad's personality and art are found in an edict issued on 27 Jamadi-ol- Avval 928 AH by the Safavid Shah Esma'il, appointing him director of the royal library and its workshops in Tabriz and ordering their entire staff, including scribes, painters, illumina- tors, frame draftsmen, gilders and water colorists, to obey him.

Tabriz School of Painting in the Safavid Era The Safavids accession to power in the 1oth century AH brought Iran reli- Rostam expounds stoically upon fate and death, Attributed to Abdol

gious and political unity and develop- School first half of 16 century - Tabriz Aziz, Shahnameh-ye Shah Tahmasb, ment, as well as historical and cultural progress and artistic prosperity. Shah Tabriz in 920 AH and the Battle of and Timurid art, soon gave birth to Esma'il (892-930 AH), the grandson of Chaldoran, later taking him, along works of incomparable magnificence. Sheikh Safi-od-Din Ardebili (who was with several other artists, back to In line with political changes occurring the founder and first monarch of this Herat. in the country, the art that took shape dynasty), conquered Tabriz and all They remained there until 928 AH, in this school first affected painting in Azarbayejan in 907 AH. From there, before eventually moving back to Qazvin and Mashhad and then he went on to conquer Isfahan, Yazd, Tabriz in the company of the heir to reached Herat, Isfahan, Shiraz and Kerman and southern Khorassan, the Throne, Tahmasb Mirza, because elsewhere. The influence of Safavid art before eventually taking control of the edict appointing Behzad director even crossed Iranian frontiers and, just Baghdad and Diar-Bakr in 914 AH, to of the royal library and workshops as Iranian art had penetrated Bokhara the detriment of the Aq-Qoyunloo dates from that year. Be it as it may, in Timurid times, made its way into dynasty. the presence in Tabriz of Behzad and Turkey and India, whose painters went After these conquests, Shah Esma'il other artists from the workshops of on emulating the work of Iranian Herat played a significant role in the development of the Tabriz School of Painting in the first half of the 1Oth

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artists for several centuries. More than in any other period of Iranian art, paintings produced in the School of Tabriz in this era are Mohammad's son, Mirza Ali; Mir grandiose and dazzling. They repre- Mossavver's son, Mir Seyyed Ali; sent the peak of the mystical art of Mozaffar Ali; Khajeh Abd-o-Samad; Iranian artists and depict scenes which Khajeh Abdol Aziz, Sheikh can only be the products of a spiritual Mohammad; Qadimi and Abdol view of the world. It is as though the Vahhab. artists of the School of Tabriz have The most magnificent manuscript found the eyes of their hearts opened illustrated in the royal workshops of to truths concerning the real world Tabriz was the copy of Ferdowsi's which cannot be seen by those lacking Shahnameh prepared for Shah spiritual vision. Their idyllic landscapes Tahmasb. Fortunately, 188 illustrated filled with lively flowery bushes, tall pages of this book, whose paintings cypresses and blossom-covered trees rank among the most precious create metaphoric images of paradise. achievements of Iranian art, were The most Their works combine forceful char- returned to Iran after the Islamic magnificent acter design, accomplished coloring Revolution. The fate of this manuscript and masterful composition with a Shahnameh is a sad example of the illustrated in meticulous decoration involving pre- misfortune that has befallen much of cise architectural elements and superb this country's valuable artistic heritage the royal geometric and vegetal patterns. Their in recent centuries. After long years of workshops indigo-blue skies strewn with surreal incessant skirmishes and bloody battles of Tabriz was clouds, the colorful birds flying among between Safavid Iran and the the copy of their foliages and the angels appearing Ottoman Empire, the Treaty of on earth every now and then, adding Amasia, signed in 969 AH between Ferdowsi's a spiritual and poetic touch to their Shah Tahmasb and Shah Solayman, Shahnameh works -all seem to indicate that the put an end to the hostilities. prepared for artists of the School of Tabriz have After Shah Solayman's death in 974 ShahTahmasb come to perceive the spiritual and the AH, in an attempt to consolidate the Fortunately, physical worlds as inseparable. These terms of this treaty with Sultan Salim characteristics are visible in the most II, Shah Tahmasb dispatched a mission 188 illustrated outstanding works of the School of of high-ranking officials and traders to pages of Tabriz, in the copies of Ferdowsi's his court, sending him jewels and this book Shahnameh and Nezami's Khamseh other valuable presents, including a exist. prepared for Shah Tahmasb, as well as Holy Koran and a copy of Ferdowsi's in the Divan -e Hafez created for Shahnameh prepared especially for Sam-Mirza. the king himself. The Safavid Tabriz School of This Shahnameh, whose illustration Painting is inextricably linked with sev- titles were listed among the notes of eral illustrious artists, notably the Sultan Salim's librarian, was part of the incomparable Master Nezam-od-Din collection of the Ottoman Court Sultan-Mohammad, who raised paint- Library until late in the 18th century ing to "heights yet unseen by the uni- when its whereabouts became verse, which has witnessed a thousand unknown. things," and who had mastered the It reappeared in 1903, on loan Qezelbash manner better than all oth- from Baron Edmond de Rothschild to ers when Behzad came to Iraq from the Exhibition of Islamic Art, Paris. In Herat; Aqa Mirak, a painter from the 1959, it was bought by Arthur court at Isfahan; Mir Mossavver, who Houghton, who, with tax exemptions came from Badakhshan and whose in mind, donated 78 of its illustrated name was Mansoor; Sheikhzadeh, also known as Doost-Mohammad or Doost-e-Divaneh; followed by Sultan- pages to the Metropolitan Museum in 1970 Since then, other illustrated pages of this manuscript (62 in total) have been sold in different auctions and the remaining 118 illustrated pages and the gilded and burnished cover have been brought back to Iran. One of the paintings on display, Bahram Chubin Slaying Saveh Shah, belongs to the Reza Abbasi Museum and was acquired in 1977. Another important manuscript, whose illustrations are probably the work of artists active in Tabriz in the early Transfer of second half of the capital from 10th century AH, is Tabriz to a copy of Nezami's Qazvin, with Khamseh preserved Shah at the Library of Shahid Motahhari Esma'il's Theological School doubts (No 0400). The regarding his paintings of this support of book, which cover painting its pages entirely, reveal the influence workshops of the early 10th caused the century art of the artistic pro- Turkmen courts of duction of Tabriz. This these work- Khamseh was writ- ten by Morshed shops to ebn-e Khajeh Mirak decline Shirazi in 956 AH and contains 20 superb paintings and 4 unsigned illuminated fron- tispieces. With their dense compositions and rich palette, the paintings of this man- uscript extend beyond the top margins of the pages, so that an important part of the compositions, which depicts dif- ferent scenes of the narrative, occur above them. These paintings appear within tall rectangular frames and are similar in their details and atmosphere A page from Alam-Ara-ye Shah Esma'ili, Attributed to Moein Mosavver, 1693, Isfahan School to the paintings of an early 10th cen-

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first half of the 10th century AH. At the same time, the simple, geometric divisions of these paintings into orderly tury (901-911 AH) Khamseh preserved frames and the sparse vegetation of royal palaces near the end of Shah at the Cairo Museum. Apparently, the their backgrounds are evocative of the Abbas' reign, as well as paintings exe- preparation of the illustrations of this characteristics of the schools of Shiraz cuted in the same period, clearly show old Khamseh was begun before the and Herat. the influence of European painting Safavids accession to power in Tabriz In this context, mention should be styles. Records also exist of European and continued into the early years of made of Ebrahim Mirza's (946-984 painters working at the court in Shah Esma'il's reign. AH) appointment to the governorship Isfahan, including several Dutch The transfer of the capital from of Mashhad, where he established a painters, such as Lucas van Hesveld Tabriz to Qazvin, along with Shah royal library, gathering several artists and Jean le Hollandais, as well as a Esma'il's second thoughts regarding his from the School of Tabriz and the painter by the name of Jules, who was support of painting workshops in the library of his uncle, Shah Tahmasb, in born in Greece and grew up in Italy. early years of the second half of the its workshops. According to Figueroa, the Spanish 10th century AH, caused the artistic The most excellent product of Ambassador to the court of Shah production of these workshops to Ebrahim Mirza's court workshops was Abbas, Jules executed wall paintings in decline. At the same time, the migra- an illustrated copy of Jami's Haft one of Shah Abbas' palaces in 1027 tion of some artists from the royal Owrang prepared for and under the AH. A number of foreign artists, workshops of Tabriz resulted in the patronage of this prince. Today, this including Philippe Angel and Lokar, dissemination across the country of manuscript is part of the Freer Gallery sent by the East Indian Company to the artistic heritage and invaluable of Art's collections and its illustrations teach drawing to the Shah, also experience of the Tabriz School. rank among the most beautiful Iranian worked at the court in Isfahan under There are two manuscripts whose paintings from the second half of the Shah Abbas II. illustrations were probably painted in 10th century AH. Such great artists as Generally speaking, during the 11th Tabriz or under the influence of the Mirza Ali, Mozaffar Ali and Sheikh century AH, the costly arts of the book School of Tabriz. One is a copy of Mohammad have contributed to its were supported exclusively by the Abdor-Rahman Jami's Panj Ganj, writ- illustrations, which clearly show the court. Wall paintings and single-page ten in 928 AH by Ali al-Hosseini al- evolution of Safavid court painting works of art were also in demand, Heravi and preserved at the Golestan from the creation of Shah Tahmasb's commissioned by rich merchants and Palace - Museum Library (No. 709). Shahnameh and Khamseh in the first dignitaries as well as by the court. This The ten exquisite paintings of this half of the 10th century AH to the popularity encouraged the production manuscript are unsigned, but attrib- books produced in Mashhad in its sec- of inexpensive single-page paintings, uted to Master Behzad's pupils in the ond half. which artists created using less paint or School of Tabriz. in the form of succinct sketches. A few Indeed, they display all the charac- Schools of Painting of leafy branches or colorless cloud out- teristics of the school of Behzad and Isfahan lines adorned the backgrounds of his disciples. This is attested to by later In the early 11th century AH, the these paintings, whose subjects con- attributions, which include the capital was transferred from Qazvin to sisted of portraits of princes, noblemen painters' names. In view of the cre- Isfahan. Artists active in Qazvin and or young men or couples depicted ation date (928 AH), the illustrations of other important cities began migrating standing or sitting. this manuscript may have been paint- towards Isfahan, which became the This trend caused portrait painting ed by Behzad and his pupils during country's centre of artistic activities. to prosper and greater attention to be the master's stay in Tabriz at the head Painting workshops flourished and in paid to the anatomy and proportions of the royal library and workshops. addition to book illustration, wall- of the human body. Another copy of Nezami's painting became popular in the deco- The most renowned figure among Khamseh, dated 933 AH, is in posses- ration of palaces and mansions. Under the multitude of painters active in this sion of the National Museum of Iran Shah Abbas, increased commercial period was Reza Abbasi. Yet, despite (No. 4363). Although their origins are and political relations with European extensive scholarly studies carried out unknown, the splendid illustrations of countries and India, along with the in this regard, his personality remains this manuscript bear the unmistakable transfer of the Armenians of Jolfa to more or less obscure. One reason for influence of the School of Tabriz in the Isfahan, enabled some features of this uncertainty is that several artists by Western painting to find their way into Iranian art. Some wall paintings executed in the same name, or with the same sig- nature, have existed at different times. Moreover, Qazi Ahmad's description, in his Golestan-e Honar, of a painter Mossavver. The imposing appearance named Aqa-Reza, who was so infatu- of their characters and the succinct ated with wrestling that he abandoned rendering of their architectural ele- painting and was banned from the ments and landscapes have given the court, further added to this ambiguity. paintings of this book greater visual This painter was the son of the talent- motion. The lines of text appearing ed portraitist Mowlana Ali Asghar above and below them display a sim- Kashani, who had been admitted to pler layout scheme as compared to the court of Shah Abbas I, when only their 11th century AH counterparts. a youth and later been given the title Another manuscript in this category Reza Mossavvar-e Khasseh. In any is the Reza Abbasi Museum's Abu- case, the illustrious Reza Abbasi signed Moslem Nameh, which brings togeth- his works "Raqame Kamineh Reza er paintings from the School of Isfahan Abbasi", as can be seen on his paint- under Shah Abbas II.Written by In the ings after 1020 AH. Abdor-Rashid Deilami in the first half Reza Abbasi's style tends towards of the 11th century AH and preserved early 11th reproducing nature and recording the at the Golestan Palace Museum, this century AH, natural motions and postures of his manuscript contains 93 unsigned painting characters in a simple, fluid manner paintings, which are excellent exam- orkshops His sketching relies on smooth sinuous ples of the purified and vivid style of flourished lines of the brush or the reed pen and the School of Isfahan. his pen strokes emulate the curvatures and in of the shekasteh nasta'liq script. Reza Qazvin School of Painting addition to Abbasi's style was emulated by his in the 2nd half of the 10th book illus- pupils into the early 12 century AH. century AH tration, Following his working methods and After Shah Tahmasb's death, wall-painting sketching style, his numerous disciples Esma'il Mirza ascended to the throne developed his art into a purified style as Shah Esma'il II. His reign, howev- became which became predominant in the er, lasted no more than 16 months popular in Isfahan School of Painting. Hence, the with his death by opium poisoning. the decora- School of Isfahan has always been also His accession to the throne came tion of known as the School of Reza Abbasi. after a twenty-year-long detention, which probably explains his embit- palaces and Mohammad-Qassem, Mohammad- Yussef, Mohammad Ali Tabrizi, Afzal tered, cruel character. mansions ai-Hosseini and Mo'in Mossavver were Indeed, during his brief reign, he among Reza Abbasi's followers. Mo'in had many members of the royal Mossavver, one of master's pupils who family, including three of his broth- remained most faithful to his style, has ers and his cousin Ebrahim Mirza, left behind a portrait of Reza Abbasi, the governor of Mashhad and patron on which he has recorded his date of of Jami's Haft Owrang, assassinated. death as 1044 AH. Notwithstanding his ill temper and Among the manuscript illustrations the atrocities he committed, Shah and single-page paintings that best Esma'il II summoned several painters demonstrate the evolution of the from Mashhad, Tabriz and Shiraz to School of Isfahan, the paintings of Qazvin, entrusting them with the three other very important manu- mission of reviving the royal library scripts stand out. and its auxiliary workshops and even One is the Alam-ara-ye Shah commissioning a copy of the Esma'ili (Reza 'Abbasi Museum, No Shahnameh. Thus, during Shah 600), which recounts the life and wars of Shah Esma'il I. Nineteen paintings of this manuscript are attributed to Mo'in

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unrelated to them. They serve to show the evolution and the continu- ation of the style of the masters Esma'il's tumultuous reign in Qazvin active at Shah Tahmasb's court and experimentation of the artists of the (984 AH), calligraphic and artistic his nephew, Ebrahim Mirza, in the School of Isfahan. work began on a Shahnameh, which Haft Owrang. At the end of Mohammad appears to have never come to After the brief reign of Shah Khodabandeh's reign, Abbas Mirza fruition, even though fifty paintings Esma'il II and that of his blind broth- (the future Shah Abbas the Great), were completed. Shah Esma'ilil's er, Mohammad Khodabandeh, inter- then aged 17 and governor of Herat, Shahnameh, as it is known, was as ill nal turmoil and persistent Ottoman came to Qazvin and seized the fated as many other masterpieces of and Uzbek menace on the country's throne. Shah Abbas reigned some 42 Iranian painting. western and eastern borders caused years, until 1038 AH. After being exhibited in the early illustration workshops to again A keen admirer of painting, archi- 20th century in Paris by the art col- decline and illustration painting tecture and urban planning, he lector and dealer, Demotte, it was came to a standstill Mohammad immediately appointed Sadeq Beig torn into separate pages, which were Khodabandeh's blindness probably Afshar (an accomplished poet and a skilled painter who had learned his art under Mozaffar Ali and served at the courts of Shah Tahmasb and Shah Esma'il) director of the royal library. There are two very important manuscripts containing exquisite illustrations painted in the royal workshops of Qazvin during the reign of Shah 'Abbas I: the Qavam Shahnameh, written in 1000 AH by Qavam-od-Din Mohammad Shirazi and preserved at the Reza Abbasi Museum containing 38 paintings and a copy of the Shahnameh-ye Qassemi, which describes Shah Tahmasb's military feats as compiled by Mirza Qassem Gonabadi. While remaining faithful to the style of the School of Tabriz, these illustrations display the evolution of Iranian painting in the closing years of the

Banquet of Fereydoun & sons and daughters of Yemeni King, & sons and daughters of Yemeni Banquet of Fereydoun 10th and the early years of the 11th Unknown Artist, Shahnameh-ye Shah Ismail II, 1579 - Qazvin School century. sold to different buyers. A few pre- explains his indifferent attitude cious pages of this Shahnameh, towards painting. Fate of Iranian Painting belong to the Reza Abbasi Museum. It also probably explains the The outset of the 12 century AH They are signed Siavash Gorjestani, renewed migration of artists previ- saw political and social turmoil Sadeq-Beik Afshar, Ali-Asghar ously summoned to work at Shah resulting from the inept rule of the Kashani, Mir-Zein-ol-Abedin, and Esma'il's royal library in Qazvin. At corrupt and weak monarchs who Morad. Although not comparable in the same time, the artists' shift to came to power after Shah Abbas II. terms of beauty and quality to those taking inexpensive commissions, in In the absence of traditional royal of Shah Tahmasb's Shahnameh, and the absence of royal patronage, gave patronage, crude, unsophisticated appearing much more simply exe- birth to a distinct, simpler style of works began replacing the beautiful cuted and finished, the illustrations design and drawing involving more and refined masterpieces of the past. of this Shahnameh are not altogether popular subjects, as can be seen in Shah Abbas II's successor, Shah the works of Mohammadi, Sheikh Mohammad and Sadeqi. This man- ner later formed the basis of the Indian Gurkani Court School of Painting The influence of Iranian painting Solayman, who ruled from 1077 AH upon the arts of neighboring coun- Realistic portraiture and the decora- to 1105 AH, was a vile and violent tries, including Gurkani India, has tive, naturalistic representation of drunkard. already been mentioned. Apparently, floral elements became popular dur- He was succeeded by his son, when Homayun (937-963 AH), the ing Jahangir's reign and remained so Shah Sultan Hossein, who reigned second Indian Gurkani monarch, vis- until the 19th century. until 1135 AH. The reign of this ited Iran (951 AH), he asked Shah The illustrations of Jame-ot- weak monarch, who became weary Tahmasb to send Mir-Mossavver to Tavarikh-e Rashidi, dated 1004 AH of running the country's affairs, led his court in exchange for a gift of were mainly painted by local artists to utter chaos. Rebellion spread 1000 Tomans (1 USD). Upon hear- active at Jahangir's court (La'l, among warlords, and Safavid rule ing the news, the artist's son, Mir- Meskin, Bassavan and Nanhai, in eventually came to an end under the Seyyed-Ali, joined his father on the collaboration with Iranian painters assaults of Afghans. journey to India. and are typical of the composite Thereafter, until the early Qajar After them, Abd-os-Samad Shirin- style of painting in vogue after Akbar period, even though some painters qalam also went to India, where he Shah). The other is as a copy of active from late Safavid to mid Zand began preparing a copy of the Tarikh-e Akbar Shah, completed in days were still alive and busy train- Hamze Nameh. In fact, many the first half of the 13th century AH, ing pupils who were to found the Iranian painters had migrated to the which, in view of the names appear- Zand School of Painting, no notable Indian court by the second half of ing below its illustrations, probably works were created that have sur- the 10th century AH and it was includes paintings from the 11th and vived. The only important manu- because of their presence that the 12th centuries AH. In comparison to script whose illustrations bear his- Indian Mongol School of Painting the Tarikhe Akbar Shah's illustrations, toric and artistic value, embodying came into being. The Timurids of those of the Jame-ot-Tavarikh appear the transition from late Safavid to India, especially Homayun and after more mature and more elaborate in early Qajar art, is Mirza Mehdi him Akbar and Jahangir, were keen design and execution. Both these Astarabadi's Tarikh-e Jahangosha-ye admirers of the arts and held the manuscripts belong to the Golestan Naderi, dated 1175 AH, which con- Iranian painters residing at their Palace Museum Library. The two tains 23 superb paintings. courts in great esteem. This prompt- albums mentioned above also Besides a few inconsequential ed more artists to join them in the belong to the Golestan Palace books, the most important illustrated first half of the 11th century AH. Museum Library. They bring together manuscript created in Qajar times is These included Aqa Reza Heravi, a precious collection of Iranian and the Golestan Palace Museum who was given the title "Jahangiri" by Indian paintings. One is the Library's "The Thousand and One Jahangir and is responsible for the Moraqqa-e Hendi, which dates back Nights," by Abd-ol-Latif Tasuji. This margin paintings of some pages of to the first half of the 11th century book consists of six illustrated vol- the Moraqqa-e Golshan ; his son, AH. Several of its pages are attrib- umes and its paintings were made Ab-ol Hassan, who was awarded the uted to Gordehen, Sahifeh Banoo, between 1269 AH and 1276 AH by title of "Nader-oz-Zaman"; Farrokh- Masoor and Mohammad-Yusef. A Sani-ol-Molk and his pupils in Beig; Qolam; Hashem; Mansoor, handsome "bird and flower" decora- Tehran. given the title "Naderol-Asr" by tion appears in the margins of some The illustrations of this book dis- Jahangir and Mohammad-Shafi of these pages. The other album is play the Qajar style, evolved from Abbasi. Their activity at the Indian the world-renowned Moraqqa-e late Safavid and Zand arts. Despite court, alongside their Indian col- Golshan, a unique collection of the influence of Western art, which leagues, brought immense prosperity painting, calligraphy and illumina- has affected the evolution of Iranian to its library workshops. tion masterpieces by Iranian and painting ever since the Safavid peri- While retaining the characteristics Indian artists from the 9th to the od, the Qajar paintings in this manu- of indigenous Indian art, the painting 11th century AH. script exhibit due respect for the style of the Indian Mongol court Jahangir, a famous connoisseur particularities and traditions of became intertwined with those of and supporter of the arts and artists, Iranian painting in their depictions European painting under Homayun's who occasionally expressed opinions of historic events. son, Akbar Shah. The outcome of on the qualities of various artists, this fusion was a school that lasted some three centuries in India.

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had the unique heritage of his father and grandfather (Homayun and Akbar) brought together into several albums. One of these albums was the Moraqqa-e Golshan, measuring 40 x 24.5 cm. It contains signed works by Kamal-ad-Din Behzad; Abd-os-Samad Shirazi; Farrokh-Beig; Nanhai; Roqayyeh-Banoo and Reza Abbasi. Valuable paintings by Aqa-Reza Jahangiri, Dowlat and Beshandas, all created by the order of Jahangir, adorn its margins. Many Included are por- Iranian traits of famous personalities and painters artists, such as had migrat- Akbar Shah; ed to the Jahangir; 'Abd or- Indian Rahman Jami; Ab- court and it ol-Hassan (Nader- oz-Zaman); was Manuhar; because of Beshandas; their pres- Gordehen and ence that Dowlat himself. the Indian The influence of European art is Mongol conspicuous in the School of naturalistic render- Painting ing of these por- came into traits as well as in being the realistic pos- tures of their sub- jects. Explanations concerning the individuals represent- ed and the name of the artist responsible for the portrait accompa- ny each of these paintings.

...... Published by Tehran Museum of Contemporary Arts in association with the Institute for Promotion of Visual Arts Changiz Khan defeats Tayan, Jame-ot-Tavarikh-e Rashidi - Indian Gurkani School 5 6

ECO HERITAGE

Afghan_refugees_returning_from_Pakistan_in_2004 Issue 12 - Vol 4 57 Finding Hope After Displacement Afghan Refugees in Iran By: Nazir Olangian*

Throughout three decades of instability and insecurity, from the trying years under Soviet occupation in 1979 to the present Taliban re-insurgence, nearly 5 million Afghan refugees and immigrants have traversed the mountainous border, into Iran desperately seeking a better life for them- selves and their families. Most recently, many debates have arisen regarding the future health of this population in light of the increased instability and insecurity following nearly a decade of war in Afghanistan. According to the United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees (UNHCR), the Islamic Republic of Iran is the world's second largest host country of Afghan refugees. In June 2009, the Commissioner reported that Iran hosts approximately 933,500 registered and documented Afghans, while the number undocumented Afghans living in Iran, estimated 1.5 to 2 millions, remains at- large.

Iran as a Host-Nation - Brief History and Context of Asylum Prior to the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911): politi- cal activists and criminals sought asylum in holy shrines or in foreign embassies. Following the Constitutional Revolution, new laws were implemented: "asylum evolved to mean seeking protection from a State when one's life or property was in danger"; and stronger laws were enacted so political activists and criminals would not seek protection in holy shrines or embassies. Since the Constitutional Revolution, Iran has further developed its refugee laws. It has adopted the United Nations Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, July 28, 1957 and the Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, January 31, 1967. Iran has a sovereign and detailed procedure for seeking asylum based on the Government of Iran's By-Laws of December 16, 1963. The By-Law defines a refugee as follows: "A refugee is a person who for political, religious or racial reasons or for member- ship of a particular social group fears persecution or a threat to his life or that of his family members supported by him and seeks asylum in Iran." As documented in Article 155 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran: "The govern- ment of the Islamic Republic of Iran may grant political asy- lum to those who seek it unless they are regarded as traitors and saboteurs according to the laws of Iran" (194). The Ministry of Interior's "Permanent Committee for Refugees" is in charge of refugee affairs in Iran. The Committee has the authority to accept or deny refugee status and manages all other refugee affairs. According to Article 4 of the Refugee By-Law, refugee status is recognized when: '"(1) The applica- tion is free from any mala fide;' and '(2) The purpose of the application is not to seek employment'" (188).

Ministry of Interior and According to UNHCR Cooperation the United The three generations of Afghan Diaspora that have flowed in and out of Nations High Iran are the result of political instability Commissione stretching over three decades. The r of Refugees Islamic Republic of Iran acknowledges the breadth of the humanitarian crisis (UNHCR), the facing displaced Afghan refugees and Islamic accordingly many initiatives have also Republic of been taken to ameliorate the future flow Iran is the and stability of this population. Starting in 2002, the Tripartite world's sec- Agreement signed between UNHCR and ond largest the governments of the Islamic Republic host country of Iran and Afghanistan enacted a joint program for the voluntary repatriation of of Afghan registered Afghan refugees. Through the refugees Tripartite Agreement, UNHCR in Iran has recorded that nearly 1.8 million Afghan refugees have safely returned to their home country, either assisted or spontaneous. According to figures given by the Foreign Affairs office at Iran's Ministry of Interior, in 2002 approximately 436,000 documented Afghan refugees returned to their homeland, compared to 2005 when nearly 47,000 returned and in 2008 when approximately 3,000 returned. The sudden reduction in repatriation of Afghans coincides directly with the political and economic volatility in Afghanistan caused by the U.S. and NATO led war and the Taliban's reemergence. By virtue of their nature, illegal Afghan migration patters weaken the shared border and security between Afghanistan and Iran. Often, unregistered foreign nationals entering Iran illegally will subvert necessary border inspection and medical examinations. For this reason, BAFIA (Bureau of Aliens and Foreign Immigrant Affairs) has undertaken the responsibility of managing refugee camps since 2004. In spring of 2008,

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Seyyed Taghi Ghaemi, director of BAFIA, claimed that Iran plans to deport all Afghan nationals in Iran without valid refugee documents. In addition, BAFIA, UNHCR's main operational counterpart, aims to broaden its charity and (Association of the Blue Sunshade), in eastern Tehran to re- orphanage operation to meet the increasing demand. engage with their distanced Afghan culture. With over 380 UNHCR reports that in the last two years "Iranian authori- regular members, men, women and children of varying ties have deported more than 700,000 Afghans they allege backgrounds and occupations come to the cultural center to have broken immigration laws and are working illegally. celebrate-even discover- their Afghan heritage. They also report that "an estimated US$500 million is sent Sayeban-e Abi's co-founder, Ms. Yalda Baktash, notes that back to Afghanistan in remittances per year - some 6 percent her students find an overwhelming passion to reunite with of Afghanistan's national gross domestic product (GDP)." their distanced culture and heritage. Honoring Sayeban-e According to UNHCR, the "reliance on clandestine migration Abi's diversity, Ms. Baktash said, "we've welcomed a wide is costing both the Iranian and Afghan governments more demographic to Sayeban-e Abi: from our adult actors, artists, than US$221 million a year in lost revenue." or political refugees that fled from the Soviet invasion in the Realizing the necessity for increased bilateral cooperation, 80's; to our youth who are at first shy but quickly realize a BAFIA and UNHCR have set out to constructively address hidden talent and appreciation for Afghan art and culture." this difficult humanitarian dilemma. In 2009, both parties ...... have coordinated participatory assessments with refugee *The Author is Ex-ECI Research Fellow, currently studing at the women and men, along with government ministries, in the University of Puget Sound, Washington State, USA five areas of the Islamic Republic of Iran where UNHCR operates. Based on their assessment, BAFIA and UNHCR have identified three current necessities. First, increase job opportunities to meet the increased costs of living and to pay the municipal taxes and service charges. Since 2007, UNHCR has managed to allocate US$2 million on vocational training projects, "the programme has trained nearly 6,000 Afghan refugees; last year women out- numbered men in the programme, but this year the numbers are equal." Second, provide adequate health care in view of the rising costs of treatment and refugees' exclusion from the national insurance policy. This year, UNHCR has increased its primary health care budget to US$8 million, which is to be allocated strictly to refugees . And lastly, provide basic and affordable education for refugee children and increased adult literacy. However, in consideration of the changed socio-economic situation and the planned withdrawal of government subsi- dies, UNHCR will have to independently meet higher finan- cial requirements in 2010-2011. In addition to the aid and subsidies it receives from the Ministry of Interior, Education and Health, UNHCR will have to find other sources for financing its 2010-2011 budget of US$38, 826,564 as compared to its 2009 budget of US$ 13,273,109.

Anjoman-e Sayeban-e Abi UNHCR's increased budgets will greatly strength their mission to address educational and medical needs. However, with regards to cultural development, Afghan-Iranians turn to non-governmental organization to enrich their sense of historical agency and identi- ty. Every Friday afternoon, dozens of Afghan expatriates gather at the cultural center, Anjoman-e Sayeban-e Abi Compiled by: Parisa Firouzkouhi Ishak Pasha Palace Splendor in Isolation Built on Anatolian, Iranian and North Mesopotamian Architectural Tradition

Second Court with Mosque & Mausoleum

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The palace is built on a hill at the side of a mountain 5 km east of Dogubeyazit. It was the last large mon- umental structure in the Ottoman Empire in the "Lale Devri" (Tulip Period). It is one of the most distin- guished and magnificent examples of the 18th century Ottoman architecture and is very valuable in terms of art his- tory. The construction of the palace began in 1685 under the rule of Ishak Pasha's father, Çolak Abdi Pa?a and was completed in 1784 when it Palace Floor Plan Palace acquired its present form with Ishak Pasha's second round of additions. In a landscape steeped in history, Ishak Pasha Palace The completion of the palace in 99 greets visitors with all the majesty of the years when it dominated the city. Standing some 5-6 kilometers from years since its beginning in 1685 is the city center, Ishak Pasha Palace is the most famous of among the clues to its splendor. the palaces built in the decades shortly after the Topkapi The protracted period of construc- Palace in Istanbul. It is a semi-ruined palace which once tion of this palace cannot be explained used to be the administrative center of the Ottoman sub- merely in terms of its splendor, of province of Beyazit in Agri province of Turkey. course. As hands changed, its owner's According to UNESCO World Heritage Center "Ishak concept of luxury changed as well and Pasha Palace on the Silk Route near the Iranian frontier, is many years were required for all the situated on a high and vast platform of strategic impor- additions that had to be made before it tance on an area of 7600 sqm. It has rather a mixture of assumed its final form. Anatolian, Iranian and North Mesopotamian architectural A story worthy of a film lies behind tradition. The traditional model used in the construction of the Royal Palaces in the capital cities like Bursa, Edirne the construction of this palace: and Istanbul was taken as an example in the design of Ishak Pasha Palace. The western influence in Ottoman architecture during the post-classical period can be observed in Ishak Pasha Palace." The Palace is more of a complex than a palace; it is the second administrative campus after the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul and the most famous of the palaces built in recent decades. "Although the period coincided with the empire's decline, a number of successful figures who governed on the extensive Ishak Pasha Ottoman lands were heard of by the central administration and rewarded in various ways. Ishak Pasha was one of them. Palace is a rare Following his political successes, he was first appointed to example of the the Kars Principality and then made governor of Tiflis. Ishak historical Pasha felt and used the turmoil at the center, and as rumor has it, he used a portion of the taxes he should have sent Turkish palaces. back to Istanbul to build his palace and was consequently It boasts some dismissed from the governorship and exiled. of the most Structure outstanding As the ground building sits on a valley slope, it is rocky examples of baroque and rococo stone masonry and relief carving, dazzles the eye at every step.

A Room in Harem Section

Bird’s-eye view of Palce and hard. Despite the fact that it is at the center of the Old Beyazit city, its three sides (north, west, south) are steep and sloped. There is a suitable flat area only to the east. The entrance of the palace and also its narrowest façade is on that side.As the palace was built in an age when castles with no special roles as firearms were developed and were abun- dantly available, its defense system towards the hills on the east is weak. Its main gate is the weakest point in that respect. The structure of the main gate is no different than those seen in the palaces built in Istanbul and elsewhere in Anatolia and has a neat stone workmanship and carving. The Ishak Pasha Palace is a rare example of the historical Turkish

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palaces. It boasts some of the most outstanding examples of baroque and rococo stone masonry and relief carving, daz- zles the eye at every step. The interior and exterior architectural wealth of the Ishak Pasha palace could be endlessly described. Whether the palace is taken as a whole or its rooms and buildings studied individually, success, order and mastery is all to be found throughout. Ishak Pasha Palace stands in a desolate valley today and the fact that it was the subject of various legends and stories adds to its magnificent atmosphere some color and mystery.

First Courtyard All the structures here are formed around the two central courtyards. At the first courtyard, there is a guard room standing to the left and a large fountain inscribed 'Water and Milk Fountain' to the right. According to various sources, water used to flow from one and milk from the other end of this fountain, from which the local residents also benefitted. Apart from its fountain and guard room, the first courtyard has also a waiting room, as well as sections that were used as

A typical Palace Window

dungeons. Descending a steep stairway into the gloom does not strike a person as very inviting but they worth a visit. Pitch-dark, the dungeon has a row of widely spaced windows that let in a lit- tle light, but of course these windows can only be opened from the outside. There used to be other buildings in the first court which have been destroyed.

Second Courtyard The second courtyard has a rectan- gular ground plan and is surrounded with buildings on four sides. A 10- meter high gate, delicately inscribed with cypress motifs, marks the entrance of the yard. On the right side of the entrance, there is yet another courtyard, known as the 'Selamlik' or Men's Quarters Courtyard. Then, the Palace's fascinating interior structures begin to show their faces: the Palace mosque, a mausoleum and the main building in all its glory.

Mosque A Room in the Harem Section stone walls indicate that the building had a central heating system. Built in a style that exceeded the architectural con- cept of its day, Ishak Pasha Palace manifests this most clearly in its heating, sewage and water supply systems, which were not the norm for the period of its construction. The heating system in particular is awesome, based on the circulation of heated water through channels. The reception hall is 30mx3m. It has stone walls and floor: the walls are decorated with couplets and verses from the Koran in the decorative examples of the Turkish calli- graphic art. Among these a couplet, which in very free trans- lation goes: "Ishak, upon will, made the whole world a place of benevolence and the date to witness this was one thou- sand one hundred ninety nine" and indicates that the palace was completed in 1784 A.D. The main building, with its gigantic harem, a soup kitchen, entertainment halls, rooms for workers and guests, a library and a court of law, puts new dreams in a visitor's pocket, with the result that those days of splendor are revived anew in every guest that comes here.

Ceremonial Hall

Entrance to the Mosque

The mosque's interior is practically the only building that has not been damaged by man or nature over the centuries. Each hour of the day, it reflects a fresh beauty depending on how the light falls upon it. Its simple architecture and impressive decora- tions instantly impress all those who enter.

Mausoleum The mausoleum, built for Çolak Abdi Pa?a and Ishak Pasha, is built with cut stones. This octagonal mausoleum is in the shape of the "kümbet" (cupo- las), which is one of the most typical examples of the traditional Seljuk mau- soleum architecture and has two sto- ries. Its walls are decorated with geo- metric motifs.

Main Building The palace section has two stories consisting 366 rooms. Each room has a stone fireplace. The cavities within the

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Restoration Built in a style A lengthy process of restoration against the damage from that exceeded which the palace has suffered is about to be completed. the architectur- Severely affected by rain, snow and sunlight, the restoration of the palace's inner buildings is being completed as plans are al concept of its also being laid for a glass cover to reduce those effects to a day, Ishak minimum. The glass used will not only be non-breakable but Pasha Palace will also filter out the sun's harmful rays. Protective in pur- manifests this pose, the glass cover's impact on the visual appearance of the most clearly in palace will only emerge once it is in place. its heating, What to Eat sewage and Don't return without tasting some of the meat dishes of water supply Dogubeyazit, which, thanks to its geographical features, systems, which were not the norm for the period of its construction

boasts some of Turkey's tastiest red meat. Among them you can try Abdigor köfte or meatballs made from beef and a local dish called 'selekeli', which consists of fresh goat or lamb braised on a red-hot metal plate. Both are available at restau- rants on Dogubeyazit's market street.

Where to Stay If you'd like to tour other touristic areas in the region besides Ishak Pasha Palace, you can stay at one of the certi- fied tourist hotels in the town center. There are nine hotels in Dogubeyazit, which is currently boosting its accommodation facilities due to an influx of tourists. Elements of Persian Carpets Designs, Patterns & Motifs Compiled by ECO Heritage Staff Members

The Persian Carpet is the finest and the most exquisite form of artistic expression and an inseparable part of Iranian culture. It is a piece of brilliant art indicating the zenith of imagination, creativity and perfection and is amongst the highest levels of art ever achieved by mankind. For centuries, collectors in the West have eagerly sought for Persian rugs and carpets, knowing that genuine Persian Carpets create a unique atmosphere and are valuable properties. Their richness in design, symbolism, delightful colors and the weaver's imagination all combine to form an unmatched gift of timeless beauty. In the world of Oriental carpets, the Persian one is regarded superior in every aspect. Like a child blossoming into young adulthood, the Persian carpet will be a continu- ing source of pleasure, while its value increases with aging. The following article is a brief introduction of the patterns, motifs and their symbolism meaning in Persian Carpets:

very rug has its own story; yet, patterns as artworks. it is important to remember that Probably, designing began hundreds the Iranians are art-loving people of years ago with representations of E in whose view; patterns are trees, flowers, birds and clouds which, pieces of art work themselves. When an through the creative and the innovative artist chooses a pattern, it is often genius of Persian art, became more and because he likes it and it has also more stylized with each succeeding become a traditional feature in the generation. weaver's design repertoire. The most common motif for all In the world of "Oriental" carpets, the Persian rugs, especially the larger ones, Persian carpet is acknowledged as supe- is a large central medallion. Yet, even if rior in every aspect. Like a child blos- they are basically the same in design, no soming into young adulthood, your two medallions are ever exactly the Persian carpet will be a continuing same. source of pleasure, while its investment Over the years, art scholars and car- potential increases as it ages. pet experts have attempted to classify The great aspect of Persian design the Persian carpet patterns. The results has always been its intricate, symbolic of their researches have revealed that patterns. Nature supplies the greatest there are 19 groups of patterns which inspiration to the carpet designer. So the designs mostly reflect the Persian's close affinity with nature and a pure love of

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are as follows:

1 -Historic Monuments In creating these patterns, the design- ers have been inspired by the tile work, structure and geometric shapes of ancient build- ings. From the original pat- terns in this group, artists have made many sub-pat- terns some of which are called: Takhte-Jamshid, Taghe-Bostan, Taghe-Kasra (Eyvane Madaen) and Zire Khaki.

2 - Shah Abbasi In this group, the princi- pal motif - a special flower known in Iran as Shah Abbasi - is set off by other floras and leaves in the background and border. Sub-patterns include Allover, Medallion, Tree, Animal, Sheikh Safi, Embellished Shah Abbasi, Bush and Plain Ground.

3 - Spiral The original pattern of this group is made of spi- raling branches surround- ed by leaves. The end of each branch splits to resemble the jaws of drag- on. The branches are ornamented with foliate spurs known as Eslimis. Among the sub-patterns of this group are Allover, Spiral and Medallion Spiral.

4 - Allover All parts of this kind of design is usually related and connected to each other. In the drawing of such 8 - Tree Although stylized branches are a common motif in Persian carpet designs, the designer's pen is never lifted designs, the so-called tree patterns are original Persian designs with roses in but continues from beginning to end, distinctive for their close resemblance to light and dark colors. Sub-patterns with the exception of a pattern in which natural forms. Among the sub-patterns include Rose, Bijar Flower, Mostowfi the branches and leaves are scattered in are Animal Tree, Green Field Tree, Panel Flower, Panel Flower, Flower Bouquet the background. For this reason, the Tree, Cedar Tree and Vase Tree. and Rose and Nightingale. name Allover (Afshan) has been given to this group. Among the numerous varia- 9 - Turkoman 13 - Vase tions are Allover Spiral, Allover Khatai, Incorporating geometrical shapes and In these patterns, vases are used in Allover interconnected, Allover Broken, broken lines, Turkoman patterns are of different sizes: a large vase may cover etc. the nomadic tribal type - products of the whole carpet or a small vase may be the weaver's imagination rather than repeated throughout the ground. 5 - Decorative reproduction of the drawn designs. Sub- Among the many sub-patterns are Some of these patterns resemble patterns of this group are known as Khatai Vase, Two-way Vase, Mehrabi designs woven in the border areas of Turkoman Ghabe Yamouti, Comb Vase, etc. Iran. Careful study shows that some of Turkoman, Ghazel Goz Turkoman, them were originally Persian and bor- Akhal Turkoman, etc. 14 - Intertwined Fish rowed by our neighbors. Well-known Although varied and enriched by patterns in this group are Afghani, modern designers, this pattern, origi- Caucasian and Gobelin. nally product of the nomadic imagina- tion, retains its tribal character. First 6 - Bandi (Interconnected) Over the years, art woven in Birjand in the province of When a small piece of design is scholars and carpet Khorassan, the design spread to repeated and connected throughout the become common as far away as length and breadth of a carpet, the experts have Hamadan and Azarbaijan, where each resulting pattern is called Bandi (inter- attempted to classi- area made its own distinctive alter- connected). Sub-patterns of this group fy the Persian car- ations. Hence, we have Heart Fish, are many: Farahan and Beehive fish, Semeh Interconnected Spiral, pet patterns. The (Sanandaj) or Kurdestan Fish, tiny Fish, Interconnected Ivy, Interconnected results of their Fragmented Fish and interconnected Broken, Interconnected Katibeh, researches have Fish. Interconnected Mostowfi, revealed that there Interconnected Varamin, 15- Mehrab Interconnected Minakhani, are 19 groups of In this type of pattern, the prayer Interconnected Mub-brick Mold or patterns leader stands and is ornamented with Diamond, etc. pillars, chandeliers and floras. Among the sub-patterns are Tree Mehrab, 7 - Paisley Vase-Column Mehrab, chandelier The basis of these designs is the 10 - Hunting Ground Mehrab, etc. head-bent paisley motif common in As with the tree patterns, the animals both Indian and Iranian patterns from depicted in these carpets are lifelike. 16- Striped ancient times. In Persian carpets, the Sub-patterns include Tree Hunting This name is applied to the designs design takes different shapes and sizes, Ground, Panel Hunting Ground, repeated in stripes running across the some of the best known sub-patterns Medallion Hunting Ground and Allover length of the carpet, each stripe having being Tufted Paisley, Deer Horn Paisley, Hunting Ground. its own special motifs and colors. In Saraband Paisley, Kherghei Paisley, some places in Iran, this pattern is called Esfahan Pencase Paisley, Kordestan 11 - Panel Ghalamdani (pencase). Sub-patterns Paisley, etc. The basis of this design is a multi- include Overall Pencase, Tiny Flower sided motif. Sub-patterns are Spiral (with one background color) and paisley Panel, Korean Panel and Column Panel.

12 - European Flower These patterns are compositions of

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(with different background colors).

17- Composites In addition to the original patterns, each of which has a special name and history, with the passage of time new patterns have been created by combin- ing two more of the original patterns. Sub-patterns of these composites are called Twisted Branch Medallion, Chain Medallion, Interconnected Vase and Spiral, Landscape Floral Bouquet, Green Field, Plain Ground and interconnected Floral Bouquet.

18- Geometric All the carpets in this group are deco-

rated with linear elements composed of vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines or formed by a repetition of the same motifs. Carpets with geometric designs are woven by nomadic tribes with par- ticular motifs and designs. These motifs facilitate the attribution of a carpet to a particular tribe or place of origin.

19- Tribal They are the oldest & most original patterns reflecting the imple creations of tribal imagination, inspired by natu- ral surroundings. The sub-patterns include: Heibatloo, Ghashghai Paisley, Afshari, Khatouni, Ardabil, Mazlaghan, Khamseh, Saveh, Tafresh

Symbolism Throughout the history of Oriental Rugs, cultural and religious beliefs influenced the artistic motifs used in rug design. Rugs and weaving played an important roll in the life of nomadic and herding peoples. Particular patterns, symbols and colors were chosen for their belief oriented life-protecting and life-enhancing

attributes. In the ancient Orient, for example, specific colors were chosen to activate a particular spiritual sensation in one's life, alleviate symptoms of disease or assist in one's living in harmony with nature. Here's a small directory of what certain symbols have meant through- out history.

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Lily: Purity, Spirituality

Lotus: Symbolism in Persian Rebirth, Immortality Hand: Carpet Prayer Rug Peony: Camels: Power Herati: Wealth and happiness Water Garden, Fish-Mahi Blossom: Man: Youth, Spring, Newly Mihrab: Depiction of Weaver in Wed Gateway to Paradise Rug Rose: Star: Chicken, Rooster: White-Innocence Red- Spirituality, Good Luck Protection from evil eye Passion General Dove: Dragon: Tulip: Peace and good omens Power Prosperity Carnation: Snake: Cypress: Happiness Guardian, Wisdom Serenity, Rebirth, Survival in the after-life Bird: Meaning of Colors in Faith, Fertility Leaf: Persian Carpet Endless Regeneration Eagle: Green: The holy color attributed to Power Pomegranate: Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon Fertility, Riches in abun him) - it's used sparingly in places Duck, Swan: dance least likely to be walked on. Hope, Marital Fertility, Renewal, Life, Spring Enchantment Hyacinth: Red: Beauty, Wealth, Courage, Regeneration Luck, Joy, Faith Parrot: Blue: Power or force, solitude - Escaping from danger, Amulet: Allusion to the After Life Protection, Love Thwarts Evil Eye Orange: Humility and piety Yellow: The Sun, Joy of Life Peacock: Boteh: White: Purity, Cleanliness Immortality, The sacred Flame, Universe Black: Usually only found in out- bird lines. Mourning, Destruction Ewer, Jug: Gold: Power, Wealth Dog: Purification Brown: Fertility Protection, Trust, Defense Comb: Symbolism has survived in the Paradise Bird: Cleanliness design of Persian carpets down to the Paradise present day, though the appearance Cross: has changed somehow because of the Tree of Life: Faith influence of modern times. But sym- Direct path from Earth to bols still play their role in the design Heaven, Eternal Life Diamond: of Persian carpets. Signifies Women Two Iris: diamonds attached Religious Liberty together represent a man and women Pakistan’sFaiz Ahmed Faiz "The Dust of Passing Days" By: Dr. Sikandar Abbas Zaidi ECI Staffmember

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He became the editor of the Urdu literary monthly "Adab-e-Latif" from 1938-1964.In 1941, he pub- lished his first volume of verse aiz Ahmed Faiz was England, traveling extensively in "Naqsh-e-Faryadi". Those who were born in 1911 in Sialkot 1963, when he visited Europe, young at that epoch can remember Pakistan, the birth place of Algeria, the Middle East, Russia the effect this entirely new vice cre- Allama Iqbal near Lahore. including its Central Asian Republics ated in the Urdu speaking world. His early education, in and Sinkiang, and also briefly He married Alys George, an English FSialkot, was that of an orthodox China. His poem on the six day Socialist, by Islamic rites. Muslim, including the memorizing Arab-Israeli war of 1967, Sar-e Faiz was exonerated and released of holy Quran and a thorough Wadi-e Sina(Over the Valley of in April 1955. During his imprison- grounding in Arabic, Persian and Sinai), bears the elements of the ment, he wrote two volumes of Urdu. prophetic and succeeds in confirm- verse "Dast-e-Saba" and "Zindan He later attended the Scottish ing the status of Faiz as a poet of Nama" which contributed to his Mission School and went to Lahore great power. celebrity. for his university education, obtain- On his return to Pakistan from He was again arrested in 1958 ing degrees in English in 1933 and Europe in 1964, he became the but was released quickly and led Arabic in 1934. principal of the Haroon College in the Pakistan delegation to the pro- He took up teaching to begin Karachi and President of Haji gressive Writers' Association with and was a lecturer in M.A Abdullah Haroon Trust from 1964 to Conference in College Amritsar in 1935-40.He Tehran. joined the Progressive In 1957, he Writer was elected as Vice-

He was awarded the highest distinction of the country the "Nishane- Pakistan" by the Government and received the award of the Lotus in 1976

Association (P.W.A) and became President of founder in 1936 together with 1972. the Association Press of Pakistan Sajjad Zaheer, a Marxist leader, of He was also the President of Arts Council, Lahore (1958-1962). Punjab Urdu branch of P.W.A. Pakistan National Academy of Arts. In 1962, he was awarded the Lenin Peace prize, which he received in Moscow. He spent the next two years in in November 1984. His last volume of verse "Ghubar-e-Ayyam" (the dust of passing days), was published posthumously. From 1972 to 1974, he was the cul- Faiz's poetry has been translated His hope was not for Pakistan tural Advisor to the Ministry of into numerous languages of the alone, but for all suffering humanity, Education of Pakistan. world, including English, French wherever it might be, and without He was awarded the highest dis- Russian, Hungarian Czech, Persian, reference to caste, color or creed in tinction of the country the "Nishan- Arabic, Japanese, Mongolian, this world. e-Pakistan" by the Government. He Bengali, Hindi, Nepali and others. He was a true Sufi and at the received the award of the Lotus in One English translation same time, a great modern human- 1976, and was asked to become (V.G.Kiernan) was published under ist. Faiz, like Iqbal, became invested editor of their publication. the aegis of UNESCO. with the qualities of personality He accepted and remained in In the terms of structural innova- associated with greatness and inspi- tion and origi- ration, commanding vast audience nality of con- of all classes and creeds. tent, Faiz Gifted with an accurate under- Ahmad Faiz standing of human emotions, he undoubtedly was a master at translating those emotions into words and as a result, He was a true Sufi and at the achieved the easy harmony his admirers are many and well same time, a great modern which might spread throughout the world. humanist. Faiz, like Iqbal, appear to be If anyone wants to experience the became invested with the lacking in the true class of Faiz Ahmed Faiz and word of many a the accuracy he possessed in dis- qualities of personality free-verse poet. playing emotions then, reading associated with greatness Faiz wrote "Meray Dil Meray Musafir", "Bol Kay and inspiration, commanding enough politi- Lafz Azaad Hain Teray" and "Hum Jo cally and social- Tareekh Rahoon Par" should suffice. vast audience of all classes ly orientated The reference to the treasure of and creeds poetry to allow pain evokes, in the mind of the him the luxury Urdu speaking reader, the well of the occasion- known verse of Hafiz: al romantic "The mentor asked me, besides poem. pain, what else can love bestow? Faiz's name Go your way, Sage full of reason, is widely known among both literary what better gift than this?" self-exile in Beirut from 1972 to and political circles. He was soon 1982 where he witnessed the Israeli disillusioned by the lack of progress Thus in his last Ghazal, written a bombing of the city. in democracy and social justice in few days before he died in He wrote a series of poems in the Pakistan, and he used both poems November 1984, he says: volume "Mire Dil Mire Musafir" and Ghazals (lyrics) for covert and (Traveler, my heart, 1981), dedicat- overt criticism of the oppressors of The Last Ghazal ed to Yasser Arafat. the people. Life gave us, or little, what regrets He returned to Pakistan in He adopted ancient poetic forms can there be, November 1982 and died in Lahore such as the Ghazal (lyrics) or the The treasure of pain is ours what Qawwali to modern preoccupations and gave them a powerful, socio political resonance.

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fresh significance and a new vitality. His position in the literary pan- theon of Urdu was thus a secure one and the authority which his matter the quantity? poetic utterance command is testi- It's a lifetime since, know, and mony to the great appeal which don't explain it now to me, Urdu poetry continues to exert over What kindness is, beloved, and the Muslims of South Asia, especial- what iniquity? ly in Pakistan. If the world's not set on fire, of what use is a verse? Vain tears that fill the eyes, and move not humanity, Out of regard, someone may walk part of the way with him, Khizr, the Guide, no longer, has any authority. Commands are being issued, borne by the hand of Fate, None knows who will be listed in today's warran- ty. Prepare the feast, sing Ghazals, let the cup be ever full, If the world's woe is great, is there not wine in plenty?" "The Dust of Passing Days"

Faiz succeeded in establishing new symbols in Urdu poetry while imbuing the old thematic complexes with On the invitation of Dr. Ayyubi, ECI President, a delegation com- prised of ECO Secretary General, M. H. Maroufi, Ambassadors of Pakistan and Turkey as well as representatives of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan Embassies accompanied ECI officials and paid a visit to Tehran Museum of Contemporary Arts on Dec. 14, 2009. Welcoming the guests, Shalouee, Director General of Visual Arts Department of the Iranian Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance and President of the Museum, briefed the delegation about the ongoing exhibition on paintings of Sohrab Sepehri, the renowned Iranian con- temporary poet & painter, Being one of the world's top 10 art museums holding more than 4000 master- pieces of contemporary artworks in painting and visual arts, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art was inaugurated in 1977 and built adja- cent to Tehran's Laleh Park. The museum design has elements of tra- ditional Persian architecture such as Badgirs, and yet has a spiraling design reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright's Guggenheim. The Treasures of the Museum are among the richest modern art treas- ures of the world. The Muesum holds an impressive variety of works notably. works by the following artists are kept there: Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Van Gogh, James Ensor, Edouard Vuillard, André Dunoyer de Segonzac, Jules Pascin, André Derain, Louis Valtat, Georges Rouault, Fernand Léger, Pablo Picasso, Alberto Giacometti, Francis Bacon, Max Ernst, René Magritte, George Grosz, Diego Rivera, Jasper Johns, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Jim Dine, Peter Phillips, James Rosenquist, Fritz Winter, Joan Miró, William Turnbull, Victor Vasarely, Adolph Gottlieb, Richard Hamilton, Georges Braque, Jean Paul Riopelle, Edvard Munch, Pierre Soulages, Edgar Degas, Mary Cassatt, Maurice Prendergast, František Kupka, Max Beckmann, James Whistler, Edward Hopper, Giorgio Morandi, Noreen Motamed, Giacomo Balla and Marcel Duchamp.

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Tehran Museum of Contemporary

Published by Institute for Promotion of Visual Arts in Arts association with Tehran Museum of Contemporary Arts

escribing things, which in the daily life are taken for granted as obvious D phenomena or tenets, is usually difficult. Amongst these, "art" has preoccupied and challenged the different schools of thoughts throughout the histo- ry of science and philosophy. Describing art is difficult. This is not due to a compli- cated mystery, but rather to its infinite simplicity and of course its constant movement, evolution and flow. Art seems like a spring with an evident origin, but taking a new form along the turn of a rock, and in every body or ves- sel, without which, mere looks would be powerless of definition and description. Sometimes we erroneously see only the body and vessel, but we are all apparent- ly capable after a moment of hesitation to point and say this is art or a work of art. However, we cannot analyze our per- sonal reasons or feelings. We express things or cite criteria, which are all to be found in art, but not all of these are art, and art is also not all these. The secret of eternity of this heritage seems to be the amazing anxiety to see what phenome- non or event will next be called art, an entity, which is definitely born out of the repeated structural form and originated from a unique and exceptional mind to greet the joyfully expecting eyes. There is no doubt that art, as an aspect of culture and the gauge of human dis- tinction and greatness, is the result of the an eye: but what a clear sighted one" mental maturity and talent of artists, describes perfectly the nature of Monet's which is a continuation of an exclusive paintings. He always tried to paint a sub- and long experience, and whose daily ject as he saw it and not as he knew it analysis is a window to the bright world and color. It is a window to promises, to before. betterment and wisdom. The treasury of reveal the hidden and to quench the foreign masterpieces in the Museum of thirsts no matter how large the cup. Works on display by this artist in the Contemporary Arts is a significant and Museum: integrated collection showing the evolu- *Mahmoud Shalouee Director General, -Environs de Giverny tion of modern art at an international Visual Arts Affairs, Iranian Ministry of Culture level. Among these, one can find numer- and Islamic Guidance and Supervisor, Tehran Paul Gauguin ous milestones of modern and avant- Museum of Contemporary Arts He is the creator of a new painting garde artworks, which have occasionally concept, who has had a significant and extended the frontiers of art by creating a Artists & their Works constructive influence on the art of the new and prolific definition; and famous Claude Monet twentieth century. He was born in Paris, names who have always presented a He is considered as the main leader of but spent his childhood in Lima (Peru). higher and different insight to innovative the impressionist movement, but in his He obtained a well-paid job as a stock and artistic creativity to curious and later paintings and from many aspects, he broker and in this midst became interest- searching audience. has been called the harbinger of abstract ed in painting. He used to paint in his Moreover, in this midst there are works expressionism. He spent his youth in the free time and was among the buyers of by artists who lived and had their day, but port of Le Havre, where he met Boudin impressionist works. Encouraged by for a fleeting moment were left behind who encouraged him to take up land- Pissarro, he devoted more Time to paint- the circle of fortune -in such a way that in ing and finally at the age of thirty five, he general the quantity, quality, association left the comfort of his life and family to and the historical order of these works take up painting full time. He left for have turned the present collection into Cezanne's famous Pont-Aven where Bernard and a number one of the most sensitive and valuable saying "Monet is of young artists became attracted to his reference for the study and research on only an eye: but personality and his views on aesthetics. the contemporary visual arts, and a focus He spent two adventurous months in of attention as an art center in the region what a clear sighted Arles in the company of Van Gogh. and even the world. one" describes per- Thereafter, he joined his followers. His For this reason, the display of all or fectly the nature of last years of life were spent in poverty, some of these rare treasures at different solitude, illness and constant dispute with opportunities and occasions and during Monet's paintings the officials of French colonies. At the various domestic and international events time of his death in the Iles de Marquises, cannot satisfy either the visual sense or an he left behind a large collection of oil and enthusiast's hunger. One must not forget water color paintings, carvings, engrav- nor ignore the national treasures and the scape painting instead of drawing carica- ings, sculptures, potteries, journals and outcome of the considerable capacities of tures. He went to Paris to study art. letters. He was among the first European the precious Iranian artists, which have He met Cezanne and Pissarro in the artists attracted to the ancient orient and gained a special status alongside the for- Swiss Academy. He experimented paint- pre-Columbian arts. He left the naturalis- eign works, the same famous and some ing in the open air with his students tic tradition of Europe and reacted against apparently not so famous artists, whose Renoir, Sisilei and Bazille. While the realistic approach of impressionism works will in a very near future steal the exchanging experiences close to the end and the scientific interpretations of the spotlights in faraway coasts and shine of the 1860s, Monet and Renoir created neo-impressionism. When he was still alongside the world elite. May there also the first purely expressionist paintings. He under the influence of impressionists, he be an opportunity for their display. The closely studied the works of Turner and showed his talents in processing colors current article is the spectacular tributary Constable in London. and while keeping in mind the visual of this turbulent and bountiful river, By offering a number of his paintings principles, he often paid close attention warming the heart and invoking pleasure to the government, Monet joined a to the psychological significance of colors. and exhilaration in the midst of breeze movement for peace. Ironically, despite The fauvist and expressionist movements his fear of darkness, which he considered above his fear of death, Monet was near- ly blind at the time of his death. Cezanne's famous saying "Monet is only

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pursued his principles. Works on display by this artist in the Museum: -Nature Morte à Estampe Japonaise

Henri de Toulouse Lautrec Due to his clear and concise expres- sion in design, Toulouse Lautrec is consid- ered as the pioneer of modern art. He also revolutionized the poster art through his innovations. Born in an aristocratic family, in his youth he broke both feet, which never grew further. He studied in Paris under the tuition of Bona and Corman (1882 - 1885), but he soon turned away from the academic principles and began working in his own studio, finding fame by designing his first posters and prints (1891 -1892). During his travels to United Kingdom, he became acquainted with Oscar Wilde Paul Gauguin, Nature morte à Estampe Japonaise, 1889 Paul

Claude Monet, Environs de Giverny, 1883 and Beardsley. His short but fruitful artis- tic life is representative of the tumultuous and unconventional era of late nine- teenth century Europe. He recorded whatever he saw without prejudice. His sharp vision could cut through the society to extract the essence of reality. His innovation laid in the fact that through dynamic and fluid lines, he could find a pure image for the most fleeting moments of reality. He met Bernard and Van Gogh in Paris, but it was Degas and his views, choice of subject and style of work that affected him most. Van Gogh, Seurat, Rouault and young Picasso were inspired by Toulouse Lautrec.

Works on display by this artist in the Museum: -Fantaisie de Carnaval from Album de la Rue Blanche 1889 à l'Accroche Coeur, Lautrec, Fille Henri de Toulouse

Georges Braque, Guitare, Fruits et Pichet, 1927

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-Fille à l'Accroche Coeur passion of youth took him to Paris where -Le Jockey he met the avant-garde intellectuals such as Apollinaire, Jacob and Gertrude Stein. Vincent Van Gogh At first, he began painting the Parisian He is amongst those who created new ily seen in his landscapes, which are life in the style of Toulouse Lautrec, but concepts in painting through the expres- painted with fragments of pure color (Port soon showed his personal talent in the sive and symbolic values of colors and of Antwerp 1906). Blue and Rose periods (1901 -1906). His forms. He spent his youth working in an Braque considered these landscapes history making change began with the art brokerage firm and travelling to the as his first creative works. He preceded painting of Demoiselles D' Avignon Hague, London and Paris (1869 -1875). Picasso in creating polished and wooden (1907) and continued with the experi- He then entered the ecclesiastic school textures on canvas. ences of Cubism. He then travelled to but left early to become a missionary Braque and Picasso created a new Rome where he cooperated with the among the miner community or interpretation of the visual reality by look- Diaghilev Ballet Troupe. During this peri- Bourinage (Belgium). ing deep at the structure of objects and od, he produced a number of classical Finally, he turned to painting and on set the scene for next evolution of paint- and cubist paintings. his brother's advice, took up residence in ing and sculpture. However, in compari- The impact of the crisis in Europe, the Paris where he met such artists as Pissarro, son to the previous works, the pictorial Spanish Civil War and the German occu- Seurat, Gauguin, Bernard and Toulouse discipline was then reduced. The quali- pation of France greatly affected the con- Lautrec. He cooperated with Gauguin for ties that separated the paintings of Braque tent and contexts of his paintings leading a period of two months, which ended in from those of Picasso, including the char- to the creation of such masterpieces and an angry separation. acter of painting, became more apparent the Guernica, while the fauvist move- Gauguin returned to Paris and in a fit in the works of this period (Guitare et ment strengthened his experimenting of fury, Van Gogh severely injured his ear. temperament. He was voluntarily hospitalized in the Picasso was never constrained by a Saint Remy Mental Asylum, where he specific artistic style or medium, and finally took his own life at the height or showed his unique capacities by adopt- depression. Fully aware of the richness of ing different impacts. impressionist colors, Van Gogh aban- doned the "Grey" painting, but did not Works on display by this artist in the turn to representation of visual symbols Museum: and the different features of light and -Baboon & Yang environment. -La Femme qui Pleure Under the influence of Seurat, he -La femme qui Pleure II studied closely the color cycle and con- -Le Peintre et son Modèle sidered color as an independent quality, au Bandeau, 1962 Picasso, Femme Pablo -Portrait de Femme II whose aspects followed a specific set of -Jacqueline Lisant rules. Munch was the first artist to follow -Fenêtre Ouverte sur la Rue de Van Gogh, and then the German fauvists Vase -1927). This stage of polished art of Penthièvre and expressionists also benefitted greatly Braque presents beauty in its classical from Van Gogh's accomplishments. sense and is based on balance and order René Magritte in a new form. Rene Magritte is without a doubt one Works on display by this artist in the of the most prominent representatives of Museum: Work on display by this artist in the surrealism in painting who invented the -Worn out: at Eternity's Gate Museum: visual pun. He studied in the Brussels -Guitare, Fruits et Pichet Academy and visited France, UK, Georges Braque -Hymen Germany and the Netherlands. He is among the pioneers of modern His early works were influenced by art and is counted among the founders of Pablo Picasso Futurism and Cubism and through publi- Cubism. He was greatly influenced by the Due to his seeking and pro-active per- cation of journals of Esophagus and Marie works of fauvists displayed in the Fall sonality, innovations and impact on his Zed, he launched the surrealist move- Saloon (1905). This influence can be eas- contemporaries, Picasso is the most ment in Belgium (1925). Thereafter, prominent artist of the twentieth century. Son of a drawing teacher, he learnt the academic principles of art from his father and in the Academy of Barcelona. The under the influence of Kay Ricco's style of Museum: prose, who showed him the superiority of -Le fil de Jours poetry over painting, he created his own -L' habitant de l'Oasis personal style, which made a great -Train Arriére Autobus Gare impact on poster making, advertisement clear distinctions between his works and Montparnasse and graphics. those of other surrealists such as Masson Magritte presented his poetic inspira- and Arp. Joan Miro tions in the frame of his photo like paint- He is among the prominent figures of ings, but would not use the realist style Work on display by this artist in the abstract surrealism. Despite similarities with the intention of showing the visible Museum: with the works of Klee, his "childish" and aspect of objects, highlighting instead -The Dream innocent style is quite personal and dis- their mysterious and secret presence or tinct. Miro studied in Barcelona (1907- function. For this reason, his surrealist Jean Dubuffet 1915). His initial works were influenced approach has been described as magical He coined the expression of Raw Art by Cezanne and the Fauvists. realism. and ardently pursued this interpretation After settling in Paris, he was influ- of art. He left for Paris in the year 1928 to enced by Picasso and Gris, through Works on display by this artist in the study, but above painting, he spent many whom he was introduced to the works of Museum: years to pursuit different business activi- Henri Rousseau. The simple colors and -Le Thérapeute ties. His early works were marked by a the expressive symbols in his paintings of -Le Chemin du Ciel rough texture on the background made the thirties impressed Kandinsky and of material such as gravel, cement and probably Picasso. Salvador Dali coal bearing different carvings (agitated Thereafter, many contemporaries such He is the most famed promoter of irra- life 1953). In later years, he created stat- as Gorky and Calder were influenced by tionality in art. He left his studies in the his works. Miro's paintings are a mixture Academy of Madrid to travel to Paris, of joyful indifference and a serious digni- where he joined the surrealist movement Works by Dubuffet, ty. Surrealism paved his way for complete (1929) and shoed his own perception of expression of his thoughts, but he never surrealism in paintings such as "the con- which sometimes gave free rein to the elements of his tinuation of mind" (1931). borders pure works. He always took inspiration from In collaboration with Luis Bunuel abstraction, has a the artistic culture and heritage of his (Spanish Director), he produced two homeland of Catalonia. motion pictures "The Andalusia Dog" and primordial quality From 1937 onwards, he turned more "The Golden Age". He took up residence that challenges and more towards abstract and original in New York at the beginning of the war logic forms. Nevertheless, he preserved his in the year 1939, but returned to Spain in imaginative humor and his personal form 1955. He was also interested in religious of expression. At the height of its maturi- themes (Crucifixion 1951). ty, the innovative style of Miro contained The illustrations of the book "Alice in ues out of worthless materials such as elements or surrealist detachment, Wonderland" (1969) are among his late newspaper, used sponge and wires, abstract construction and decorative works. Through his inclination towards calling them fragments of the fictitious inclinations. the revival of Pre-Raphaelites and by life. praising the academic painters of the He concentrated more on sculp- Works on display by this artist in nineteenth century, Dali in practice ture at the end of sixties. He also pub- the Museum: turned his back on the experiences of lished prints made by lithography (the -Le Matador modern artists. His works portray the walls collection 1950). Works by -Oiseaux des Grottes symbolic elements founded on the Dubuffet, which sometimes borders -Trace sur la Paria V Freudian interpretation of dreams with a pure abstraction, has a primordial realistic process and the technical skill quality that challenges logic. He pre- Wassily Kandinsky used is quite intense Dali described his ferred spontaneity over deliberation Being one of the effective figures of the works as "photos of dreams that are col- and immaturity over professionalism. twentieth century for his creative mind ored by hand". For this reason, there are Nevertheless, the rich texture in his and new language, Kandinsky is general- works are the results of his great expe- rience in the application of incongruous materials. Works on display by this artist in the

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ly considered as a pioneer of abstract painting. His early works resembled those of the Russian Symbolists and their branches. While in Paris, he was impressed by the Nabis and the fauvists. Later on, he distanced himself greatly from nature through his landscapes titled "The Improvised" and in paintings such as "View with Church" (1913). He took the last steps towards pure abstraction. Next came the abstract geometric forms under the influence of Russian Supremacist and Constructivist Movements. However, the geometric Corms did not eliminate the dynamism in his works. Miro's influence on his works appeared after his residence in Paris, with a more fluid forms taking a surrealist quality. Although his views were rooted in the German romantic philosophy and the oriental spiritualism, he always sought to Vincent Van Gogh, Worn out at Eternity’s Gate, 1882 Gogh, Worn Van Vincent find a scientific basis for his outlooks.

Jean Dubuffet, Le Fil des Jours, 1976 He always believed that apart from its depictive and decorative functionalities, painting has a power to evoke deep sen- timents or mental experiences and on this basis, he paved the grounds for the abstract expressionist movement.

Works on display by this artist in the Museum: -Tensions Claires

Jackson Pollock He is without a doubt one of the most brilliant figures of abstract expressionism who by the sheer force of his genius, boldness and frenzy was able to take abstract expressionism well above any other modern art styles, while paving the ground for future efforts in passing the medium of painting. He studied art in Los Angeles and New Wassily Kandinsky, Tensions Claires, 1937 Tensions Kandinsky, Wassily York (1929 -1931). His first works show

Jackson Pollock, Mural on Indian Red Ground, 1950 84 ECO HERITAGE Issue 12 - Vol 4 85

the influence of Ryder imaginative paint- on continuity but is more visual, in a ings. He was then attracted to the mural sense that the space are independent of artists in Mexico and cooperated with each other but are somehow intercon- them. nected. His paintings have been In the late thirties, he became tions of sculpture. At the end of the thir- described as the visual equivalent of "the acquainted with the works of Picasso and ties, he concluded that his statues, in the literature of critical situations, which Miro and surrealists such as Masson and current of reduced dimensions and elim- appeared in the late forties. Bacon took finally chose the abstract style. He had a ination of details, resembled the model his inspirations mainly from radiographic very irritable deeply introvert character, when they became narrow and elongat- photos, serial images and cinema. Among but contrary to other legendary figures of ed. His style of sculpture was shaped dur- the old masters, he preferred the works of the world of art, he was not sentimental. ing years of relentless efforts of building Rembrandt, Velasquez and Goya. Nonetheless, Pollock's name is associ- and reconstructing. His later depictions of ated with the all encompassing painting. man resemble a thin woven string as if Works on display by this artist in the In this style, all emphasis is avoided and pressed from all sides. Museum: no specific detail can be singled out over -Reclining man with sculpture the canvas. Consequently, the traditional Works on display by this artist in the -Richard Hamilton concept of composition and structure, in Museum: the sense of the interrelation of the com- -Yanaihara Victor Vasarely ponents, is completely rejected and all -Walking man I He has been called the father of Op parts of the painting have a single value. -La Cage Art. He is among artists who stressed the This composition, which is based on -Grand Buste functionality of abstraction. He studied in the sinuous movement of lines covering -Standing Woman I Budapest Art Academy. Through the entire canvas in a nearly uniform and Moholy-Nagy, he became acquainted equal manner, creates a kind of aestheti- with the works of Malevieh, Kandinsky, cal and apparently random order. This Gropius, Le Corbusier and Mondrian. legendary art figure died in a crash in the He was greatly impressed by the aes- year 1956, while he was obsessed with thetics of constructivism and the function- death for some times. ality of Bauhaus. He started his work as a graphic artist and then turned to painting Works on display by this artist in the (1944). After a while, he experimented Museum: with colors and visual deceptions and by -Mural on Indian Red Ground removing the frontiers of painting and sculpture, he proposed the general con- Alberto Giacometti cept of two dimensional and three

The rich philosophic and visual con- 1960 Alberto Giacometti,Yanaihara, dimensional arts. His goal was to create tents of Giacometti's works have placed vibrations in the viewer's retina. His early him among the prominent sculptors of works consisted of black and white the twentieth century. He was the son of Francis Bacon designs on paper or transparent sheets of a painter and began his artistic endeavors Due to his independent and personal plastic or glass. However, in the sixties, he in his youth. He entered the Geneva style in portraying the disastrous condi- used geometrical forms: square, circle, School of Art in the year 1919. During his tion of the modern man, he is considered triangle, rectangle and polygons, by stay in Italy, he studied the works of old as one of the most prominent contempo- applying bright and clear colors according masters, particularly the works of Giotto rary expressionist artists. Bacon was born to mathematical principles to create a and Tintoretto (1920 1922). In Paris, in Dublin but chose to live in London feeling of leap convexity and concavity. Giacometti was trained by Bourdel and during his youth. He first began his work except for the Second World War years, as an interior decorator. Then in the thir- Works on display by this artist in the chose to live in Paris. ties and without any academic training, Museum: He ignored the academic principles of he switched to painting. With his contro- -Basilon II sculpting and joined the surrealist move- versial works of three studies of personal- -Caillouxs ment to create imaginative works. He ities for crucifixion in the year 1944, he -Quasar-Fuge also experimented with cubist percep- attained a prominent position in the - OB-NEG European painting. His works usually consists of distorted figures on three plates, which are mostly shocking and traumatic. The relation between the plates is not so much based Tajikistan's Rich and Old History of Arts and Courtesy of the Government of the Rep. Tajikistan for ECO Tourist Guide-Book prepared by ECO Cultural Institute

The artistic culture of Tajikistan reach- decades of the 8th centuries was inter- es back to more than 8000 years ago. rupted a little later in the late 8th centu- First on the rock images discovered by ry by the Arab conquest followed the archeologists in Shakhty Grotto in Gorny Islamization of the western Central Asia. Badakhshan (the Pamirs) at the altitude Later on, the art in Tajikistan became of 4,100 m above sea level. They belong more and more decorative like that of to the so-called "marcansuf" culture, the whole Islamic world. mountainous culture of the Stone Age in Under Islam, decoration became pre- the world. dominantly geometric and ornamental, The Tajiks had a rich and old cultural composed of stylized plants and geo- history as witnessed by the excavations metric patterns. It's worth mentioning at north Tajikistan (wild ram's head cast that Early Muslim art of the Arab of bronze - 3rd century BC, a magnifi- Caliphate was fed not only by the cent example of Scythians "animal style", Byzantines and Iranians but also the at south Tajikistan (gold buckle from Sughdians and Tokharistanian culture Parkhar 1st - 2nd century), at Penjikent and artistic traditions. On-rock image of (wall paintings, wood-carvings and clay Paleolithic Age, monumental wall paint- sculptures - 7th century A.D), the archi- ings and lace carving of Middle Age, tectural monuments of Samarkand, miniature paintings and masterpieces of Bukhara, Istravshan, Khudjand and by applied art - all these are part of histori- many illuminated manuscripts. cal cultural processes in Central Asia, Prior to the spread of Islam in Central Iran, Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, in Asia during the eighth century, artists which the Tajik masters were active par- and artisans were not limited in the ticipants. choice of subject matter for the decora- However, the art of illustration and tion of their walls, textiles, costumes, decoration of illuminated manuscripts jewelry and everyday objects of wood, which had attained perfection in the metal and clay. middle Ages, gradually declined, while Patterns and motifs reflected ancient the masters of decorative art working on and deeply embedded animist and architectural monuments confined shamanist beliefs and traditions from the themselves to the use of conventional nomad world, as well as the long-term devices. It was only in such crafts as cross-cultural aesthetic influences of metalwork, pottery and embroidery Persia, Europe, China and India, and the associated with the manufacture of religious influences of Buddhism and household objects, that the national tra- Zoroastrianism. The brilliant period for dition flourished. For many centuries up the art of the 6th through the first to the Soviet times, the creative talent of the Tajiks found its outlet only in an Tajik Pottery 86 ECO HERITAGE Issue 12 - Vol 4 87

Crafts

unusually wide range of folk art. Soviet policy set out to transform tra- ditional craft workers into workers for the state. Existing craft guilds were reformed as professional unions and craft workers themselves gradually came together, first into ateliers and workshop cooperatives and then, with the intro- duction of modern machinery, into fac- tories. Women's labor was required in the economically vital cotton fields, resulting in less time at home. Skills such as wood and ganch carving, brass work, leatherwork, embroidery and weaving, practiced in the towns and villages have been retained and even encouraged, the survival of others was threatened by factory- made goods. Craft- based pot- tery in particular has suffered from the introduction of aluminum, enamel and factory-made chinaware. After Russian Revolution in 1917, Now, about two hundred fifty artists live and work in Tajikistan. Their works has been rep- resented in National Museum named after K. Behzod and various modern art galleries in Dushanbe and Khudjand

contemporary figurative art was born Tajikistan. Their works has been repre- Dushanbe, the memorial "Vakhdat", appropriate to the new times, asserting sented in National Museum named after (architect B.Zuhurdinov, sculptor I. Communist ideals of transformation K. Behzod and various modern art gal- Cerbel and in Kurgan-Tyube- the monu- deconstruction of life. In the 1920s pub- leries in Dushanbe and Khudjand . The ment of Ismail Samani on a horse (sculp- lication of the first political, agenda architectural appearance of Dushanbe tor A.Bicasiyon) were erected. posters and illustrated books in the Tajik differs from other cities of Central Asia. The significant contribution of Tajik languages as well as the organizations of Main Heroes of the Tajik people are the fine art in XX century have been made professional raining in oil painting, draw- Persian speaking poets; Rudaki, Firdousi, by such masters as ing and round sculpture were all con- Ayni, coryphee of science Avicenna M.Khoshmuhamedov, A.Khaydarov, nected with Samarkand, then the capital (Abu Ali Sino). A.Kamelin, .Rakhimov, P.Falbov, of Uzbekistan, of which the Tajik Many local inhab- S.Kurbanov, S.Sharipov, Skull-Caps Autonomous Republic was a part. itants know and can M.Beknazarov, and also The local masters began to learn read by heart frag- A.Sayfutdinov,V.Odinaev, about western art through Russia, and ments from classical R.Safarov, A.Mirshakar, internationalization of the Tajik culture Tajik poetry. During M.Kholov, F.Khojaev, began in the turn of XIX-XX centuries. the 90 years of XX N.Narzibekov, A.Akilov Painting by oil on a canvas became one century, Tajik culture and many others. of the main conductors of European art aspired to revive its The ethnic variety of practice. Painting in workshops and in own great spiritual regions of Tajikistan is many genres such as portrait, sill-life, traditions. In various reflected in its national and sculpture and monumental art regions of the coun- art. There are many developed gradually. During 20-40 of XX try monuments of ancient centers that have century the art went through a transi- the outstanding fig- preserved traditional tional stage from a traditional national ures of the Tajik cul- crafts: Khudjand , plastic system with planar image to an ture like Abulkasim Kulyab, Istravshan (for- absolutely opposite principles of Lahuti (sculptor merly Ura-Tyube), European art culture. Modern Tajik art Milashevich), Mirzo Kanibadam, Isfara, was generated in the middle of the cen- Tursunzade in Darvaz, Karategin, the tury. Tursunzade (sculptor Tajik Pamirs, Hissar, Soviet Tajiks studied modern arts, bal- Bicasiyon), Bobojon Karatag etc. Nowadays, let and classical music in Russia Gafurov's bust in Dushanbe (sculptor alongside the traditional crafts, skilled (Moscow, St- Petersburg /formerly lvanov) were erected. craftsmen even more often use original Leningrad/) and Latvia (Riga), promoted The artist K.Nodirov created a panel mixed technique, and their works the secular Persian-Tajik literature clas- "History of Tajikistan" for the B.Gafurov become intricate in form. The artists fall sics, social realist painting and built out a museum in Khudjand. In 1999, new outside the customary limits, enriching republican network of theaters, muse- monumental ensembles were created, inner contents of their works. ums and libraries. Now, about two hun- in connection with the celebration of the dred fifty artists live and work in ll00 anniversary of' Samanid State. In

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Embroidery Wonderful monuments of carving, remnants of ancient embroidery, majes- tic paintings and other pieces are evi- dence of the high interest in art and handicrafts. Until recently there were blocks of weavers, potters, braziers, and smiths in the towns. Within the last 100- 200 years, the Tajik handicrafts have not remained unchanged. Nevertheless, some of the ancient handicrafts, especially the more artistic types have been preserved. Embroidery in particular may be seen on clothes (waist shawls, women's dresses, and embroidered skull- caps) and on every- day domestic articles. A distinguishing feature of the applied arts of Tajiks is the extraordinarily rich development of dec- orative patterns and the scarcity of picto- rial subjects as a result of Islam's prohibi- tion of the depiction of living creatures.

Skull-caps Small-sized embroidery has long been used both in the valleys and mountains of Tajikistan. The Tajiks of the valleys embroidered various handker- chiefs, towels, small bags for tea, mirrors and combs. In the mountainous regions, embroidery of head and waist handker- chiefs was not used. But, they had their own typical small articles such as bride's veils, breast-pieces and head bands, the ornamentation of which strikingly resem- bled that of Slavs. Embroidered skull-caps (tiubeteikas) have always been popular among the

Embroidery Tajiks. Men and women wear them on weekdays and on holidays, with a national costume and a "European" suit. Tiubeteikas produced in different dis- tricts vary widely in form and ornament. Not long ago, one could tell a resident of a particular district by type of skull- cap he wore. In the recent years, however, all kinds of tiubeteikas, especially those made in the plain country, have spread all over Tajikistan and have become a sort of national head-dress. The skull-caps for the bride and bridegroom are particular- ly lovely. These skull-caps are still favored even by young people who have gone over to very modern dress. The most popular embroidered skull- cup among the other tiubeteikas is chusti (after the village of Chust in the Ferghana Valley). These are black-and- white men's skullcaps embroidered with white silk against a black back-ground. They have a traditional pattern: bodom (almond) or kalamfur (pepper pod) placed in each of the four segments of the cap. The skull-cap has a square form. Iroki, square, flat-topped tiubeteikas beautifully adorned with a bright floral ornament, are very popular among women. The technique of embroidery resembles the Russian cross-stitch. In the Pamirs many people wear round flat- topped tiubeteikas with a broad cap- band ornamented with one or two rows of colorful braid, in the ornamentation of these skull- caps there are also many

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Jewerly

Besides cotton cloths, Tajik weavers manufac- tured silk fabrics with figured patterns made by a special method. Such patterns are called "abr": blurred designs with peculiar toning resulting from the diffusion of two colors

variants among which we may notice made in Karatag, which was also famous ting and ornamental painting is in pri- Pamirs embroidery with geometrical for other articles. vate homes in mahallas (districts), design. In many mountainous regions - mosques and in teahouses. Centers of And finally, we must mention the theWestern Pamirs, Darvaz, Karategin, woodcraft are Istravshan and Isfarain in famous gold thread tiubeteikas. These the northern regions of Kulyab and the North. Almost all the houses in skull-caps made by old masters the upper reaches of towns and villages had eyvans (verandas) are round and flat-topped. Zeravshan River - women with a figured column topped by a They have no lining or braid, knit men's and women's hose carved beam. The doors and wooden but embroidery covers the of colored wool with diverse shutters, which originally substituted for whole crown leaving no open patterns often representing styl- windows, were also carved. space. Gold is often combined ized objects. Especially famous with silver forming a bright lus- are the beautiful stockings of the Jewelry trous surface, which is animated by Pamirs Tajiks, nowadays, alongside Various combinations of coral, moth- colored spots of pulakcha. with traditional crafts, skilled crafts- er-of pearl, pearls (in the more expen- men even more often use original sive articles), and precious and gem Abr- Fabric mixed techniques, and their stones (rubies, emeralds, sapphires, gar- Even before Central Asia was works become intricate in form. nets, rock crystal) were widely used in conquered by the Muslims, the The artists fall outside the cus- the making of jewelry. Highly prized ancestors of the Tajiks, and Sughdians, tomary limits, enriching inner among the stones was carnelian, to who lived in Zandona Village in the sub- contents of their works. Every which salubrious properties were attrib- urbs of Bukhara, manufactured fabrics large Tajik bazaar has a small uted and turquoise. The gem stones noted for their high artistic quality. handicraft section, generally were usually polished and not faceted. Besides cotton cloths, Tajik weavers offering elaborately decorated The technique of jewelry ornamenta- manufactured silk fabrics with fig- coffers or "sunduk", wooden cra- tion varied to include chasing, repose, ured patterns made by a special dles, textiles and ceramics. filigree and pierced work. In Bukhara method. Such patterns are called enamel work was also done. Belts with "abr". Their characteristic features Woodwork large ornamented buckles and sewn-on are blurred designs with their Wall painting, wood and plaster carv- medallions, finger rings, hilts and scab- peculiar toning resulting from ing can be found in house decorations. bards and horse-harnesses were made the diffusion of two colors. In the northern towns of Khudjand (for- for the Emir and his officials. The largest center of abr- merly Leninabad), and Istravshan (for- A great many women's decorations fabric manufacturing is the merly Ura-Tyube), great attention was were manufactured, such as various northern region of present- paid to the painting of ceilings, and in head pieces, diadems, head bands, all dayTajikistan namely the western town of the Bukhara- wall kind of pendants suspending from the Khujand, while in the painting. Both forms of interior decora- head-dress, earrings of different shapes, south, abr-fabric, tion are found in Samarkand. throat bands, short and long necklaces especially silk The best way to see both ancient and of one or many strands, figured amulet alocha, were modern applications of fine wood cut- cases, necklaces of coins, bracelets, Pottery

The range of objects made by the potters was very wide and included dishes of various sizes and shapes, cups - large and small, with and without stems, curved and straight, diverse earthenware jars, bowls, washtubs, and jugs

rings, and plait adornments. Rich orien- witness to the popularity of ceramic shapes, cups - large and small, with and tal robes, belts, women's dresses, head miniatures and toys in Tajikistan. without stems, curved and straight, bands, double braid stitched onto the Excavated toy figurines and whistles diverse earthenware jars, bowls, wash- front of the dress, sleeve edgings, tiu- dating from hundreds or thousands of tubs, and jugs. The ornamentation and beteikas (skull- caps), boots, slippers, as years ago differ little in form and inspira- color schemes differed with each region. well as horse-cloths were all embroi- tion from those still made today, particu- Decoration, if applied, was incised, dered in gold. larly for the traditional spring solstice cel- appliquéd, mounded, drawn or painted ebration of Navruz celebrated on 21 using solutions of suspensions of ground Pottery & Metal Works March. Favorite subjects include birds, red and ochre-colored oxides and other One of the oldest and most popular sheep, dogs, horses, fish and mythologi- minerals. It was only in the ninth and handicrafts is pottery. The production of cal beings. There is a legend that potter tenth centuries that potters began to use own temperature- ware was a funda- is connected with fire, and it was always glazed ceramic. Glazed ceramic tech- mentally efficient process. Low firing considered that half the creation of a pot nologies were adopted in Central Asia temperatures and short firing times limit- is the craftsman's work and half is with the advent of Islamic culture from ed the amount of fuel required impor- through the magic of the fire. In the the southwest. Potters producing glazed tant in dry areas of Tajikistan where sur- towns and large villages, pottery was wares decorated many of their dishes, plus of vegetation was not to be wasted usually a man's occupation. In the south- bowls and other vessels with vibrant, and fuel often had to be painstakingly eastern mountainous region potteries bright flowers and vegetal motifs. These gathered and carted from a distance. were made by women. The potter's often mirrored or complemented the In the hot, dry summers of Tajikistan, wheel was turned by foot. Most popular, designs and colors of the embroidered, porous earthenware kept water and liq- was pottery made in Khudjand and woven and printed textiles, which uid milk products cool through trans- Istravshan. Good pottery was also pro- brought warmth, brightness and tradition portation and evaporation. The water duced in the Isfara Valley (Kanibadam to festive occasions and the interiors of ewers, jugs and drinking pitches pro- and Chorku) and the Karatag settlement homes across the region. duced today are practically indistinguish- in the Hissar Valley. The range of objects The most common traditional able in body and form from artifacts made by the potters was very wide and method of glaze decoration is single- excavated. Archaeological records bear included dishes of various sizes and fired under glaze painting. In the under-

Metal work

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glazed technique the decoration was painted on the dry, unfired pot, which is then covered with a transparent glaze and fired. A fundamental feature of ceramic glazing technology was the use of alkaline glazes made from a pure sili- ca sand or ground, fired quartz as the primary raw materials with plant ash as the flux. The plant ash, high in sodium and potassium, enabled firing at relative- ly low temperatures (900-1,000C) and was obtained from a range of arid-envi- ronment plant. Today production of glazed earthen- ware has decreased considerably due to the abundance of cheap factory made crockery. Ceramics were important in many celebrations that are characteristic of Tajik culture. When a girl was mar- ried, her relatives used to present her with various items of pottery. Families also used to purchase significant amount of new pottery for the wedding feasts, which occurred over a number of days with much food, music and many guests. Besides, local neighborhood (mahalla) communities purchased pot- tery to be used by people living within the mahalla for wedding ceremonies and other neighborhood national festivi- ties and receptions. Metalwork, to include copper and bronze chasing, and jewelry making were of high quality. Metal chasing was concentrated in the towns, and used for the ornamentation of jugs for water and tea, hand- wash basins, trays, various bowls, plates and big copper pails.

Wood work Printed Cloth The embroidered patterns differed not only in each region and period, but also in the diverse types of embroidery. Typically embroiderers use brightly col- ored silk threads to work their decora- tive magic on plain grounded cloths. Cotton is inexpensive and offers a sturdy base through which a needle can be passed repeatedly without causing unac- ceptable damage. Silk on the other hand is expensive with its production requir- ing considerable investment of time and effort. Moreover, its smoothness, luster and glorious color reflecting proper ties are ideally suited to embroidery, which adds strength as well as value to unadorned cloth. It is not uncommon to find old stitching bright and intact on a fragile, disintegrating ground cloth. Today, women dye their silks them- selves, producing soft shades of yellow (from onion skin), orange (from rayon root), purple (from cherry), brown (from walnuts), grey-brown (from walnut flow- ers), and grey (from usma leaves). Printed cloths were wide-spread in the old days. Cloth printers stamped their patterns with a carved wooden block on natural hand woven cotton cloth called - karbos - and later on factory-made calico. By combining different elements, they made innumerable ornamental compo- sitions in red and black (the main col- ors), sometimes adding green, blue and yellow. Cloth printing was developed mainly in the valley towns and villages.

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Richly embroidered in tinsel, silk or wool both by hand and by special chain stitching machines, embroidered garment continue to be cherished particularly in the south-eastern mountain ranges of Tajikistan

Decorative cloth designing is one of the is an important inclusion, much smaller cultural and personal significance to their oldest kinds of handicraft. in size than ruidjo; takyapush - pillow makers and users. Suzani is made on cover or the bride's bed. The embroi- hand-woven karbos (cotton), satin or Carpets dery motifs on ruidjo varied, but were silk, almost always is lined and is edged Carpets, runners, curtains and various typically massed flowers including with a strip of black cloth or braid. types of cushions essentially took the rosettes, almonds, seven-colored blos- Suzani has many local peculiarities of place of furniture in Central Asia. soms, ivy, leafy sprays and cherries. pattern, technique and coloring in differ- Carpets were divided into three types on Generally the ornamented joinamaz is ent parts of Tajikistan. Previously no the basis of the purpose to which they characterized by simplicity and intimacy. large-sized embroidery was made nei- were put; wall carpets; floor carpets and It is only used in the moments of prayer ther in the southern mountainous runners; and, lastly, the felt rugs which and meditation. Among the patterns regions (Western Pamirs, Darvaz, were placed under the most richly deco- forming the figure of a niche one can Karategin) nor the upper reaches of the rated carpets. often see such symbolic elements as an Zeravshan River. At present, large-sized Carpets and carpet goods particularly anor (pomegranate) the symbol of hap- embroidery is beginning to be made in frorn Kayrakkum are sold throughout the piness and fertility; various kinds of Kulyab, Darvaz, and Karategin and in world. Widely using modern patterns worms and centipedes, believed to be the Zeravshan Valley as well. and color combinations, Tajik' carpet- helpful in the fulfillment of one's wishes. makers maintain a perfect harmony and The emblem of hospitality - a teapot Costumes balance between the form and colors and a samovar - had already originated Richly embroidered in tinsel, silk or which makes Kayrakkurn carpets so orig- in the Soviet time. During the wedding wool both by hand and by special chain inal and elegant. celebrations, the walls of the bride's stitching machines, embroidered gar- room were covered with suzanis and ment continue to be cherished particu- Needle Work display of decorative embroidery was larly in the south-eastern mountain Needlework is doubtlessly the most also important for holidays and festivals. ranges of Tajikistan. Men's garments are popular form of Tajik applied art. The Suzanis may also have served as sirnple in cut and less varied where the embroidered articles were usually made hejab for women not wishing to be seen undergarments consist of a shalwar for weddings and were the most valu- by men other than their husbands and (trousers) drawn in at the waist and a able and essential part of the dowry. close family. The term suzani derives tunic-like shirt over which a robe is They included suzani -the world's finest from suzan, the Farsi word for needle, worn.Men's belts, whether made of and most beautiful textiles, a full orna- and is used generally to describe a par- leather or fabric, are ornamented with mented cloth of rectangular shape, ticular family of embroideries as well as massive silver buckles. Tajik youth prefer which you'll find in almost every village specifically to describe some of the brighter colors whereas older genera- or mahalla home; ruidjo - a wedding- largest of these, which are mainly used tions prefer moderate tones, while the bed sheet with an ornamental frame of as wall hangings. The suzanis are works elderly dress in fabrics of a dark or pure U shape, creating an arched form similar of art created out of the artist's heartfelt white shade. Although sharp contrast is to the mihrab with embroidery across devotion, this devotion is clearly appar- essential, the gamut of favored colors is the top and both sides; joinamaz (prayer ent in their beauty, in the care lavished broad, vivid and cheerful and never gar- mat with its mihrab-(arch) shaped center on their execution, and in their enduring ish. By: Alexander Tumanov* Turkmen's Tamdyrlama A Delicacy for a Patient Gourmet

As soon as I hear only the sound of the oriental magic name - Tamdyrlama, I immediately become a walking illustration of the doctrine by physiologist Pavlov about two signaling systems of irritants: blissful memories cause momentary burst of appetite and all the details of the first acquaintance with this dish rela- tively rare for the daily Turkmen cooking rise before the eyes.

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I remember a late evening near the crystal clear lake in the moun- tains, when a long trip along the dusty winding roads of the Kugitang broth playing by all shades of emer- mass has ended only by the thicken ald color. twilight. Fatigue after the endless Here I have learned what journey under the scorching sun "tamdyrlama" was almost impossible prevailed and no one wanted any- to convey by the words. The special thing any longer - neither to eat nor flavor of meat literally melting in to drink - except only falling in the your mouth, soaked with tart heady cool bed and forgetting about nag- aromas of mountain juniper. ging muscles. But as you know, in Obviously, it was a special method Turkmenistan, no arrival of a guest of cooking: lamb was clearly not does without treatment at the gen- fried, not boiled, not smoked and erously laid dastarkhan. not steamed. Violation of this tradition is And the rich creamy soup with a inconceivable to imagine, even if strange but surprisingly delicate the guest is ready to collapse and taste seemed to be able to satisfy fall asleep right next to the laid the hunger after the first sip. table! However, a profound feeling Fatigue and drowsiness vanished of tiredness has evaporated in a as by magic and if my mouth was moment as soon as the sense of not busy with the extremely encour- smell differentiated a range of aging process of perceiving the nov- unknown, tempting smells reaching elty of sensations, the stream of from the kitchen. questions to the hosts about the ori- Soon, the eyes added vivacity to gin of this culinary masterpiece the consciousness on seeing a dish would have been continuous. But to with a heap of large chunks of stop the sweet acquaintance with cooked lamb and a deep bowl of another miracle of the Turkmen cui- sine was simply beyond the average human capacity. Later I learned that I was lucky to kilograms of onions and a few heads be at dastarkhan when the dish was of garlic will be enough as spices for completely ready for consumption. marinade. No need to mention salt, Otherwise it would have required pepper, bay leaf, dill, parsley. But enough patience because it takes a the main feature is the presence of very long time to cook and prepare abundant fresh greens of archa - tamdyrlama. mountainous juniper tree. The mandatory condition and the All finely chopped fresh greens, main secret of the special way of juniper needles and spices are cooking is the presence of a tradi- mixed in a deep dish. Fresh lamb is tional Turkmen bread baking stove, divided into large chunks (5-6 tamdyr - a large inverted clay bowl pieces from the whole carcass). with a hole instead of the bottom Shallow cuts are made in the and an ash pit at the base. Usually chunks filled with a mixture of herbs such stoves are used to bake various and spices. Just before immersion types of chorek (flat round bread). into the stove, the surface of the However, in the mountainous chunks is covered with wetted parts of eastern Turkmenistan, the greens of juniper. The stove is pre- stoves are used for cooking deli- pared in advance. cious meat delicacies. Tamdyralama The hot fire is kindled in it; no is a dish not for every day. It is pre- wood is spared. Only solid wood is pared in special cases: for large cel- used as a fuel - saxaul, mulberry, or ebrations, for rare guests when the chocks of fruit trees. hosts want to earn a very special The burnt firewood should leave favor of the visitors. heavy charcoals keeping heat for a A young, not too fat lamb weigh- long time that are raked in the cen- ing about 20 kilograms is needed as ter of the stove. A deep basin filled an original ingredient. A couple of by two-thirds with water is put on

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additional thermal effect on the lamb. As a result, the meat is the charcoal. The greens and spices cooked, stewed and steamed at the green hues. It is worth making a remained from the marinade are same time. long trip to the mountains of eastern dropped into the basin. The process cannot be called Turkmenistan, a home to tamdyrla- The large chunks of lamb tied to ma, just to get to know the taste of a metal rod are suspended in the this wonderful dish. mouth of the stove furnace over the It is worth mak- basin on the charcoal. The stove is densely covered and all remaining ing a long trip gaps and holes, including the ash pit to the moun- are plastered by wet clay to create a tains of eastern complete air-tightness of the cook- ing process. Turkmenistan, a There remains the most difficult home to thing - it is to wait until it is finally tamdyrlama, possible to fall into the sin of glut- tony and enjoy the mountain gastro- just to get to nomic masterpiece! Waiting can know the taste take from two to four hours of this wonder- depending on the quantity and quality of meat, the strength of ful dish accumulated heat, the degree of hermetic tightness of the stove. Fat and juice of hanged pieces of meat over the charcoal slowly drain rapid. But the expectations are not into the boiling water, saturating the in vain, when the appetizing pieces liquid with a fragrance; the steam of of lamb baked in their own juice on ...... low heat are on the table accompa- *For Turkmenistan International Magazine the boiling water creates a kind of a Photos by the author bath in the stove and provides an nied by bowls of broth with bright The Ottoman Empire or turies. Ottoman history is Ottoman State was an exceptionally rich, especially empire that lasted from 1299 from cultural point of view, to July 24, 1923, succeeded and as far as ECO region is by the Republic of Turkey, concerned, this cultural lega- which was officially pro- cy certainly constitutes an claimed on October 29, exceptional treasure of 1923. resources for our today's At the height of its power youth to appreciate their (16th-17th century), it regional identity. spanned three continents, Although "Ottoman archi- controlling much of tecture" was greatly influ- Southeastern Europe, enced by Persian, Byzantine Western Asia and North Greek and Islamic architec- Africa. The Ottoman Empire tures, nevertheless it created contained 29 provinces and its own unique way of numerous vassal states, some design, construction method, of which were later absorbed charm and style. The below into the empire, while others article is part of an extensive gained various types of research work done by autonomy during the course Turkish author, Reha Gunay, of centuries. on the subject of "Traditional The empire was at the Turkish House and centre of interactions Safraqnbolu Houses, pub- between the Eastern and lished by Turkish Ministry of Western worlds for six cen- Culture. The " Turkish House " Of The Ottoman Period

By: Reha Gunay An Extract of the book "Traditional Turkish House and Safraqnbolu Houses", published by Turkey Ministry of Culture Photography: Ali Sabzalian

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Introduction In our definition of the "Turkish - House", for the purpose of this study, we have only included those that were inherited from the Ottoman Empire, remaining examples some of which can be traced back to the 17th centu- ry. A typical "Turkish - House" should have the following characteristics:

Original room arrangement: The room is the main component of the "Turkish - House". Throughout the studied period its characteristics have barely changed.

Plan Layout: The most characteristic plan types are those with outer or open sofas, utilizing projections and "eyvans". The authentic aspect of these plan types is the independent nature of the room, which instead of being adja- cent is separated from the other with the extensions of the sofa. Plan types with central sofas emerge in the later periods.

Multi-storey buildings: Most houses have at least two storeys. The upper storey is the living area and has the suit plan layout. The ground floor generally has a high, solid stone wall, almost like a fortification. The upper floor extends over the street with projections.

Form of the roof: The roof slopes on all four sides and has a simple form, avoiding indents or extensions. The eaves are wide and horizontal.

Construction: The basic system of construction is the timber frame with infilling material or the lathe and plas- ter. All these characteristics are the same for all houses, regardless of the societal class of their owner. Wealth is only reflected in the number of rooms and the decoration. This house type is like a seal the Turkish culture has stamped wherever it has set foot. It can immedi- ately be discriminated from the houses belonging to other cultures and makes its presence felt. Few people have made thorough economy. South-Eastern Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, Egypt, Iraq and the Arab Peninsula managed to preserve their vernacular architecture during the Ottoman period. In Central Anatolia, where the main determinants are the climatic conditions and available building materials, two different trends evolved: studies of the "Turkish-House". Sedad The adobe (mud-brick) architecture dating back to antiquity, Hakki Eidem, who was quick to notice or stone buildings which developed under Syrian influence. the significance of the "Turkish-House" The southwestern border of the Empire (Morel and the and began to put together all docu- Islands) has kept the traditional Mediterranean culture. The mentation he could find as a young Eastern Black Sea region has a highly developed wooden, professional, made the earliest, most architecture. Eastern Anatolia and the Iranian border are comprehensive and competent studies under the influence of Iran and Central Asia. in this field. Some of these were pub- In areas where the Ottoman culture was fully effective, lished only a short time before his houses adopted all the characteristics of the "Turkish - death. Thus we can study the last sig- House", whereas in regions with a strong vernacular tradition nificant examples of the "Turkish - or where it was difficult to supply wood, the Ottoman influ- House" from his books. Archeologist ence began with decoration and building components. From Mahmut Akok has also contributed to the 19th century onwards the influence of the "Turkish - the field with his measured drawings House" became more apparent with the adoption of plan and articles on houses from various types and building methods in North Africa (Egypt), Syria- regions. In the 1950s, several thesis Palestine, Eagean Islands, Middle and South Eastern Anatolia were prepared in the Faculty of and Eastern Black Sea regions. Architecture of the Technical University Centering around Istanbul and Edirne, the Marmara and of Istanbul, on the domestic architec- Trace regions and a wide coastal strip of Anatolia of present ture of important towns. After a mute clay Turkey are naturally within the boundaries of the period of almost 20 years, recently "Turkish - House". There being no established tradition of doctoral thesis or student studies have domestic architecture, the "Turkish - House" found root and once again taken up the subject, and nourished easily in Bulgaria, in Dobrogea (Romania), Greek using more scientific methods they are and Yugoslavian Macedonia, Theselia, Bosnia Herzegovina mainly concentrating on studies of the and Albania, producing some of its most beautiful examples. smaller towns. Several characteristics of the "Turkish - House" can also be The main reason for this recent found in Crimea. This can partly be explained by the keen interest is the recognition of the fact interest the Khan, a relative of the Ottoman dynasty, had for that the traditional housing pattern is Istanbul. In countries beyond the boundaries of present day rapidly disappearing and losing charac- Turkey, examples of the "Turkish - House" are either very few ter as new buildings emerge. or have become obsolete. Nevertheless, it is possible to Nevertheless, the "Turkish - House" is come across some fascinating houses in some regions of still an astonishing subject. Wandering Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Theselia and Bulgaria; among "Turkish - Houses" you may houses which today have no match in Anatolia. As a matter come across some admirable ones not of fact, when the subject is studied taking into consideration yet discovered. Most of these may not the entire boundary of the Ottoman Empire, it is apparent have measured drawings; may not that the argument that Anatolia had any priority over the even have been photographed proper- other regions is definitely not valid. At the end of the 19th ly. century, while the Ottomans were withdrawing from these lands, the Neo-classical trends which were gaining influence Geographic Distribution of in Europe were primarily applied to traditional architecture the "Turkish-House" and later to all new architecture. There are several factors which Researchers have divided the houses within the bound- determine the design of houses within aries of present day Turkey into several groups. The grouping the expansive boundaries of the is always done according to building materials e.g. wooden Ottoman Empire. The local house carcass, adobe, stone, massive wood. forms were determined first of all by With reference to EIdem's classification, regions with dif- domestic traditions and way of life, ferent types of houses can be listed as below: also by such factors as the climate, Black Sea coast (Amasra-Trabzon): materials, construction systems and Wood building; supports of projections Horizontal; ini-

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tially with open sofas, from 19th century onwards with inner or central sofas.

Eastern Black Sea (Trabzon-Çoruh, Gümüshhane, Ardahan): Divided into squares with frequent wooden bracing with this region have influenced all others. single stone infill; wide eaves; enclosed sofa. Western Anatolia (areas bordered Northern Anatolia (Göynük, Mudurnu, Safranbolu, by Çanakkale, Balkesir, Ushak, Egridir, Kastamonu, Çankiri, Çorum, Yozgat, Merzifon, Amasya, Antalya): Tokat): A stone ground floor and a timber Wooden binding and mud brick infill, Supports of pro- frame upper floor with mud brick infill; The local jections horizontal; enclosed sofa. supports of projections curved or "bag- house forms dadi" (lathe and plaster); tiled roof; with were deter- outer sofa. Ankara (Ayash, Beypazari): mined first of Wooden binding; brick or mud brick infill; stepped over- lapping projections; inner sofas. Eagean Coast and islands (Ayvalik, all by domestic Izmir, Lesbos, Khios, Samos): traditions and Stone build one or two story build- Marmara Region (Bursa, Edirne, Istanbul): way of life The characteristics of the "Turkish - House" evolved in ings with wooden or "bagdadi" projec- bracing, flat earthen roof; with "eyvans" and inner and outer sofas.

East of Kayseri, Van: Constructive mud brick; flat earthen roof. tions on the upper floor; latter examples under neo-classical influence. Southeastern Anatolia (Mardin, Diyarbakir, Urfa, Gaziantep, Antakya): Open-sofa Bodrum (Marmaris, Datça): Cut stone; with courtyard and eyvans. stone built one story; flat roof; cubic plan type, one form. Eastern Anatolia (Erzurum-Van): of the most Constructive stone with wood binding; flat roof; dosed sofa. important plan High plateaus of the Tourus types, can be Mountains (Akseki, Pozani): Among these several types of houses the majority is within seen both Dry walls with frequent bracing the context of the traditional "Turkish - House". But those on (mixed use of wooden bracing and the Eagean coast and islands, at Bodrum or up on the Taurus along the wood planking). plateaus, partly in Central Anatolia, Kayseri, Eastern Anatolia Mediterranean and Southeastern Anatolia, usually have local characteristics coast: in Mediterranean Coast (Antalya, and are as much under local influence as they are under Antalya, with Adana): external influence, as far as construction techniques and plan Wooden bracing; outer sofa. mild winters types are concerned except for administrative buildings and some houses inspired by these, which reflect the characteris- and in mid Central Anatolia (Konya, Akshehir, tics of the "Turkish-House". Anatolia: in Karaman, Eregli, Aksaray, Kirshehir): Nevertheless, in these regions, in spite of the differences Ankara, with Constructive mud brick; flat soil in detail of the timber frame construction techniques and very harsh win- roof; with courtyard. the stone work of the ground floor wall, the main materials ters of infill and cladding, roof and eaves, projections and their Kayseri (Nigde, Erzurum): supports, window shutters and balustrades, fireplaces and Dressed cut stone with wooden

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chimneys, ceilings and other details, when conceived as a whole, the character of the "Turkish - House" immediately presents itself Influences The Climate "Turkish-House" is so strong that, its pre- Although the regions where the "Turkish-House" has spread dominant characteristics have been car- are generally within the moderate climate zones, significant ried along with them, wherever the seasonal differences can be noted in the microclimate, tem- Turks have been, regardless of the cli- perature and precipitation rates, both between the north and mate. The rulers took the lead in this In these regions, the south and between the coasts and inlands, due also to the practice. in spite of the variation in local topographies. In spite of this fact, there is no Earthquakes (Seismic differences in a striking difference in domestic architecture. detail of the The open-sofa plan type, which is one of the most impor- Zones) tant plan types of the "Turkish-House", can be seen both along All the geographic areas where the timber frame the Mediterranean coast: in Antalya, which has mild winters "Turkish-House" has spread are within construction and in mid Anatolia: in Ankara, which in turn has very harsh seismic zones. It may be due to this fact techniques and that the timber frame construction sys- winters. In some regions where the form and structure of the the stone work house appears to have ignored the seasonal differences in the tem was devised and widely used. This climate, people change their environment, especially in the method is resistant to horizontal forces of the ground summer months, by moving to summer houses, built either in and is also safer due to its lightness. It floor wall, the great orchards or on the highlands. can be seen that this method was main materials, It can be argued that this is one reason for halving no pre- improved within time. the character cautions against the impact of the climate in the houses. of the "Turkish Nevertheless, each house has been designed so as to include Building Materials suitable space for summer and winter living. The middle or Timber which is the main load bear- - House" intermediary floors are usually more suitable for winter use ing material of the "Turkish-House" also immediately with their low ceilings and small windows. The tradition of the defines its geographic boundaries. As a presents itself matter of fact, this house type devel- cedars, cypresses and junipers are generally used. Different types of pine were preferred in the interiors. The stone used in the foundation and ground floor walls can be found in every region. The infill material is of stone, oped in areas where wood was abun- adobe, brick or wood. Mud and lime mortar could be easily dant. In areas such as the Eagean Island, supplied as traditional binding materials. Clay tiles were widely Central Anatolia, Southwestern Anatolia used for roof cladding. Building materials vary from region to and Egypt where the main material is region. Cut stone was used in some regions while in others; stone and mud-brick, other house types rubble stone with wooden lentils was more commonly used. were developed. Generally in humid and windy coasts the exterior was cladded Timber build- The timber building materials were with wood while in others it is lime plastered. ing materials prepared from trees varying from one In forested areas, the roof was cladded with wooden slates region to another, in different sizes and (shingles) while in most of the other regions cylindrical clay were prepared sections and using different techniques. tiles were widely used. In dry areas where wood is scarce, flat from trees The chestnut is the most dependable earth roofs were often preferred, while in areas where slate varying from tree in timber construction along the quarries exist, slate could be used as a roof cladding. Black Sea coast. Oak and yellow fir are one region to preferred in Western and Northern Historical Influences another Anatolia, while in the Mediterranean There is insufficient research based on documentation and up on the Tauros Mountains regarding the origins of the house type we are studying. The

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answers to some questions such as: "Is this a type of house which the Turks used to have in the regions from which they originated, or is it something they have developed after having seen similar examples in Anatolia and the Balkans?" are not very clear. In studies carried out at Harzem, it has been point- ed out that the timber frame and mud-brick infill system of has been suggested that the acceptance construction has been in use since the 8th century. of the upper floor as the main floor of Since we do not come across this house type in areas the "Turkish - House" may be a reflec- which have never come under Turkish rule, would it be right tion of the so called "tower house", a to claim that it does not originate from a foreign source? On kiosk type house built on high-waIls and the contrary, wherever the Turks went, even in areas where open to its surrounding with projec- very strong traditions of domestic architecture already existed, tions, which can he traced right hack to the "Turkish - House" emerges in all its authenticity, with a Central Asia. Thus, the "Turkish-House" completely different character from that of the local one, this became multi storied and the "kiosk" house is different from the European one. A European house type was created. On the other hand, is like a closed box, it is austere and schematic. the tents or "yurts" of the nomad Turks The "Turkish - House" is organic, it is in continuous interrela- have been studied so as to find out to tion with its environment and the landscape through its closed, what degree these have been reflected semi-closed and open areas. These houses have no similarities in the "Turkish-House". The tent has with ancient Greek, Roman or Balkan houses. characterized the rooms of the "Turkish- In all current publications on vernacular architecture in House", like a tent, each room has an Yugoslavia as well as in Greece, it is clearly expressed that invariable inner organization as a living these houses have come into being with the Turks. Another unit. evidence in this respect is the fact that, in most Balkan coun- Another argument is that the settle- tries building elements, architectural space and house furniture ment pattern of the nomad tents, is one are still mostly referred to with their Turkish names or with other characteristic which has been words which have been derived from Turkish. reflected in the "Turkish-House". The political and cultural powers alongside other influences According to this, the central space (the which have prevailed throughout history within the geographi- sofa) of tile "Turkish - House" corre- cal boundaries where the "Turkish-House" existed have caused sponds to the space left among the tents the regional variations. in a nomad settlement. The room, The largest political and cultural centre is Istanbul's. The which is the living unit, is designed with housing type which developed in Istanbul influenced all the an exterior space around it and jointly Empire with its form, components and decoration. One other they form the plan of the house. It is major city is Edirne, which became the second capital after doubtful that this exterior space is just Bursa but which had an ongoing influence even after the capi- service area, as suggested by some. tal moved to Istanbul. The exterior space is more of an These centers were imitated in all other cities, just like abstract nature, through which the adopting a certain fashion; Edirne has especially influenced room, which has a definite identity as a the European wing of the Empire. Areas which, due to their living unit with invariable characteristics, location in Anatolia, have been subject to limited external declares its independence. This space impact, must have either developed their own architectural which is open to the exterior in the style or continued to build under the cultural influence of the "Turkish-House" consists of the area in Pre-Ottoman reign they were under. front of the rooms which can take vari- A typical example to this is the influence of Konya upon the ous names such as "hayat, sergah, architectural features and details of its neighboring provinces hanay, divanhane" and the space in and its seaport Alanya, Central Anatolia has kept to the tradi- between the rooms: the eyvan. One tion of mud brick (adobe) construction of Prehistoric eras and other interpretation of the eyvan suggest of Central Asia. that this form first appeared in the The Kappadokian house is under the influence of Syria. The Islamic Architecture and that it takes the Eagean coast bears the traces of the Mediterranean housing name of "beyt" in Arabic and "talar" in architecture. The local stoves used in Edirne and the Balkans Iran. have Slavonic influences. The house types which the Turks first Going hack in history, it is known that the Turks which encountered and took as an example came to Anatolia were partly sedentary and partly nomads. It when they arrived in Anatolia may also come across nomads in Anatolia. Thus it is possible to talk about urban and rural cultures. The nomads which eventually settled in their winter shelters, abandoning their seasonal migration habits, were entitled to cultivate the state-owned land and in return they paid taxes and supplied the military be regarded as the origin of the force. The cities no doubt had also Greek, Armenian, the for- Anatolian-"Turkish - House". When mer inhabitants of Anatolia. These settled communities were these influences are further studied, it is farmers, craftsmen or dealt with trade. The artisan organization possible to trace similarities between the established in Byzantine times was preserved and even entrance of the "hilani" or the colonnad- encouraged by the Turks. Thus it was both possible to increase ed space with a roof but open on all and control the productive force. three sides, (which was common in the When the ruling classes first arrived in Anatolia they were adobe architecture of Central Anatolia under Iranian influence; after the conquest of Byzantium they in the pre-historic era), and the eyvan learned the Eastern Christian culture and once they crossed on the open sofa. over to the European side (Rumeli) they become acquainted The anteli and eaved space in front with European culture. of the megaron, the first examples of which can be found in Troy, The Way of Life (Life Style) Beycesultan and Kültepe also resemble Living close to nature has been the Turks' significant philoso- the open outer sofa. In later periods the phy of life. This is definitely a habit of the nomadic period. colonnades of Greek and Roman tem- Even after coming to Anatolia the nomads were reluctant to ples and buildings with courtyards may accept settling down. They first chose a settlement area for also have a similar bearing. We can see winter but left for the highlands and virgin areas as soon as that building components such as flat summer arrived. This habit still continues today. Even in earthen roofs, stoves and furnaces still Istanbul, up to the late 70s, when economic difficulties were survive in the same areas. However, this fewer, it was common to move to summer resorts when sum- continuity belongs to mud brick archi- mer came. Several towns in Anatolia had separate houses in tecture. orchards or vineyards, set aside for summer use. This was at As the timber frame construction sys- the same time a deliberate way of production induced by the tem of studs and beams had been subsistence economy. already employed in Anatolia even in The instinct of integration with nature is reflected in the the Prehistoric Era, this can be accepted domestic architecture through the use of the open sofa. Being to be a local characteristic". It has not a living unit, the room has to be an enclosed space whereas been possible to trace this step by step the sofa, onto which the room opens, although covered and right up to the Ottomans. We know protected against cold and wind and kept under full control, is that in Byzantine times the top floor was in fact an exterior space. the main living area. Thus we can say Another product of the trend of living in open air reflected that the top floor was equally important to architecture is the garden pavilion. in Byzantine and Ottoman periods. According to Emel Esin the source of these pavilions which There is no clear indication that timber can be found in every home, from the palace to the most frame construction tradition was com- humble house, is the Uygur pavilions and the imperial tents mon in Anatolia during the Byzantine (Otag). In miniatures from Iran, Moslem India and later the Period. Ottomans we can come across many pavilions depicted within a garden or amidst a building complex The Ottoman architec- Social Influences ture produced several examples. of these, built either of wood Social Structure or stone, some of which have survived to date. It has already been mentioned that It is probable that the bay windows projecting towards the Turks coming to Anatolia originated garden from the open sofa of the upper floor, which are the from both sedentary and nomadic cul- expression of the will to open on to nature, may also have tures. This pattern continued also in been inspired by the garden pavilions. Anatolia. In general the ruling classes settled down, while it took the nomads Forms a long time to agree to become seden- Settlement Patterns of the Turkish Town tary, which they finally accepted with When the Turks arrived in Anatolia the towns were within much reluctance. Even today, you may fortifications. Most Byzantine cities had by then lost their rich-

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ness and power. With the arrival of the Turks, these towns were revitalized and started new development. The Turks which came and settled in groups led by religious leaders established various quarters. The other religious or ethnic groups also had their own separate quarters in the towns. The vides the necessary width and slope quarters were named either after their religious leader or after either for pedestrians alone or (else) for the town or nomadic tribe from which they originated. The loaded animals such as horses or don- settling down of the nomads was a much slower process. They keys. The walls at street corners are settled outside the towns. In this way the towns began to grow chamfered. Traditions require that the beyond the walls in a short time. walls of the ground floor as well as This is not a planned growth. Nevertheless, the houses those encircling the garden are built Grading of the which are generally located in a valley, lean against the slope high so as to hide and protect the priva- site is well cal- without blocking each other's view and do not present a disor- cy of life within the house. derly appearance from the other side of the valley. The grading Consequently, the street is almost like a culated. There is of the site has been well calculated. There is one main street corridor with occasional walls of either one main street which is the spine of the whole settlement. stone or adobe rising on either side. as the spine of The irregular (curvilinear) streets and cul-de-sacs which The projecting bay windows and the whole set- form the transportation network branch out in an organic pat- eaves of houses and the branches of tern. The streets in town do not intersect at right angles. Steep trees almost cover the street. Thus, tlement streets have been provided with steps. The street design pro- these streets are not bare or consist of form, color and texture between the domes cladded with lead and house roofs covered with tiles. The whole settle- ment can be viewed against the background of hills and mountains.

piles of stone like in some European towns. The streets do not have a regular General Appearance of the "Turkish House" width all along. There are fountains in A ground floor closed to the street with a stone or adobe places where the street widens or at wall and an upper floor which sits on either load bearing stone street corners. The stone-clad streets are walls or wooden studs characterizes the house type generally paved so as to have a slope towards the seen within the geographical boundaries where the "Turkish - middle from either side. House" is to be found. The upper floors have a timber frame The middle axis has been empha- construction. The middle floor, if there is one, has a low ceiling sized by two rows of large stones. The and is either a mezzanine floor or a whole floor. rain-water runs along this axis and The top floor has, through time, become ever livelier with thus the houses and gardens are pro- several projections and with a multitude of windows which are tected from flooding. There is no of a standard size. In the earlier houses the windows are not The whole set- need for pavements, so they have tlement can glazed, but eventually, as glass is subject to wide-spread use, been omitted. The streets lead to the windows have glazed panes opening on either side. be viewed town centre. Mosques, minarets, a Vertical sliding windows (sash windows) emerge only after against the graveyard with its own cypress grove, Western influence shows up. The standard size of the window background of tombs, fountains, and big, domed, creates a sense of unity with its recurrent rhythm, not only in stone buildings such as caravanserais, hills and each house but throughout the town. The roof always slopes hammams (bathrooms), madrasas on all four sides. This is one of the main discriminating charac- mountains and bedestans are located mostly on teristics of the "Turkish - House". flat land in the center of the town. This area gives a completely different ...... picture from the quarters of habita- *All Photos Taken From Old Section, tion. There is a great difference of Antalya, Turkey

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