PREFACE
Prof. Rafael Rodriguez-Clemente (CSIC-Spain) MELIA Coordinator
Managing water resources and demand in the Mediterranean area is changing dramatically these recent years. There are many components to this change: a shift away from sole reliance on finding new sources of supply to address perceived new demand; a growing awareness on the importance of preventing and mitigating water conflicts; a growing emphasis on incorporating ecological values into water policy; a re-emphasis on meeting basic human needs for water services and associated social issues; and a conscious breaking of the ties between economic growth and water use mitigated through economic instruments and allocation of scarce water for higher value activities, usually at the expense of certain forms of agriculture. A reliance on physical solution continues to dominate traditional water planning approaches, but this approach is facing increasing opposition due to the progressive consciousness of the negative long term ecological impact of some of these solutions. At the same time, new methods are being developed to meet the demand of growing population in the Mediterranean without requiring major new construction or new large-scale water transfers. Focus is gradually shifting to explore efficiency improvements as a mean to save resources, implementing options for managing demand and reallocating water among users to reduce gaps and meet future needs. A meaningful change towards a new approach and a new way of thinking has to begin with an open discussion of the ultimate ends of water policy. It is time now to place a high value on maintaining the integrity of the ecosystem when using water resources. There are growing calls for the costs and benefits of water developments to be distributed in a more equitable manner. And more and more efforts must be made to understand and meet the diverse interests and needs of all relevant stakeholders. As an alternative to new infrastructures, efforts are now underway to rethink water planning and management, putting emphasis on the principles of integration between water policy and the three main dimension of sustainable development: environmental, cultural, social and economic. However, also the new alternative approaches fail if they are not consolidated through the exercise of participatory management, communication among interested stakeholders, water players and citizens, application of subsidiarity, building of a common knowledge, and increasing mutual awareness of interested parties.
Unfortunately, besides the impact on the ecosystem due to the natural water withdrawal, the situation shows today that water production systems (urban, agricultural, and industrial) perform poorly in the Southern and many parts of the Northern and Eastern Mediterranean. In many places, lack of policies or low awareness and inadequate management has led to dramatic misuse and misallocation of water in the different uses. There is a need to deal with the local and regional management of water resources within a comprehensive framework, in which policies can be formulated, project can be prepared and integration can be envisaged applying as much as possible the “subsidiarity principle” and its application at the river basin level and even beyond. Without sufficient water supply, any intensification of urban, agricultural and industrial inputs and outputs remains a risk to be avoided, especially by low- income water users (like for example farmers or small communities). To secure water is also a precondition for the application of modern low-water consumption technologies. Management needs to be improved, both at users and system levels. In practice, these
1/107 improvements will continue to prove hard to realise, and they will require more time to debate and consensus reaching than improvements in the physical infrastructure and techniques.
However, regardless the type of water resources developments pathways, the most recent literature and field experience have revealed the need for integrated efforts in water management supported by national institutions and both regional and international organisations, focusing on the following points: establishment and application of water management policies coherent with the emerging need of ensuring sustainable development; developing coherent national-regional policies that include strategies of developing limited water resources; improving the efficiency of public administration at the local and central level; appraising water actions from the point of view of culture, economics, environment (including health); overseeing the promotion and enforcement of national legislation by applying, if necessary, sanctions for damages to the aquatic environment; setting guidelines for best practices; setting new and more coherent water pricing and/or operation and maintenance cost recovery depending on each country’s socio-economic characteristics; and water governance; creating a knowledgebase to settle water competition among users and at trans- boundary scale; promote at all levels of the education system awareness on the water problems and its management, in order to raise the societal water culture.
Some solutions lie outside the conventional “hydrology” concepts. Trade and negotiated change in practices enabled by multi-stakeholder dialogue is the way forward, thus further increasing the importance of political processes, the definition of water value and the knowledge and enabling conditions for such definition.
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Scientific committee
Dr. Sahnaz Tigrek P.18 – METU-WRC (Middle East Technical University – Water Resources Center) Mail: [email protected] Turkey
Prof. Alaa El-Din Abdin P.32 – MWRI (Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation) Mail: [email protected] Egypt
Prof. Nickolas van de Giesen P.46 – TU Delft (University of Technology) Mail: [email protected] Netherlands
Prof.. Nicola Lamaddalena P.02 – IAMB (Instituto Agronomico Mediterraneo of Bari) Mail: [email protected] Italy
Prof. Bernard Drobenko Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale - Faculté de droit de Boulogne sur Mer Mail: [email protected] France
Gaëlle Nion P.07 – IOW (International Office for Water) Mail: [email protected] France
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Organizing Committee
Prof. Rafael Rodriguez-Clemente (CSIC, Spain) Dr. Maroun El-Moujabber (CIHEAM-IAMB, Italy) Prof. Alaa El-Din Abdin (MWRI, Egypt) Prof. Nick van Giesen (Delft-TU, Netherland) Dr. Şahnaz Tiğrek (METU, Turkey) Gaëlle Nion (IOW, France) Eng. Juan Miguel González-Aranda (CSIC, Spain) Macarena Munoz-Ruiz (CSIC, Spain)
Local Organizing Committee
Dr. Şahnaz Tiğrek (METU) Mrs. Reşide Adal Dündar (METU) Mrs. Gonca Karaca BİLGEN (GAP-RDA) Mr. Onur Dündar (METU) Mr. Burak Yılmaz (METU, Es Proje) Miss Tuçe Aras (METU, Ekon Inds) Miss Özge Göbelez (Ada Cons.)
4/107 Valuing Water from Social, Economical and Environmental Prospective
Muhammad SHATANAWI* and Sawsan NABER**
* Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, Jordan, email: [email protected] ** Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, Jordan, email: [email protected],jo
Abstract: The increasing demand on water due to population and economic growth has put pressure on water quality and quantity and therefore is increasingly being valued as economic resource. Valuing water depends on quantity and quality as well as the behavior of people and market. The social, health and environmental values of water are important factors that should be considered in the valuation process. Providing water to people in enough quantity and good quality for drinking and sanitation purposes to meet basic need is human right. Water has been treated as an economic good according to 1992 Dublin statement: "water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as economic good". This is different from water pricing when pricing has to deal with recovering the costs of infrastructure, management and operation. This may lead to economic pricing of water, which will damage the interests of poor and made irrigated agriculture unfeasible. Valuing water for domestic purposes in Egypt and irrigation water in India using different valuation techniques has shown the limits of willing to pay by end-users. Water pricing policy in Jordan aims at water conservation and recovering the cost of operation and maintenance.
Key words: Water valuation, water prices, pricing policy, human rights
Introduction The issue of water has been ranked highly on the global political agenda as water scarcity has become a threat to human survival and sustainable development. Human activities and development process have exerted huge pressure on the already exhausted water resources. The world leaders, scientists and policy makers have realized that unsustainable management and inequitable access to water resources cannot continue. In many parts of the world like the Middle East, demand are far exceeding supplies while in other countries in Africa excess to fresh water is limited. According to WWAR, about 1.4 million people worldwide have no access to clean and drinkable water while about 2.5 million has no or poor sanitation conditions. . Growth in population has created pressure on water resources by increasing water demand and pollution. During the last century, the world population has double while water consumption has increased five times. Demographic changes like migration and urbanization has demanded for more water quantities and created more need for water services. Changes in social behavior such as improvement in life style and rise in living standard has influenced the human perception and attitude toward water which is illustrated in changing consumption and production pattern, Furthermore, the changes in global economy and the growth of international trades of goods and services have increased water stress in some countries while relieving it in others through the flow of virtual water.
5 Many countries are experienced scarcity of water, pollution and increase of other environmental disasters that will hinder the sustainable development and threatens peace and continuity of human being. Therefore, people have to value water, environment and healthy ecosystem. Within the context of water shortage and lack of access to it, it becomes important to discuss the issue of valuing water, including its economical, social, cultural and other values. As such, the value given to water is explained with a short sentence "water is life". Water is a human right; a priority has to be given to satisfying human needs. After basic need is met, water should be allocated to the highest value use or water should be treated as an economic good. The values of water are many and that the economic value is just one team. The perception value of water varies from culture to culture and from individual to individual. For many people, the non-economic values are paramount as they find that charging for water would be very difficult to accept. This can be found within the policies of many governments as they would not charge or give price for water due to political, cultural and social reasons. People living in an arid climate areas would place a higher values on water that those living in wetter countries. The range of values perspectives varies according to culture, social, environmental, religion and others. The value of water has been addressed in nearly all religions where it is attributed important symbolic and ceremonial properties. According to UNESCO (2006), the range of value perspectives varies to some extent on a case-by-case basis and on the stakeholder group involved. Moss et al (2003) has given the following value perspectives: environmental values, social values, public health value, economic value, production value, political values and gender values.
Global Value Prospective According to Dublin statement on water sustainable development (2002), Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good. Within this principle, it is vital to recognize first the basic right of all human beings to have access to clean water and sanitation at an affordable price. Past failure to recognize the economic value of water has led to wasteful and environmentally damaging uses of the resource. Managing water as an economic good is an important way of achieving efficient and equitable use, and encourages conservation and protection of water resources. Agenda 21, chapter 18 (UNCED, 1992) has concluded that: Water should be regarded as a finite resource having an economic value with significant social and economic implication regarding the importance of meeting basic needs. Ministerial declaration of the 2nd world Water Forum (the Huge, 2000) said: to manage water in a way that reflect its economic, social, environmental and cultural values for all its uses, and to move towards pricing water services to reflect the cost of their provision. This approach should take account of the need or equity and the basic needs of the poor and the vulnerable. Also, the ministerial declaration of the 3rd World Water Forum (Kyoto, 2003) have said: funds should be raised by adopting cost recovery approaches which suit local climatic, environmental and social conditions and the "polluter-pays" principle, with due consideration to poor. All source of financing, both public and private, national and international, must be mobilized and used in the most efficient and effective. Similar statement was issued from 4th and 5th world form in Mexico (2006) and Istanbul (2009).
6 In Europe, water pricing reform is also on the table as part of the EU Water Framework Directives drive to cover the costs of water services, including the cost imposed on the downstream users and the environment. The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) has as its main objective the achievement of “good” ecological and chemical status of all waters by 2015. As part of WFD implementation economic valuation of water can play two specific roles. (i) The WFD requires water utilities in Member States to set water prices to the cover the costs of water services (art.9). But is allows for pricing exceptions in order to provide affordable water to poor users. Studies of willingness and ability to pay can determine when full cost recovery water pricing is feasible. (ii) River Basin Authorities are also required to implement cost-effective programs of measures (art. 11) to reach the WFD objectives. However, if the costs of measures are disproportionate to the benefits of achieving good ecological status, River Basin Authorities can obtain“derogation” (art. 4) and implement less ambitious measures Economic valuation may be used to determine how large the economic benefits are, and so justify or not further measures. While the WFD encourages the use of water valuation as an input to policy, examples of Member States actually commissioning: http://www.aquamoney.org.
Water as a Basic Need This part was taken from a presentation of Shatanawi (2009) to the international conference: “Water and Peace” that was held in the European Parliament, Brussels (12-13 Feb., 2009). Water is the source of life and it is the first element of every living thing. Without water there will be no life because human beings, animals, plants, etc… need water every day for their continuity and survival. As water is a common resource, every body has the right to use it but water availability is limited to resource constraints. Giving such constraints on water availability, how much water is needed to satisfy this right? The answer to this question came out from discussing the human right issue and the understanding of human needs and uses for water. One of the concepts of “new world thinking about water” states that Water is a human right, but the right to water does not imply a right to unlimited amount of water, nor does it require that water be provided for free. The concept of meeting basic water needs was strongly reaffirmed during the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In developing and using water resources, priority has to be given to the satisfaction of basic needs. In 2002, water was recognized as a fundamental human right where a General Comment on the right to water was developed by the Covenant on Economic and cultural rights (CESCR). This convention was realized and ratified by 145 countries ensuring that every one has access to safe and secure drinking water, equitably without discrimination. The General Comment states that: "the human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient; affordable; physically accessible; safe and acceptable water for personal and domestic uses". It required governments to adopt national strategies and plans of action, which will allow them to "move expeditiously and effectively towards the full realization of the right to water". These strategies should be: (i) based on human rights law and principles, (ii) cover all aspects of the right to water and the corresponding obligations of countries, (iii) define clear objectives, (iv) set targets or goals to be achieved and the time-frame for their achievement, and (v) formulate adequate policies and corresponding indicators. Generally, governmental obligations towards the right to drinking water under human rights law broadly fall under the following principles: respect, protect and fulfill.
7 Respect: Governments must refrain from unfairly interfering with people's access to water like disconnecting their water supply. Protect: Government must protect people from interference with their access to water by others like stopping pollution or unaffordable price increases by corporations. Fulfill: Governments must take all steps with available resources to realize the right to water like passing legislation devise and implement programs and monitor their progress. The committee on Economic and cultural rights which monitors the implementation of the convention (CESCR) has adopted general comment 15 which says that: “The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, reduce the risk of water-related disease and provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements.” This amount has defined by WHO as 40 liters per capita per day. In addition to that, CESCR (2003) has added that: “water is recognized, not only as a limited natural resource and a public good but also as a human right. It's a decisive progress, at the international level, in term of legal protection of the right to water although it's not a legally binding document
Value, Price and Cost The value of water is measured in terms of its benefit to its uses; price of water is the charge levied from the consumers; while the cost supply water is defined as the capital and operating cost of abstracting, treating and transferring water to the point of use. The full cost recovery is when users pay the full cost of obtaining, collecting and distributing water, as well as collecting, treating and disposing of wastewater. Defining exactly what should be included in this cost is still an issue of some contention. In addition to the economic values, it is necessary to recognize what values actually fall within the economic analysis and what values are beyond economics. Matthews (2001) has illustrated the difference in Figures 1 and 2. A distinction was drawn between efficiency analysis and beyond efficiency (Figure 1). Within the efficiency category, there are two broad concepts of goods that are valued. Those that are traditionally traded in the market place (private good: apple, orange, etc.) and others, which are not typically traded in the market place (non-market or public good: air quality, watershed preservation, etc.). The sum of these was referred to as full economic value. In addition to the economic value, it was fully recognized that there are values above and beyond those thoughts of being within the domain of economics. These would include but are not necessarily limited to cultural and religious values. Within the domain of cost analysis, Figure 2 presents taxonomy. Full economic costs encompass notions such as capital costs, and the others listed as well as technological externalities. Technological externalities can be thought of as costs that individuals or firms imposed on others. An example might be if a paper mill dumps waste upstream from a town; the town thus has to treat the water to restore the river water to potable level. Pecuniary externalities are those that are generated though the price system. One can think of these as ripple effects or secondary effects. If a watershed was a major recreational site and suddenly became denuded as a result of a natural disaster (volcano, or landside), then the nearby merchants would possibly go out of business. Complete economic costs thus include pecuniary and full economic costs.
8 Values of objectives other than economic efficiency
(Cultural Values, Religious values)
Beyond Efficiency Total Economic Value
Social Value
(Non-market) Adjust to account for social values (Environmental externalities) Private Value
(Market transaction)
Efficiency Analysis Full Value Economic Complete Value
Figure 1: Value Analysis Matthews (2001)
Pecuniary Externalities
Technological Externalities
Opportunity Costs
Capital Costs OM Costs
Planned Costs
Supply Costs EconomicFull Costs Complete Costs
Figure 2: Cost Analysis Matthews (2001)
Value vs. Valuation Value and valuation can have more than one meaning so that valuing (giving values) a resource in not the same thing as valuation of resource. Some people believe that water can not or should not be "valued" economically. Value has a qualitative and quantitative connotation while valuation of water is an indicator that has a kind of economic measurement. When the word "value" is used in a subjective sense or qualitatively means that water is so important (valuable) that is beyond economic measurement. The subjective importance (value) of water is sometime measured by looking at indicators such as people's preference which useful in determining the relative importance of water.
Economic Value It is necessary to value water economically because it provides critical information to decision makers about efficient and equitable allocation of water among competing uses. Allocation can be either within the present generation or between present and future generation. Economic valuation can also provides information on the design of economic instruments such as water pricing, property rights, tradable water rights, markets, resource tax, etc. In this respect, one may ask what economic value means. A commodity has an economic value when people are willing to pay for it, rather than go without it. Willingness to pay is the maximum amount and individual would be willing to pay, or give up, in order to secure a change in the provision of a good or service (OMB, 1992). Water is an essential commodity
9 and people would pay any price for it in small and basic amount for survival. But after basic needs are met, people buy water based on its price compared with other goods they might buy. Water should be allocated to the highest value uses. At his point, many questions arise. How much will household pay for drinking water? How much will a farmer pay for irrigation water or a factory pay for clean water? Generally, the total economic value of water can be considered to be the maximum amount the user should be willing to pay for the use of water. There are two types of values and benefits from water, namely; use value and the non-use value. The use value involves the commodity benefits (such as drinking, irrigation, etc.) and assimilation benefits (like wastewater services and navigation). The non-use values include recreation benefit, ecosystem preservation and social and cultural values but this type is difficult to measure. Valuation Techniques There are two main methods to the valuation of natural resources, namely; (1) direct valuation is based on survey of willingness to pay and is called "Stated Preference Technique" and (2) The indirect method of valuation which is based on observed market values and is called "Revealed Preference Techniques". 1. Direct method The direct approach which is also called contingent valuation method (CVM) is used to estimate the value of water by asking people how much are they willing to pay for resource or service. Conducting questionnaires and surveys to give rank or value does this. It is used to estimate value for household water use, agriculture, industry and recreation use. In this method people are directly asked to reveal how much are willing to pay for good quality water with assured supply for domestic use as an example. Using this method, Hoehn and Kriager (2000) conducted a survey and analysis for household services in Cairo and found that water connection was worth more than improved reliability of services. They also found that recovering project costs through fixed tariff might charge for water and wastewater services more than people willing to pay. 2. Indirect Method The indirect method is based on observed market values. The following approaches are used for evaluation: Residual value: It is the easiest and most commonly applied valuation techniques. It considers the marginal contribution of water to output while measuring all other costs from revenue. However, this technique requires that the quantity of water be measured accurately, accurate labor cost, value of land capital cost and other input. The prices of all inputs and output must reflect the true economic value. Production function Approach: This technique requires conducting experiments from which a production function is obtained. The marginal contribution measured the change in output from a unit increase in water input while keeping other input variable as constant. Optimization Model: This is used to estimate the value of all users of water in an economy, which involve modeling. The marginal contribution measured as the change in sector output from allocation of water across the entire country. The technique involves using modeling like linear programming, computable general equilibrium (CGE), GAM and other economic modeling instrument. Opportunity Cost: This approach is based on the difference in costs of production so it is a good technique to the estimate of water if other alternatives are available. It calculates the
10 price differential for alternative like replacing hydroelectric power plants with thermal power plant. Demand Curves for Water: The relationship between the price of water and the quantity demanded can be shown using the economic technique called the demand curve that have been developed by Fortin et al. (2001). Typical water demand curves demonstrate that price and quantity are inversely related. The variations in the slope of the two demand curves are important in defining the way in which price and water demand are related. There are, however, qualifications that must be placed on the use of demand curves in the water resource context. Demand curves were developed by economists in the context of “perfect markets”. In such markets a number of strict conditions apply. For example, no individual consumer or no individual producer is large enough to dominate the market. Also, it is assumed that each consumer and producer has perfect knowledge of both the price and the cost conditions pertained in the market. While these conditions approximate the conditions that pertain for most goods and services in a market economy, there are notable exceptions. For example, in a situation of monopoly, an individual producer is able to dominate the market.
Valuing Water in Jordan
Water situation Jordan is classified among few countries of the world with limited water resources where demand is far exceeding supplies. The per capita share of water of the renewable water resources is 150 m3/year and it will reach less than 90 m3 in 2020 (MWI, 2007). Meeting Jordan’s water demands, including delivery to major consumption centers, will require expensive development and conveyance projects because most reachable and feasible projects have been already developed. No single action can remedy the country water shortages; rather many are necessary to increase the overall water availability. The options are limited focusing on increasing the usable supply of water and the amount and quality of treated wastewater; or reducing water demand by adopting water conservation programs and improving water use efficiency. Supply augmentation options might include water desalinization of brackish groundwater, which is available in different locations.
Water pricing policy The government of Jordan has undertaken a package of measures and policy reforms to enhance the water sector and assure financial viability (Shatanawi et al., 2006). One of these measures is the application of water-pricing policy to cover the cost of operation and maintenance, and part of the capital cost as well as using it as an instrument for efficient management of water. The policy state that water is managed as an economic commodity that has an immense social value. Water price is set at least. Differential prices are applied to account for irrigation water quality, the end users and the social and economic impact of prices on the various economic sectors and regions of the country. Due to the increase in marginal cost of collecting and treating wastewater, charges, connection fees, sewerage taxes and treatment fees shall be set to cover at least the operation and maintenance costs. It is highly desirable that part of the capital costs of the services shall be recovered. Water is relatively expensive in Jordan because of scarcity and high cost associated with acquiring, treatment, transporting and distribution. The actual costs of delivering water to consumers are estimated at 1.14 $ / m3 for municipal purposes and 0.32 $ / m3 for irrigation in the Jordan Valley. Cost analysis suggests that the government of Jordan has been subsidizing
11 these water services. Water charged in Jordan Valley according to the principle of price discrimination. Water block structure is divided into four slides depending on the level of water usage. The farmer's payment depends on total water consumption; it ranges from 0.0114 $ / m3 to 0.05 $ / m3 with an average of 0.027 $ / m3. The same principle applies to the charges of water delivered to households, which is also based on block structure. The first block (up to 10 cubic meter per month) is priced at 0.3 $ / m3 while the last block is 1.42 $ / m3. This means that rich people pay the highest cost, which implicitly mean that they support poor who consume less. To control groundwater pumping and reduce over-abstraction, the government has passed a by-law charging resource taxes on groundwater withdrawal exceeding 150,000 m3 / year. In the future, the cost of securing additional supply will be more expensive because all cheap resources have already been exploited. Therefore, future options will rely on desalination of brackish and sea water and transportation of fossil water. The medium term plan is to exploit and transport the fossil of water of Disi Aquifer for a distance of 325 km at a cost of about 1.20 $ / m3 before the network. This will increase the cost by almost 50% due to system loses and pumping cost. Short-term plan considers water desalination at some localities. The long- term plan involve mega projects like the Red-Dead Seas conveyor which is aiming at using the difference in level between the Red Sea and Dead Sea to desalinate some 850 million m3 of water annually by diverting 60-80 m3/s of open sea water (about 1700 million m3 annually). The second aim of the project is restoring the drying Dead Sea to its historical elevation. The feasibility and environmental studies will be finished in 6 months with an initial cost estimate ranging between 6 and 7 billion US dollar. This high cost can justify securing such a huge quantity of water and restore the drying lake that has been considered as an international heritage.
Value Return In the past, the social aspect values were the main drive for water allocation. People tend to allocate water to traditional crop like wheat, olives and forage crops aiming at achieving self- sufficiency. With the growth of the international market and implementation of the global trade agreement, the trend has changed by taken into consideration the economical water productivity. In the process of water allocation within the agriculture sector (involving cropping pattern), the water production function is used. In an attempt to analyze the relationship between the productive process and the economic trade with water resources, Jabarin and Karabliah (2004) have estimated the water embodied in the export crops. The results showed that Jordan utilizes significant amount of water (50%) in its export of some vegetables and fruits. The policy has to be modified in such a way that low consumption and cash crops are used while importing water intensive crops.
Environmental Value During the last thirty years, the damage to environment has been significant due to over pumping of renewable groundwater aquifer to the extent that many springs have dried out as the case of Azraq Oasis. The drop of discharge of the springs has affected the ecosystem and the base flow of some rivers. Over pumping has caused significant drop in water levels and the yield of many aquifer as well as water quality deterioration. So far, the economical value for such damages has not been calculated yet but the water and environmental agencies are carrying out a project to measure the cost of damages and water quality deterioration. The initial estimate of the cost of damage and rehabilitation was estimated by Soir (2009) to range from 320 to 450 US dollars.
12
Conclusion The ways in which water is conceived and valued, allocated and managed used or abused are embedded within economical, Social, cultural and environment context of a society. Therefore, the values are the sum of weights assigned to the outcomes of the above factors and their specific policies. Providing water to people in enough quantity and good quality for drinking and sanitation purposes to meet basic need is human right. In some countries like Jordan, the implementation of water pricing policy as an inventive for improving water management was very effective only when it is coupled with public awareness programs. The policy of water allocation based on economic and social equity principles was successful. The ration between financial and opportunity costs is usually quite different for different water uses. If water is to be allocated appropriately and used efficiently, the emphasis must be on financial cost for municipal supplies, and on opportunity costs for irrigation.
References Fortin M., Slack E. and Kitchen, H. (2001). Financing water infrastructure. Toronto: The Walkerton Inquiry. Hoehn J. and Krieger D. (2000). Valuing water in a desert city: economic analysis of infrastructure investment in Cairo, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 126 (6): 345-350. Jabrin A. and al-Karablieh E. (2009). The water prospective in the export competitiveness: an analysis of the Jordanian agricultural product. presented at the 14th national scientific week (3-8 May 2009), the Higher Council of Science and technology, Amman, Jordan Mathews D., Brookshire D. and Campana M. (2001). The economic value of water: results of a workshop in Caracas, Venezuela (November 2000). Publication NOWRP-4, Water resources program, the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. Moss J., Walff G., Gladden G. and Guttieriet, E. (2003). Valuing water for better governance. CEO Panel, Business and Industry. MWI (2008). National Water Master Plan. Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), www.mwi.gove.jo, Amman, Jordan OMB (1992). Guidelines and discount rates for benefit-cost analysis of federal programs, Circular No. A-94. Office of Management and Budget. Washington D.C., USA. Shatanawi M. (2009). Human rights to water, presented at the World Political Forum: international meeting on water and environment "Peace with Water", Brussels, 12 and 13 February 2009. Shatanawi M., Duqqah M. and Naber S. (2006). Agricultural and irrigation water policies toward improved water conservation in Jordan. in: Options Mediterranean, Series B: Studies and Research, No. 59, CIHEAM, Bari, Italy. Soir G. (2009). The deterioration of water resources quality in Jordan and what to do about it, presented at the 14th national scientific week (3-8 May 2009), the Higher Council of Science and technology, Amman, Jordan. UNESCO (2006), United Nations World Water Development Report, UNESCO, Paris.
13 WHAT ARE WATER FEE, PRICE AND COST? WHAT DOES IT COVER? EXAMPLES FOR WATER PRICE PRACTICES IN TURKEY
Hüseyin DEMİR1 Ahmet Zahir Erkan2 Gonca KARACA BİLGEN2
1 Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration, Regional Directorate Şanlıurfa, Türkiye [email protected] 2 Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration Ankara, Türkiye
ABSTRACT
In this study the following concepts are emphasized; what is understood as water price in Turkey, what components it has, the methods in pricing and the advantages and disadvantages of these methods. The methods used for pricing drinking and irrigation water in Turkey are explained with examples and proposals are developed.
Keywords: Water fee, price, cost recovery, Turkey
1. INTRODUCTION The value given to water, which is indispensable for life, is explained with the sentence “Water is life”. In Turkey, a commonly used sentence “be saint like water” to people giving a glass of water emphasizes the value of water; it is also emphasized in many documents of United Nations and dependent corporations. In the 3rd item of Universal Declaration of Human Rights, “Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.” also includes the right of access to water. In 1994 International Population and Development Conference Action Programme, the following phrase is stated “protection of water and health for living right of everybody in sufficient standards”. In 1999 General Meeting Decree (53/175) is “access to clean water is one of basic human rights”. Again according to United Nations Guidelines On Consumers Protection item accepted on April 9,1985 with 39/248 General Committee decree is that; “The governments should constitute and strengthen their national policies to improve drinking water transmission, distribution and quality according to the aims determined for International Drinking Water Transmission and Cleanness for Ten Years. Alternatives such as proper service, quality, needs for technology and educational programmes, should be taken into account.” According to general declaration of UN Economical, Social and Cultural Rights Committee in 2002, water right being a social and economical right, covers the access right of each individual to water that can be demanded from the state directly.” World Health Organization also stated that clean water is a health service that must be transmitted to individuals independent of all conditions. Also in international consumer rights; access to sufficient and healthy water is one of the main rights which are basic requirement of consumers. It is understood from these regulations that, “access right to healthy and sufficient water” takes place in human rights concept which is our basic constitutional principle. Water right makes the states responsible to provide secure drinking water to public. . State is obligated to develop policies and strategies to create social and political conditions to access water (1). The importance of water, being a part of life and ecosystem, increases day by day. Water fulfills the basic needs of humankind and is the main component of agriculture, power producing, industry, tourism and transportation. Today, 18 % of agricultural areas are irrigated in the world. In these areas more than 40 % of total agricultural production is
1 produced (2, 3). Being indispensable for food, fodder and fiber production; water comes across as the basic input. As understood from the two paragraphs above, water is an input as well as being a basic right. As reachability of healthy drinking and usage water is a compulsory service of state, it is not expected to cover all supply, sanitation, transmission, distribution and waste water treatment costs. This is accepted as a service and valuating is done covering the maintenance and management costs for continuity of the service. In this case the money spent for water is named as fee (4, 5). On the other side, for agriculture and industry, water is evaluated by commoditizing (price) and used as an input. Opportunity costs of water and financement are considered (interest costs of investment and costs in alternative usages of water) and water is commoditized like an automobile or a television. In this study, conceptual approaches to value water are investigated, which are changing between price and cost. Some examples of pricing of irrigation water in Turkey are given and some suggestions are developed for Turkey conditions. In this study the following concepts are emphasized; what is understood as water price in Turkey, what components it has, the methods in pricing and the advantages and disadvantages of these methods. The methods used for pricing drinking and irrigation water in Turkey are explained with examples and proposals are developed
2. CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES ABOUT WATER VALUE It is worldwide accepted in the last quarter of 20th century that water has an economical value in addition to its socio-cultural, historical, environmental and religious values and has been announced in 1992 Dublin Conference (7; 8; 9; 2; and 10). Evaluation of water value economically is important not only for determining priorities in sector shares but also for continuity of water supply investments (drinking, domestic, industrial, and treatment), sustainability of present institutions, protection of water and decreasing effects on environment (6). Water price should be determined according to cover management, operation and maintenance (MOM) costs for the sustainability of the present institutions, investment costs for the continuity of water supply investments and treatment, drainage and environmental costs to eliminate environmental effects. It should be at a payable amount and should be determined according to each place’s social, institutional and political situations (8; 2 and 6). Özal (Korkut Özal, former METU instructor, former “Agriculture and Country Works Minister” and former “Internal Affairs Minister”); emphasized on the fact that payment of irrigational investments back by users should be understood as a required implementation to achieve real irrigation development object. He states that, paybacks; 1) result in fair distribution of investment costs, 2) forms strong sanctions to use the water in the project most efficiently and 3) provide an important capital for the continuation of investments (11). Until the last quarter of the last century, water price was not applied in undeveloped and developing countries especially for irrigation water with the emphasis of being a material. With the increase in demand to water, less interest in irrigation investments, low water usage activity, opportunity profit by sector share and the pressure applied by credit cooperation in early 90s made it compulsory to price irrigation water (12; 7; 8; 2). Environmental cost of the pollution created by water usage and opportunity income of water should be added into the water price and water cost is divided into three as water supply cost, opportunity cost and environmental cost. And the addition of these costs is expressed as
2 sustainability value of water usage (8). Assimacopoulos studied application methods of The Water Framework Directive of European Commission numbered 2000/60 in his country, Greece. He stated that united water management’s principle of “who uses he pays – who pollutes he pays” is required for sustainability and emphasized that water is a part of water ecosystem, a natural source and a socio-economical material (13). As a summary, that can be understood from the references, World Bank and organizations like World Water Council, that are supported by developed countries and multinational companies supported by these countries, try to impose the idea of “who uses pays- who pollutes pays” to whole world.
3. APPLICABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES Present opinions commoditizing water were more social and political 40 years ago. Özal, stated that with state’s irrigation projects one or more following objects can be satisfied; 1) social objects like increasing life standards of farmers, settlement of nomadic population and satisfying villagers’ earth demands, 2) economical objects like meeting interior and exterior demands and stabilization and development of agricultural industry, 3) political objects like stabilization of population living near the boundaries, obtaining social stability and security. All of the payback should not be loaded to users in social and political resulting projects (11), costs of indirect benefits should be met by the ones benefiting indirectly. This socio-political expansion is stated by Abu-Zeid in 2000s as “payback all of cost recovery and MOM costs by users is important for continuity of system by providing continuity of water supply investments (and constructing new ones), sustainability of present ones, protection of water and decreasing environmental effects, the poor users should be supported in a transparent way (6)”. Dinar and Subramanian, evaluated water price experiences of 22 different countries in their study. They express that generally countries percept the water price as MOM and renewal costs for the continuation of system and the service. Water users pay from 20 % to 75 % of total costs depending on the country’s social and economical conditions (7). Water prices can be determined; volume-based depending on consumed real water amount; area, area-product, input, output and land based not volumetric; and market-based depending on the opportunity income. These methods are sensitive physically, socially, institutional and politically for each location (2).
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Demir states in his study that, which is a combination of conceptual approaches above and cost/expense components of Rogers et. al. (6) and Assimacopoulos, it is beneficial to determine the contribution of water users to costs according to socio-economical development index (14).
Figure 1. Socio-economical development index in water cost composition and participation in cost (modification from Demir (14)) In irrigation sector which uses 75 % of controlled water, two extreme examples are discussed to explain Demir’s suggestion more clearly. The first case is Van-Özalp-Dönerdere irrigation having high plateau property at 2200 m, its annual total temperature is 2200 oC-day. An arid and cold climate is present. Dönerdere is a place that people resettled at Iran border because of 1967 flood seen in Black Sea region (15). As the second case, let’s consider irrigation with the same irrigation area and property as Dönerdere. Antalya- Kumluca irrigation is at 100-200 m, having an annual total temperature of 5000 oC-day. In Dönerdere, at most three types of clovers or 1.5-2.0 ton/ha wheat or corn can be produced and product is mostly given to domestic needs and animal feeding. There exists no product processing organization. It is far away to big markets. Education level is too low. Public services are very insufficient and accesses to these services are inadequate. Private sector shows no interest. However, in Antalya Kumluca flowers are grown in greenhouses for the market and two-three types of vegetables and fruits are grown in open areas. Public services are sufficient, access of people to these services are developed. Marketing and product processing opportunities are high and big markets are near. Education level is high. Private sector has an intense interest. Even in both irrigations, investment costs are the same (Dönerdere irrigation cost is always higher because of limited construction period); benefit of irrigation is not the same because of the ecological, social, economical and technical reasons mentioned above. Gross production
4 values obtained from unit water that we obtained using State Hydraulic Works General Directorate irrigation monitoring (16) results are given in the figure below (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Gross production values in Turkey irrigation (WUE €/m3) for year 2004 and order in the country.
Gross production value of water, also named as water usage efficiency, is 0.06 £/m3 in Van region, whereas reaches to 9 times of it as 0.55 £/m3 in Antalya region. The expenses are the same in both cases, but Dönerdere irrigation can not pay even its basic water fee, however in Kumluca irrigation reconstructions can be made and cost recovery of public investment is possible. Also the farmers’ payment consciousnesses are not at the same level. In 1996, Özalp district was in the 831th order out of 858 districts and Kumluca was at 272 according to “Investigation on Socio-economical Development Rank of Districts” study of State Planning Organization, which is prepared periodically considering income, education, health, availability of public services and transportation, etc. (17). During seven years period, district number has increased to 872 from 858, order of Özalp decreased to 865, Kumluca has increased to 250th order (18). Two official results above exposes the inconveniences of cost based water pricing. Pricing should be done by considering social, cultural and ecological conditions. In addition, for Dönerdere irrigation there exists political reasons such as border security and social reasons like preserving the population. Economical commitments caused by social and political reasons must be paid by the people living in developed regions like İstanbul, Ankara, Kocaeli, İzmir, Antalya and Bursa. This contribution should be made by developed regions. If this contribution is not made costs would be greater because of inner migration from less developed regions to more developed regions.
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4. WATER PRICING IN TURKEY 4.1. Supplying and pricing drinking water In Turkey, the institutions responsible for supply, operation-maintenance and management of drinking water vary according to settlement units. For villages where the population is below 2000, drinking water supply responsibility belongs to City Special Management and investment cost is covered by the state. Its management is carried out by the chief of the village. Water is priced by considering maintenance and power costs, no profit is minded. If water is transmitted through a network, the pricing is based on volume. If there exists no network and villagers use water from a common place, the costs are divided according to populations living in houses. For districts and cities having a population less than 100.000 inhabitants, water is supplied by İller Bankası in the name of municipalities in these settlements. MOM and renewal works are carried out by municipalities. Investment and other expenses are paid by water users. In this case, profit can be thought. State Hydraulic Works General Directorate is responsible for water supply to settlements having a population greater than 100,000 inhabitants. MOM and renewal works are carried out by municipalities. Investment and other expenses are paid by water users. In this case, profit can be thought. Settlements having a population greater than 1.000.000 inhabitants are named as metropolitans. In metropolitans public organizations are established as General Directorates to carry out water and wastewater services. In these settlements water is supplied by DSI. All expenses are paid by the users. According to metropolitan water management law, this service should have minimum 10 % profit. Metropolitan water managements use this law and had an average of 29 % profit. Profit ratio has reached upto 285 % in Samsun Metropolitan Municipality and this service has become to an income source (19). This ratio must decrease. If the municipality has the economical and technical capabilities, it can supply water without applying to DSI or İller Bankası. In addition to this, if the settlement has sanitary system additional payout is included up to 50 % of water price. In municipal regions volume based stepped pricing is used to encourage economical usage of water. Usually, steps in monthly water consumptions are 0-10 m3/month, 11-20 m3/month and more than 20 m3/month. In none of the municipalities pricing is done according to people’s incomes. The ratio of monthly water expenses to incomes of poor families is much higher than the ratio of rich ones. For this reason, using healthy water for poor people is restricted. As most of the municipalities do not apply enough and high quality sanitation, consumers use bottled spring water as drinking water. This causes a considerable expense to consumers. 4.2. Supplying and pricing irrigation water For irrigations developed using groundwater, well openings, motorpumps and electrification works are carried out by DSI and the cost of the service is taken back in 15 years for the first 3 years without payback (20). Other infrastructure investments of irrigation (irrigation and drainage network, field roads, leveling) are done by Province Private Management and pay- free. MOM activities of the irrigation are done by irrigation cooperatives formed by the water consumers. Pricing is determined according to operating hour of the well or product irrigation number and annual payback for unit area of the investment is added to this amount.
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Province Private Managements are responsible for the construction of irrigation systems to make use of surface water having a discharge less than 500 l/s and having a dam crest level lower than 15m. Investment cost is covered by the state. MOM activities are carried out by the village chiefs or Village Servicing Unions present in districts. Water consumers only pay water price for MOM activities and pricing is done product-area based. DSI is responsible for the construction of large irrigation systems to make use of surface water having a discharge greater than 500l/s and having a dam crest level higher than 15m. The cost of the investment is paid by the water consumers equally and without interest in 20- 30 years after the completion of irrigation development period depending on the decree of Cabinet. Most of DSI irrigations are transferred to irrigation unions. MOM activities are carried out by these irrigation unions. Pricing of water is based on area-product. In some unions having scarcity of water, makes this pricing according to irrigation number such as in Aegean Region. When the irrigation number exceeds the determined number water price increases. Irrigations not transferred are managed by DSİ and irrigational water pricing is done according to the properties of irrigation (pumping, gravity), geographical location (coastal and interior parts and East Anatolia) and irrigation method. DSI’s pricing policy is closer to Demir’s (14) socio-economical development index suggestion. Payments made to DSI for irrigational purposes are transferred to National Treasury. Especially for pumped irrigations; individual water users and irrigation unions are in debt because of high power costs. Because of these debts, irrigation unions are retarding operation and maintenance services.
5. FINANCIAL SOURCES IN DEVELOPING WATER RESOURCES IN TURKEY 5.1 National Financing For drinking water supply to villages and settlements smaller, funds allocated from national budget are used. By the practices of Village Support Project (KÖYDES) between 2005 and 2008, more than 90 % of the villages have been supplied healthy drinking water and village roads are constructed. Under the same project, wastewater studies have also been started. Financing is provided by the sources of Iller Bankası from national budget for settlements having municipalities. Each municipality gets a share from İller Bankası according to its population. Iller Bankası gives loan for water supply projects requiring large investments in reciprocal to municipal funds. Metropolitan municipalities can use external sourced, treasury warranted loans for large scale water supply and distribution projects. In the coverage European Union Initial Participation Aid (IPA) donations can be used for improving water services. 5.2. Financing by Privilege-Privatization and Built-Operate-Transfer In the past some privileges are given or privatization are given to multinational companies for drinking water supply, network construction and servicing. In 1880s 3 French companies were given privileges for water service management in Istanbul and privileges are ended in 1938. In year 1995, irrigational services were privatized to a French company in compensation to 100 million $ loan, to have 100 % of the system later on. As they have made unacceptable raises to water prices and not fulfilling the commitment of developing infrastructure for water services, the contract was cancelled in 5 years. International court still continues. Yuvacık Dam, which could not be finished, that would supply water to Istanbul
7 was given to a Turkish-English partnered company under the warranty of treasury for the completion of construction and operation. However, sufficient amount of water could not be deposited so unit cost exceeded 1.5 $/m3 and İstanbul Municipality did not buy such expensive water. National Treasury pays the related companies every year because of this warranty (21). For power production, privileges are given to Turkish companies to construct dams and hydroelectric power plants. Yet, there exists no Built-Operate-Transfer model in our country for drinking water supply and irrigation construction projects. Especially for irrigation constructions, this kind of methods is sought. For power production, a consortium formed by 4 companies, one of which is a Turkish partner, is given privileges to construct and operate Birecik Dam for 20 years which is located on Euphrates river. Privileges and/or privatizations to multi national companies for drinking water supply and services are finished before having bad experiences as seen in Latin America.
6. SUGGESTIONS 1. Water is a human right and should be seen in public service area. 2. Common properties of “public service” areas, such as electricity, natural gas, pipelines, railways, telecommunication, postal services, water, irrigation and wastewater, are having a concentrated capital, having high sunk cost, having multiple effects on economy by being inputs to many other areas and needed to be used by the consumers for common wealth. It should never be forgotten that components of these have the natural monopoly property when their scales and conceptual costs are considered (22). 3. As profit can not be sought in these services, the privatization and/or giving privileges to international companies can never be thought. 4. Nongovernmental organizations comprising end users should share the management and responsibility in all stages starting from the development of water resources. By this way expensive investments seen in public services may be eliminated and water can be cheaper. 5. It should be remembered that quality of water services is measured by its sustainable and economical accessibility when required and at sufficient amount and quality. 6. Water is a source for food security. It is compulsory to increase agricultural productivity to provide food security and sustainable development in agriculture in parallel with population increase. The very first way of increasing production and productivity is using new technologies in agriculture and increasing irrigated areas. 7. Realistic pricing should be sustained in water services to develop new water resources, to use water on purpose and to protect environment. Savings should be awarded in addition to the principle of “who uses, he pays and who pollutes, he pays”. 8. Socio-economical development indices should be considered when pricing water and people having paying difficulties should be subsidized with transparent principles.
7. REFERENCES 1. Çakar, T. “Temiz Suya Erişim Hakkı” http://www.tuketicihaklari.org.tr. 2. Johansson, R.C., 2000. Pricing Irrigation Water: A Literature Survey. World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper: 2449, 82p. Washington D.C. 3. FAO, 2002. The salt of the Earth: Hazardous for Food Production. http://www.fao.org/worldfoodsummit/english/newsroom/focus/focus1.htm
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4. Devlet Su İşlerinin 6200 sayılı Kuruluş Kanunu, 1954. 5. Cornish, G., B. Bosworth, C. Perry and J. Burke, 2004. “FAO Water Reports 28: Water charging in irrigated agriculture”. Rome, 6. Abu-Zeid, M., 2001. Water Pricing in Irrigated Agriculture. Water Recources Development, Vol.17 No:4 http://ınweb18.worldbank-zeid.pdf 7. Dinar, A. and A. Subramanian, 1997. Water Pricing Experiences:An International Perspective. World Bank tecnical Paper No: 386, 161p., Washington D.C. 8. Rogers, P., R. Bhatai and A. Huber, 1998. Water as a Sosial and Economic Good: How to Put the Principle into Practice. Global Water Partnership, 35p., Stocholm, Sweden. 9. Bilen, Ö., 2000. Turkey &Water Issues in the Middle East. 2 nd Edition, GAP-RDA, 257 pp., Ankara. 10. Thatte, C.D., 2002. Water and Food Security-How the Poor Will get Their Food. Water Resources Management: Crossscutting Issues, 3-34pp. 11. Özal, K., 1966. Sulama Projelerinde Geri Ödeme Problemi. ODTÜ, Teknik Yayınlar Serisi:19. Güneş Matbaacılık, 26 s., Ankara . 12. FAO, 1996. Guidelines for Planning Irrigation and Drainage Investment Projects. FAO, Investment Centre Tecnical Paper Series No:11, 24 p., http://www.fao.org/tc/tci/sectors/sec11txt.httm 13. Assimacopoulos, D., 2003. Recovery of Full Cost and Pricing of Water in the Framework Directive. http://www.environ.chemeng.ntua.gr/wsm/Uploads /Publications/ Recovery 14. Demir, H., 2005. “Farklı İşletme Büyüklüklerinde Optimum Bitki Deseni ile Çiftçilerin Sulama Yatırımı ve Su Ücreti Ödeme Gücünün Belirlenmesi” A.Ü. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Doktora Tezi (basılmamış-Türkçe) 15. Demir, H., Ş. Gündoğdu And F. Aydoğdu, 2000. “Van-Özalp-Dorutay Köyken projesinin Değerlendirilmesi”. Rapor. GAP-RDA, Şanlıurfa (basılmamış-Türkçe) 16. Devlet Su İşleri Gen. Müd., 2005. “2004 Yılı Mahsul Sayım Sonuçları”, Ankara. 17. Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, 1997. “İllerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Gelişmişlik Sıralaması Araştırması, 1996” http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/bolgesel/dincerb/il/15.pdf 18. Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, 2004. “İlçelerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Gelişmişlik Sıralaması Araştırması, 2003” http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/bolgesel/gosterge/2004/ilce.pdf 19. Tamer, N.G., 2006. “Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Su Hizmetleri Yönetim Politikalarının Değerlendirilmesi”, TMMOB Su Politikaları Kongresi, http://www.e-kutuphane.imo.org.tr 20. Türker, M., A. Kaya, 2000. Türkiye’de Yeraltısuyu Sulama Kooperatiflerinin Kuruluşu, Yatırım ve Devir İşlemleri, DSİ, Ankara. 21. Güler, B.A., 2006. “TMMOB Su Politikaları Kongresi: Çağrılı Konuşmacılar” http://www.e- kutuphane.imo.org.tr/pdf/9081.pdf 22. Suiçmez, B.R., “TMMOB Su Politikaları Kongresi: Çağrılı Konuşmacılar” http://www.e- kutuphane.imo.org.tr/pdf/9081.pdf
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PROMOTION OF WATER SAVING POLICIES AND OPTIONS FOR WATER USE IN IMPROVED AREAS IN EGYPT
1 2 Gamal El-Kassar and Nahla Abou El-Fotouh
1. Researcher, Head M&E Dep., Water Management Research Institute, National Water Research Center- Egypt e-mail, [email protected] 2. Director, Water Management Research Institute, National Water Research Center-Egypt
Abstract It is argued that the applied water policy leads to more sustainable water management.The problem of water scarcity is complex, including climate change, desertification, as well as expanded demand by different water user sectors. The total supply of water resources has to be distributed among different sectors of usage, domestic, industrial and agricultural. Increasing water productivity at all levels has the highest priority, water saving and water use efficiency in crop production can be improved by optimising all operational inputs simulitaneously. The concept of sustainability of water use is based on three main issues, ecomonic efficency, social equity and envirnomental integrity. Management is a challenge for optimising the economics, maintaining social and environmental levels undamaged. Hence, a new approach of water management is needed to consider the diverse range of resource- use features and its interactions to elaborate sustainable water resources management strategies. In the Mediterranean region in generel and in Egypt in particular, this approach has to foster strategies and policies for water saving in irrigated agriculture. Central aspects of this approach are first the involvement of affected and interested stakeholders in the management process and second the use of effective indicators, both to measure the resources and to evaluate the management actions. The use of moinitoring indicators has to be the basis of all management approaches, as it will provide the necessary information on what has to be managed and how. The presented study is mainly concentrating on these aspects in general and give some findings on water saving options in the improvement area of Egypt. It reflects the actual approaches to water saving strategies. Therefore it has investigated what is the current stage of water management policies regarding indicator development and participation approaches. The study will derive the important role of the collaborative monitoring indicators for Integrated Water Resource Management policy approaches as a framework of effective water saving policies at all operational levels. The implementation of an effective integrated strategy and policy for water management and saving has also to be based on a comprehensive and integrated assessment of the water bodies, in the meantime, dissiminating the successful best practices of water use in the country. It is essencial to enable a quantification and qualification of system aspects for successful evaluation.
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Introduction Egypt lies in the north-eastern corner of the African continent, with a total area of about 1 million km². The total cultivated land was estimated to be 3.5 million ha, or about 4% of the total area. About 88 % of the total cultivated area consisted of annual crops and 12% consisted of permanent crops. Agriculture accounted for about 17% of Egypt's GDP and provided employment to 38% of the labour force. In its 2017 agricultural strategy (MALR/FAO 2003) the government emphasizes on the need to considerably increase the water use efficiency. The agriculture needs exceeding 80% of the total demand for water. Water is one of the most precious resources in Egypt. Much has been done but still a lot remains to be done in the field of water resources development and management .The water scarcity in Egypt is coupled, most of the time, with scarcity in management of this vital natural resource. In case of Egypt situation it has been emphasized that the main constraint to agricultural development will be the availability of water, rather than land. Although the physical availability of water remains constant, the demand for it will increase steadily for the near future. The major challenge facing water planners and managers will be to balance demand and supply of water under these difficult conditions. The rising demands of water have made it mandatory to improve the irrigation system performance and increase water use efficiency in the face of future water shortages and likely water crisis. The less the water resources are, and the more the demand is, the more valuable water is. This is the case in Egypt, where rainfall is rare and desert covers most of the country area, except for a narrow strip of cultivated land and urban areas along the Nile river course and Delta. Nowadays, there is a need to formulate water saving strategies and action programs at larger scale for irrigation projects, and to harmonize them with implemented actions and programs, in order to maximize the benefits of water management development. The integration of shared water saving policies includes appropriate mechanisms of water management, and the establishment of water resources authorities, or other institutional arrangements. National programs that improve institutional capacity to manage water resources are also needed. The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation MWRI formulated a water policy program to assist the ministry's identifying, evaluating, and implementing policy adjustments and institutional reforms that would lead to improved water use in agriculture. The examined issues are diverse and complex, ranging from legislative reform and measures to protect water quality to increased private sector involvement in water management of Egypt’s irrigation system. Improvement of irrigation system performance is not only achieved by technical interventions, but more important, by reform in the institutional framework that enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of system management, operation and, maintenance. Enhancing farmers and private sector participation in operation and maintenance of the irrigation system is now being adopted as policy by the Egyptian MWRI.
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This paper highlights the efforts exerted towards improving the water use policies and efficiently through harmonization and integration of the water saving options and the promotion of water saving policies and guidelines in Egypt. The study investigated the state and possibilities of policies to integrated approaches of water management and the requested collaborative development and selection process of indicators for assessment of water saving options in different operational levels.
Irrigation History in Egypt In the past, the problem of irrigation in Egypt was the big variation in water supply. The amount of supply was more than enough; most of this supply is coming during a short period (August- October) and so a big amount of this supply goes to the sea. During spring and summer periods (February to June), the supply is very low.
Average supply of River Nile
During this period, the main barrages on the river were built (Delta Barrage upstream the two branches of the Nile and other barrage on the Nile itself in Upper Egypt) and many new canals were excavated. There was a big risk during high flood years and during low flood years. Thus better distribution between years was achieved by the construction of High Dam during 1960’s. Due to the previous efforts, cultivated land increase from 3.05 Million acres in 1821 to 8.0 Million acres in 1997 and the cropping areas also increased from 3.05 Million acres to 15 Million acres.
High Aswan Dam
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Water Resources in Egypt In view of the expected increase in water demand from other sectors, such as municipal and industrial water supply, the development of Egypt's economy strongly depends on its ability to conserve and manage its water resources. The Nile River is the main source of water for Egypt. Under the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement between Egypt and Sudan, Egypt's share is 55.5 km³/year.
Water account for Egypt’s Nile River based on 1993/94 water balance data.
Source: Molden et al. 1998 The water resources include conventional and non-conventional water resources • Conventional resources such as: • o annual rainfall, • o surface runoff and • o groundwater • • Non-conventional resources such as • o Shallow groundwater • o Drainage reuse • o Treated Sewage • o Desalinated water
Egypt has about 2,400 km of shorelines on both the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, desalination can be used as a sustainable water resource for domestic use in many locations. Desalination of seawater in Egypt has been given low priority as a source of water. That is because the cost of treating seawater is high compared with other sources, even the unconventional sources such as drainage reuse. In spite of this, sometimes it is feasible to use this method to provide domestic water especially in remote areas where the cost of constructing pipelines to transfer Nile water is relatively high.
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Conventional and non-conventional water resources in Egypt
The future use of such resource for other purposes (agriculture and industry) will largely depend on the rate of improvement in the technologies used for desalination and the cost of needed power. If solar and wind energy can be utilized as the source of power, desalination can become economic for other uses. It may be crucial to use such resource in the future if the growth of the demand for water exceeds all other available water resources. Nevertheless, brackish groundwater having a salinity of about 10,000 ppm can be desalinated at a reasonable cost providing a possible potential for desalinated water in agriculture. Non-conventional Water Resources There exists other sources of water that can be used to meet part of the water requirements. These sources are called non-conventional sources, which include: • The renewable groundwater aquifer in the Nile basin and Delta • The reuse of agricultural drainage water • The reuse of treated sewage water
These recycled water sources cannot be considered independent resources and cannot be added to Egypt's fresh water resources. These sources need to be managed with care and their environmental impacts evaluated to avoid any deterioration in either water or soil quality.
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Water Challenges in Egypt There are a number of government institutions engaged in the development of the water and land use in the country. The water and agricultural policies and strategies are affected by different natural conditions and human activities. These challenges and gaps in the current operation of water and land sectors include: • Securing water and food supplies • Meeting basic needs • Valuing water & Land • High population growth rate, • Increased industrial activities, • Lack of governmental funds to achieve proper maintenance and rehabilitation of system components, • Enforcement of water related laws and regulations, • Protecting the ecosystems • Managing operational risks • Lack of users' participation in system planning, design, operation, and maintenance.
These challenges (gaps) delay the improvement of the system management, and results in low water use efficiency and increase conflicts among water users to resolve these issues. The challenge for water management in the Mediterranean is to convert the management approach from a single sector supply based approach to an integrated water resource management strategy which considers all different water use sectors, the different driving forces and impacts. Furthermore it should manage both the supply of water and the demand side. Hence, water can only be managed effectively if all the uses of the resource within the water body, through water saving strategies and therewith policies to implement them become more evident. The aim is to overcome a managing approach of reacting to increased demand by increasing the supply to reduce the demand and introduce water saving policies at all levels.
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Promotion Policy of water use Agro and Hydro-Ecological Zones in Egypt The rapidly growing country population puts considerable pressure on the scarce natural resources, and there is an urgent need to develop more efficient and sustainable water use and agricultural production systems in the country. This should be based on an initial assessment of the physical and biological potential of natural resources, which can vary greatly. The hydro- ecological zonation (HEZ) and the agroecological zonation (AEZ) approach presents a useful preliminary evaluation of this potential, and ensures that representation is maintained at an appropriate biogeographic scale for regional sustainable development planning.
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization produce this AEZ in each country to assess the crop production potential and length of the growing period zones. It is very useful as it describes an area within which rainfall and temperature conditions are suitable for crop growth for a given number of days in the year. These data, combined with the information on soils and known requirements of different crops, can be used to assess the potential water requirement and hence crop productivity.
Such approach would facilitate the investigation and identification of appropriate techniques, capacity building needs, participating stakeholders, required legislation, economic tools, incentives, finance, as well as social implications.
Egypt has total area of about one million kilometers, under arid and hyper arid climatic conditions, of which only a small portion (3% of total area) is agriculture productive. The country is endowed with 4 main agro-ecological zones having specific attributes of resources base, climatic features, terrain and geographic characteristics, land use patterns and socio-economic implications.
Such main zones could be identified as follows: 1 North Coastal Belts: including North West Coastal Areas and North Coastal Areas of Sinai. 2 The Nile Valley: Encompassing the fertile alluvial lands of Upper Egypt and the Delta and the reclaimed desert areas in the fringes of the Nile Valley. 3 The Inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert with its elevated southern areas. 4 The Western Desert, Oases and Southern Remote Areas: including East Owenat Tock and Drab El Arabian Areas and Oases of the Western Desert.
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Since significant variations in the environmental characteristics are apparent in each agro- ecological zone, the active factors and processes of desertification, and their impacts are necessarily variable. It is of interest to note that baseline data, essential for proper monitoring of programs and projects and its contributions to combat desertification in Egypt, are already available.
Main management Name Land parameters Water parameters concerns
Lake Nasser n.a. volume; water level; • storage and release of water; • spilling peak flow
Nile Valley rather flat clay soils artificial water supply; medium impervious subsoil groundwater depth; fresh groundwater; • pump irrigation • Preventing drainage to river • new crop Varieties Fayoum Steep slope ; clay soils shallow and stagnant • irrigation by gravity • groundwater; inflow of surface drainage to lake Qarun • irrigation water; water quality • Environmental activities
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Delta flat; clay soils; fresh to saline groundwater most • pump irrigation • surface water from Nile Improvement of old land • On-farm management • sub- surface drainage • water quality management • salinity control • water depth for navigation
New Lands flat to heaving sandy • saline groundwater • all surface Main management concerns soils water from Nile
Sinai and Red Sea hilly to mountainous • some rain • flash floods • storage and release of steep slopes water; • spilling peak flow sandy/rocky soils
Desert sand dunes • deep ground water • fresh or saline • deep wells for irrigation; bottled water • Industrial activities
Improvement of water distribution system
To achieve on-time water deliveries, Egypt started a national program on improving the main delivery system (branch canals). This involved improvement of the main delivery system through: -Rehabilitation of water structures along these canals such as intakes, cross regulatorsand tail escapes to minimize water losses from canal. -Replacement of the old control structures with new ones with radial gates to provide automatic control for the downstream water levels to cope with farmers demand and abstraction. - Remodeling the canal cross-section to improve the canal hydraulic characteristics and conveyance efficiency, and to ensure bringing the cross section back to the standards of the original design. The remodeled cross section was made to allow for water storage during the non- irrigation times, particularly during night time. - Turn-outs and off takes are also planned to be installed along the branch canals such as facilities at the head of each mesqa, pumps, pump stands, and pump sumps. Energy dissipation basins are also constructed at the head of each mesqa.
The Irrigation Improvement Project (IIP package) includes a combination of physical and institutional improvements to the main irrigation delivery system and the farm level irrigation delivery and application systems. These improvements include renovation and improvement of branch and distributaries canals, downstream water level control, conversion from rotational flow to continuous flow, mesqa improvements, organization of farmers into water users associations, and water management technical assistance through the Irrigation Advisory Service (IAS). There were dramatic improvements in mesqa conveyance efficiencies before and after IIP improvements. Conveyance efficiencies appear to increase from an average of around 60-65% to around 90-95% as a result of improvements. These “local water savings” are translated into improved adequacy of the farm level water supply and reduced water quality degradation. While it appears that water delivery efficiencies and distribution uniformities along the canals
18 and mesqas have improved significantly as a result of IIP, on-farm water application efficiencies have not been equally improved. IIP efforts have been paid to demonstrations of precision land leveling on demonstration fields in each command area. The implementation of a full package of on-farm water management improvements can be expected to gradually result in additional “local water savings”. The improved control and management of water in the delivery system resulting from IIP offers the mechanism to capture and distribute these savings locally in the system. Reduced on-farm irrigation losses can also be expected to result in less water quality degradation. In addition, improved on-farm water management contributes to increased crop yields and crop quality. Organizational and Regulatory Framework The performance of irrigation system significantly depends on the capacity of the organization that manages and distributes water. Poor performance of irrigation schemes can often be traced back to inappropriate organizational structures. The organization structure is defined as the empowerment and delegation of responsibilities and the clarification of the line of command between positions inside of an organization and between organizations. The water management organizations are mainly governmental ones.
Involvement of water users in decision-making is becoming crucial, particularly the rising water demand will soon exceed the available limited water resources. Therefore, there will be an essential need for institutional reform and involvement of water users in decision making and planning so as to manage the available water resources in an efficient and equitable way. Water User Associations (WUA) is a private organization owned, controlled and operated by member users for their benefits in improving water delivery, water use and other organizational efforts related to water for increasing their production possibilities. Within the context of institutional reform in the irrigation water sector, establishing Water Users Associations allows farmers to perform activities which are more difficult, or impossible, for them to do individually. These associations perform functions which allow the farmers the capability of managing parts of the irrigation system more effectively. In terms of administering the irrigation system, a WUA can mobilize local resources to reduce the costs of managing the system for the government. A WUA can provide the procedures and mechanisms whereby the canals and other tertiary channels are cleaned, maintained, and operated on schedule. In addition, such associations can act as arbiters to local conflicts in the area. Since there is a need for the government to interact with the farmers, the WUA can act as the conduit for such interaction. Through the association, various extension programs can operate. Such organization can also serve as a means to channel the needs and desires of farmers to those government agencies best equipped to meet them. They can provide such services by acting as a communication channel between the government and the farmers.
Water Control and Automation One of the objectives of irrigation system improvement is to increase the reliability of irrigation water supply to meet the water demand more efficiently and effectively. Water supply that meets demand could be either on rotational or continuous flow. Continuous supply requires stable water levels in the main and secondary canals. The gate hoisting mechanism on the canal control structures are operated manually. This causes difficulties to adjust gate openings in response to rapidly changing demand. As a result, there was often too much or too little flow in the canal. Fluctuation of water levels in the canal would promote bank instability and unreliable supply to the secondary canals. To resolve this issue, the government initiated certain programs and pilots to introduce automated operation of water structures.
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Irrigation automation is the use of mechanical gates structures, valves, controllers, and other devices and systems to automatically divert water from one portion of an agricultural field or farm to another in the desired amount and sequence. Automated systems can reduce labor energy and water inputs and maintain or increase farm irrigation efficiency, Labor saving and convenience are often major considerations in mechanizing irrigation. While convenience and labor saving are major consideration in many countries, better water control and increased farm irrigation efficiency may be the primary considerations in countries where labor is both plentiful and relatively low cost. Automation also enhances the use of tail water return or reuse systems and can reduce overall energy costs by making surface irrigation more, attractive compared to alternative systems that use more energy.
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Water Saving Strategy in IIP Water saving has come to be seen as one of the main objectives of IIP. It is expected that continuous flow will contribute to this by enabling and encouraging farmers to take water in a more rational way, without over-irrigation (although in the absence of conclusive evidence from a fully working example there has been a concern among operating staff that it might have the opposite effect). So far as it is a pre-condition for implementing mesqa improvement, continuous flow also contributes indirectly to water saving by eliminating losses from traditional low-level mesqas. However, it should be noted that the aim of improving equity implies that at least part of any savings will pass directly to tail farmers who suffer from water shortages at present. Many of these farmers re-use water which is “lost” at present by irrigating from the drains. In some areas, there is also semi-formal re-use at secondary level, implemented by the Irrigation Districts. The overall saving at the branch canal level may therefore be rather limited. IIP interventions are relevant to all of these. The physical improvements should largely eliminate the possibility of direct losses from canals and mesqas (especially tail losses). IIP may also contribute indirectly to reducing surface run-off and percolation losses both by avoiding over-irrigation by head farmers and by improving on-farm water management. Drainage re-use is not a core intervention of IIP, and it must be borne in mind that in general any increase in irrigation system efficiency reduces the scope for drainage re-use by a corresponding amount. IIP will not directly lead to reduced crop water consumption, but clearly any changes in agricultural systems can be more easily implemented in the context of a well-regulated irrigation system providing reliable, flexible and equitable water deliveries. The net overall effect of IIP in achieving water savings is difficult to predict. This is partly because the distribution of water losses in the existing system between the different components (e.g. canal tail losses, percolation losses etc...) is not well known. More importantly, the priority use for any savings due to localized increases in water use efficiency in IIP areas will be to improve canal supplies to water- short tail areas which at present rely on direct irrigation from drains for all or part of their supplies. This substitution of water previously lost to the drains for water previously taken from the drains will be neutral in terms of overall water savings.
Concept of Integrated Water Management at the Operational Level The smallest management unit of the MWRI structure is the district; irrigation district and drainage district, where engineers are in direct contact with users. This level of management is the most important level to have innovations for improvement of performance of water allocation and management. MWRI is now implementing the integrated water management concept in a number of pilot districts. In order to cope with this concept, reorganization at the district level is carried out and the new organizations are called Integrated Water Management Districts (IWMD), which integrate all MWRI activities in each district.
21
The objectives of such policy were viewed as follows:
- Devolution of operation and maintenance responsibilities and decision¬ making to the local MWRI entities at the district level. - Integrate the different water resources within the district into the district water budget and allocation programs. These water resources would include canal water, drainage water, groundwater, rainfall, etc. - Involvement of water users and non-governmental organizations in water management decision-making at the district level. - Devolution of operation and maintenance responsibilities and decision making to the local MWRI entities at the district level.
Hence, it is expected that the IWMD will have an important role in water allocation and water saving. The IWMD will be responsible for scheduling, through consultation with water users (represented by water users associations) the pre-set quota of water for the district.
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Main Findings Harmonization and Integration of Water Saving Options Different water saving options could be integrated to save water in the water distribution system by:
Improving the water delivery system, Using the Telemetry system to improve the system of real-time information and management, Reuse the drainage water to increase water use efficiency, Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater, Using optimal crop pattern, Automation of the irrigation structures.
In the meantime, different water saving options could be integrated to save water on the farm level by: - Leveling the farm land, - Improving of farm ditches and mesqas, - Cultivating crops which are suitable to the climate of the area, - Using gated pipes in the areas where sugarcane is cultivated, - Using sprinkler/drip irrigation in the newly reclaimed land, - Cultivate short duration rice varieties, - Maintain the field ditches, and enhance farmer’s involvement, - Enhancement of continuous flow strategies with night irrigation concept - Establishment of WUAs and encouragement of private sector participation.
Action Plan Strategy and Expected impacts: - Development of strategies to balance irrigation water demand with water supply. - Establishment of better collaboration between farmers, the MWRI and MALR for determining actual real-time irrigation demands at the directorate and district levels. - Establishment of a national policy for managing the transfer of real-time information about water supply and demand. - Improvement of the Nile system operations, which are critical to the Egyptian agricultural economy. - Movement toward a real-time, demand-driven water distribution system.
Liberalization and farmer free choice have resulted in much more uncertainty about actual irrigation water demands. Cases of significant “mismatch” have occurred. In some cases, large amounts of water (sometimes millions of cubic meters) were delivered but not used, due to the lag-time between main delivery source, HAD and delta region, while at other times water has not been available to farmers when needed, causing a reduction in agricultural production. The MWRI has identified several specific situations that give rise to mismatching, which can be grouped into three general categories:
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1 Under-or over-estimating crop water demands under free cropping choices, including cropping patterns and calendars. 2 System constraints, such as canal capacity, system storage capacity, and lag time. 3 External factors, such as climatic change and unanticipated drainage water reuse.
Water shortfalls have resulted from lack of information about cropping patterns and calendars, and from cropping pattern and calendar selections by farmers that were not consistent with the ability of the Nile system to deliver adequate supplies when needed. Information on crop selection and the dates of planting and harvesting is essential for good water management. However, there is no routine, accurate, and systematic transfer of this information from farmers or the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamations (MALR) to the MWRI. Both ministries recognize that matching real-time irrigation water demands with water deliveries is an important step toward an efficient, demand-driven irrigation system. Reducing the agriculture water consumption can be seen as an effective measure for increasing water productivity. The gradual replacement of sugarcane with sugar beets, the reduction of rice- cultivated areas, the replacement of currently used varieties of rice with shorter life which have higher productivity and less water requirements, the development of new crop varieties using genetic engineering that have higher productivity and less water consumption, and the design of indicative cropping patterns are effective means for increasing water productivity. The following diagram can assist in planning for securing water need and assessment of crop production, also
illustrating different management levels.
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Conclusions and Recommendations The study describes the integration of water saving actions into a water management policy by drafting a logical framework for future policies and new guidelines for water saving in the country. This logical framework aim at providing a tool for researchers, and decision makers for enhancing their capacity to analyze and to evaluate the effectiveness of the current water saving policies as well as to identify measures and priority actions for strengthening and improvement of integrated management policies for water saving in particular for the case of Irrigated Agriculture Projects in Egypt. Different water saving options has been considered and integrated to present the optimal water savings and crop productivity in different operational levels. Integrating and harmonizing all the water saving options will result in an optimal water saving and management on the national level. It could be concluded that implementing of the irrigation improvement project did not result in obvious water saving although the preliminarily results indicated that the application of the continuous flow should be associated with a big amount of water saving. The proposed work focuses on the quantification of the changes that are anticipated by the technical interventions through a set of criteria at delivery and on-farm levels, e.g. equity of water distribution, water availability/sufficiency, agricultural practices, project management, agricultural productivity etc. The following system management innovations could be addressed: • Sustainability of water sources (durability, quantity and quality) • Physical improvement of the delivery system • Implementation of integrated water/land management • Improve agronomic practices • New operational techniques • Farmers participation (WUAs), and institutional reform • Decentralization of decision making • Improve socio-economic return and marketing • Private sector participation
For Successful Water Saving Strategy: 1-Political and public support is essential; 2-Realistic investment and service targets are needed; 3-Appropriate allocation of risks and responsibilities between different parties; 4-Allocation of legal land ownership and water rights; 5-Appropriate institutions, legislations and regulations; and 6-Integrated regional development for up-scaling of best practices (BP) activities.
From the study findings, it can be argued that effective water saving policies in the framework of an integrated water management approach need an institutional change and capacity buildings in the sense of an opening of participation processes to all relevant stakeholder. This can be reached relatively easy be allowing not only water users to participate in the water boards, but also other interested and affected stakeholders (private sector). Integrated water-resources management should be linked to social and economic development and should address land and water uses and conservation. The results and recommendations presented could help in reviewing, coordinating and updating national water policy, legislation, and institutions to guide the preparation of waterresources assessments and to promote the use of sustainable management practices to meet the growing needs for water. As well for IWRM and
25 for an effective implementation of necessary water saving strategies the participation of all relevant stakeholders is essential.
References - APRP – Water Policy Reform Activity, June 1998, “National policy for drainage water reuse”, Report No. 8, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt. - APRP – Water Policy Reform Activity, June 1998, “Egypt’s Irrigation Improvement program”, Report No. 7, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt. - APRP – Water Policy Reform Activity, June 1998, “Assessment of Egypt’s rice policy and strategies for water management”, Report No. 6, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt. - APRP – RDI unit, June 1998, “Egypt’s sugarcane policy and strategy for water management”, Report No. 33, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt. - APRP – RDI unit, June 1999, “Water savings through improved irrigation in sugarcane cultivation”, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt. - APRP – Water Policy Activity, June 1999, “Water savings through utilization of short duration rice varieties”, Report No. 19, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt. - Elkassar G , 2007, “Monitoring and Evaluation of Improved Irrigation Delivery System in w/10 Command area – Egypt” - Elkassar G and Abou ElFotouh N, 2008 “Concept of Integrated Water Management on the Command Areas of Irrigation Improvement Project (Case Study)”, Technical Paper, Cairo, Egypt. - ELKassar G M, "Identification of Best Practices for Water Harvesting and Irrigation", Final Country Report, Nile Basin Initiatives, www.nilebasin/EWUAP.org, June 2008 th - Final Report, 16 international congress on irrigation and drainage, 1996, “Sustainability of irrigated agriculture”, Cairo, Egypt - MWRI, 1997, “Activities and Achievements of the Irrigation Improvement Sector”, Cairo, Egypt. - MWRI, 1997, “Achievements of irrigation Management System IMS projects in Egypt”. Cairo, Egypt.
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Water policy in Morocco between the past and today Contributions of the recent Law 10/95 on water
Mr SGHIR FATHALLAH
I. Facts about Morocco
• Location of Morocco Morocco is located in the extreme north-west of the African continent. It is separated from European continent by the Strait of Gibraltar. Its borders are shared with Algeria to the east and Mauritania to the south. The Atlantic Ocean forms its western border and along the Mediterranean Sea to the north.
• Area of Morocco Moroccan territory covers an area of 710,850 km2.
• The climate in Morocco Being located in the extreme north-western Africa, Morocco opens on both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Because of its location between the 21st and 37th degrees of north latitude, and also because of its terrain, Morocco is characterized by a highly variable climate.
27/107 The effect of latitude is shown by the predominance of a Mediterranean climate on the north, and by the existence of a Saharan climate in the south and southeast of the Atlas.
• Demography in Morocco The population in Morocco is estimated at just over 30 million people including more than 58% live in urban areas and 42% in rural areas.
II. Water resources in Morocco
• Potential water per capita The rate of natural water resources per person, which expresses the richness or the relative scarcity of water in a country already in Morocco is around the threshold of 1,000 m3/capita/year, commonly accepted as a critical threshold indicating the onset shortages and looming crisis of water.
The natural water resources per person in the country were around 720 m3/capita/year to 2020. To date 14 million, or 35% of the total population, have less than 500 m3/capita/year. These indicators show that the chronic shortage of water is a structure that must be taken into account in policies and strategies for management of water resources.
• The water surface
28/107 The contributions in surface water amounted to year average a few million m3 for the basins in the south of Morocco (30 Mm3), and billions m3 for the basins that are located in the north (5 billion m3).
The surface water resources are measured in average years to nearly 19 billion m3. Water resources provided nine out of ten years or four years out of five are significantly lower than the average. In dry years, water supply may decrease to less than 30% over the average.
• The groundwater resources The groundwater is an important part of national resources hydraulics. The investigations carried out to estimate the potential water to nearly 4 billion m3 per year which may be considered mobilized in the acceptable conditions technical and economic.
III. Mobilization of water resources In Morocco, water management is vital because the climatic and hydrological conditions are difficult. The priority given to the water sector since 60 years has provided a patrimony of water infrastructure, consisting of hundreds of dams of various sizes, a total storage capacity of 15 billion m3, and 13 channels of the transfer of water.
These water infrastructure plays a vital role in water and food security of the country and makes a valuable service to the national economy. They contribute to energy production, development of access to drinking water, protection against flooding, to stabilize agricultural production through irrigation of more than one million hectares, and development of agro- industry.
Overall, the water resources available are valued at nearly 13 500 million m3 per year, or 67% of water resources mobilized. Surface waters, including the amount mobilized is estimated at 16 000 million m3, were mobilized to the tune of 67%, and groundwater, whose volume is estimated to be mobilized
29/107 4000 million m3 are mobilized to the tune of 67.5%. For groundwater exploitation rate is higher due to overexploitation of groundwater.
IV. Laws of water in Morocco
• For thousands of years Water as a public property was along the water use in Morocco property that attracts all covetousness. Water is necessary for human life (drinking water), the watering of livestock and irrigation. To regulate the use of this resource, the people of Morocco for thousands of years have created several systems and techniques for the mobilization of water and its management. They have developed systems for the mobilization of surface water such as seguias (which are taken on rivers consist of a dead head and a distribution network, the allocation of irrigation water between users is done on a Tower water with the priority of supply water from upstream to downstream)
They opted for Khettara galleries that are lead by gravity draining water from the groundwater to the surface for irrigation and drinking water. The first Khettara has built in the 11th century (by Almoravids Dynasty). In 1975: 650 Khettara were in service in a length of 700 km. Now, only less than ten were in service (feeder layer, high cost of construction and maintenance).
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They dug wells, and for lifting water, they have adopted devices based primarily on animal power, but the low flow of water pumped irrigated only small portions of agricultural land.
In order to manage the available water resources, rules have been imposed by the community:
Customary management (ORF) Thus, to avoid all sources of conflict between different tribes especially in areas characterized by scarcity. Our ancestors have opted for a rational management of this resource so vital to their survival, water was managed in Morocco by Jmaa (communities),
Thus users who are organized in association customary structured as shown below to ensure the application of water towers and the settlement of disputes through a douar council composed of elders and wise as well as representatives of communities.
31/107 Conseil des Douars Conseil communautaire (Diaouan de la Jmaa)
Représentants des collectivités (Nouabs)
Aiguadiers (Amazal)
Aide aiguadiers (Hassab et moujari)
Management according to the Islamic The Islam has stressed the importance of water as a source of life. The term "water" was quoted in the holy Quran in more than sixty verses and forty suras. The principles of the Sharia as a reference to legislation on Water in Islamic countries. These principles are: The waters are undivided property and should not be banned, even if ownership of water is permitted to anyone who has water in his land. The consumption of water by humans or animals is a priority, even before the religious rites. It shall be unlawful for any person to prevent humans or animals consume the resource. In economic terms, water, like fire and food, is a common and undivided to all Muslims.
The primary difference between customary law and Islamic law regarding ownership of water resides in the earth - water. Islamic law considers that the ownership of land implies a property of water, while the customary law provides otherwise.
• In the early 20th century The need for social and economic development has forced the use of water management to meet people's needs, the needs themselves in continual growth, often competing, even conflicting, which made the process management Water very complex and difficult implementation.
To cope with this situation, it was essential to have such effective legal instruments in order to organize the distribution and monitoring the use of water resources and also ensure the protection and conservation.
V. The rules governing the public domain hydraulic
32/107 The first text relating to water in 1914. This is the Dahir of 7 chaabane 1332 (1 July 1914) on the public domain, supplemented by the Dahirs of 1919 and 1925, includes all waters, regardless of their form, to public water. Since then, the water can not be private ownership, with the exception of water on which duties have been acquired legally. Other texts were subsequently developed to meet new needs that were felt. Taken together, the essential texts on water then back to the early decades of this century. They were developed according to needs and circumstances. Morocco and nearly three decades has developed a policy-oriented in water supply management. This policy has improved access to drinking water and food security but it has shown its limits with the appearance of Water imbalances between supply and demand in most watersheds. The demand management was imposed, the recasting of water legislation and its unification into a single law was necessary.
• The new law 10/95 on water The new law n ° 10-95 on water promulgated by Dahir No. 1-95-154 of 18 Rabii I 1416 (16 August 1995) is not limited to recast the legislation was in force, but also on the one hand, to add provisions relating to areas that previously were not covered, and secondly, to clear the legal regime of water resources.
The Water Act aims to establish a national water policy based on a vision that takes into account both the evolution of resources and other national needs water. It provides legal provisions: rationalization of water use. widespread access to water. The inter-regional solidarity. Reducing disparities between city and countryside in programs whose objective is to ensure water security throughout the kingdom.
The Water Act aims to establish a national water policy based on a vision that takes into account both the evolution of resources and water law is therefore the legal basis for the water policy in the country and sets out, therefore, the following objectives:
Coherent and flexible use of water resources, both at the level of the river basin and national levels. Mobilization and rational management of all water resources, taking into account the priorities set by the national plan for water. Management of water resources in the context of a geographical unit, the river basin, which constitutes an important innovation to design and implement decentralized management of water.
Indeed, the river basin is the natural geographical area best suited to understand and solve the problems of water resource management and to achieve effective regional solidarity between users involved in a common water resources;
• The basin water agencies: The Act creates water basins agencies, public bodies with legal personality and financial autonomy. They have to assess, plan and manage water resources in water basins.
33/107 Their financial resources are comprised of fees collected from users and water users in accordance with the principle (user-pays and polluter pays), loans, grants, donations ... We have 19 basins and sub-basins, Nine agencies have been created since the enactment of Law 10/95, the first agency that has emerged is the basin of the Oum Er R'bia by decree N ° 2 -96-536, 20 November 1996, other agencies were created in 2000.
The potential water by catchment area (surface water)
Bassins Area in km² % area country Surface water % surface in Mm3 water
1-BASSINS DU LOUKKOS, TANGEROIS ET 20600 2,9% 4119 21.7% COTIERS MEDITERRANNEENS
2-BASSIN DE LA MOULOUYA 57500 8,1% 1656 8,7% 3-BASSIN DU SEBOU 40000 5,6% 5600 29,4% 4-BASSINS DU BOUREGREG ET DES 20000 2,8% 830 4,4% COTIERS ATLANTIQUES DE CASABLANCA
5-BASSINS DE L'OUM ER R'BIA 6-BASSINS DU TENSIFT ET COTIERS 35000 4,9% 3680 19,4% D'ESSAOUIRA 37500 5,3% 1110 5,8% 7-BASSINS DU SOUSS ET DU MASSA 8-BASSINS DU GUIR, ZIZ, RHERISS ET DRAA 35400 5% 701 3,7% 9-BASSINS DU SAHARA 164190 23,1% 1300 6,8%
300660 42,3% 30 0,2% TOTAL
710850 100% 19026 100%
The potential water by catchment area, groundwater resources
34/107 catchment Potential Decrease Remaining utilizable Current in Mm3 potential for groundwater in exploitation in Mm3 Mm3 1-BASSINS DU LOUKKOS, TANGEROIS ET 226 140 86 COTIERS MEDITERRANNEENS 2-BASSIN DE LA MOULOUYA 3-BASSIN DU SEBOU 779 270 509 4-BASSINS DU BOUREGREG ET DES 453 380 73 COTIERS ATLANTIQUES DE CASABLANCA 126 - - 5-BASSINS DE L'OUM ER R'BIA 6-BASSINS DU TENSIFT ET COTIERS - D'ESSAOUIRA 326 500* - 7-BASSINS DU SOUSS ET DU MASSA 458 510* 8-BASSINS SUD atlasiques 9-BASSINS DU SAHARA 240 640* - Écoulement diffus 762 230 532 16 - - TOTAL 610 - -
4000 2670 1200
• Basic Principles of the Law 10/95
The public domain water: According to this principle, laid down by the Dahirs of 1914 and 1919, all water is in the public domain with the exception of acquired rights and recognition. However, the need for maximum recovery of water resources scarcity imposed by a law that provided a limit to these rights so that owners of rights to water only or water that they don ' used only partially for their funds can not transfer funds to owners of agricultural
The development of a management planning and allocation of water resources based on extensive discussions between users and public authorities. A master plan for integrated management of water resources is established by the administration for each basin or set of hydraulic basins,
The protection of human health by regulating the operation of distribution and sale of water for food,
regulation of activities likely to pollute water resources,
contribution to improving the environmental situation of national water resources.
the rational allocation of water resources in times of drought to mitigate the effects of the shortage,
greater agricultural upgrading through improved conditions for development and use of water for agricultural use,
prediction of sanctions and the creation of a water police to suppress any unlawful operation of water or any act likely to impair its quality.
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• Content of Law 10/95
The law 10/95 consists of 13 chapters and 123 articles:
CHAPTER ONE: PUBLIC WATER, (water is a public, private ownership is subject to the provisions of Chapter II, the right to use water is granted on conditions laid down by this Act, definition of DPH ).
CHAPTER II: RIGHTS ON THE PUBLIC DOMAIN HYDRAULIC, (maintenance of rights acquired on the DPH before dahir of 1914 and 1925, to assert these rights in a time of 5 years from the date of publication of Law 10/95, recognition rights, expropriation ...).
CHAPTER III: CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN HYDRAULIC.
CHAPTER IV: PLANNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATERSHED WATER AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES. (Higher Council for Water and Climate: general guidelines for national policy on water and climate, and PNE PDAIRE planning of the use of water resources in the context of water basins, the basin agencies).
CHAPTER V: GENERAL CONDITIONS OF USE OF WATER (rights and obligations of owners, permits and concessions on DPH, délimitation stores backup ...).
CHAPTER VI: THE FIGHT AGAINST POLLUTION OF WATER, (prohibition of discharge of sewage; establishing standards for discharge into the purpose of preservation of water resources against pollution, leave for réutilistaion treated wastewater, introduction of the polluter pays principle ...).
CHAPTER VII: WATER FOR FOOD, (requirements for water for food, drinking water and water for the preparation, conditioning or preservation of foodstuffs for sale to the public, the quality standards set by regulatory ... ).
CHAPTER VIII: PROVISIONS RELATING TO THE OPERATION AND SALE OF NATURAL WATERS OF INTEREST MEDICAL, WATER TELL "SOURCE" WATER AND TELL "TABLE"
CHAPTER IX: RULES RELATING AL'AMENAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER FOR AGRICULTURAL USE (authorizations for agricultural use must comply with the PDAIRE, other conditions related to the modification of the irrigation system to save water irrigation, the fight against agricultural pollution, rising groundwater, wastewater reuse if meet the standards established by regulation ...).
CHAPTER X: PROVISIONS ON THE USE OF WATER IN CASE OF SHORTAGE (priority of water supply for people and the watering of animals, we proceeded in irrigation to reduce the areas to cultivation irrigation, the prohibition of installation of summer crops and new plantings ...).
CHAPTER XI: MISCELLANEOUS AND TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS, (water research, inventory of water resources, the fight against floods ...).
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CHAPTER XII: THE LOCAL AND WATER (prefectural or provincial Committee for the involvement of local communities in decision-making in planning, saving water, public awareness of the protection and preservation of resources water).
CHAPTER XIII: POLICE WATER, VIOLATIONS AND PENALTIES.
VI. Conclusion
The Water Act establishes new rules for using water more suitable for economic and social conditions of modern Morocco for any effective water management in the future to meet the challenges expected for Security of national supply.
This law will also further enhance the considerable efforts made to mobilize and use of water and make them compatible with the aspirations for economic and social development of Morocco of the twenty-first century, however, we must accelerate the process of enactment texts of application.
37/107 Impact of anthropogenic activities on groundwater quality for a semi-arid region in Algeria. Case of Merdja plain
BAALI Fethi 1 ROUABHIA AbdelKader 1* HANI Azedine2 DJABRI Larbi 2
1. Department of Hydrogeology, Cheikh El Arbi Tébessi University, Tébessa 12002 Algeria. 2. Department of Geologyy, Annaba Universityy, 23000 Algeria. Corresponding author: ROUABHIA Abdelkader, BP 34-A 12004. Nahda-Poste. Tébessa 12004. Algeria. E mail: [email protected] Telephone: 00 213 772470096
Abstract The evaluation of the long-term effect of industry into the aquifers, due to negative water balance and to the nitrate pollution of drinking water quality due to human activities requires the detailed knowledge of both transport of the chemical constituents, and geochemical processes within aquifers. Hydrogeological and hydrochemical studies in the unconfined Tebessa aquifer have provided the data necessary to define the area at increased risk from these phenomena. The solution of the second Fick’s low under given boundary conditions - give an estimate of the propagation of groundwater pollution by NO 3.
Keywords Tébessa, semi-arid, hydrochemistry, transfer of matter, pollution, nitrates.
1 Introduction
1.1 Location
The area of study is near the city of Tebessa in eastern Algeria (Figs. 1 and 2). This area lies in the semi-arid region of Algeria and is susceptible to the various threats common in both growing urban areas and developing agricultural areas. The city of Tebessa and the - surrounding villages (Bekkaria, Hammamet) have seen a great deal of growth in the past decade, with the establishment of new industries and farms.
The purpose of this study is two-fold. The first is to study the hydrogeological regime in this area with the help of chemical and isotopic data. Such studies can help constrain hydrogeological regimes which are poorly covered by water-level data (Rouabhia and Djabri, 2001). The second purpose is to evaluate the present status of water quality in the area of study. This will help current water resource planning in the area and will provide a baseline for future studies of water quality and trends. The Tebessa area straddles two aquifers: the limestone aquifer, and the alluvial aquifer. In general, the shallow groundwater in Merdja area is found in the alluvial fan deposits from plio-quaternary age (Fig. 3). This aquifer overlies geologic formations consisting of cenomanian marly layers. The recharge of this alluvial aquifer is combined and is done from: (1) highlands of Dyr Bouroumane on the East and Doukkane on the West (precipitation infiltrating through alluvial fans where the mountain range meets the plain), (2) from losing streams and (3) through cross-formational flow.
38/107 1.2 Climate and precipitation Annual precipitation in the studied area ranges from 200 to 350 mm (Fig. 4), thus this considered to be a semi-desert area. Summer temperatures can reach 45°C. The dry climate, atmospheric dust and low precipitation affect the water quality generally causing increased salt content (Djabri, 1998).
-a-
Spain Mediterranean Sea Alge • Tunisia Oran• • rTébessa • Morocco Study
Area
A L G E R I A
Africa TEBESS Hoggar A
0 200 400 K m CHERIA
-b- EL MA EL Exhaure ABIOD
Bled Medoud
P18 Fig. 1 Location of the F3 P16 study area in Eastern AC1AC1 B P17 P20 YS4-5 EF1E2-3 P15 FG2 Algeria; Ain Chabro P13 P14 P6 QR5 El-Hamemmet CT P11 P10 a : Topographic map, J2-3 P12 P8 P7 KL3 P9 P19 P5 b: Simpling shallow wells M2-3 FTA1 N°1M M e r d j a P M2lM1 a i n N69 Q5 V4 Q3-4 O. Djebissa TEBESSA 0 5 10 Q5-6 P4 km FA2 W2 P1 P3 X2 X4 P2 :Tébessa Airport Bekkaria : Drilling BM1 Spring : Well : Cross section Djibissa M. : Spring A89
1.3 Geological and hydrological setting The geology of studied area was investigated by several authors (Blés and Fleury 1970, Vila, 1977 and 1980) .The micropaleontological and biostratigraphical analyses have showed that, from the stratigraphical point of view, the studied area includes the plio-quaternary tectonic depression of Tebessa, This depression separates the highlands of Dyr situated in the North from the Doukkane and Mestrie highlands located in the South. Most of studied area is of cretaceous age (fig.2), and forms a series of anticlines and synclines. The stratigraphic consists of alternating sequence alternation carbonate formations of limestones, marly-limestones and argillaceous marls.
The plio-quaternary and quaternary terrains occupy the central part; they are consisted by actual and recent alluvial deposits, conglomerates, gravels, sandstones, etc. Analysis of the hydrostratigraphic column of the studied area suggests the presence of two aquifers including the formation of plio- quaternary age. This large alluvial aquifer occupies the major part of the tectonic depression, limited at the West and at the East by two
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Fig. 4 Interannual distribution of precipitations (1906-2006).
great faults of NW-SE orientation. It is composed of diverse deposits such as alluvial fans, silts, calcareous crust, conglomerates and gravels. This aquifer plays an important role in the drinking water supply for the local population, where it undergoes a strong solicitation, which generates an anthropogenic pollution.
N : Flow direction R16 (A) El Hammamet : National Road 10 : wadi R ro N b a : Rail way h i C d a Dyr :Quaternary w an ti Mountain :Alluvial fans ch ri st aa :Pliocene -M id M :Eocene : Limestone :Upper Cretaceous :Limestone w a d :Mid-Cretaceous : Marly limestone i e l k e :Lower Cretaceous : Limestone b ir :Trias D o u k k a n e M. TEBESSA D C
an ni ro Tu M e s t e r i M o u n t a I n s Bekkaria Djebissa M. Bouroumane 0 2 4km [AB] : Geological cross section Fig.2 A- Geological map of the study area
2 Hydrochemical data
2.1 Sampling and analysis Water samples from 20 production wells penetrating the alluvial aquifer were collected (Table 1). Temperature, conductivity, and pH were measured in the field. Bicarbonate was measured by titration to the methyl orange endpoint. Chloride was determined by titration and precipitation of AgCl. Sulfate was determined by precipitation of BaSO4 and then by measuring the absorbance with spectrophotometer. Cations were determined by atomic absorption
40/107 spectrophotometer. A total of groundwater samples (N = 20) were taken for isotopic analysis. The groundwater samples were distributed uniformly throughout the studied area. The stable isotope analyses (Table 2) were performed at the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, Eastkilbride, Glasgow by using a Finnegan-Matt 251 ratio mass spectrometer. Samples for tritium content were first isotopically enriched and tritium was measured through liquid scintillation counting. The error associated with this technique is estimated to be ± 1 Tritium Unit (TU).
N S
1000 1000
900 900 m 800 800
700 700 Tectonic depression 600 600 0 2 4km 500 500 : Clay and sandstones : Plioquaternary aquifer : Gravel + alluvial fans +conglomerates
: Eocene limestone : Maastrichtian limestone : Limestone aquifer : Cenomanian marly limestone : Marly
: Fault : Spring
Fig.2 B-Geological cross section along transect [CD]
The water types present in the area were determined based on both chemical and stable isotopic characteristics. The isotopic signatures were plotted on δ 18O vs. δ D diagrams and compared with the different local signatures.
Analysis of the groundwater regime was done using three approaches. The various chemical characteristics were mapped and the spatial distributions of these characteristics were compared with a piezometric map. Thermodynamic equilibrium models were carried out by using PHREEQC version 2.10 (Parkhurst and Appelo 1999) and saturation index was calculated with respect to several minerals such as calcite, aragonite, dolomite, halite and gypsum. Finally, the waters were evaluated based on various drinking and agricultural water criteria including total hardness, salinity hazard, and sodium absorption hazards. Chemical data are presented in Table 1. The following discussion will illustrate the significance, of these results in the context of understanding distribution of water types, movement, and pollution.
3 Result and discussion
3.1 Water type The water types in the area of study were determined based on their chemical composition. Chemical analyses were plotted on a trilinear diagram (fig. 8). Samples in the western part of the studied area are characterized by the dominance of chloride, sulfate, sodium, and potassium
41/107 whereas water in the eastern part of the studied area is dominated by the same cations but have relatively higher concentrations of bicarbonate.
W E Wadi El Kebir Tebessa
Q3-4 Elevation (m) M2-3 PE M2 CT J KL3 900 2-3 800 : 1 : 2 700
: 3 600 : 4 500 : 5
400 KL3 : 6
TEBESSA tectonic depression 100 m 300 1000 m Fig. 3 Hydrogeological cross-section through the Merdja plain 1: Permeable zone (marly-limestones, alluvial fans, silts, calcareous crust, conglomerates and gravels). 2: Impermeable zone (clay et marl). 3: Marly bedrock. 4: Screened interval. 5: Water table. 6: Well name.
Several maps were drawn for each chemical constituent that were analyzed in the water taken from production wells. Figure 9 shows the distribution of chloride in the studied area. The highest concentrations of this anion was observed in the eastern part of plain with a maximum value equal to 710 mg l-1 (well 2), this highest concentration seems to show local pollution away from any obvious pollution sources such as waste disposal sites or waste-water treatment plants. Towards center and western parts of the study area chloride concentrations decrease to 250 mg l-1, in likely owing to effect of return water irrigation under semi-arid climate. Hydrochemistry analyses indicates high nitrate concentrations (fig. 11), indicating that agricul- tural seepage is responsible for water quality degradation. Ten samples were taken from production wells for isotopic analysis. These wells were distributed uniformly in the area of study, and include the KL3, J2-3, M2-3, PE, Q3-4, M2, M1, P69; Q5-6, and F9 wells. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 2.
Sample well δ O18 δD 3H : Rain Ain-Oussara 0 GMWL 1 KL -5,6 -52 <1 : Rain Ouargla -10 : δD and 18O for 2 J2-3 -5,5 -53 <1 ) groundwater samples
‰ -20 3 M2-3 -5,7 -51 <1 -30 4 PE -5,5 -52 <1 5 Q3-4 -5,6 -51,2 <1 -40 * -50 o 6 M2 -5,6 -51 <1 18
Deuterium Deuterium ( δD = 7.5δO - 10.07 -60 7 M1 -5,4 -50 <1 R2 = 0.73 8 P69 -5,2 -51,3 <1 -70 9 Q5-6 -4,9 -51,2 <1 -80 10 F9 -4,8 -40 <1 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 Oxyen-18 (‰) Table 2 Isotopic compositions of groundwater samples Fig. 6 δ2 H vs δ O18 Relationship for groundwater in the study area
42/107 Stable isotope compositions of water from Merdja alluvial aquifer are presented in (tab.2). The number of wells analyzed for oxygen-18 and Deuterium is relatively small and cannot be representative of the whole aquifer, but they suggest that the aquifer tends to have a relatively small range of values between -5.7 and -4.4 in 18O with a mean of -5.25 ± 0.2‰ (n = 11) and varying from -53 to -41 in D with a mean of -49.36±00‰ (n = 11).
The D -18O diagram (fig.6), suggests that these isotope signatures are (1) higher than those of mean inter-annual precipitation recorded in Ouargla for 1965, 1967 and 1992 and 1994 (Guendouz.1985 and Moulla et al. 1996) and Ain-Oussera for years 1994,1995 and 1996 (Edmunds et al, 1997) and (2) located below the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) defined by Craig (1961) δ D = 8 18O +10 ‰ .
The results obtained on stable isotopes (oxygen 18 and deuterium) broadened and strengthened our knowledge on conditions and recharge areas of the Merdja alluvial aquifer. The isotopic signatures show that this aquifer receives a refill from efficient rain without a high evaporation.
3.2 Groundwater movement and evolution Two piezometric highs are recognized in the studied area (Fig.5). One has a static water level of 861m and is located near Bekkaria, in this part aquifer receives a direct alimentation from SE limit (Djibissa Mountains). The second is in the west of the studied area and has a static water level of 831 m at the El Hammamet. The piezometric map suggests that groundwater flows from the east towards the center in one path and the other path is from the western part towards the center part. (fig.5)
o
r Bled Medoud b a h
C
.
O
O . el Ain Chabro K ebi El-Hamemmet r at gl . O O O. Djebissa
0 5 10 km TEBESSA : Pathlines Bekkaria 777 Spring : Potentiometric surface
: Wadi
Fig. 5 Potentiometric map of Merdja aquifer. Jan. 2006
Groundwater flow patterns suggest that the Merdja plain is subdivided in two hydrogeolgic aquifer systems, at the east this system is recharged laterally through carbonate outcropping from Bouromane and Djebissa highlands and in the west part this aquifer system have a direct recharge from Meastrichtian fracturated limestone (fig.2).
The discharge of the Merdja alluvial aquifer, is done through intensive pumping in the center part of the plain, evaporation (during dry period) and finally down the topographic slope to the North.
43/107 3.3 Water quality
The purpose of this section is to characterize groundwater for both domestic as well as for irrigation purposes. Water was classified in Table 3 based on total hardness according to the classification of Sawyer and McCarty (1967).
Hardness is defined by the presence of divalent cations of which calcium and magnesium are the most abundant in groundwater.
Total hardness (TH) is calculated through the following equation (Todd 1980) TH=2.5 Ca (mg/l) +4.1 Mg (mg/l) All sampled wells, located in the studied area are characterized as hard except the well M2 located in the eastern part, classified as a very hard water type.
Well name P5 100 P7 J2-3 M2-3 P6 P13 Ca+MgSalinisation PE P20 P10 P05 P4 SO4+Cl+NO3 P18 Q5-6 P11 M2 Q3-4 0 0 P9 100 0 0 100
Na+K SO4
Mg
CO3+HCO3
100 100 0 0 100 100 0 0 100 Ca Cl+NO3 Fig. 8 Piper trilinear diagram of water chemistry in the study area.
Nitrate is a major contaminant of drinking water. It is currently frequently found in aquifers. In arid and semi-arid regions, sources of nitrate in groundwater have either been linked to direct anthropic pollution in urban areas or to leaching of fertilizers in agricultural areas (Girard and Hillaire 1997). Nitrate (NO3) concentrations of the phreatic waters (Table 1) were found far above the World Health Organization (WHO 1998) recommended limit (45 mg 1-1) especially for those samples occurring in rural areas. Almost 65% of samples from dug wells showed concentrations greater than 45 mg 1-1.
The presence of high nitrate concentrations in the phreatic waters is not only the direct consequence of a massive usage of artificial fertilizers, but is also a consequence of contamination
44/107 by domestic septic tanks. The latter are unfortunately favoured by the absence of a sanitation network in the whole region where more than 800 septic tanks are in use (Djabri 1996). This fact contributes to the nitrification of groundwaters according to the process. Nitrate concentrations vary greatly from18 mg l-1 at P11 to 120.1mg l-1 P18. The highest concentrations were found in the middle and the west part of the studied area (Fig. 11) whereas lowest concentrations are located in the eastern part (Bakkaria zone).
Bled Medoud
o r
b
a h C
. O O. e l Ke bir El-Hamemmet Ain Chabro at gl . O O
O. Djebissa TEBESSA 0 5 10 km
:Tebessa Airport Bekkaria Sce. Fig. 9 Chloride distribution in the water of the area (mg l-1)
Bled Medoud
o r
b
a h C
. O O. e l Ke bir El-Hamemmet Ain Chabro at gl . O O O. Djebissa TEBESSA 0 5 10 km
:Tebessa Airport Bekkaria Sce. Fig. 11 -1 Nitrate distribution in the water of the area (mg l )
Irrigation in the area uses groundwater exclusively, which explains the low tritium contents which are coupled with high nitrate concentrations. In the center part of wadi El Kebir river is probably responsible for elevated nitrate concentrations in its immediate vicinity.
The suitability of groundwater for irrigation is contingent on the effects on the mineral constituents of the water on both the plant and the soil. Salts may harm plant growth physically by limiting the uptake of water through modification of the osmotic processes, or chemically by metabolic reactions such as those caused by toxic-constituents (Todd 1980). Sodium concentration is important in classifying irrigation water because sodium reacts with soil to reduce its permeability. Soils containing a large proportion of sodium with carbonate as the predominant anion are termed alkali soils; those with chloride or sulfate as the predominant anion are saline
45/107 soil, ordinarily, either type of sodium-enriched soil will support little or no plant growth (Todd 1980). Sodium content is usually expressed in terms of percent sodium defined by the relationship: Na K.100 %Na Ca Mg Na K where the concentrations of the constituents are expressed in milliequivalents per liter. ln Table 4 the analysis of waters were classified based on the divisions proposed by Wi1cox (1948). The sodium adsorption ration (SAR) is also used here because of its direct relation to the adsorption of sodium by soil. It is defined by the following equation (Todd 1980): Na SAR (Ca Mg) / 2
Where the concentration of the constituents are expressed in milliequivalent per liter. The sodium adsorption ratio was plotted on the U.S.A. salinity laboratory diagram (Fig. 7). Table 4 shows the water classes according to the SAR method. The waters were found mostly confined in four classes of water type; i.e., C3-S2 , C2-S 1 and C3-S 1 and C4-S2 which has medium to very high salinity hazards and low to medium sodium alkalinity hazards.
U.S.A Salinity Laboratory Diagram
4 30 C1S4 C2S4 C3S4 C4S4
3
Very High
)
C1S3 SAR
ard z
20 C2S3
2 Medium C3S3 C1S2 C4S3 P6 C2S2 . 10 P7 Sodium (Alkali) Ha .M 2-3 . C3S2 P17 8 .J2 -3 . Sodium Absorption Ratio ( C S P10 P9 P5 J 4 2 2-3
1 6 . P4 . P13 P18 . C S . . . Low 4 1 1 P13 C S .P2 0 .P11 . 2 1 M . 2 2 .P5 .P6 9 C3S1 .Q 3-4 C4S1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1000 2 3 4 Specific conductance-micromhos/cm (EC*10) at 25°c 1 2 3 4 Low Medium High V.High Salinity Hazard Fig. 7 Salinity hazard of the groundwater s of the area
3.4 Water-rock interaction process
Interaction between groundwater and surrounding host rocks are believed to be the main process responsible for the observed chemical characteristics of groundwater in the Merdja plain. Evaluation of such process requires the description of the mineral assemblage of the rocks in which water is found, and the identification of chemical reaction responsible for the geochemical
46/107 evolution of groundwater. From available studies in the literature, such reactions generally include chemical weathering of rock-forming minerals, dissolution-precipitation of secondary carbonates and ion exchange between water and clay minerals.
Two approaches, mathematical and graphical, are generally used to investigate hydrogeochemical evolution. The mathematical approach is often used for the calculation of saturation indices of groundwater with respect to mineral phases, thus providing some indication upon the equilibrium state between groundwater and the surrounding mineral rock assemblages. Several geochemical programs (Fritz 1975; Plummer et al. 1976; Plummer et al. 1998; Plummer et al. 1991) have been developed for such calculations. The graphical approach describes the mineral stability fields of minerals in equilibrium with groundwater, in terms of activity ratio (on a log scale) of ions in groundwater (Fritz 1975; Plummer et al. 1976; Plummer et al. 1998; Plummer et al. 1991).
2 2 -a-
Gy psum -b- Anhy drite
1 1
0 0
-1 -1 Saturation Indices Saturation Indices -2 -2 0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800 Total dissolved solids (mg/l) Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 3 3 -c- Calcite -d-
2 2 Dolomite
1 1 0 0
-1 -1 ration Indices ration
-2 -2 Saturation Indices Satu -3 -3 0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800 Total dissolved solids (mg/l) Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 3 -e- 2 Aragonite 1 0
-1
-2 Saturation Indices -3 0 200 400 600 800 Fig. 10 Total dissolved solids (mg/l) Plots of saturation indices with respect to some carbonate and evaporite minerals, as computed with WATECF against total dissolved solids. Hatched zone indicates the saturation state. In the present study, saturation indices (SI) with respect to carbonate (calcite, dolomite, and aragonite) and evaporite (gypsum, anhydrite) minerals, as well as activities of soluble species, were calculated by using the computer chemical program PHREEQC. Because all the investigated groundwaters have very low total dissolved solids, the expression of Deby and Huckel (1923) was used for the computation of activity coefficient.
47/107
Fig. 10 shows the poles of SI against total dissolved solids for all investigated groundwater. In the following discussion, we may assume that SI values falling within the range of +-0.5 units from zero indicate the equilibrium state. All of considered groundwaters are saturated with respect to calcite and most of them are undersaturated with respect to dolomite and aragonite
(fig.10 a.b.c.d.e) indicating phases undergoing dissolution especially for dolomite (log Ks = - 17.09 in WATEQ) On the other hand, groundwater samples are found to be undersaturated with respect to evaporates minerals (gypsum and anhydrite), suggesting that these evaporite mineral phases are absent in the corresponding host rock.
4 Conclusions This study has shed light on both the hydrogeological regime of the Merdja area as well as on the water quality in the area of study. Stable isotopic data indicate that both waters are derived from the same climatic regime; although tritium data suggest that it is not recent (within the past 50 years).
Salinity and nitrate build-up at some locations seems to be related to the use of nitrate fertilizers in the farms of the area, although some pollution may be caused by the effluent of the industrial zone. There is no evidence to show that the Tébessa solid-waste facility is responsible for groundwater degradation in the area.
5 Acknowledgements This work has been realized through the framework of CNPRU project G02920070001. We would like to thank Pr Djabri L. (Algeria) and Hani A. (France).
6 References Appelo C.A.J, Williemsen A (1987) Geochemical calculations and observations on salt water intrusions, I: a combined geochemical mixing cell model. J HydroI 94:313-330
Appelo C.A.J, Williemsen A, Beekman HE, Grippioen J (1990) Calculations and observations on salt water intrusion, II. Validation of a geochemical model with laboratory experiments. J HydroI.120:225-250
Blés J.L, Fleury J.J (1970) Carte géologique de l’Algérie au 1/50000 : feuille n°178,Morsott, avec notice explicative détaillée. Service de cartes Géologique et Sonatrach, Division d’hydrocarbure .Direction des explorations, Alger, Algérie. Chaffai H, Baali F, Djabri L & Rouabhia A (2003) Facteurs influençant le chimisme des eaux dans une zone semi-aride: Cas des aquifères d'El Ma El Aabiod, Tébessa, Hammamet et Chéria. ICOWAP-Sep 2003. Colloque Oasis, Eau et population, Biskra Algérie, 339- 344.
Djabri L (1987) Contribution to the hydrogeological study of the subsidence plain of Tebessa NE Algeria. Attempt of modelling. Doctorate Thesis, University of Franche Comté, France.
Djabri L, Rouabhia A, Hani A, Lamouroux Ch, Pulido-Bosch A (2007) Origin of water salinity in a lake and coastal aquifer system. Environ Geol. Journal: 254. No. 851
48/107 Edmunds WM, Guendouz A, Mamou A, Moulla AS, Shand P, Zouari K (2003) Groundwater evolution in the continental intercalaire aquifer of southern Algeria and Tunisia:trace element and isotopic indicators. Appl. Geochem 18(6):805-822
Fontes J, Yousfi M, Allison GB (1986) Estimation of long term, diffuse groundwater discharge in the northern Sahara using stable isotope profiles in soil water. J Hydrol 86:315327
Fontes J (1980) Environmental isotopes in ground water hydrology. In: Fritz J, Fontes J (eds) Handbook of environmental isotope geochemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam, l (A), p75
Gat J (1980) The isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in precipitation. In: Fritz J, Fontes J (eds) Handbook of environmental isotope geochemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam, (A'), p 21
Gat J, Carmi I (1970) Evolution of the isotopic composition of atmospheric waters in the Mediterranean Sea area. J Geophys Res 75: 3039-3048
Guendouz A, Moulla AS, Remini B, Michelot J.L (2006) Hydrochimical and isotopic behaviopur of a sahara phreatic aquifer suffering sever natural and anthropic constraints (cas of Oud-Souf region, Algéria). Hydrogeo Journal 14:955-968.
Parkhurst DL, Apello CAJ (1999) User guide to PHREEQC (version 2)-a computer program for speciation, batch reaction, one dimensional transport, and inverse geochemical Calculations: U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report: 99-4259, 312p.
Plummer L.N, Jones B.F, Trusedall A.H WATEQ-A fortran IV version of WATEQA computer program for calculating chemical equilibrium of natural waters 1976 Revised 1978, 1984 Washington D.C .U.S Geol-Surv.-Water Res, 76:13-61
Todd D (1980) Ground water hydrology. (2nd edn). Wiley, New York
Rouabhia A, Baali F, Kherici N, Djabri L (2004) Vulnérabilité et risque de pollution des eaux souterraines de la nappe des sables miocènes de la plaine d'El MA EL Abiod (Algérie). Revue Sécheresse, 15 : 347-352.
Rouabhia A (2006) Vulnérabilité et risque de pollution des eaux souterraines de la nappe des sables miocènes de la plaine d'El MA EL Abiod (Algérie). Doctorat Thesis, University of Annaba Algeria.
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Wilcox L (1948) The quality of water for agricultural use. US Dept Agriculture Tech Bull 962, Washington DC
49/107 POTENTIAL GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION: BY TOXIC MATALS AROUND AN ABANDONED IRON MINE, BEKKARIA (ALGERIA).
L.GHORREIB* L.DJABRI*. A.HANI* L.GHORREIB* . S.BOUHSINA ** J.MUDRY***I. SHAROUR****
* Université de Annaba, departement de Geologie. 11, Rue Asla Hocine Annaba 23000. Tel 0(772703941)-Fax 0021338871448 Email ; [email protected]. Corresponding author **Université du littoral. Dunkerque France. *** Université de Franche Comté Besançon.25000 ****Ecole polytechnique de Lille. Quatre cantons, Lille 59000.
Abstract The mine is situating in the East Algerian near the frontiers with the Tunisian country. The exploitation of iron is stopped until 1967, now we interesting to the impact of the mine on the groundwater. This study evaluates potential groundwater contamination with toxic metals in around an abandoned iron mine in Algeria. We noted two aquifers, the first one is situated at tree metres under the soil and it is connected with the Oued, the second one his situated at 20 metres of deep. The water levels in the mine waste dump indicated occurrence of a losing stream during the period of peak stream flow as a result of snowmelt runoff facilitates the displacement of pollutants. The analysis realised permitting to studies the evolution of the MET in the two aquifers. The electrical conductivity is very hit near mine, this situation explain the hit concentrations of sulfate, chlorides, calcium and sodium. The concentrations observed are generated by dilution. The graphics realized shows hilt concentrations in the first aquifer but in the deep the concentrations becomes low. This repartition explains retention of elements by the soil.
Max (mm) Min (mm) Mean (mm) Standard Periods Deviation 1906-2006 634.7 154.1 346.56 95.29
1906-1925 457.4 193.1 323.25 71.63
1926-1945 483 154.1 325.37 82.24
1946-1965 479 193.4 331.56 82.49
1966-1985 634.7 195.5 369 .91 112.35
1986-2006 618.8 207 .4 380.99 112.40
Keywords: iron, Mine, Algeria, contamination.
50/107 Introduction: Geographical context: Tébessa frontier city with Tunisia is located at the extreme Algerian North-East (fig. 1), at the front of the desert, approximately 230 km in the South of Annaba on the Mediterranean coast. The area is limited to the South by the sector of Biskra, to the West by that of Constantine and in the East by the Tunisian border. The climate is semi-arid.
Fig.1 Situation of the area study
Geology : In studied zone the outcrop formations are of the sedimentary type, it is characterized by the appearance of triassic formations and which will constitute our interest.
Trias In Tébessa area the most important triassic outcrops, are those of Djebissa, Ouenza, Boukhadra, Mesloula, Boujaber, northern Hameimat, southern Hameimat and other solid masses. This material moreover saliferous is also characterized by the evolution of a structure to several mineralogical zonations accompanied in the majority by by metalliferous concentrations Pb-Zn Ba-Sr. Djebel Djebissa contains indices of polymetalic ores and iron- bearing of which a layer apart from our study area(Iron mine of Khanguet). The Pb-Cu index located close of the contact Cenomanian-Turonien on the South-East side, carbonated rocks (limestone) contains a mineralization with crystal in disseminations, in articular clusters, and in nests. We meet also the epigenese products: cerusite, limonite and hypogene minerals of copper represented by grey copper ore and digenite hypergenes represented by malachite and azurite.
Type of climat The climatic factors contribute to the propagation of the pollutants, and the study of the climatic factors proves to be essential. For that we considered two extreme years. The first is referred to the year 1972-1973, considered as most wet with a precipitation of about 625.3 mm. During this year the wet season is spread out over ten months with a fall of precipitations in November. Conversely year 1996/1997 with 207.4 mm is supposed driest, the wet season is spread out over two months (December and January) and it starts again mid- Mars until mid- May.
Characteristics of shallow aquifer:
51/107 This aquifer is with low depth (maximum 10 meters) remains the most exposed to pollution, this is why we will be interested in his study.
Piezometric map (July 2006): In general, piezometric surface (fig.2) has same morphology as topography. The flow is directed South-eastern, North-western. We notes, the appearance of a much accentuated depressive zone located at the north of Ain chabro. This situation is generated by the exploitation of drillings and wells in this part, more than thirty wells are in exploitation are listed in the study area.
975 980 985 990 995 1000 1005
260 260 N
255 255
250 250 Légende Tébessa 750Ligne d'égale valeur Oued Direction d'ecoulement 245 Bekkaria 245 Fig. 3 - Carte Piézomètrique. Juillet 2006 Plaine de Tébessa 0 5 10 975 980 985 990 995 1000 1005 Fig.2 Piezometric map of shallow aquifer (july 2006)
Impact of the abandoned mine on water quality: Once stopped mining no initiative of environmental protection was taken. This had reflected negative on the environment, indeed during long years the spoil heaps remained deposited on the soil surface, upstream of the wadi and the aquifer, directly exposing to the effects of pollution. To highlight the effects of these spoil heaps on the water quality of this area, we will study successively the quality of water of the Wadis and wells. Work will carry mainly on the analyzed metals and on the saliferous formations outcropping upstream the study zone.
Impact of the abandoned mine on surface water quality: The evolution of the surface waters chemistry was the aim of this study. The analyses related to 8 points (fig.3), being distributed on the two wadis; wadi Djebissa and Oued el Kebir, according to the direction of the flow determined by piezometric map
975 980 985 990 995 1000 1005
260 260 N N point 8 255 255 point 7 point 6 point 5
250 point 4 250 Légende point 3 Tébessa point 2 Oued point 1 point d'analyse Bekkaria 245 Ville 245 0 5 10 975 980 985 990 995 1000 1005
52/107 Fig.3.Distribution of sampling points of surface water In this fact, analyzed elements are: major cations and anions (Ca, Mg, Na+K, Cl, SO4, HCO3), traces elements, and Sr2+ /Ca2+ ratio.
Evolution of major elements in surface waters : The graphs observation showing the evolution of the major elements in surface water (fig. 4 &5) reveals that for the first points close to Djebel Djebissa (P1, P2, P3), present important concentrations in sulfates and chlorides. These two elements move simultaneously. This evolution is accentuated by the climate; indeed during the wet period the dissolution of gypsiferous formations, enriched water by sulfate on the other hand during the dry seasons the evapotranspiration increases the concentrations and enriching water by chloride. Sodium evolves in the same way as chlorides and sulfates. The other elements are more or less stable. In the center of the plain we notices a Ca increase, Mg, and HCO3, sulfates and chlorides concentrations decreases, but remain important during the dry period. The bicarbonates present an increase for the last points; this is explained by the contribution of carbonate border.
1 Ca Mg Na+K Cl SO4 HCO3 8 Ca Mg Na+K Cl SO4 HCO3
1800 800 1600 700 1400 600 1200 500 1000 400 800 300 600 400 200
200 100 0 0 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06
Fig 4&.5 Evolution of major elements in surface water
Evolution of trace elements in surface water : The variation of the traces elements in surface water is irregular. Iron and manganese evolve together especially for the wet period, the contribution in these two element is probably due to the dissolution of iron from abandoned mine. Copper especially presents a light increase for the dry period; Zinc has certain stability for the whole graphs. The observation of graphs shows a decrease in the concentrations of the traces elements towards the mine direction (fig.6 & 7). This tendency highlights a probable trapping of the ETM by the soil.
P1 P Fe Mn Zn Cu Fe Mn Zn Cu 1,4 0,0038 1,2 0,0025 1 0,8 0,002 0,6 0,0015 0,4 0,001 0,2 0,0005 0 0 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06
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Fig. 6& 7 Evolution of trace elements in surface water
Evolution of water chemistry in Djebissa wells:
Water of eight well was analyzed. The taken points are distributed of share and others of banks of the wadi (fig. 8)
260 N
255
7 6 250 Légende Oued Tébessa 8 1 5 4 Puits 3 2 Ville Bekkaria 245
0 5 10 975 980 985 990 995 1000 1005 Fig.8 distribution of the sampled water wells
Results and discussion: Major elements : The examination of the graphs carried out (fig.9& 10), shows that water is characterized by important concentrations particularly of chlorides, sulfates and sodium. At the well N°1, the concentrations for the three elements oscillate between 700 (Na+K) and 1600 mg/l for chlorides. In well 8, we notes a very noticed fall of these concentrations, the maximum reached is about 700 mg/l and the minimum borders 400 mg/l.
Pts 1 Ca Mg Na+K Cl SO4 HCO3 Pts 8 Ca Mg Na+K Cl SO4 HCO3 1800 900 1600 800 1400 700 600 1200 1000 500
800 400 600 300 400 200 200 100 0 0 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06
Fig. 9 Evolution of major elements in groundwaters.
Evolution of ETM : In groundwater samples collected from wells (fig.10), the concentrations remain low and decrease as one moves away from the mine. Indeed for iron on the level of the wells the concentrations are about 0.2 mg/l indicating a water pollution on the other hand in well 8, the concentrations are low, even unimportant (0.05 mg/l).
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Pts 1 Pts 8 Fe Mn Zn Cu Fe Mn Zn Cu 0,2 0,05 0,18 0,045 0,16 0,04 0,14 0,035 0,12 0,03 0,1 0,025 0,08 0,02 0,06 0,015 0,04 0,01 0,02 0,005 0 0 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06
Fig.10 Evolution of traces elements in groundwaters This interpretation highlighted a double variation of the concentrations: - The first being done in the horizontal direction, indicating a decrease of the concentrations towards the source of pollution (the mine), - The second vertical showing that water of the aquifer is not contaminated, which highlights a trapping of metals by the sediments. Confirmation by Sr2+/Ca2+ ratio : The study of the Sr2+/Ca2+ ratio gives an outline of the influence of sorted gypso- saliferous on the water salinity .strontium is related to the evaporites. The strong 2+ contents of Sr in water are explained only by the dissolution of celestite (Sr SO4); mineral associated with the gypsum, it thus trains a good marker of the presence of the evaporites.
Surface waters : Concerning surface water (fig.12), the Sr2+/Ca2+ ratio, reached important values highlighting the influence of sorted gypsiferous on the quality of water. Indeed the dissolution of minerals contained in the formations enriched water in elements traces.
P1 Sr/Ca Sr/Ca P8 Sr/Ca Sr/Ca 35 7 30 6 25 5 20 4 15 3
10 2 RapportSr/Ca RapportSr/Ca 5 1 0 0 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06 10/O5 01/06 02/06 03/06 04/06 05/06 06/06 07/06 Fig. 12 Evolution of Sr2+/Ca2+ ratio in surface water
Confirmation by modeling : The recourse to modeling constitutes another tool for the description of the impact of the iron mine on the quality of water. To complete our work we chose, the model based on the networks of artificial neurons.
55/107 NETWORKS OF ARTIFICIAL NEURONS
Presentation of this method The networks of artificial neurons (RNA or ANN is a nonlinear empirical model. It is composed of inter-connected elements of treatment (neurons) working jointly to solve a specific problem. R. Hecht Nielsen 1990 gives the following definition: a network of neurons is a system of calculation made up of strongly inter-connected simple elements of treatment, which process the data by their change of dynamic state in response to an external entry.
Connections between the neurons The networks of neurons (fig.13), are organized in layers; these layers are composed of a certain number of inter-connected neurons which contain a function of activation.
Fig.13 : artificial neurone
Creation of the model In this work, a multi-layer network of Perceptron was selected like model of the system where the network treats a vector of entry being composed of the variables including/understanding Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4, HCO3, NO3, pH, M, and Sr/Ca.. This vector of entry produced of a vector of output (left) which is electric conductivity (EC). The network of MLP can be represented by the following compact form: {EC} = ANN [ Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4, HCO3, NO3, pH, Mineralisation, Sr/Ca ].
Choice of the execution criteria : The data of the parameters of quality of subsoil waters analyzed for year 2006 were employed to create the model of the RNA by using software STATISTICA neural network version 4.0. The parameters of quality of water include: Concentration in ion of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (k+), chloride (Cl -), sulfate (S042 -), bicarbonate (HCO3 -), Nitrate (NO3), hydrogen (pH), of mineralization (M), and the strontium report/ratio on calcium(Sr2+/Ca2+). These parameters which represent the quality of water are regarded as variables of entry while the variable of output of target (left) is electric conductivity (EC). The statistical parameters used in this work are: The average error of the square RMSE (Root Mean Public garden Error), and the coefficient of R2 determination
Results and discussion: The types of networks considered are: MLP (3 and 4 layers), RBF, GRNN, and linear. During the analysis, 697 networks were examined. The best optimal model of the found RNA is the MLP (3 layers) with 6 hidden nodes (figure 3). The minimal error of 0.3125517 is compared with the other types of networks RNA (table 1).
56/107 Type of Network Error (RMS) GRNN 3.312591 RBF 3.085885 Linear 2.149379 MLP (4 layer) 1.169872 MLP (3 layer) 0.3125517
Tab.1. Error RMS in various networks of neuron.
. The model has an excellent performance in the checking with a report/ratio of regression of 0.016661 and one coefficient of correlation higher than 99% for the training. The sensitivity analysis of the variables water quality of RNA in phases of the training and of checking indicates that mineralization (M) and the strontium report/ratio on calcium (Sr2+/Ca2+) are the most important factors influencing electric conductivity in groundwaters.
CONCLUSION: The work carried out concerns the effects of the spoil heaps deposited upstream of a Wadi and an aquiferous system. The taking away carried out went up that water of the wadis and the surface aquifer is charged in ETM. The concentrations observed on water of the Wadis remain however very high compared to water of the wells, this distribution would be due to the trapping of the ETM which are made at the level of soils separating the two levels from water. To confirm the origin of the ETM, we studied the Sr 2+/Ca 2+ ratio which shows the influence of the gypsiferous formations on the water quality. Djebel Djebissa contains many mineralizations which under the action of the water or under the effect of mining involves water pollution. The results obtained by the mathematical model carried out confirm this relation well.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE : L. DJABRI (1987) : contribution à l’étude hydrogéologique de la nappe alluviale de la plaine d’effondrement de Tébessa. Essai de modélisation. Thèse de Doc.Ing. Univ. Franche Comté. Besançon.176pages. L DJABRI, A.HANI, J. MANIA, J. MUDRY (2001): Mise en évidence du processus de salinité des superficielles. Vérification par l’ACP dans le secteur de Annaba-Bouchegouf et Guelma. Revue Tribune de l’eau. Vol, 54.N° 610.pp29-43. L. GHREIB (2007) : Impact des formations triasiques sur les eaux d’une plaine en zone semi- aride : cas de la plaine de Bekkaria-Tébessa (Extrême Est Algérien). Mémoire de Magister de l’Université de Annaba. 114 pages. M. C JUNG (2001): Heavy metal contamination of soils and waters in and around the Imcheon. Au-Ag mine, Korea’. Appl. Geochem. 16, 1369–1375. J. Y. LEE, J. C. CHOI, M. J. YI, J. W. KIM, J. Y. CHEON, Y. K. CHOI, M. J. CHOI and K. K. LEE (2005): potential groundwater contamination with toxic metals in and around abandoned Zn Mine, KOREA. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution N° 165: 167–185. S. LALLEHEM, J. MANIA (2002): A linear and non linear rainfall-runoff model using neural network technique: exemple in factured porous media. Journal of Mathematical and computer Modelling. N° 1, Vol. 55.
57/107 LEARNED LESSONS FROM THE NATIONAL WATER POLICY IN TUNISIA CASE OF THE OASES REHABILITATION
N. Omrani* & M. Ouessar
Institut des Régions Arides (IRA), 4119 Médenine, Tunisia * Corresponding author: [email protected] ; Fax: (+216)-75-633006
SUMMARY - As a Mediterranean country, Tunisia is under the influence of an irregular climate. The country is often subject to drought periods that could be local or generalized. To cope with such water shortage context, Tunisia adopted a rigorous water policy. Through the last four decades, a full commitment was agreed to mobilize water resources. Today, such policy allowed the country to have an important hydraulic infrastructure and the irrigated area evolved from 143 000 ha in 1976 to approach currently 400 000 ha. To reinforce the performance of the water policy across the whole country, three director water plan (North, Centre and South) were instituted. A complex irrigation scheme was built considering water resources diversity and the climatic and socioeconomic regional conditions. In the South of the country, the rehabilitation of the oases had been subscribed within the framework of national water policy. Indeed the water director plan for the South (1979) was the prelude to successive projects and challenging tasks consented to perform the irrigation efficiency. Thanks to the development in drilling techniques, the landscape of these perimeters has totally changed. Through this paper, we underline the relevant lessons learned from the national water policy. The case of the southern Tunisia oases rehabilitation is detailed.
Key words: Water, Policy, Irrigation, Oases, Efficiency.
RESUME - Etant un pays méditerranéen, la Tunisie est soumise à un climat irrégulier. Le pays est souvent soumis à des périodes de sécheresse qui peuvent être locales ou générales. Pour faire face à ce contexte de pénurie d’eau, la Tunisie a adopté une politique rigoureuse pour l’eau. A travers les quatre dernières décennies, un engagement total a été consenti pour la mobilisation des ressources en eau. A présent, une telle politique a permis à la Tunisie de s’être équipée d’une imposante infrastructure hydraulique et la superficie irriguée a augmenté de 143 000 ha en 1976 pour s’approcher à présent de 400 000 ha. Afin de renforcer la performance de la politique de l’eau à travers tout le pays, trois plans directeurs ont été institués. Un schéma complexe de réseau d’irrigation a été édifié, prenant en compte la diversité des ressources en eau et les conditions climatiques et socioéconomiques régionales. Dans le sud tunisien, la réhabilitation des oasis, a été inscrite dans le cadre de la politique nationale en eau. En effet, le plan directeur des eaux du sud (1979) a été le prélude à des taches de défi et des projets successifs consentis pour l’amélioration de l’efficience de l’irrigation. Grâce au développement des techniques de sondage, le paysage de ces périmètres a totalement changé. A travers cet article, nous exposons les leçons apprises de la politique nationale de l’eau. Le cas de la réhabilitation des oasis du sud tunisien est détaillé.
58/107 Mots-clés : Eau, Politique, Irrigation, Oasis, Efficience.
INTRODUCTION
Through a half century of water resources mobilization, there are several lessons learned from the national experience in managing water resources. Indeed, since many decades, Tunisia had instituted a national water policy that defined the outline of the water resources management. Despite its limited water resources, the accurate assessment of the available water resources allowed the country to satisfy the demand avoiding the rationing even during the acute drought periods. This strategy was reinforced towards more water demand management (Horchani, 2007). Indeed, the water saving plan aims to decrease the demand by 30% for all the sectors. Major efforts should concern the irrigated sector.
Several reforms highlighted the efficiency distribution improvement. Moreover, significant financial incentives aimed to accelerate the introduction of water saving equipments (Hamdane, 2008).
As a component of the national water policy, the development of the irrigated sector in southern Tunisia oases observed a tremendous evolution through the several projects that concerned those perimeters.
This paper attempts to underline the irrigation development within the framework of the national water policy, the rehabilitation of southern Tunisia oases is discussed as a case study. Under the climate aridity and the acute water shortage context, the viability of the agriculture in those regions is largely dependent of the implemented strategies for rational management of groundwater resources.
I- IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT: A KEY TOOL OF THE WATER POLICY
The irrigated sector in Tunisia was subject to accelerated development through the successive decades of water mobilization. Being nearby 143 000 ha in 1976, the irrigated area evolved to 380 000 ha in 2001. Furthermore, the hydraulic infrastructure target of 400,000 ha will be achieved in 2010, when the surface water system is fully operational (Hamdane, 2007). More than 226,000 ha are public perimeters, the private perimeters cover 175,000 ha (created around shallow wells). About 52% of this area is located in Northern country, 31 % in the Centrer and 17% in the south (Fig.1). More than 40 % of the irrigated area is occupied by fruits tree (40%), about 36% vegetables (21% tomatoes and 15% potatoes). The cereal cultivation is extended over 14% of the irrigated area, while the feed crops cover 10%.
Cities Intermittent Rivers Permanent Rivers Water surface Irrigated area Administrative borders International borders
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Fig.1. Localization of the irrigated perimeters in Tunisia (Aquastat, 2005).
The contribution of the irrigated sector in the total value of the agriculture ranges between 30 and 35%. It contributes also with 95% of the vegetable production, 77. 5% of the fruits trees, 30% of the dairy product and 25% of the cereal national yields. The irrigated sector contributes as well with 20% of the agricultural exportation value and employs about 26 % of working forces (Al Atiri, 2007). Moreover, during the 11th national plan of social and economic development (2007-2011), the contribution of the irrigated sector is expected to reach 50 % of the total agricultural production value.
Major Tunisian public perimeters are collectives, having a regular water service; they are still managed by the administration.
About 62% of the total public irrigated is supplied in water from dams, while 38% are irrigated from deep drillings and treated waste water.
Depending on the water source nature, the public irrigated perimeters are distributed as 142000 ha irrigated from dams, 47000 ha (only intensive) from drilling, 30,000 ha as oases irrigated from deep drillings and 8000 ha from treated waste water. The private perimeters are supplied from farmers’ made shallow wells (Al Atiri, 2007).
The national experience in the irrigated sector development began since the instauration of the water director plan in 1979. The irrigation scheme had been divided in three parts and a respective water director plan had been planned for the North, the Centre and the South. This approach targeted more equity and efficiency in the water management through the country main regions. Important strategies of rational water use were followed. They
60/107 underlined the necessity of further farmer’s involvement in the water management. The principle of participative management was often associated to the projects aiming with irrigation infrastructure rehabilitation.
II - THE SOUTHERN TUNISIA WATER STRATEGY
The development of the Southern Tunisia oases still represents an important component of the irrigated sector in Tunisia. These particular ecosystems represent an intensive cultivated area, with the three layer cultivation (palm tree, fruit trees and vegetables). The palm tree remains the main soil occupation; it has the highest added value in the exportation sector while the two inferior cultivation layers are progressively disappearing. The water management in the oases faces several constraints, technical as well as related to the farmers behaviour. The water policy in those areas assumes a vital interest, it targets to maintain the balance between the available water resources and the development needs. There are three main important aquifers that are supplying the southern Tunisia oases: (i) Continental intercalary (CI); (ii) Complex Terminal (CT); and (iii) the Jeffara aquifer (Fig.2).
Regarding their important reserves, the CI and CT aquifers that build the SASS (Aquifer System of the Septentrional Sahara) still the key tool for the development plan of the irrigated sector in these regions. This reservoir is extended in Tunisia over 80000 km2 and being exploited by more than 1200 drillings (OSS, 2009). The CT aquifer depth ranges between 30 and 500 m while the CI varies from 60 to 2800 m. The CI remains the most important water reserve s nevertheless it’s also a non renewable water resource. This aquifer is characterized by relatively hot water (30–75°C) at depths reaching 2800 m. These Geothermal water resources are located in a reservoir of 600,000 km2, which covers the regions of Kebili, Tozeur, Gabes and the extreme south, and extends to Algeria and Libya. The CI aquifer is one of the largest confined aquifers in the world, comparable in scale to the great artesian basin of Australia. The principal areas of recharge are in the South Atlas mountains of Algeria and Tunisia and the Dahar mountains of Tunisia (Edmunds et al., 1995). The mean salinity between the both aquifers, varies between 2,5 to 5 g/l (Prinz and Loeper, 2008).
61/107 Fig. 2. Localization of the three main underground water resources in the Southern Tunisia (Adapted from Schmidt et al, 2006).
The intensive common use of these water resources from Tunisia, Algeria and Libya became closely supervised in order to decrease their overexploitation across the three Maghreb countries.
1. The oases rehabilitation
Since 1972, Tunisia undertook an accurate assessment of the available underground water resources. To overcome the water needs of the expanding oases, the government instituted the director plan (1976) that defined the natural resources exploitation modalities. Such plan aimed to overcome the growing social and economic needs. The main components are: (i) the drinking water supply, (ii) protecting the old oases that have been sustaining a accurate water shortage context over 20 000 ha (more than 129 oases) and (iii) to satisfy the touristic sector, mainly in Gabes, Djerba and Jarjis (Seddik, 2009). The main interventions conducted within the framework of the national water strategy aimed to achieve the agriculture development goals following an integrated approach. The first step had been the water resources mobilization. Across the whole southern country, considerable rehabilitation works of the hydraulic infrastructure, took place. The deep drillings had been equipped in order to supply wider scale irrigated surface. Relevant irrigation and drainage networks were built. Furthermore, the implementation of storage reservoirs contributed to optimize the water management, particularly during droughts periods. The irrigated area extended with the creation of new oases in the regions of Djerid and Nefzaoua (3500 ha).
The Tunisian government undertook the development of the irrigation in the oases also by encouraging the intensification within farmer parcels. The common date palm varieties were progressively replaced by higher added value plantations (e.g. Deglet Nour variety). In order to optimize the water management in the southern oases, four distinguished director plans were instituted respectively for the governorate of Gabes, Gafsa, Kebili and Tozeur. These plans aimed to recover the water allocation shortage. In Kebili, 15 deep (until 2600 m) drilling were built for the CI aquifer warm water (72°C) exploitation. The CT aquifer was exploited by nearby 15 drillings. Consequently to the water allocation reinforcement, the irrigated area increased as well. More than 16800 ha in the old oases were rehabilitated and 700 ha of recent irrigated perimeters were created, depending on the water resource availability. Moreover, the government decided to rehabilitate about 50 oases over 4300 ha and created 6 new oases with more than 500 ha equipped area.
In 1996, started the project APIOS (Amelioration of Irrigated Perimeters of Southern Tunisia Oases) emphasized on the rehabilitation of 153 oases. The intervention area covered 23000 ha across the governorate of Gabes, Gafsa, Kebili and Tozeur. It was launched to tackle the water mismanagement, mainly attributed to the low efficiency of the irrigation and drainage networks. The situation that was prevailing revealed important water losses ratio (40 to 60 %) in major perimeters. Current situation showed a significant improvement in the water management. The rehabilitation works replaced the old irrigation systems with watertight canals, the drainage networks were intensified. These efforts contributed to enhance water distribution efficiency with 25 to 30% and 7500000 m3/ha/year were spared. Following the works achievement in the concerned oases, the soil productivity was enhanced respectively by 38.10%, 19.14%; 23, 23% and 39, 90% in Gafsa, Tozeur, Kebili and Gabes (Fig.3).
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Furthermore, the cultivation intensity increased from 143% to 164%. According to the soil occupation, the yield had been improved respectively by 35%, 36% and 80% for the dates, olives and fig trees (Sanyo, 2005).
Fig. 3. Impact of the rehabilitation works on the soil productivity within the southern Tunisia Oases (Adapted from Sanyo, 2005).
More than 90 oases were rehabilitated and complementary phase of assessment is engaged. This assessment underlined three important points that should be highly considered: (1) the water consumption inside parcels remains very high compared to the effective water requirements, (2) the water pricing still unable to fully recover the real water cost and (3) introducing the water saving practices would be more efficient with strengthening the population commitment to preserve their water resources. The southern country oases had benefit also from the Project PISEAU (Project of Investment in the Water Sector) that started in 2001. It fostered on the equipment of the pumping stations and building the meshed irrigation networks. The introduction of regulation reservoirs to divide and regulate more the delivered water amounts helped the common interest groups (GIC) in managing their irrigation networks. After the conclusive rehabilitation works undertook within the framework of the project PISEAU I (2002-2007), the second phase had been engaged and should be achieved beyond the horizon 2011. Particularly, in the southern Tunisia, the second phase will take more into account the scarcity as well the vulnerability of the water resources to the contaminations risks (salt, pollutants…). The recourse to the non conventional water resources should be strengthened with the installation of waste water treatment in the south’s governorate. The vulgarization campaigns will be multiplied and the capacity building accelerated to facilitate more the technology transfer (water treatment unit, water saving equipment, underground water resources level and quality monitoring). The table1 shows the chronological succession of the main interventions undertook to promote the irrigation within the southern Tunisia oases.
Table 1. The main rehabilitation projects within the southern Tunisia oases from 1976 to 2008. Date Intervention aim 1976 Tunisian Government launched a wide study evaluating water and soil resources capabilities in Southern Country. 1979 The Director water plan for the southern Tunisia had been instituted. 1980 Start of 3200 ha rehabiltitation and new creation of 2100 ha within the framework of Director South Water Plan. 1983 Djerid Water Plan concerned the rehabiltitation of 3300 ha in Tozeur regions. 1984 Nefzaoua Director water plan rehabilitating 4300 ha and creation of 500 ha new oases. 1985 Director water plan of Gabes region’s created new perimeters of 200 ha and rehabilitated
63/107 5000 ha. 1986 Director water plan of Gafsa region’s undertaked to rehabiltate 3300ha of existing oases. 1995 The Study of Southern Tunisia oases improvement concerned 23000 ha distributed between Gafsa, Gabes, Kebili and Tozeur. 1996 Beginning of the rehabiltiation works (irrigation and drainage network modernization). 2001 Project PISEAU (Investment in Water Sector) 2005 Works Achievement in 90 of 153 (58,82%). 2008 Evaluation of the rehabilitation works impacts and decision to undertake the second phase that will concern 7427 ha until 2016.
2. The geothermic water use strategy
Subscribed within the national water resources mobilization strategy, the geothermic sector is definitely a relevant development and employment vector. Following the prospection drilling campaigns in the beginning of the 1976, important underground geothermal water reserves had been identified and widely exploited. In 1986, the government started to use the geothermic water for the greenhouses heating in the southern country. Several demonstration projects were implemented across the southern country and the experience was conclusive. The assessment of these tentative underlined a promising development alternative for these regions and has led to a continuous extension of the covered area (Fig.4).
Greenhouses total area (ha)
(ha) Area
Year
Fig. 4. Evolution of the geothermic greenhouses area in southern Tunisia (Adapted from Ben Mohamed, 2003).
The total potential of geothermic water currently used is nearby 3417 l/s, with 1682 l/s in Gabes, 1100 l/s in Kebili and 635 l/s in Tozeur. The irrigated areas supplied by this resource represent for these governorate respectively, 100 ha, 105 ha and 100 ha (Seddik, 2009).
The enormous reserve that provides the CI aquifer, has led to the dazzling development of the geothermic sector in those region. This water is being largely valorized. Its used to heat greenhouses before being allocated to irrigation purpose attracted many investors in the
64/107 southern country and allowed to supply the local markets as well the exportation sector with high quality products (Fig.5).
Fig. 5. geothermic greenhouse in the region of Kebili.
The strategy of the geothermic sector development began in 1993. An intensive work had been consented to multiply the geothermic perimeters across the southern country. It allowed attempting a current equipped area of 215 ha, with respectively 88 ha in Gabes, 77ha in Kebili and 50 ha in Tozeur.
To supply this sector needs, about 77 deep drillings provide a water amount of 2360 l/s for both of heating and irrigation purpose. The water quality of the used water ranges from 2, 7 g/l and 3, 3 g/l. This salinity, limit the yields but allows the first vegetables a better taste, particularly for the tomatoes and the melons products. These products are strongly demanded in Europe and the Dubai Arab Emirates. The mean annual production from the southern country approaches nearby 8000 ton/year, more than 45% is destined to the exportation.
In term of employment, the geothermic sector allows the creation of 13 workplace/ha, while it couldn’t provide more than 3 workplaces in the ordinary irrigated cultivation. It allows 1200 work day/ha, while it couldn’t be more than 250 workday for the field cultivations. The expansion of this sector contributes also to fix the local population and became already a pillar of the local development plan.
III. WATER PRICING POLICY
In 1991, a presidential decree defined the outline of the water pricing related to the irrigated sector. It aimed to clarify the role of the stakeholders dealing with the irrigation water management. The government development agencies as well as the farmers group called GIC (groups of common interest) have been called to further close cooperation for the water pricing fixation, the mode of revenues collect including the penalties rate in absence of the defined rule respect. In this regard, three water pricing methods had been recommended, as well the expenses collect method (Table 2).
65/107 The volume pricing method based on the effective water consumption, the global price method based on the effective irrigated area and the binomial pricing method that covers two proportions.
Table 2. The main water pricing and cost collect method followed in the public irrigated perimeters within the southern Tunisia (Adapted from Sanyo, 2005).
Water Description Water cost collect pricing method volume The equipment of the irrigated area with The amount is paid directly after pricing reliable water meter is a preliminary to this each irrigation. method method application. Global This method is applied in case of absence of 50% of the total cost is paid in price reliable water meter within the irrigated advance after the planting, the rest method perimeters and based mainly proportionally to is paid after the harvesting. the effective irrigated area (fixed price/ha). Binomial This method encloses a first fixed part applied 50% of the fixed amount is paid at method to the minimal annual consumption of the the agricultural campaign beginning, irrigated area. The second part is proportional the rest as well the volume amount to the surplus applied (m3). costs are paid after irrigation.
Based on this recommended water pricing methods, a close consultation between the governmental development agency and the farmers groups defines the suitable method to be followed according to the every irrigated area dispositions. For the case of the southern Tunisia oases, the water pricing volume method couldn’t be applied in similar way as in northern country, where the irrigation networks are under pressure and the implementation of water meters is quite simple. Indeed, the surface irrigation network in the southern Tunisia is based on the total irrigation duration (h/ha).
At this purpose, the assessment elaborated by Sanyo agency (2005) revealed that, either in Gafsa and Kebili, the volume method had been chosen, while the binomial method had been followed in Gabes. For the governorate of Tozeur, the three methods seems to be applied, nevertheless the volume method still widely applied for the major oases.
Despite the strict commitment of the authorities to apply rigorous water pricing policy, there are many mismanagement aspects that still represent a hindrance to a significant promotion of the resource.
Louhichi (1999) showed for the case of Gabes oasis, that terminal irrigation network settlement (until 400 m) allows to economize 14344 m3/year. The average total cost is 523 DT, which equals to 0,036 DT/m3. Whereas the unitary mobilization cost is 0,091 DT/m3, the difference between both becomes more significant, when the calculation takes into account several depreciation costs (storage facilities, exploitation fees). Total mobilization cost reaches then 0,416 DT/m3 equalling 10 times the saved cost (0,036 DT/m3). This demonstrates that water economy is more efficient, if it passes through the water demand control. On the other hand, the actual method of water ratemaking commonly used within the oasis is fixed and the amount to pay (DT/ha) takes into account only the irrigated surface as standard.
The current water pricing system doesn’t take into account the mobilization cost consented from the state to establish an imposing hydraulic infrastructure across the oases. Farmers are
66/107 paying only the exploitation costs (pumping fees, irrigation and drainage networks maintenance).
Sghaier (1995) claimed that such water rate marking doesn’t valorise water irrigation. A water pricing policy covering the economic cost of water should be instituted. The water amount used every irrigation by farmers has to be the main standard of these water pricing policy. Moreover, the water price is fixed differently according to the framers groups budgets and shows an obvious stagnation. The farmer’s agreement to increase the water price still hardly obtained from the development agency, despite the enhancement of the irrigation networks maintenance costs.
IV. THE FUTURE CHALLENGES
At the national scale, it seemed evident for the national policy to focus on the water demand management as well as the efficiency enhancement for both of the drinking water sector and the irrigation (improving the distribution efficiency in irrigation network from 66 % to 80%). In absence of such dispositions, the objective of 400,000 ha of total irrigated surface couldn’t be met by 2010 (Treyer, 2000).
In the southern Tunisia oases, the irrigated area is expected to increase from 46000 ha in 1994 to 52035 ha beyond 2030. At this purpose, the main orientation of the long term national water strategy (EAU XXI) is the decrease in the irrigation water demand. Indeed, this approach focus on the efficiency improvement and targets to reach the average of 365 Million m3 in 2030, while it had been more than 506 Million m3 in 1996 (Sanyo, 2005).
Table 3. Water amount value targets of the Southern Tunisia (Adapted from EAU XXI, 1998; Sanyo, 2005).
Year 1996 2010 2020 2030 Irrigated Surface (ha) 46000 49000 50490 52035 Irrigation Water consumption (m3/ha/year) 11000 9500 8167 7022
Irrigation water demand (Million m3/year) 506 466 412 365
The main challenge to meet for the irrigated agriculture in general and particularly the oases ecosystems remain the climate changes. The impact of such phenomenon is expected to be more severe on the water resources. Indeed, the national prospective studies attribute a decrease of nearby 28% in the non renewable underground resources until 2030. The production in droughts period will observe a decrease of 50%, that equals 800 000 ha for the pluvial agriculture. These impacts will be also concrete on the livestock’s which will decrease by 80 %, either in the center and southern country (OSS, 2009). Facing these risks, Tunisia elaborated a national strategy to decrease these impacts, the evolution of the mean climate indicators will be taken into account for the future natural resources management plan. The alert systems for both of floods and droughts event are already established, with a network of climate and hydrological stations across the country.
The water resources protection remains the focal point of such strategy, the enhancement of the efficiency was supported by the institution of several measures. In the drinking water, the hydraulic network was subject to an integral assessment that emphasized on the commitment of the population to the water saving practices. In the irrigated sector, the
67/107 improvement of the intensification within farmers parcels still to enhance in order to valorize the water resource. The cultivation of the high added value crops should be more intensified. Moreover, the contribution of the irrigated sector in the total agricultural production is called to enhance and attempt nearby 50% in the long term.
For further economical efficiency, the government undertook a progressive disengagement in the management of the water resources and required more involvement from the farmers groups to protect more the hydraulic infrastructures as public facilities. The growing participation of the private investor’s e.g in the geothermic sector militates for stronger water value promotion and minimizes the risks of water wastage. The national program of water saving was reinforced by the allocation of financial grants to introduce the water saving equipments within farmer parcels. About 40%, 50% and 60% have been attributed to respectively important, middle and small exploitations (Hamdane, 2004).
It is evident that all these major efforts consented by the government should be sooner relieved by the farmers commitment. The current behaviour important water consumption inside parcels, the applied water amount is more important than the effective crop requirement. The traditional irrigation methods still widely used within farmers parcels. The absence of any field leveling and the over application of water amounts during irrigation, until the triple of the real crops requirements cause relevant water losses (Mechergui and Van Vuren, 1998). Ben Issa et al (2006) showed the importance of the salt inputs in case of water amount surplus. The problem of water wastage remains important in the southern country oases. Another challenge that still to be solved is the illegal extension of the irrigated area and the multiplication of the private wells (Fig.6) that occurs in the downstream oases. In these parcels, the water excess supplies shallow water table that rises to rather inacceptable level and create a water logging context and in longer term chronic salinization (Prinz et al, 2005).
Fig. 6. Illegal well established in private parcel at downstream oases in the southern Tunisia oasis (Region of Kebili).
The first prospective studies conducted by the OSS experts expect a considerable decrease in the artesianism in the extreme country south (Mamou, 2009). In the Nefzaoua region oases, Zammouri et al (2007) simulated three scenario of pumping strategies from the CT aquifers. The main results emphasized a common impact as the water quality deterioration across the
68/107 whole Nefzaoua. In oreder to tackle these concrete changes, radical changes in the main stakeholders dealing with water management in this country part should be considered. Furthermore, the regulation should be stricter in order to eradicate the phenomenon of illegal oases extension.
CONCLUSION
The oases rehabilitation in the southern Tunisia is a relevant component of the national water policy. In these arid regions (less than 100 mm in dry year), sustainably managing the water resources is crucial to the accomplishment of the national development goals. Since the institution of the water director plan in 1979, the available water resources had been considerably mobilized. The creation of recent oases with modern irrigation networks reinforced the irrigated perimeter production. Furthermore, the rehabilitation networks that sustained the old perimeters, notably within the framework of several projects (PISEAU I, PISEAU II, APIOS), improved the network distribution efficiency (25 to 30%).
The spectacularly development of the geothermic sector represented an important issue for the national economy. These national efforts to develop the irrigated agriculture under an acute arid climate, contributed widely to valorize the natural resources in these regions. It provided also works opportunities for the local population and enhanced the socio-economic level. Through the accomplishment of the water policy goals in the southern country, the main stakeholders capitalized a significant experience in managing the water resources in a context of scarcity.
Although, the important overhang acquired in the irrigated sector promotion in the south, the strategy of the oases rehabilitation is being adopted to meet the futures challenges. Indeed, the population in this country part will experience evident difficulties in efficiently managing scarcer and less reliable water resources. Major assessment of the water management practices within the oases, revealed that the irrigation efficiency improvement could not be carried out without a complementary work of vulgarization on water saving. The term rehabilitation should also concern the population behavior towards the water as precious resource.
No doubts that more rational use of water resources especially in irrigation will be more required from all involved stakeholders. Futures challenges waiting us will demand more considerable investment. An intensive recourse to expensive high technologies (water treatment, desalination process, aquifer recharge…) seems to be inevitable . Furthermore, more research studies should be focused on crops water requirement determination. The ongoing prospective studies that will define the strategic outline of the coming decade water policy underlined priority to perform more the irrigation efficiency.
The national experience showed that the integrated water management is definitely the key element in maintaining balance between resources and demand. More close dialogue should than be instituted between stakeholders involved in the water management. Such dialogue should be a decisive tool also to resolve water conflict situation (the problem still more acute between oasis farmers).
Particularly in the southern Tunisia, where irrigated area are sustaining permanent desertification risks, a deeper understanding and a better assessment of the available water
69/107 resources management is required. The collect of accurate data regarding this aspect, will provide the water policy future options and facilitate effective decision making in order to meet various societal needs and overcome risks of water resources degradation.
Moreover, reforming the water policy in the southern country oases towards a holistic approach will allow close cooperation and more transparency between the roles of all stakeholders. Such situation ensures either the competent authority or farmers to reach their respective objectives.
REFERENCES
Al Atiri, R. (2007). Evolution institutionnelle et réglementaire de la gestion de l’eau en Tunisie. Vers une participation accrue des usagers de l’eau. Actes du séminaire « L’avenir de l’agriculture irriguée en Méditerranée. Nouveaux arrangements institutionnels pour une gestion de la demande en eau. Projet Wademed. CIRAD, Montpellier, France.13pp.
Aquastat. (2005).http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/tunisia/indexfra.stm.
Ben Mohamed, M. (2003). Geothermal resources development in agriculture in Kebili region, Southern Tunisia. 7 pp.
Edmunds, W.M., Shand, P., Guendouz, A.H., Moulla, A.S., Mamou, A., Zouari, K. (1995). Recharge characteristics and groundwater quality of the grand Erg Oriental basin. British Geological Survey, Wallingford. Final report, 9pp.
Hamdane, A. (2008). Tunisia: Reform of irrigation policy and water conservation. 9 pp..
Hamdane, A. (2004). La modernisation des systèmes irrigués en Tunisie. Note technique du Ministère de l’Agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, 18pp.
Horchani, A. (2007). Water in Tunisia: A national perspective. Agricultural Water Management: Proceedings of a Workshop in Tunisia (Series: Strengthening Science-Based Decision Making in Developing Countries) (2007): pp 88-89.
Louhichi, K. (1999). L’amélioration de l’efficience de l’irrigation pour une meilleure économie d’eau. Cas d’un périmètre irrigué en Tunisie, Rapport Final. CIHEAM-IAMM, 59 pp.
Mamou, H. (2009). Ressources en eau et développement agricole dans le sud tunisien. Workshop projet SIRMA « Gestion des ressources naturelles et développement durable des systèmes oasiens de Nefzaoua ». Douz, Tunisie, 25-26-27.
MAREH (2009). Revue de l’Agriculture –N°110-Avril-Mai-Juin 2009:pp30-31.
MAREH. (1998). EAU XXI. Stratégie du secteur de l’eau en Tunisie à long terme 2030. 97 pp.
Mechergui, M., Van Vuren, G. (1998). Improved irrigation efficiencies in Tunisian oases. ILEIA Newsletter July 1998.
70/107 OSS (2009). The System Aquifer of Septentrional Sahara, the commun management of a transborder basin. Serie of drafts, N°1. 56pp.
OSS. (2009). Stratégies d’adaptation au changement climatique en Tunisie. (http://www.ossonline.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=915&Itemid=662) .
Prinz, D., Loeper,T.(2008). Nutzung fossilen Grundwassers in der tunesischen Oasenwirtschaft. Effizienz - Notwendigkeit – Sinnhaftigkeit. 21.02.2008, BGR Hannover.
Prinz, D., Chabani, B. Kastl, A. (2005). New Approaches in Oasis Water Management - Experiences from North Africa. Proceedings, XII World Water Congress of IWRA – Water for Sustainable Development – Towards Innovative Solutions, 22-25 Nov. 2005, New Dehli.
Seddik, S. (2009). Plan directeur des eaux du Sud. Note technique, Ministère de l’Agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, .40 pp.
Schmidt, G., H, Manfred and Soefner, B. (2006). Investigations on Regional Groundwater Systems in North-East Africa and West-Asia.
SAPI. (2005). (Assistance Spéciale pour l’Exécution du Projet). Projet d’Amélioration des Périmètres irrigués des oasis du Sud de la Tunisie (TS-P10), Final Report.
Sghaier, M. (1995). Tarification et allocation optimale de l’eau d’irrigation dans les systèmes de production de la région oasienne de Nefzaoua (Sud de la Tunisie). PHD Thesis in Applied Biological Sciences, University of Gent, Belguim, 235 pp.
Sanyo Consultants Inc (1996). The feasibility study on the irrigated area improvement in Southern Tunisia Oases. Japanese International Cooperation Agency.
Treyer, S. (2000). Analyses des strategies et prospective de l’eau en Tunisie. Rapport I Monographie, 270 pp.
Zammouri, M., Siegfried, T, El Fahem, T, Kriaa S and Kinzelbach, W. (2007). Salinization of groundwater in the Nefzaoua Region, Tunisia: results of a regional-scale hydrogeologic approach. Hydrogeology Journal N° 15, pp. 1357–1375.
71/107 Water value in Lebanon: Evolution, interaction with water policies, and Recommendations for good governance.
K. Karaa (1), F. Karam (2) and R.Raad(3) (1) Litani River Authority, Dept. of Rural Development, P.O. Box 3732, Bechara El Khoury, Beirut, Lebanon (2) Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute, Dept. of Irrigation and Agro-Meteorology, P.O. Box 287, Zahlé, Lebanon (3) LRA MELIA Personnel Kesserwan – Junieh – Haret Sakher , Bulos Bldg. – First floor
Abstract Before 2000, in Lebanon, schemed irrigation sector suffer from dispersion in management, responsibilities and water resources between many water establishments and committees. In general, the concept of tariff in irrigation, except in schemes managed by Litani River Authority (LRA), is inexistent.
In private sector, farmers admit water irrigation pricing concept and apply different ways of transactions between them: The water fees is paid either based on irrigated area, or volume (“Addan”: Fixed flow for a precise timing”, or total season of irrigation etc.
The approval of the decree, 221 and its amendments, reorganize the water sector in Lebanon and reinforce the concept of water pricing in schemed irrigation by giving the new water establishments the mandate to suggest tariff policy.
Many parameters can affect the water tariff:
- Water policy as a parameter of national or regional development plans. - Size of the scheme and structure of the water establishment. - Farm size and its form, which affect the networks lengths. - Topography of scheme area (Energy for pumping). - Socio economic conditions of the scheme region. - Farmer’s revenues, which is in a direct relation with farm size and agro climatic zones characteristics: Climate, physiographic characteristics, soils, crops, access to market etc.
Water pricing in irrigation is a very powerful tool in the implementation of an agriculture policy including water saving which in reverse affect the tariff.
In Lebanon, water pricing can be binomial: part for maintenance based on irrigated area and part for operation based on water consumption. This tariff is easier to apply in case of pressurized system than in a gravity system case. The difference in socio economic conditions resulting from different zones agro climatic should be regulated by water pricing policy. Implementation of a good water-pricing requires a participatory approach methodology between all stakeholders. Experiences with LRA show that, without the participation of the civil society especially water users associations, it is very difficult to assure scheme sustainability. Moreover, a good tariff can assure good services in operation and maintenance and participate in the sustainability of the scheme.
72/107 Introduction: All societies, in old and new civilizations, consider the water as a gift of Gods or Nature and by consequence, as a public good for the entire community.
Discussing the water value, Frank Messmer concludes1:
– Price is not a good indicator of the value of water because: It does not reflect its production costs (Gif t of Nature) Water does not have private good characteristics Existence of external costs (Pollution) Use value is not reflecting well.
– Value of water cannot be express in one number because water is multi-faced good with many attributes.
– The Indicators for the value of water are: Water is an essential good and contributes to almost all spheres of social and economic life: Sustaining life, irrigation, food, energy, transport, landscape, cleaning, cooling, recreation etc. Modern societies are heavily dependent on water availability. It is a cheap, but valuable resource. Amount of money spent to sustain water services of the natural water cycle. Potential scarcity cost of water services. Appreciation of the water cycle and its services.
As conclusion, the following definition of water value will be our subject in this paper: The water value is the cost of services provided in order to assure sustainability of water delivery, in adequate quality to the consumer.
1- Overview on Lebanese Irrigation sector:
1.1- Irrigated area : The ministry of agriculture2 estimated the total irrigated area in Lebanon at 104,000 ha. Schemed irrigation represents about 59% of the total irrigated area. The table 1 gives the distribution between the different regions in the country. Water sources are mainly underground for private irrigation with pressurized irrigation system in fields and surface water for schemed irrigation. Schemes networks are open channels system; only two schemes managed by Litani River Authority are pressurized system (Pilot sector Saida Jezzine and South Bekaa scheme first step (2300 ha).
Table 1: Irrigated Area Repartition Between Private and schemed irrigation Schemed Irrigation Private Irrigation Total Lebanon Region Area in Ha % Area in Ha % Area in Ha % North Lebanon 19430.00 18.68 6059.43 5.83 25489.43 24.51 Mount Lebanon 5930.00 5.70 4040.54 3.88 9970.54 9.59 Table 1: Irrigated Area Repartition Between Private and schemed irrigation ‘Cont’
1 The value of water in modern westerns societies –Workshop “Value of Water-Different approaches in transboundary water Management” - Koblenz, March 10-11, 2005-
2 Recensement Général de l'agriculture/ FAO 1999
73/107 Schemed Irrigation Private Irrigation Total Lebanon Region Area in Ha % Area in Ha % Area in Ha % North Bekaa 15632.00 15.03 11181.97 10.75 26813.97 25.78 South Bekaa (LRA) 13763.00 13.23 13084.63 12.58 26847.63 25.81 South Lebanon (LRA) 5500.00 5.29 9387.13 9.03 14887.13 14.31 60255.00 57.93 43753.70 42.07 104008.70 100.00
Figure one shows predominance of schemed irrigation area in all regions except South Lebanon. This region is poor in water resources and the main resources are from underground water, which are mainly located on the coastal area.
Figure 1 : Repartition of Irrigated area, by region, between Shemed and Private Irrigation.
25000.00
20000.00
15000.00 Schemed Irrigation Private Irrigation
10000.00 Areea in Hectar Areea 5000.00
0.00 North Mount North South South Lebanon Lebanon Bekaa Bekaa Lebanon Region
1.2- Water Management: Beside the Litani River Authority (LRA), four new Water establishments (WE) assume the responsibility of water management in Lebanon. The repartition of responsibilities between these establishments is on geographical bases. Table two and figure two describe this repartition.
All new irrigation projects will be under pressurized system. These new projects will increase the irrigated area by 136%. Table 2 and figure 2 & 3 summarize the repartition of existing schemes and new irrigation projects.
Table 2: Area in hectare of existing schemes and projected irrigation projects Ongoing & Irrigated Proposed Total Total Lebanon Schemes 60,255 82,000 142,255 LRA Schemes 19,263 60,330 79,593 LRA IN % OF LEBANON 31.97 73.57 55.95
The largest area concerned by irrigation is that managed by LRA as shown in table 2.
74/107 Figure 2: Repartition of responsibilities Between Figure 3: Schemed irrigation repartition establishments of water management in Lebanon In Lebanon
2- Characteristics of schemed irrigation in Lebanon:
Based on a study of the Ministry of Energy and Water3, some correlations were observed between Agro Climatic Zone and: – Size of Scheme – Farm size – Cropping pattern (Intensification Degree) – Socio economic indices: ‘Revenue’ by hectare and by farm – Operation and maintenance indices related to network lengths
2.1- Scheme size: The Lebanese territories can be divided in five macro agro climatic zones: Coastal Area, Middle Mountain, High Mountain, North Bekaa and South Bekaa. Table 3 shows the repartition of schemes by agro climatic zone and by scheme size. Figure 4 shows the scheme repartition by size and agro climatic. Figure 5 show the average size by climatic zone. It is clear that large size schemes are in plains zones (Bekaa and coastal area).
3 Tarification des eaux d’irrigation au Liban (!999)
75/107 Table 3 : Repartition by agro climatic zone and schemes size - Area in hectare and number of schemes Middle High North South Coastal Area Total Size in Mountain Mountain Beakaa Bekaa hectare Num Num Num Num Num Num Area Area Area Area Area Area ber ber ber ber ber ber <200 700 6 380 5 822 6 340 3 203 3 2,445 23 200-500 990 3 1,660 4 3,580 11 870 3 480 2 7,580 23 500-1000 1710 2 1,360 2 4,960 6 1310 2 3280 4 12,620 16 1000-2000 1100 1 3670 2 9800 6 14,570 9 >2000 10800 2 4500 1 7740 2 23,040 5 Total 15300 14 3,400 11 13,862 24 13930 12 13763 15 60,255 76 Average size 1092.86 309.09 577.58 1160.83 917.53 792.83
Figure 4- Repartiion by agroclimatic zone and scheme size in hectare
12000 10000 <200 8000 200-500 6000 500-1000 4000 1000-2000
2000 >2000 Area in hectareAreain 0 Coastal Area Midle High North South Bekaa Mountain Mountain Beakaa Agroclimatic zone
Figure 5 : Schemes average by Agro climatic zone
1400 1200
1000 800 Average size 600 400
Area in hectareAreain 200 0 Coastal Area Midle High North South Bekaa Mountain Mountain Beakaa Agro climatic Zone
2.2- Farm size repartition: Table 4 gives the farm size repartition by regions. The figures six and seven show the difference in farm size between the different regions.
76/107 Table 4 : Repartition by farm size and agro climatic zone in percentage from the total area Farm Size in hectare Agro climatic zone Total by Zone 0 - 2 ha 2 - 5 ha 5 - 10 ha > 10 ha Coastal Area 26.14 17.89 15.77 40.20 100.00 Middle Mountain 60.88 16.98 10.70 11.44 100.00 High Mountain 78.79 14.33 4.29 2.59 100.00 North Bekaa 65.90 17.09 7.05 9.96 100.00 South Bekaa 53.54 9.86 6.02 30.58 100.00 Total Irrigated area 58.91 14.65 7.80 18.64 100.00
Figure 6: Farm Size Repartition in percentage by Agro Climatic Zone
90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 0 - 2 ha 50.00 2 à 5 ha
40.00 5 à 10 ha Percent Percent 30.00 > 10 ha 20.00 10.00 0.00 Coastal Area Middle High North Bekaa South Bekaa Total Mountain Mounttain schemed irrigation Agro Climatic Zone
Figure 7 : Average Farm size by climatic zone
9 8 7 6 5 Farm Average in Hectare 4 3 2
Farm size in hectare 1 0
Coastal Area North BekaaSouth Bekaa High Mounttain Grand Average Middle Mountain Agroclimatic zone
77/107 The farm size is in direct relation with farmer revenue. The coastal area and south Bekaa region have higher revenue by hectare than others. The farmer is predisposed to increase his revenue by increasing the area of its farm.
2.3- Intensification Degree: Is the annual field occupation index. It is the cultivated area over the physical area.
Figure 8: Intensifcation Degree By Agro Climatic Zone
1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00 Intensifcation Degree'
Degree 0.95
0.90 Intensification
Coastal Area South Bekaa High MountainNORTH Bekaa Middle Mountain Agro Climatic Zone
2.4- Socio economic indicators: Two kind of indices can be evaluated about the revenues: By Unit area (Hectare) and by farm.
2.4.1- Annual Profit by hectare: It is function of:
– Adopted cropping pattern in the scheme reflecting the intensification degree. Figure eight show the percentage of main crops by agro climatic zone. – Profit by crop
Taking these two data in consideration, the annual profit by hectare can be indexing related to the highest profit by hectare and region.
2.4.2- Annual revenue by farm: it is depending on cropping pattern and farm size. Table 5 and figure nine shows for every zone agro climatic the related indicators (by hectare and farm).
Table 5: Profit indicator by hectare and revenue by farm - Repartition by agro climatic zone Agro climatic Zone By Hectare By Farm Coastal Area 1.00 0.94 Middle Mountain 0.75 0.49 High Mountain 0.65 0.24 North Bekaa 0.51 0.63 South Bekaa 0.59 1.00
78/107
Figure 9: Cropping Pattern By Agro Climatic Zone
60.00Figure 10 :Indicators for profit by hectare and revenue by Farm Banana 50.00 Citrus 1.20 40.00 Stone Fruit 1.00 Seed Fruit 30.00 Summer Vegetables 0.80 Spring Vegetables
climatic area 20.00 ProtectedBy Hectare 0.60
Potato By Farm Indicator 0.4010.00 Garlic & onion
Crop Percentage from agro total Percentage Crop Spring Cereales 0.200.00 Summer Cereale Coastal Midle High North South 0.00 Area Mountain Mountain Beakaa Bekaa Others Coastal Area Middle High North Bekaa South Bekaa Agro Climatic Zone Mountain Mounttain Agroclimatic Zone
Profit by hectare is the highest in the costal area where Banana, citrus, vegetables and protected crops are cultivated. Revenue by farm is the highest in South Bekaa.
2.5- Network: Maintenance and rehabilitation are closely in relationship with network density. The cost of maintenance and rehabilitation is function of network nature: Concrete (include pipe of different kinds) or natural soil. Difference in material nature makes difference in costs. Figure 11 gives the network density (Network length by hectare). The repartition by agro climatic zone shows difference in density by length and nature of material.
Figure 11: Network density in meter by hectare - Repartition by Agro Climatic Zone
90 80 70 60 Concrete 50 Natural Soil 40 30 Total 20 Length by hectare by Length 10 0 Coastal AreaMiddle MountainHigh MountainNorth BekaaSouth Bekaa
Agro Climatic Zone
79/107 3- Evolution of Water Value in Lebanon:
3.1- Private irrigation: In Lebanon, concept of water value began in the private irrigation sector. Main water resources in this sector are under ground water. Wells’ owners appreciate water value in their initial investment and energy costs. Later on, hiring irrigated parcels from wells’ owners extend the concept of water price to other farmers. This fact leads farmers’ recognition of irrigated parcels and its added water value.. In 2003, a survey on irrigation services from private wells4 evaluates the water prices in the Bekaa Valley from wells as follow: 600.000 (400$) to 1.500.000 LL (1000 $) by season and hectare. 1.100.000(735 $) to 2.100.000 LL (1400 $) by year and hectare. Compared with moderate schemed irrigation tariff, farmers accept the concept of water tariff in South Bekaa irrigation scheme as shown later.
3.2- Schemed irrigation: In schemed irrigation, ‘water right’ for irrigation, from surface water (River or spring) is linked to parcel. Maybe, for this reason, owners having the ‘water right’ do not recognize the water tariff concept especially in schemes where networks and structures are limited. The right to irrigate from a water source passes to new owner with the possession of the parcel. Except few schemes, managed by water authorities (Qasmieh and Adonis) or by municipality (Aanjar), no valuable tariff is applied in traditional schemes to cover operation and especially maintenance costs. In general, if any cost is paid, it covers only the shawi (Water Guardian) fees during the irrigation season. These schemes are managed by committees receiving an annual financial aid or maintenance works from the Ministry of Public Works, and later, from the Ministry of Energy and water. With the reorganization of water sector in Lebanon (2001), Water establishments are responsible for managing these schemes and are in charge to apply a tariff. After 1968, all irrigation projects in Lebanon were established on pressurized system.
3.2-1. Traditional Schemes: Existing schemed irrigation represents 58% from the total irrigated area. In traditional schemes, the tariff is based on area unit. This encourages farmers to use an excessive volume of water. In addition, the tariff did not reflect the difference in water consumption between crops. A special experience must be retained from the case of Qasmieh scheme in south Lebanon.
The evolution of differentiation in tariff passes by the following steps: – To promote the extension of irrigated area, a special tariff (20% less) is applied to farmers pumping water from the canal (30 m A.S.L) up to 100 m. – Paid permission is giving, under farmers’ request, for vegetables crops. The time between two irrigations is reduced from 15 or 10 days to 5 days. This action allowed recovering fees related to additional water volume used by vegetables crops. – To encourage water savings, a preferential water tariff is recently applied to farms using on farm-pressurized techniques (Sprinklers and Trickles). As result of this action, the third of the scheme area was converted to on farm pressurized system and a substantial decrease in water consumption at the scheme level. The allocated water pass from 18000 Cubic Meter by hectare and year to 12000.
4 Note sur la tarification des eaux d’irrigation dans le projet de la Békaa Sud première phase (2000ha) – Kamal Karaa - January 2003
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3.2-2. New irrigation projects : New Water Establishments and Litani River Authority are responsible for irrigation management based on geographic (Regional) partitions. New irrigation projects would be under pressurized system and irrigated area will be increased by 136 %.
3.2-2.1. Pilot sector Saida Jezzine scheme: Executed in dry regions, farmers agreed the concept of water fees. Water price is based on Water Volume from 1970 until 1982. In 1982, population was displaced by the war and the network was damaged. After the war, LRA changed the tariff to Area Unit.
3.2-2.2. South Bekaa first step ( 2000 ha):Established in an irrigated area (by wells from under ground water); the owners of wells incite farmers to refuse water tariff. LRA respond by a free charge subscription for the first year. The second year, many problems was encountered by vandalism on counters. These problems oblige LRA to apply a tariff based on area unit. As consequence for this tariff, farmers over use the water and network capacity begin to be insufficient for the entire area project. Only 33% of the area is irrigated using 80% of the network and pumps stations capacities. With this restriction and as consequence many farmers are now asking the application of tariff based on water volume.
4- Irrigation Development and water tariff in Lebanon: The dry season is extended to seven months and as consequence no agriculture development without irrigation. Irrigation is a limiting factor of development in rural areas in Lebanon. The target of the development policy is the socio economic welfare of the population. The development policy, in many cases required a governmental intervention by assuring the necessary investments for the project. In Lebanon and in case of main structures; the government finances the implementation via the ministry of Energy and water without any reimbursement by the beneficiaries. The concern of durable development is the sustainability of the development projects. Sustainability required auto-financing tools where tariff is the principal element assuring operation and maintenance of the scheme. Water establishments and Litani are responsible for direct management and tariff must be approved by the ministry of Energy and water and by the ministry of finances. As mentioned above, there was a correlation between the agro climatic zones, their characteristics and the farmer incomes. Based on agro climatic zones of the irrigation projects, the applied tariff will be function of the agro climatic zone characteristics of the scheme. Critical balance stability must be maintained between socio economic needs and services cost sustainability. However, in some regions where farm productivity is poor, public subsidies can support the management costs of the projects.
Conclusion: Propositions for good governance: Water is a public good interesting the entire society. For equitability between citizens, government must be responsible of water allocation. Construction costs of main structures and networks of irrigation projects must be financed by the public funds as any development project.
81/107 LRA experience shows that success of schemed irrigation sustainability need the contribution of civil society. The participatory approach method between water stakeholders allows finding a comprehensive issue for water tariff.
To assure sustainability, the costs of Operation and maintenance must be mainly on beneficiaries (Farmers) charges.
The operation and maintenance charges will be collected by parties responsible of management at two different levels: – WE and LRA for main structures (Dam, Conveyers, pumping station etc.). – Water Users Associations (WUA), meaning Farmers, for networks.
Water is sold by the WE and LRA at the tertiary network level in order to be distributed to farmers by WUA. The water price includes all fees for management (Operation and maintenance including all energy and administrative costs). At this level, LRA and WE or, according to general guidelines political decisions approved by the government, will define prices by scheme size and agro climatic zone.
Fees on distribution level will have the same value for all scheme subscribers. The tariff by scheme is based on a binomial parameters formula: • Constant part for maintenance fees based on area unit because the structure and network are stable and their average costs of maintenance stay the same. • Variable part for Operation fees based on volume of consumed water because consumption is variable. For traditional schemes, the consumed water volume is estimated from applied cropping pattern.
The main need in management at the distribution level is Water User Associations; - Create and apply new legislations insuring a proper performance and sustainability of the WUA - On field implementation of WUA: awareness campaign, monitoring by social experts. - Capacity building of the WUA members at technical and administrative levels
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COST RECOVERY MECHANISM OF IRRIGATION WATER AVAILABILITY IN THE SYRAIN ARAB REPUBLIC
A. KAISI*
* General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research Administration of Natural Resources Research P. O. Box 113, Douma Tel. +963 11 57386314 Fax: +963 11 57386400 E-mail: [email protected]
SUMMARY Water resources (WRs) are the limiting factor of economic, social and cultural development in Syria. They consists of two main sources (surface & groundwater) estimating to 14218 m.m3. The total consumption of WRs is over 17.6 billion m3/year showing water balance shortage exceeding 3 billion m3/year most of which is abstracted from reserve groundwater. Agricultural sector is the largest WRs consumer of more than 88% of gross consumption at water use efficiency not more than 50% at best. It was, therefore, necessary to takes a set of procedures to improve water demand management, protection, development and use rationalization, including review of water availability tariff for different sectors. In this regard, the Water Act was passed in 2005, based on the integrated management principles (holistic approach – participatory approach – interactive approach – water as an economic commodity) in most of its provisions. In Syria, water as an economic commodity is, however, unreasonable principle from social and human points of views because water definition in this meaning makes it subject to market law (supply & demand) where the most damaged are farmers. This Act, therefore, included the following important principles: - Water as a common property. - Water use and management in accordance with integrated management principles. - Water use rationalization and relevant mechanisms. - Participatory approach for managing and using water systems. - Agricultural planning based on renewable supply at probability 75% and planning for potable provision on renewable supply at probability 95%. The water charges currently applied are partial collection of irrigation water costs per unit area regardless of applied water amounts per unit area, crop pattern and cropping rotation. Since 2003, Ministry of Agriculture has been of the opinion that irrigation water charges are counted based on abstracted water amount rather than per unit area, so that they cover the whole availability costs as a mechanism for rationalization and farmers' compensation through subsidizing production inputs and prices. The philosophy of cost recovery per unit area is no longer appropriate for water importance as a resource characterized by scarcity, limitedness and strategic dimension with emphasis on: i. Reduction or cancellation of subsidized irrigation water availability is unrelated to water as an economic commodity but to water availability to all. ii. The aim of developing approaches and practices of irrigation-water cost recovery is represented by working on issues of sustainable agricultural development and users' deepened water awareness. iii. As far as possible step-by-step adoption of water availability costs and equity observance in assessing due value.
INTRODUCTION
Water demand is increasing in Syria as an obvious reflection of growing population, and this problem is concentrated in the high rate that exceeds capacity of society and national economy to cover the basic needs and realize the corresponding economic development. In spite of great importance of water resources (WRs) and their limitedness, their use efficiency by different users is still low, given that agriculture consumes almost 88% of total exploitable WRs at use efficiency not more than 45% at best. The improvement of agricultural irrigation efficiency is, therefore, the first national strategy to attain food security by WRs optimal exploitation for agriculture and development of criteria and controls necessary for this exploitation, which is primarily related to human factor and secondly to applicable techniques level and their performance, taking into account the economic aspects of all applied procedures and solutions.
However, water supply for domestic use and different economic activities (agricultural, tourist, industrial, construction, etc.) is a key and difficult responsibility facing general policy for managing and realizing the equitable distribution of such valuable source.
Accordingly, the government has adopted a strategic goal to reach a gross efficiency of irrigation systems and projects not less than 75% by converting into more water/energy- saving techniques and methods. In addition, there is a need to establish legal, legislative, institutional and procedural mechanisms for initiating an integrated national programme, together with several recommendations for WRs rational use and equitable distribution, primarily water pricing. However, there are many problems facing the public authorities for establishing price policy, including large variation among consumers in terms of consumption, affordability, and financial revenue gained from water use.
The tariff is affected by social, economic and environmental factors, yet by doing so, the advocators of price policy application (whether for consumption or pollution according to "polluter pays" principle) are intending to reduce water loss; rationalize uses for different economic sectors; and eliminate pollution rates.
This paper presents a simplified idea on the policies and mechanisms for recovering water delivery costs for agricultural sectors since it is the major consumer of WRs in Syria.
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WATER RESOURCES IN SYRIA In Syria, surface water consists of several rivers and lakes, 16 rivers and tributaries flow in Syria. Apart from rivers and tributaries, there are five lakes in Syria, the largest being Lake Jabboul near Aleppo. The other prominent lake is Lake Al-Assad. Among these rivers, there are six major international rivers. Smaller rivers receive water from springs and, therefore, have seasonal transient flows. There is a strong interaction between groundwater levels and low flow of springs, resulting in groundwater extraction to supplement the needs for different water-use sectors. Therefore, groundwater is used in combination with surface water and in some locations; it is the only water resource. Although most surface water has been developed in the major river basins of Syria, there is some potential for further storage through the development of dams. The storage capacity of the existing 150 dams is approximately 18 billion m3. Studies have revealed that the average total inland water is 10635 m.m3/yr and average groundwater including springs is 5256 m.m3/yr, considering that the total regulated water is 14218 m.m3/yr. Table 1.
Table 1. Syrian WRs (surface and groundwater) Unit Hydrological basin Total Barada WR Coasta Tigris- Euphrates - m.m3 & Yarmouk Badia Orontes m.m3 l Khabour Aleppo Awaj Surface m.m3 19 168 152 1036 1453 735 7073 10635 Groundwater m.m3 774 249 168 1499 726 1493 346 5256 Total m.m3 793 417 320 2535 2179 2228 7419 15891 Regulation % 90 85 60 85 65 95 98 degree Available m.m3 714 354 192 2155 1416 2117 7271 14218 regulated WRs
Water use and application efficiency in Syria The volume of total water use in Syria is about 17.6 billion m3/yr. The data sets on water availability and use have revealed that there is a negative annual balance exceeding 3 billion m3 provided by groundwater over-pumping. In most basins, except for Coastal and Steppe Basins, there is a negative balance clearly represented by huge decline of water table.
Of the volume used in different water-use sectors, nearly 90% is used as an irrigation source for agricultural production, followed by the shares from domestic (9%) and industrial sectors (4%).
85 The demand for agro-production is the key factor underlying groundwater overdraft, which is vital challenge for WRs management in Syria. Groundwater extraction provides a reliable supply of water to the farmer compared to government surface irrigation schemes. On-farm application efficiency is in the range of 40 – 60%, which is considered low due to (i) over- irrigation; (ii) use of traditional irrigation techniques such as surface irrigation; and (iii) inadequate land-leveling.
Table 2. Available WRs development and usage for different sectors Barada Total Tigris - Euphrates Water use & Yarmouk Badia Orontes Coastal 3 Khabour - Aleppo m.m Awaj Agric. Ground 785.8 211.8 68 1137.2 99.5 4305 1440.7 8048 irrigation Surface - 188.6 - 954.9 466.8 - 4314 5925.1 Domestic - drinking 269 76 44 240 81 38 322 1070 Industrial 76 38 2 229 85 45 86 561 Losses 6 31 15 148 16 132 1614 1962 Total use 1136.8 545.4 129 2709.1 748.3 5420 7777.5 17566.1
Off-farm water conveyance efficiency of most canals is around 50%, except for Euphrates-Aleppo Basin whose conveyance efficiency is in the range of 60 – 70% because of concrete lined canals. These factors suggest that there is a great potential for improving on- and off-farm WUE through the application of appropriate irrigation cost system, use of modern irrigation technologies such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, land leveling, and construction of lined canals or conveyance through pipeline connections from dams to farm gates. These improvements are made to meet water resource deficiency estimated at 3348 m.m3.
POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR ATTAINING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF WRs
Due to importance of WRs and for their conservation from deterioration and depletion, the government, along with the construction of dams and establishment of irrigation projects, has taken a range of measures to attain the sustainable development of WRs, of which:
Assessment of water sources: This is done to prepare new water budgets showing water movement direction and hydro- chemistry; explore deep aquifers and explain groundwater recharge and discharge.
Development of an overall water plan: This plan aims at:
86 - Identifying current and future uses until the year 2025. - Collecting, treating and reusing non-conventional water (wastewater – drainage water, and others). - Monitoring water quality and quantity. - Developing programmes for capacity building. Development of an overall research plan: To improve WRs management and on-farm use rationalization, an overall research plan has been developed and implemented late 1980s. This plan has been also further developed to include five research programmes: programmes on modern irrigation methods and techniques research as compared technically and economically with traditional irrigation on all irrigated crops. It was possible to get results forming a scientific basis for government's resolutions in the implementation of the national programme on converting into modern irrigation in most irrigated areas.
Modernization of water legislation and institutional system With the aim of: - Optimal management of WRs for several activities. - Discussions of water use rights and water protection from pollution. - Keeping pace with technological advance and its reflections on WRs.
New water Act Presidential Resolution No /31/ dated 06/11/2005 was developed and adopted by the Peoples Assembly (the Parliament) after it had been studied for a long period by relevant technical, legal, legislative and scientific committees, in order to avoid gaps made in last legislation and setting controls for water usage and water structure protection.
General Commission for Water Resources This commission was established according to the government orientations toward improvement of water resource management and development in Syria, based on Legislative Decree No /90/ passed by the President on 29/09/2005. Responsibilities: - Management, development and protection of WRs in the seven hydrological basins in Syria. - Supervision on utilization and monitoring of WRs and water structures in hydrological basins all over the governorates. - Coordination between Ministries of Irrigation and Housing for assessing drinking water sources and utilization of treated wastewater.
87 KEY PRINCIPLES OF THE COST RECOVERY OF WATER AVAILABILITY IN SYRIA The cost recovery is one of the major elements of integrated water resources management and an actual mechanism of water use rationalization for all sectors. The several conclusions obtained by Syrian experts in collaboration with UN bodies on: (1) Water supply for drinking and domestic uses; and (2) Field irrigation management, have stressed the need to take several procedures at all levels in order to improve limited WRs demand and their protection, development and rationalization as well as planning for an integrated and sustainable water management, including review of WRs availability charges.
Water code effective in Syria before 2005 dated back to the period 1925 – 1986, and they were a combination of disperse regulations issued at wide intervals according to urgency. It is noteworthy that the non-enforcement of these regulations at most times, for social reasons at the expense of unbalanced and irrational use of WRs and allocation priorities. It was inevitable to establish an integrated water act fitting the strategic importance of WRs and their sustainability to be the legal framework regulating WRs use, development and conservation from depletion and pollution; and determining public and private procedures and policies as well as institutional system for act enforcement. The formulation committee has developed a new integrated management-based water act: - Wholistic approach - Participatory approach - Dynamic and interactive approach - Water as an economic commodity, and study and analysis of the following principles: 1) Cost recovery approach 2) Marginal cost approach 3) Opportunity cost approach
However, water as an economic commodity is unreasonable principle in Syria from social and human points of view, as this affects food security and social equality and water definition as an economic commodity that makes it subject to market law i.e. supply and demand. Water scarcity and growing demand high price mean high water price, so the first injured would be small farmers. To reach a logical solution considering sustainability & demand management principle and social aspect, the following principles were studies and analyzed including the general structure of Syrian water act regulating water sector or its rationale. - Water is a public property. - Use and management should be according to integrated management principles: wholistic approach; participatory approach; dynamic & interactive approach; and availability costs. - Water use rationalization and mechanisms (WUE not les than 75-85% for water supply networks; not less than 75% for water irrigation networks; and the application of water closed circuits for industrial uses. - Suppliers' commitments - Governmental support and financial contribution of suppliers and users - Participatory approach for using water schemes (Water Users Associations) particularly for agricultural sector - Periodic monitoring mechanisms of water systems and schemes, including:
88 1) Criteria for performance assessment 2) Criteria for selecting experts and their powers - Mechanisms and criteria for demand management, supply and allocation - Agricultural planning on renewal supplies at probability 75%, and planning for drinking water renewal supply at probability 95% - Mechanisms of pollution control and mitigation - Water police - Water quality criteria for drinking and domestic uses - Water quality criteria for different uses and for public sewerage - Legal arrangements
Completing the ample debate in the regional and international meetings on: Is it wise to consider water as an economic commodity subject to supply and demand law? What are the effects of this on the statement of food security, social equality, and regional & international relations related to common international waters. It is important, therefore, to assure that pricing is a good mechanism for water use rationalization though several limitations and restrictions make its adoption in Syria a complicated problem with local, regional and international dimensions. Accordingly, all ideas related to practices of availability cost recovery should be reviewed to realize a technically, socially and economically reasonable formula adaptable to Syrian circumstances. This could be done by conducting an analytical and assessment study of different raised points stating advantages and disadvantages of each. This review would aim to establish logical and integrated solutions for challenges and difficulties facing the Syrian economy over the mid- and long terms after making a comparison among considered scenarios and stressing on the need to apply IWRM principles and taking procedures and polices that secure their attainment. The consistent achievement of the following issues is of high priority:
a. Water legislation: Including executive instructions as a legal framework for integrated WRs management and use in accordance with socio-economic, technical and environmental criteria ensuring these resources sustainability and conservation from depletion, pollution etc. Legislation is the framework regulating the relation between water competent authorities and water users & polluters. b. Appropriate and skilled institutional structure: It should be in accordance with the distribution of designated responsibilities that meet the enforcement of regulations and work mechanism according to participatory contracts with users to avoid dualism among ministries after reviewing. c. Human capacity and staff development: To cover the requirements and institutional responsibilities of WRs management in the following fields: - Research, studies, and databases - Design - Exploitation and maintenance - Socio-economic management - Evaluation of water systems and their different uses d. Technological aspects: - Water rationalization in different economic sectors, specifically agriculture. - Improvement of WRs management and demand via the National Programme for Converting into Modern Irrigation – successes and failures; socio-economic, technological and financial reasons; and standardization.
89 - State 's role and contribution to accelerating the progress of converting into more rationalized irrigation methods of natural resources management. - Rehabilitation of old irrigation projects, conveyance & distribution canals of domestic water, and closed circuits systems for WRs use (specifically for industrial purposes) and pollution abatement. - Selection of high-water yielding crops for crop rotations and the use of low- quality water for food production.
e. Water education and awareness and their economic role The Syrian water legislation was formulated as per Law no. /31/ of the year 2005 in collaboration with respective ministry and other concerned ministries, in line wit WRs strategy and their sustainability principle and in relevance to Syrian status. As it expresses the water policy and management of water practices as well as one of enforcement means of State water policy, the enforcement of this code needs the development of plans suitable for water policies (short, mid, and long-term) based upon future demand; making institutional changes in harmony with code content; and taking a set of key technical procedures according to decision made by Higher Water Committee since it is the highest committee supervising the used of national WRs.
THE STATUS OF COST RECOVERY MECHANISM OF IRRIGATION WATER AVAILABILITY
The currently applied charges incurred for irrigated lands in accordance with irrigation water availability are based on the legislative decree no. /8/ dated 12 February 1996: The beneficiaries of state irrigation projects are subject to annual costs called irrigation charge per areas benefited from such projects for water provision, costs of O&M necessary for irrigation and drainage facilities according to a decision issued by the Prime Minister".
However, analysis of the status of water availability for different uses as well as cost elements including labour wages, service inputs, (O&M, research & trials, media & information, machinery hiring, energy, and other services), value of consumables (fuel, oils, spare parts….), current costs (interests of due debts for the treasury). This analysis demonstrates the main constraints to definition of due charges for water availability especially for irrigation water supply, because of large variation among these components according to areas, supply quality, and quality of rendered services.
The ministerial decision no. /5/ dated 21 November 1999 amended irrigation charges as follows: - Permanent charge (throughout the farming season) 3500 SP/ha - Supplementary winter irrigation 600 SP/ha The governmental commission authorized to calculate the costs of irrigation water availability concluded in June 1993 to a weight average figure of 4160 SP/ha at national level for all state irrigation projects (supplied by gravity and pumped irrigation). This figure reached to an average of 5590 SP/ha for pumping-irrigated projects of the Euphrates valley
90 excluding the interests of fixed capital of such projects, depreciations, and the cost incurred for the General Establishment of the Euphrates Dam. In addition, the collection of financial reserve for developing networks and modernizing their management was excluded, considering that the charge imposed by the ministerial decision after five years has accounted for only 44 – 60% of this cost.
The agricultural water requirements constitute 85 – 90% of total uses in Syria at gross irrigation efficiency below 45%. The government, therefore, funds the establishment of irrigation projects and all needed infrastructures, and it partially or completely recovers this cost from the beneficiaries during 25 – 30 years by project and objective (energy, irrigation, drinking water, domestic use, etc.). The government also undertakes O&M for partial recovery of irrigation costs per unit area, cropping pattern, and crop rotation.
Moreover, the idea of O&M cost recovery unseriously dealt as a mechanism for water demand rationalization, considering that water is an economic rather than social commodity that should provided by the government without financial burdens on the beneficiaries. Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR) in its letter no. 2408 dated 8th November 2003 stressed " The necessity to define irrigation charges (O&M) to cover all availability costs as a rationalization mechanism and farmers' compensation by supporting production inputs or prices, together with the need to equip irrigation project or rehabilitation to measure the applied water volumes per unit area in line with actually allocated water volumes and to be just with farmers using rational irrigation methods. It is worth-mentioning that it is preferred to calculate irrigation charges according to withdrawn water volumes per one hectare rather than per unit area.
The unique shift in mind concerning the increased yield per unit area, water and energy for all WRs-exploiting socio-economic sectors as an indicator of for WRs rationalization is a unique leap in the government and public planning and practices (administrative, investment and legal) at all levels. In addition, the relevance of the methodology of cost recovery in line with Cairo Declaration for the Arab cooperation principles for the use, development and protection of WRs as water is unsaleable free natural resource. The policies and approaches of cost definition and partial/complete recovery mechanisms should focus on the services of water delivery to beneficiaries according to privacy of each country, ensuring improved and developed quality of rendered services and provision of adequate resources for transition processes without an increase in production costs to a level that limits competition.
As demand management is the control of water requirements for different activities quantitatively and qualitatively and irrespective of water supply quality and quantity regarding WRs demand & supply balance and to overcome the challenges and difficulties facing supply and rational use of water, it should be initiated from the: - Establishment of companies for exploitation and maintenance of irrigation projects according to an economic principle in all water basins. - The government will bear the value of social support for the poor segments of water consumers (drinking water or agricultural water). - The beneficiary should not bear the mistakes made by others (agency or competent authority – including extra charges and revenues).
91 - Costs should be calculated at efficiency of 70 – 75% added to 10% for modernization and development. - The supplier bears all costs incurred for efficiency decline below established value. - Incentives for personnel at competent institutions at a percent of returns gained because of efficiency increase over established level or saving in investment and current costs. - The suppliers should have the right to calculate costs according to the above criteria.
This is fulfilled by obligatory periodic inspection to evaluate the performance and efficiency of all irrigation systems and drinking networks and (dam, water source, canals and pipes of conveyance and distribution, mechanical & electric equipment related to measurement and control, operating system and programming, etc.) as stipulated in the water code: - The entity authorized to evaluate and performance of water systems should be beyond the competent authorities (neutral entity) characterized by scientific experience and owns necessary equipment and experts. - The authorized agency shall assess the efficiency of water systems each source separately. - The authorized agency shall state the reasons, failure places, and the extent of each reason for efficiency reduction (design, implementation, maintenance, management, operation, and technical staff). - This agency submits its report including scientific and practical recommendation for solving the problems and difficulties. - The performance is evaluated according to local and international established criteria (by competent agencies and General Commission for Standardization). - The authorized agency has the right to evaluate the request for incentives, allowances, and penalties (without the intervention of control agencies).
Here, the importance of studying the experiment of Bukros cooperative, which irrigated from the Lower Euphrates in Deir Ezzor Governorate, where charges for irrigation water availability all over the season and adopted by this cooperative exceeded those adopted in other areas of Syria as follows: - Irrigated wheat 7000 – 10000 SP/ha - Cotton 10000 – 12000 SP/ha - Summer & winter vegetables up to 30000 SP/ha
About 0.3 – 0.5% of the above amount is gone to renewal and replacement purposes and about 0.5 – 0.7% of the remained amount is considered as an emergency reserve for the cooperative. In spite of this, the agricultural production is still profitable. Finally, the philosophy of cost recovery per unit area followed in Syria so far irrespective of the two parameters: - Applied water amount per unit area - Cropping pattern and crop rotation plus water requirement
The philosophy is no longer suitable for the importance of water as a scarce and limited resource and strategic dimension, therefore, it is inevitable to analyze the experiments of the
92 countries receded Syria and to benefit from their accumulative experiences in cost recovery as a mainstay for economic restructure, including agricultural economy and adaptation to Syrian circumstance through a technical work team comprising multi-disciplinary specialists (water economies, WRs management, water laws, etc). A pilot area in one of the regular irrigation projects should be selected to apply the principle of cost recovery and to study the resulting positive and negative impacts on farm income, water demand, water availability and productivity. Support of farmers' participatory approach by helping them set up water users associations and taking good advantage of local experience for participatory work in water management and distribution in certain Syria areas, stressing on: - The reduction or cancellation of subsidizing water availability cost (irrigation water) is unrelated to water pricing or considering water as an economic commodity related to supply & demand factors, but to the necessity of water availability. - The aim of developing practices and approaches of cost recovery (cost of irrigation water availability) is basically represented by sustainable agricultural development issues and deepening water awareness for beneficiaries. - The necessity for actual support for establishing WUAs as an efficient tool for successful application of cost recovery policies and irrigation efficiency improvement. - The necessity to keep abreast with the application of cost recovery policies for tangible improvements in irrigation and water availability services and provision of better service and connection between cost and recovery according to "You get what you pay" principle. - Possible systematic following-up of water availability cost and observance of equality in the estimation of due value should be considered. - The importance of establishing a special fund for cost recovery resources as an independent fund in terms of government expenditures of management, O&M, and rehabilitation.
REFERENCES Water resource availability for exploitation – Ministry of Irrigation (MoI), Damascus, 2002 Current status and future demand development approaches of water resources till the year 2025 – DIWU – Supreme Council of Sciences (SCS), Damascus, 2001. Features of the national strategy for water resource use – MAAR – MoI. Preliminary national plan proposed for implementing the guidelines of agricultural development strategy on water resource management and use rationalization in Syrian agriculture – ANRR, MAAR, 2005. Syrian statistical abstract – Central Bureau of Statistics and Planning, MAAR, 2002/2003. Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR). 2005. Annual Statistical Abstract. Damascus, Syria. Ministry of Irrigation (MoI). 2005. Water resource availability for exploitation. Technical report . Damascus, Syria, 2005. Daoud, M. (2006). Water resources management and planning in the Syrian Arab Republic: A perspective toward the development of water sector to attain sustainable and
93 integrated management. Syrian-Japanese water symposium, June 2006. Administration of Natural Resources Research (ANRR), Damascus. Soumi, G; Chayeb, R; and Daoud, M. (2003). Water Resources use in the Syrian Arab Republic for agricultural purposes up to 2030 " A pivotal paper submitted to the conference of WRs sciences and technology – 43rd Week of Science". ANRR – GCSAR, Damascus. Daoud, M. Legislation and laws of WRs use and development in the Syrian Arab Republic. " A country paper submitted to the Regional workshop: Tripolic, 11-13 July 2000". Directorate of Irrigation and Water Uses (now ANRR). 2000. Daoud, M. and Kaisi, A. Promoting the role of WUAs in WRs rationalization and protection for Syrian agriculture. " A country paper submitted to the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD)". DIWU. Damascus, Syria.
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