DOCTORAL THESIS Black British Ballet Race, Representation and Aesthetics Bourne, Sandie Mae Award date: 2017 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 02. Oct. 2021 Black British Ballet: Race, Representation and Aesthetics by Sandie Mae Bourne BA, MA A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Department of Dance University of Roehampton 2017 ABSTRACT This thesis documents black British dancers’ experiences in the UK ballet industry in order to investigate the relationship between race, representation and aesthetics. Racial discrimination and institutional racism are key topics of this thesis, which will assess whether Eurocentric perceptions have contributed to black dancers’ slow progression in ballet. The historical construction of an ‘ideal’ white ballet body is analysed in relation to negative stereotypes of the black body that emerged from evolutionary theory and pseudo-science during the nineteenth century. By exploring these ideas from the past, concepts and ideologies can be connected to the present perceptions of the black dancing body in twenty- first century ballet. Due to the lack of documentation of the experiences of British black ballet dancers, secondary literature on African American dancers helps map their historical representation, as documented by dance critics and writers from the 1930s onwards. Through interviews with dance practitioners carried out between 2002 and 2015, including directors, teachers, administrators, and dancers who trained or worked at major institutions like the Royal Ballet School, the Legat School of Russian Ballet and the Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, this study presents their first-hand experiences. These interviews provide vital evidence that potentially discriminatory acts have occurred within ballet training institutions and companies. These interviews provide insight on the complex issues of race in dance, highlighting where problems are established and offering suggestions for improvement. This thesis also provides a platform for black dancers to be identified and acknowledged in British dance history. The evidence is not only an important contribution to an issue that affects all black dancers, but also increases awareness within the wider arts industry and indeed within British society. Its implications are far-reaching and relate to black dancers throughout the world who have trained or worked in the ballet industry. CONTENTS ABSTRACT 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8 INTRODUCTION 1 RESEARCH 1 METHODOLOGY 6 CHAPTERS 8 PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE 9 CHAPTER ONE 11 BALLET ROOTS AND BALLET BODIES 11 1.0 INTRODUCTION 11 1.2 EARLY ‘CLASSICAL’ DANCE FORMS 12 1.2.1 INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE 13 1.2.2 EGYPTIAN ‘CLASSICAL’ DANCE 14 1.2.3 INDIAN AND EGYPTIAN CREATIVE INFLUENCES IN EARLY BALLET REPERTOIRE 15 1.3 THE AFRICAN (EGYPTIAN) AND EUROPEAN (GREEK) AESTHETIC CONNECTION 17 1.3.1 SUMMARY OF NON-EUROPEAN CONNECTIONS 20 1.4 BALLET AESTHETICS AND WHITENESS 21 1.5 THE CHANGING ARTISTIC ‘AESTHETIC’ FORM AND THE BALLET BODY 25 1.6 BALLET AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF GENDER ROLES 25 1.7 REPRESENTATIONS OF MALE BALLET DANCERS 27 1.7.1 MALE DANCERS, BODIES AND ROLES 28 1.8 FEMALE DANCERS’ BODIES 31 1.8.1 THE REPRESENTATION OF FEMALE BALLET DANCERS IN BRITAIN 32 1.9 THE BALANCHINE BODY 35 1.10 CONCLUSION 36 CHAPTER TWO 38 PERCEPTIONS OF THE BLACK BODY 38 2.0 INTRODUCTION 38 2.1 PERPETUATION OF IDEOLOGIES 39 2.2 ‘PRIMITIVE’ BLACK BODIES AND SCIENCE 41 2.3 ‘UNATTRACTIVE’ BLACK PEOPLE? 43 2.4 THE SEXUALISATION OF THE BLACK BODY 44 2.5 THE BLACK MALE BODY 47 2.6 THE BLACK FEMALE BODY 48 2.7 EARLY DANCE WRITERS ON ‘PRIMITIVE’ DANCE 53 2.7.1 LILLY GROVE (1855–1941) 54 2.7.2 ETHEL URLIN (1858–1935) 55 2.7.3 WILFRID DYSON HAMBLY (1886–1962) 56 2.7.4 LEO FROBENIUS (1873–1938) 57 2.7.5 CURT SACHS (1881–1959) 58 2.8 CONCLUSION 59 CHAPTER THREE 61 PRIMITIVE: ITS ASSOCIATIONS WITH AFRICAN AMERICAN DANCE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON AMERICAN DANCE CULTURE 61 3.0 INTRODUCTION 61 3.1 WHAT IS PRIMITIVE DANCE? 61 3.2 AFRICAN AMERICAN CONCERT STYLES AND PRIMITIVE DANCES 62 3.3.1 CHARLES WILLIAMS (1886–1978) 67 3.3.2 EDNA GUY (1907–1982) AND HEMSLEY WINFIELD (1907–1934) 69 3.4 STEREOTYPING ‘PRIMITIVE’ DANCE 73 3.4.1 JOSEPHINE BAKER (1906–1975) 73 3.4.2 BILL ROBINSON (1878–1949) 76 3.5 EARLY AFRICAN AMERICAN THEORISTS ON PERFORMING ARTS 77 3.6 THE NEW AFRICAN AMERICAN DANCE AESTHETIC 78 3.6.1 KATHERINE DUNHAM (1909–2006) 79 3.6.2 PEARL PRIMUS (1919–1994) 80 3.7 PRIMITIVE MODERN DANCE 82 3.7.1 ISADORA DUNCAN (1877–1927) 83 3.7.2 RUTH ST. DENIS (1879–1968) AND TED SHAWN (1891–1972) 83 3.7.3 MARTHA GRAHAM (1894–1991) 84 3.8 PRIMITIVISM IN BALLET 86 3.9 CONCLUSION 89 CHAPTER FOUR 91 DANCE CRITICS AND BLACK DANCERS IN BALLET 91 4.0 INTRODUCTION 91 4.1 JOHN MARTIN, DANCE CRITIC 92 4.2 EARLY RACIAL INTEGRATION IN BALLET – 1930S 93 4.3 GEORGE BALANCHINE AND EARLY INTEGRATED WORK WITH AFRICAN AMERICANS 95 4.4 1930S – BLACK BALLET COMPANIES 98 4.4.1 KATHERINE DUNHAM, BALLET AND BALLET NÈGRE 98 4.4.2 AMERICAN NEGRO BALLET 101 4.5 1930S – AFRICAN AMERICANS AND MODERN DANCE 101 4.6 1940S – EMPLOYMENT FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN DANCERS IN BALLET 105 4.7 1940S–1950S – MODERN DANCE SUMMARY 107 4.7.1 1940S–1950S – BLACK BALLET COMPANIES: SUMMARY 108 4.8 1950S – AFRICAN AMERICAN BALLET PIONEERS AND THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES 109 4.8.1 ARTHUR BELL (1927–2004) 109 4.8.2 JANET COLLINS (1917–2003) 110 4.8.3 RAVEN WILKINSON (1935–) 111 4.8.4 ARTHUR MITCHELL (1938–) 112 4.9 CATEGORISING THE BLACK DANCER 114 4.9.1 ERNESTINE STODELLE 116 4.9.2 ARNOLD HASKELL 116 4.10 OTHER DANCE CRITICS 118 4.11 THE DECONSTRUCTION OF THE BLACK DANCING BODY IN BALLET 119 4.12 CONCLUSION 121 CHAPTER FIVE 123 STRIVING FOR EQUALITY IN THE WORLD OF BALLET: 123 5.0 INTRODUCTION 123 5.1 ARTHUR MITCHELL AND THE SOCIAL CLIMATE OF AMERICA 124 5.2 THE INTEGRATION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN DANCERS INTO MAINSTREAM AMERICAN MODERN DANCE 125 5.3 GEORGE BALANCHINE’S INTEGRATED COMPANY DREAM 127 5.4 ARTHUR MITCHELL AND GEORGE BALANCHINE 128 5.4.1 RACE AND REPRESENTATION IN AGON 129 5.4.2 MITCHELL’S OTHER ROLES 132 FIGURE 1: MITCHELL PICTURED PERFORMING PUCK IN A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM, THORPE, 1989. 133 5.5 ACTIVISM AND AFRICAN AMERICAN DANCERS 136 5.5.1 ALVIN AILEY (1931–1989) 138 5.6 CREATING THE DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM 140 5.7 NEW YORK CITY BALLET AND THE DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM 143 5.8 DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM IN LONDON 146 5.9 CONCLUSION 150 CHAPTER SIX 152 SOCIO-CULTURAL PERCEPTIONS OF BALLET 152 6.0 INTRODUCTION 152 6.1 SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES IN DANCE 152 6.2 FINANCIAL VALUE AND HIGH-ART STATUS 154 6.3 HIGH ART AND BALLET 157 6.4 BREAKING THROUGH HIGH ART AND SOCIO-CULTURAL BARRIERS 158 6.5.1 BLACK BRITISH PARENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF BALLET 163 6.5.2 BLACK PARENTS AND CULTURAL ANTIPATHY 164 6.5.3 BLACK PARENTS AND BALLET 166 6.6 ‘GAY’ BALLET 167 6.7 CONCLUSION 168 CHAPTER SEVEN 170 BRITISH BALLETS COMPANIES’ COMMUNITY OUTREACH PROGRAMMES 170 7.0 INTRODUCTION 170 7.1 THE FOUNDING OF CHANCE TO DANCE 170 7.1.1 DARRYL JAFFRAY (1944–): DANCE AND EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE 171 7.1.2 JANE HACKETT (1953–) 173 7.2 RESEARCH IN CUBA 174 7.2.1 DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM (DTH): AN INSPIRATION FOR THE ROYAL BALLET 176 7.2.2 CTD PROGRAMME AND DTH COLLABORATION 177 7.3 ORGANISING THE CHANCE TO DANCE SCHEME 179 7.3.1 PLANNING FOR THE CHILDREN 180 7.4 SOCIAL DEPRIVATION AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 182 7.5 CHANCE TO DANCE AND ACCESS TO JOINING BALLET COMPANIES FOR CHILDREN 185 7.6 REFLECTING ON CTD 186 7.7 BRITISH DANCE TEACHERS 188 7.8 ORGANISATIONS AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES 191 7.9 BLACK BRITISH BALLET DANCERS 193 7.10 SUMMARY OF CHANCE TO DANCE 194 7.11 DANCE TRACK PROGRAMME 195 7.12 LISA THOMAS: WORKING WITH DANCE TRACK (2008–2011) 196 7.13 AESTHETICS, AUDITIONS, PHOTOGRAPHS 199 7.14 SUMMARY OF DANCE TRACK 202 7.15 CONCLUSION 203 CHAPTER EIGHT 204 BLACK BRITISH DANCERS’ TRAINING EXPERIENCE IN BALLET 204 8.0 INTRODUCTION 204 8.1 BLACK DANCERS TRAINING AT THE ROYAL BALLET SCHOOL 205 8.2 BRENDA GARRETT-GLASSMAN (1955–) 205 8.2.1 GARRETT-GLASSMAN AND SCHOOL SHOWS 208 8.3 EVAN WILLIAMS (1971–) 209 8.4 DARREN PANTON (1976–) 212 8.4.1 PANTON AND SCHOOL SHOWS 215 8.5 SHEVELLE DYNOTT (1986–) 218 8.6 RBS DIRECTORS FROM 1998 220 8.7 DYNOTT’S PRE-EMPLOYMENT PERFORMANCES 222 8.8 CHANTELLE GOTOBED (1986–) 224 8.9 SUMMARY 226 8.10 BLACK BALLET DANCERS AND OTHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS 227 8.10.1 DENZIL BAILEY (1965–) 227 8.10.2 BEN LOVE (1965–) 229 8.10.3 CAROL STRAKER (1961–) 230 8.10.4 JULIE FELIX (1957–) 236 8.11 CONCLUSION 238 CHAPTER NINE 241 BLACK DANCERS AND WORKING EXPERIENCE 241 9.0 INTRODUCTION 241 9.1 EVAN WILLIAMS – BIRMINGHAM ROYAL BALLET (1991–1994) 242 FIGURE 2: WILLIAMS PICTURED PERFORMING PETRUSHKA, CORBIS, 1991 244 9.2 BEN LOVE (1996–1997) 246 9.2.1 LOVE AND THE NORTHERN BALLET THEATRE (1998–1999) 247 9.3 FIRST BLACK DANCERS IN LONDON FESTIVAL BALLET 248 9.4 BRENDA EDWARDS 249 9.5 BAILEY’S BRIEF ENCOUNTER WITH LONDON CITY BALLET 252 9.5.1 BAILEY AND THE AUDITION PROCESS WITH LFB (1988–1994) 253 9.5.2 BAILEY’S WORKING EXPERIENCES WITH LFB 254 9.6 DARREN PANTON 255 9.7 JERRY DOUGLAS (RBC 1997–2000) 256 9.8 PANTON AT THE LONDON CITY BALLET (1992–1996) 258 9.9 SHEVELLE DYNOTT, ENGLISH NATIONAL BALLET (2005–PRESENT) 259 9.10 CHANTELLE GOTOBED 261 9.10.1 GOTOBED AND THE NORTHERN BALLET (2007–2008) 262 9.11 BALLET BLACK 263 9.12 CONCLUSION 266 CONCLUSION 269 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 281 APPENDICES 282 BIBLIOGRAPHY 285 INTERVIEWS 301 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my wonderful supervisors Dr.