Unpinning Desdemona Author(S): Denise A

George Washington University

Unpinning Desdemona Author(s): Denise A. Walen Source: Shakespeare Quarterly, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Winter, 2007), pp. 487-508 Published by: Folger Shakespeare Library in association with George Washington University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4625012 . Accessed: 22/03/2013 08:40

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This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Unpinning Desdemona DENISEA. WALEN

ONE OF THE MORE STRIKING DIFFERENCES betweenthe quarto(1622) and the FirstFolio (1623) texts of Othellois in the scene(4.3) thatpresages Desdemona'smurder as Emiliaundresses her and prepares her for bed. While F unfoldsthrough a leisurely112 linesthat include the WillowSong, Q clips alongwith only 62 lines,cutting the sceneby nearlyhalf.1 These two versions also differthematically. F presentsboth Desdemonaand Emiliaas complex characters.By delvingdeeply into her feelings,it portraysan activeand tragically nuancedDesdemona and raisesempathy for her with its psychologicalexpos6. F also containsa surprisinglyinsightful and impassionedEmilia, who defends the behaviorof wivesagainst the ill usagethey sufferat the handsof theirhus- bands.In contrast,Q, while it retainsthe narrativestructure of the longerF scene,significantly alters the characterizationof the womenby presentingboth as one-dimensional:Desdemona as thepatient Griselda and Emilia as theshal- low, saucymaid. This essayoffers a theoryto explainwhy the two versionsof thisscene differ so greatly. The excellentwork that debatesthe questionsposed by F and Qtexts focuseson their manydifferences and the complicatedtextual issues they raise. Lookingmore closely at a single difference-that occurringat the end of Act 4-raises intriguingpossibilities about the texts. Concentratingon the curiousissues of stagingin that sceneis evenmore enlightening, especially the questionsabout Emilia's"unpinning" of Desdemona.This essay will analyze

Fundingto carryout this researchcame from a Mellon FacultyEnhancement Research Awarddistributed by VassarCollege. I thankthe staffof the FolgerShakespeare Library, espe- ciallyGeorgianna Ziegler, for assistancewith the promptbooksand othermaterial discussed in this essay.Thanks are also due to Alan C. Dessen for commentingon an earlyversion of this article,the anonymousreviewers for ShakespeareQuarterly for their thoughtfulcritiques, and my colleagueHolly Hummel.I must creditthe work of my seminarstudents in "Shakespeare in Performance"at VassarCollege during the springof 2006 for stimulatingmy interestwith excellentessays on the topic. 1 In this article,citations of Q followScott McMillin,ed., TheFirst Quarto of Othello(Cam- bridge:Cambridge UP, 2001); here,see esp. 130-33. Quotationsfrom the FirstFolio are from The NortonFacsimile: The FirstFolio of Shakespeare,Based on Foliosin the FolgerShakespeare LibraryCollection, prep. CharltonHinman, 2d ed. (New York:Norton, 1996), and are cited in the text by through-linenumber (TLN). For the Folio renditionof Othello4.3, see pages 841-42.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 488 SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY original staging practices in order to argue that Othello 4.3 was edited when the company moved into the Blackfriars and that this editing had disastrous consequences for the scene and for the character of Desdemona. While the textual history of Othellois fraught with complex questions, one principal concern that impacts this argument revolves around whether F was revised and expanded or whether Q was edited and reduced.2 Scott McMil- lin augmented Alice Walker's theory that Q originated from a version of the script the company used in production. Walker argued that Q is an obviously inferior work, based on an acted version of the play that was compiled from memory by a bookkeeper, and that it suffers from the "insensitive effort"3of an unreliable transcriber, along with the corrupting influence of actors who cut the text for presentation, peppered it with vulgarizations, and forgot or extemporized lines. McMillin contended, instead, that both the F and Q texts derived from separate performance scripts. He blamed "scribalmishearings" for many of the variations between the texts, hypothesizing that the scribe preparing Q for printing was listening to the play, taking dictation from either a performance or an oral reading.4However, McMillin maintained that both F and Q are important as discrete acting versions of the play, which suggests that in order to understand the two texts, authorial intention may be less important

2 Thosewho arguein favorof expansioninclude Nevill Coghill, Shakespeare's Professional Skills(Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1964), 164-202; John Kerrigan, "Shakespeare as Reviser;' in EnglishDrama to 1710, ed. Christopher Ricks (New York:Peter Bedrick Books, 1987), 255-75; JohnJones, Shakespeareat Work(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 249, 255-78; Norman Sand- ers, ed., Othello:Updated Edition (Cambridge:Cambridge UP, 2003), 203-215; Edward Pechter, "Crisisin Editing?"Shakespeare Survey 59 (2006): 20-38, esp.21-28; and Graceloppolo, Revis- ingShakespeare (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1991), 154-59. W. W. Gregoffers a complex reading of the relationship between the texts in The ShakespeareFirst Folio, Its Bibliographical and Textual History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955), 357-71. E.A.J. Honigmann first argued for revision in his article "Shakespeare'sRevised Plays: King Lear and Othello;'The Library,ser. 6, 4 (1982):142-73, esp.156-73; he lateraccepted the possibilityof excisionin TheTexts of "Othello"and Shakespearian Revision (London: Routledge, 1996), 10-12, 101-2. Seealso Charl- ton Hinman,"The'Copy' for the SecondQuarto of Othello["inJoseph Quincy Adams Memorial Studies,ed. James G. McManawayet al. (Washington, DC: FolgerShakespeare Library, 1948), 373-89; Thomas L. Berger,"The Second Quarto of Othelloand the Question of Textual Authority," in "Othello":New Perspectives,ed. Virginia Mason Vaughan and Kent Cartwright (Rutherford,NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson UP, 1991), 26-47; andDavid Lake and Brian Vickers, "ScribalCopy for Q1 of Othello:A Reconsideration;'Notes & Queries48 (2001):284-87. 3 Alice Walker,Textual Problems of the FirstFolio (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1953), 138-61, esp. 140. See also AliceWalker,"The 1622 Quartoand the FirstFolio Texts of Othello," ShakespeareSurvey 5 (1952): 16-24; and Alice Walker and John Dover Wilson, eds., Othello (Cambridge:Cambridge UP, 1957), 121-35. 4 Scott McMillin, ed., First Quarto of "Othello,"1-44; and "The Mystery of the Early Othello Texts,' in "Othello":New CriticalEssays, ed. Philip C. Kolin (New York:Routledge, 2002), 401-24, esp. 414, on"scribal mishearings.'

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNPINNING DESDEMONA 489 than theatrical practice. Most important here, McMillin believed that 4.3 was reduced for Q, not expanded for F; he hypothesized that Q reflects playhouse cuts made to affect the pace.5 He noted that the cuts occur primarily in the fourth and fifth acts, with half of all missing lines in Q coming from the roles of Desdemona and Emilia, which perhaps indicates that the play was lagging near the end, that the boy actors proved uninteresting, or, finally, that someone decided simply to excise material that failed to advance the plot.6 I would argue that, in the case of 4.3, the F version of Othellooffers more than a longer text that someone decided to cut; as McMillin implies, it also requires notably different staging. This issue of staging provides compelling evidence that affects the debate surrounding the play'stextual history. McMil- lin argued that both F and Q originate from playhouse books and that significant variants between the texts reflect different production requirements. An examination of theatrical practice suggests that F prints a version of the play as performed at the Globe and that Q represents a separate, generally later, version that shows signs of the cuts made in F to accommodate performance at Blackfriars.

STAGING THE TEXT

Of the 160 lines that appear exclusively in F Othello, 50 are found in 4.3. Thus, nearly a third of the large-scale differences between the texts pertain to this one scene of the play. While many variants between F and Q can be ascribed to printing errors, scribal negligence, or memorial corruption, this sizable and visible discrepancy between the texts must originate in conscious choice, either by Shakespeare himself or by the company. Scholars such as E.A.J. Honigmann have long wondered if the scene was cut because the boy actor who played Desdemona left the troupe or lost his singing voice, leaving the company without a boy to perform the song.' While this may be the case, as Lois Potter points out, this would not explain the loss of Emilia's speech.8 One point at issue is how long each version of Othellotakes to play. W. W, Greg, who accepted the "cutting"theory, nevertheless thought that cutting the

5 Michael Neill, in his recent Oxford edition of the play, agrees with the theory of reduction; see Othello, the Moor of Venice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2006), 408, 421-32. Pervez Rizvi, "Evidence of Revision in Othello,"Notes and Queries 45 (1998): 338-43, esp. 341, argues that Shakespeare reduced F but that he did not cut the text in response to production needs, 6 See McMillin, ed., First Quarto of "Othello,"8-13; and McMillin, "Mystery of the Early OthelloTexts;' 407. 7 Honigmann, Texts of "Othello,"10-12, 39-40; Greg, 358; Walker and Wilson, eds., 123; and McMillin,"Mystery of the Early OthelloTexts,' 409. 8 Lois Potter, Shakespearein Performance:"Othello" (Manchester: Manchester UP, 2002), 11.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 490 SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY 160 lines would do "nothing appreciableto shorten the play."9Nevill Coghill, who calculated that these lines would shave only eight minutes of performance time, contended that the company would not have edited the text for so slight a saving.10Therefore, for him, the discrepancies between F and Q must point to later additions. McMillin believed that Coghill's estimate was low overall, especially in regard to the Willow Song, which he suggested would take con- siderably longer to perform than spoken dialogue.ll Based on Ross Duffin's conjectural reconstruction from the existing consort music, the song takes roughly two minutes to perform.12The loss of Emilia's speech cuts another minute. In a scene that probably ran under seven minutes, some three minutes is proportionately long; the amount of time saved overall in performance is not. I would argue, however, that these cuts entail the excision of more than the song, which itself covers a physical action: Desdemona's unpinning as Emilia prepares her for bed. While the song alludes to themes of infidelity, madness, melancholy, and death, it also functions practically to cover the rather com- plicated business of unpinning and unlacing various articles of clothing that constituted the dress of an aristocratic Englishwoman. The undressing itself symbolizes Desdemona's vulnerability and innocence.1 In modern productions, it is often Desdemona's hair that is unpinned, since this offers an easily accomplished physical action and since the text does not seem to allow time for much else; but that action is not what "unpinning"meant in the early seventeenth century.14Alan C. Dessen has for years encouraged scholars to look

9 Greg, 358. 10 Coghill, 178. See also Honigmann, "Shakespeare'sRevised Plays,' 157. 11 McMillin, ed., First Quarto of "Othello,"13n. 12 Ross W Duffin, Shakespeare'sSongbook (New York: W. W Norton & Company, 2004), 467-70. Duffin's book includes a CD with his versions of the songs, which provided the estimate of the song's duration in performance. An alternate version of the Willow Song also appears on a Web site associated with the book, http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/ nael/noa/audio_shakespeare.htm (accessed 13 October 2007). 13 AlanC. Dessen,Recovering Shakespeare's Theatrical Vocabulary (Cambridge: Cambridge UP,1995), 28-30, notesthat nightgowns were probably used in the openingscene of Othello, in 2.3,and in the finalscene to indicatethe nightand to signifythe unreadinessof a character rousedfrom sleep. As such,they symbolize the character'svulnerable state. When Desdemona undressesin 4.3,she (like Brabantio and Othello in theother scenes) highlights her vulnerability,but the gesture also underscores her lack of deception-hernaked innocence. 14 The OxfordEnglish Dictionary (OED) defines"unpin" as"to undo the dressof(a woman)by the removalof pins"and cites Desdemona'slines from Othello.See OED,2d ed.,J. A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner,prep., 20 vols. (Oxford:Clarendon, 1989), s.v."unpin"(v.), 3. Neill'sedition identifiesthis shift in stagingby notingthat "unpin" was "usually played (since the time of Ellen Terryat least) as a directionto unpinDesdemona's hair; but OED entries(v. 3-4) suggestthat fromthe 16th centuryto the 18th it referredto the unpinningof a lady'sdress" (357n).

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNPINNING DESDEMONA 491

Figure 1: A Dutch caricatureshowing a woman being fitted with a French farthingale, c. 1600. Reproduced from Norah Waugh, Corsets and Crinolines (London: B. T. Batsford, 1954), 31 (Figure 9). closely at Shakespeare's"theatrical vocabulary" as an important method in the interpretation of his plays.15Arguing that the specificity of original perfor- mances-when, where, and by whom they were produced-had a significant impact on their construction, Dessen advocates examining the plays in the theatrical context in which they were written. His concern is that we not simply analyze what is said but also look at "whatthe original playgoers saw or might have seen."16It follows that to understand Othello4.3, we must pay attention to the stage action-in this case, to the undressing. Dress for a woman of Desdemona's social standing would have included a shift (or chemise or smock): a long, simple, loose-fitting gown that served as both sleepwear and undergarment. Over this, a woman wore a bodice or "pair of bodies," a stiffened outer garment that covered the area above the waist, functioning something like a corset but producing a different silhouette, To the bodice might be attached sleeves, if they were not already sewn to the bodice, as well as a stomacher, lace collar, and cuffs. Below the waist, a woman wore a petticoat over a farthingale, with a skirt-sometimes split to reveal the petticoat or a decorativepanel called a forepart-covering both (Figure 1). Over all these, a woman wore a gown, from which she could choose various styles, both

15 Dessen, RecoveringShakespeare's Theatrical Vocabulary, 1-18. 16 Dessen,Recovering Shakespeare's Theatrical Vocabulary, 3.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 492 SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY open and closed.17Variety was key, and women achieved an infinitely varied wardrobeby combining different articles of clothing. All these pieces, and other decorative accessories, were fastened by various buttons, hooks, ribbons, and laces,but chieflyby pins.18 Dressing a woman was not a simple process in early modern England, and playwrights found an easy comic target in the subject. For example, in Thomas Tomkis's play Lingva,Tactus offers the following complaint to explain why his intended entertainment has not begun: Thus 'tis, five houres agoe I set a douzen maidesto attire a boy like a nize Gentlewoman:but there is such doing with their looking-glasses,pinning, vnpinning,setting, vnseting, formings and conformings,... such stirrewith Stickes and Combes, .. Bodies, Scarffes, Neck-laces,... Pendulets, Amulets, Annulets,Bracelets, and so manylets, that yet shee is scarsedrest to the girdle: and now there'ssuch callingfor Fardingales,Kirtlets, Busk-points, shootyes &c. that seauenPedlers shops, nay all SturbridgeFaire will scarsefurnish her: a Ship is soonerrigd by farre,then a Gentlewomanmade ready.19

John Heywood'sApothecary offers a similarcomplaint about "pynnynge" womenin TheFour Ps:

An othercause why they come nat forwarde Whiche makeththem daylyto drawebackwarde And yet is a thyngethey can nat forbere The trymmyngeand pynnyngeup theyrgere Specyallytheyr fydlyng with the taylepyn And when they woldehaue it pryckein If it chaunceto doublein the clothe Then be they wode and swerethan othe Tyll it standeryght they wyll nat forsakeit.... But pryckethem and pynnethem as nyche,as ye wyll And yet wyll they loke for pynnyngestyll.20

17 On the styles and fashions of women'sclothing, see Susan Vincent,Dressing the Elite: Clothesin EarlyModern England (Oxford: Berg, 2003), 23-41; C. Willett [Cunnington]and Phillis Cunnington,Handbook of EnglishCostume in theSixteenth Century (London: Faber and Faber,1954), 80-128; and M. ChanningLinthicum, Costume in theDrama of Shakespeareand His Contemporaries(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936), 177-92. s18On the importanceof pins to femaleclothing, see Cunningtonand Cunnington,189; and Linthicum,280-82. 19 ThomasTomkis, Lingva: Or the Combatof the Tongue,and theFive Senses for Superiority, Old EnglishDrama Students' Facsimile Edition (n.p.: n.p., 1913), sig. 12v(4.6.17-30). 20 JohnHeywood, "The Pardoner and the Friar" and "TheFour Ps," prep. G. R. Proudfootand J,Pitcher, Malone Society Reprints (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1984), sig. B1v.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNPINNING DESDEMONA 493 Comic exaggerationaside, the dressing and undressing of an Englishwoman took time, which raises provocative questions about the action of F Othello. What actually took place on stage during this scene, and how long did it take? Of course, it is impossible to know exactly what happened in performance,and it should be assumed that actors who managed the infinitely more shocking, if not necessarily more difficult, tasks of gouging out the eyes of Gloucester and cutting off the hand of Titus onstage could find a way to undress a boy actor with little fuss. And yet, the scene calls attention to the time and effort it takes to undress a woman. When the Folio scene begins, Lodovico takes his leave of Desdemona, accompanied by Othello, who instructs his wife to dismiss Emilia and go immediately to bed. His command infects the scene with a grave urgency, as a despondent Desdemona complies with his order. She entreats Emilia to help her change and then to leave: "Giue me my nightly wearing, and adieu" (TLN 2985). The text implies that Emilia undresses Desdemona during the next forty-two lines of the script. Desdemona twice calls for Emilia to "vn-pin me" (TLN 2990, 3005), urges the prompt completion of her work ("prythee dispatch" [TLN 3003]), asks her to put aside articles of clothing that have been removed ("Layby these" [TLN 3018]), and implores her to work faster ("Prythee high thee: he'le come anon" [TLN 3019]). When Emilia is presumably finished with the task, Desdemona discharges her ("So get thee gone, good night" [TLN 3027]). The scene continues for another fifty-plus lines but makes no more mention of the condition of Desdemona's clothing. She is by this point either already undressed or too distracted to allow Emilia to continue. Since her short, digressive comments, which interrupt both her dialogue with Emilia and the Willow Song, demonstrate her desire to follow Othello's directions, we can surmise that the reason these comments end midway through the scene is because Desdemona has undressed to her smock and is readyfor bed (Figure 2). Perhaps Emilia inventories these very items later in the scene when she men- tions measures of lawn, gowns, petticoats, and caps.21 What is not clear from the text, however, is how the actors could complete the business. Emilia has little time to undress Desdemona in the space of the song printed in F, and a fair amount of clothing would need to come off to complete Desdemona's preparationsfor bed. Desdemona begins the scene fully dressed, havingjust dined with Othello and Lodovico. She rejects Emilia'soffer to "go fetch your Night-gowne" (TLN 3004), a "Night-gowne"being a loose gown usually worn in the evening at home, although it could be worn outside

21 My thanks to one of the anonymous reviewers for suggesting this idea.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Figure 2: Theodore Chasseriau (1819-56), Othello,Plate 8 (1844). The Baltimore Museum of Art: The George A. Lucas Collection, purchased with funds from the State of Maryland and the Laurence and Stella Bendann Fund and contributions from individuals, foundations, and corporations throughout the Baltimore community. BMA 1996.48.12480.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNPINNING DESDEMONA 495 during the day as well.22Instead, she directs Emilia to "vn-pinme here" (TLN 3005), obediently following Othello's earlier directive to get ready for bed "on th'instant" (TLN 2975). The script thus carefully explains that she is not slip- ping into more comfortable and casual attire such as a "night"gown, i.e., simply replacing one outer garment for another. She is removing her clothes so that she may go to bed. Still, the two minutes of song time printed in F seems inad- equate to allow the two actors to remove all of Desdemona's outer garments. A closer examination of the text suggests a possible explanation. The script provides a number of the song's lines and the accompanyingrefrain. However, the extant versions that probably served as sources for Shakespeare provide many other verses not printed in F.23The text is also careful to provide Emilia with prose cues; she never responds to singing. Finally, Desdemona's interjec- tions at TLN 3018 and 3019 are printed next to repeating refrains. Given this evidence, it is certainly possible that the script provided the boy actors with the lines they needed to give and receiveclear cues, but that in the interval between the first interjection, "Lay by these" (TLN 3018), and the second, "Prythee high thee: he'le come anon" (TLN 3019), the actor introduced other verses to cover the physical action of undressing. That this was an old familiar song is exactly why, according to Joel Fineman, Shakespeare used it in the play.24The actor playing Desdemona might have supplied verses of this popular tune not printed in F to fill time on stage while being undressed by the actor playing Emilia. Certainly, such a theory is highly conjectural, as theories surrounding the Othellotexts tend to be. It suffers from what Dessen terms "the Three Ps" (perhaps,probably, and presumably),those contingent expressions of conjecture and hypothesis that necessarily follow attempts to recoverthe theatrical action of Shakespeare'sstage.25 Still, it offers a plausible rationale for why the company

22 See Linthicum,184-85; and OED,s.v."nightgown" (n.). 23 Duffin (467-70) shows that the forlornlover of the originalsong was male.Shakespeare changedthe loverto a womanto suit Desdemona'ssituation; the boy actorwould havehad to switchpronouns for these and anyverses he mighthave added. 24 Joel Fineman,"The Sound of O in Othello:The Real of the Tragedyof Desire,"'in Critical Essayson Shakespeare'sOthello, ed. AnthonyGerard Barthelemy (New York:G. K. Hall & Co., 1994), 104-23, esp. 116. Stephen Orgel emphasizesthis point in the forewordhe provided for Shakespeare'sSongbook (11-14, esp. 13). See also Alisoun Gardner-Medwin,"The'Willow' Motif in Folksongsin Britainand Appalachia,'Studies in ScottishLiterature 26 (1991): 235-45, who explainsthat the willowmotif symbolizedmourning after a lost loverin sixteenth-century England.The audience,according to JohnGouws, would have also easilyrecognized the song as a morituruslyric. See John Gouws,"Shakespeare, Webster, and the MoriturusLyric in Renais- sanceEngland,' Shakespeare in SouthernAfrica 3 (1989): 45-57. 25 Alan C. Dessen,"RecoveringElizabethan Staging: A Reconsiderationof the Evidence;'in Textualand TheatricalShakespeare: Questions of Evidence,ed. EdwardPechter (Iowa City: U of IowaP, 1996), 44-65, esp. 62.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 496 SHAKESPEAREQUARTERLY may have found it advisableto cut the Willow Song: what was being cut was the "unpinning"part of the scene, which would have taken a long time and which adds nothing to the plot. Emlia's excursus on infidelity could have been seen as similarly slow and, in terms of plot, unnecessary. According to A. C. Bradley,4.3 was specifically designed to provide a pause in the action. The great tragedies, he explained, never proceed immediately to a conclusion after the conflict has been established. Instead, these plays provide a bit of relief and create interest with a "momentarypause," which results in "a decided slackening of tension." True to this model, Othello4.3 focuses on the "comparativelyunfamiliar" characters of Desdemona and Emilia and relieves the mounting tension of the plot with a scene of great pathos.26 Scholars have commented appreciatively on this aspect of the scene. John Russell Brown describes this as an "intimate,""unhurried," and reflectivemoment that offers a "releasefrom the violence"that has been escalating.27According to AnnJennalie Cook, it is a moment of"stas[i]s ... where the movement of the action pauses."28 Martha Ronk describes the scene as "slowedand curtained off from the rest of the action."29Eamon Grennan elegantly echoes these thoughts in his sensitive study of the "pivotalposition" the female voice "occupies... in the play's moral world."Pointing to the "willowscene" as "oneof the most dramatically compelling scenes in Shakespeare,"Grennan writes of its "unhurriedsimplicity," saying it "composesboth a 'theatrical'and a 'dramatic'interlude suggesting peace and freedom, within the clamorous procession of violent acts and urgent voices."30

26 A. C. Bradley, ShakespeareanTragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth (London: Macmillan and Co., 1904), 56-60, esp. 56. See also Maynard Mack, "The Jacobean Shakespeare:Some Observations on the Construction of the Tragedies,' in Essaysin Shakespear- ean Criticism,ed.James L. Calderwood and Harold E. Toliver (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall, 1970), 22-48, who believes these scenes not merely relief but offer provide an exposition of the "predicamentof being human"(31-32). For him, the scene shows the soul (Desdemona) in conversation with the body (Emilia) (30-31). For Kenneth Burke, this scene is typical of oth- ersin the fourthacts of Shakespeare'splays that elicit pity; see "Othello: An Essayto Illustrate a Method,"'in "Othello": Critical Essays, ed. Susan Snyder (New York: Garland, 1988), 127-68, esp.136-37. 27 John RussellBrown, Shakespeare: The Tragedies(Houndmills, UK: Palgrave,2001), 209-12, esp.209. 28 Ann Jennalie Cook, "The Design of Desdemona: Doubt Raised and Resolved,' Shakespeare Studies13 (1980):187-96, esp.194. 29 Martha Ronk, "Desdemona's Self-Presentation," English Literary Renaissance35 (2005): 52-72, esp.61-62. 30 Eamon Grennan, "The Women's Voices in Othello: Speech, Song, Silence,' Shakespeare Quarterly38 (1987): 275-92, esp. 276-77. Other critics, despite their appreciation of the scene and the theatrical quality of its separation from the action, suggest the potential danger inher- ent in its construction.Ronk calls it"artificial"(61); Joel Fineman finds it"strangeand haunting (116-17) but believes this is a pivotal scene in the play and that Shakespeare interrupts the

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNPINNING DESDEMONA 497 While such critics champion the exquisite beauty of Othello4.3 and find its isolation critical, these same characteristicsof emotional intensity and interruption may be the very reasons Shakespeare'scompany cut it. Made long by the undressing, and of a slow, somber pace, the scene may have been more effective on the Globe stage with its practice of continuous staging than it became once the company acquired the Blackfriars and began using intervals between the acts. According to Gary Taylor, before 1608 theatrical presentation occurred without interruption-no act or scene breaks, no intervals, no intermission. However, after the troupe gained control of the Blackfriars,performance conditions changed and the company paused for a musical interval between each act of a play.31At the Globe, where the King's Men would have first presented Othellosome time around 1604, a scene such as 4.3 functioned exactly as Brad- ley suggested-the long, measured pace of Desdemona's unpinning relieved the dramatic tension and replaced it with pathos, providing the audience with a slight respite before the play moved on to the concluding violence. Once the company began using act breaks at the Blackfriars, they had less need for a pause written into the script because the interval provided its own relief from the dramatic tension of the plot. The company no longer needed to slow down the action with Desdemona's undressing and Emilia's disquisition on marital infidelity. The Willow Song became superfluous, since music generally filled the intervals at the private theaters.32In fact, the new staging practice might have heightened the theatricality of the Folio-length scene and made it appear artificial. The shift in staging also led to, or fed, changing tastes of dramatic style. Jacobean and Caroline plays became more sensational, as Taylor explains, with narration to highlight its critical importance. Lisa Hopkins notes that Shakespeare made an "unusual decision"when "he suspends the action"to allow Desdemona to sing; see "'What did thy song bode, lady?':Othello as Operatic Text;' ShakespeareYearbook 4 (1994): 61-70, esp. 63, 69. Hopkins argues that the "falsity"of that choice is what makes the scene so similar to the "luxuriantartificiality of opera:" 31 Gary Taylor and John Jowett, ShakespeareReshaped: 1606-1623 (Oxford: Clarendon Press,1993), 12-15, 30-31. See alsoWilfred T.Jewkes, Act Division in Elizabethanand Jaco- bean Plays, 1583-1616 (Hamden, CT: Shoe String Press, 1958), 76, 91, 99-101. As early as 1927,J. DoverWilson argued that the King'sMen began pausing at act divisionsafter they acquired the Blackfriars;see "Act- and Scene-Divisions in the Plays of Shakespeare: A Rejoin- derto SirMark Hunter;' Review of English Studies 3 (1927):385-97. 32 GaryTaylor suggests that when the King's Men obtained the Blackfriars,they assimilated some of the boy companies'"more attractive conventions of performance;'such as pausingfor music-filledintervals between acts; see Taylorand Jowett, 31-32, esp. 32. TiffanyStern claims that musickept the audiencefrom growing impatient during intervals when the stagecandles at the Blackfriarswould have been trimmed;see MakingShakespeare: From Stage to Page(London: Routledge,2004), 30-32. See also AndrewGurr, The Shakespearean Stage, 1574-1642, 3d ed. (Cambridge:Cambridge UP, 1992), 177-78.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 498 SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY a strong event required to end each act and sustain interest during the break.33 Allardyce Nicoll had long ago noted such a trend when he found that Jacobean dramatists, driven by audience demand, increasingly turned away from char- acterization toward situation and "thrilling events."34While the melancholy Willow Song and Emilia's defense of wives are clearly not sensational enough to cause the kind of intense excitement Nicoll describes, the plot to murder Cassio is. Q focuses the end of Act 4 on that scheme and leaves the audience to ponder the prospects of murder orchestrated for the final act. The Q version drives the narrative more quickly toward its conclusion without the lengthy detour for Desdemona and Emilia, and it thereby heightens the dramatic tension of the play in performance. It seems probable, then, that Shakespeare or the company created from the F source copy a trimmed version of the play that would become the Q text, and that they created this tighter version in response to new staging practices at their private theater and to changing tastes in drama.35

CONSEQUENCES

While the full version of 4.3 had a specific function within the continuous staging of the amphitheater, the scene's dramatic purpose diminished in the private theater, where an entr'actepaused the action. Thus, when the play was taken out of its original circumstances, and the scene did not work as it once did, it was edited. The further the play moved away from its original performance conditions, the less functional the scene became. As later theater practices fragmented the narrativewith a progression of elaborate scenic demands and staging conventions that required more frequent and longer periods of pause and separation, 4.3 became increasingly dispensable.36

33 Taylorand Jowett, 37. 34 AllardyceNicoll, British Drama: An HistoricalSurvey from the Beginnings to thePresent Time,4th rev.ed. (London: George G. Harrapand Co., 1949), 111-15, esp.111. 35 PerhapsF Othellorepresents the maximal text authorized by the Masterof the Revelsfor performanceat the Globe.Q wouldthen reflect a version,possibly a transcriptionfrom performance,of a Blackfriarstext, in whichShakespeare made or alloweddeletions to his original necessitatedby the theatricalconventions for the smallerhall theater. When act intervals were laterincorporated into performance at the Globe, Q couldhave become the standard text. John Hemingsand Henry Condellwould havethen returnedto the maximaltext for the versionof Othelloprinted in the Folio.For an explanationof the term"'maximal text;" see AndrewGurr, "Maximaland MinimalTexts: Shakespeare v. the Globe,'Shakespeare Survey 52 (1999): 68-87, esp. 70. 36 Fora usefuloverview of the cuts to Othello,see Julie Hankey, ed., Shakespearein Production: "Othello,"2d ed. (Cambridge:Cambridge UP, 2005), 14-19, 255-60.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNPINNING DESDEMONA 499 In the Restoration, companies apparentlyperformed the scene as it had been done at the Blackfriars.The playhouse book for a production at Smock Alley in 1670, while it uses the F text, clearly shows cuts to both the Willow Song and Emilia's concluding speech.37By the mid-eighteenth century, standard acting editions of the play cut the scene even further, leaving only the first eighteen lines.38For example, the 1761 edition printed for C. Hitch, which John Palmer used as the Haymarket promptbook, ends the scene at the eighteenth line with Emilia's entreaty, "I would you had never seen him!"39The popular acting editions J. P. Kemble published in the early 1800s end the scene here as well. Kemble'sCovent Garden promptbook from 1807-8 includes blocking notation for this abbreviated version of the scene, which at least provides evidence the company performed (or planned to perform) it.40 Other promptbooks dispense with Desdemona and Emilia altogether. Books belonging to John Moore and Samuel Phelps and a book used at Drury Lane from 1820 to 1843 for productions by many of the great nineteenth-century actors all show blocking annotation for the shortened scene; but they also indicate that, in many cases, the scene was cut entirely.41For example, the book

37 G. BlakemoreEvans, ed., ShakespeareanPrompt-Books of the SeventeenthCentury, 8 vols. (Charlottesville:Bibliographical Society of the Universityof Virginia,1980), 6:n.p. 38 WilliamP. Halstead's exhaustive study of promptbooksand actingeditions shows that the majorityof productionsfrom the mid-seventeenththrough the late nineteenthcenturies cut all or partof the scene;see Shakespeareas Spoken:A Collationof 5000 ActingEditions and Prompt- booksof Shakespeare,12 vols. (Ann Arbor,MI: UniversityMicrofilms International, 1977-79), 11:SS 904a-SS 905a. 39 William Shakespeare,Othello, the Moor of Venice.A Tragedy.As It Is Now Actedat the TheaterRoyal in Covent-Garden(London: C. Hitch et al., 1761). John Palmerpromptbook, London,King's and Haymarket,8 August 1766. FolgerShakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. 27, page 58. This and subsequentbibliographic descriptions of FolgerShakespeare Library promptbooksrely on the Folgercatalogue and on CharlesH. Shattuck,The Shakespeare Prompt- books:A DescriptiveCatalogue (Urbana: U of IllinoisP, 1965), 354-79. 40 WilliamShakespeare, Shakespeare's Othello, the Moorof Venice,a Tragedy,Revised byJ. P. Kemble;and Now FirstPublished as It Is Actedat the TheatreRoyal in CoventGarden (London: T. N. Longmanand O. Rees, 1804). Promptbook,marked originally by J. P. Kemble.Checked for Iago and playedby Kemblein the 1807-8 season at Covent Garden.Folger Shakespeare LibraryPROMPT Oth. 45, page67. 41 WilliamShakespeare, Othello (London:J. Nichols andSon; F.C. andJ.Rivington; J. Stock- dale, 1811). Promptbook[pages 291-424 from volume9 of a Works]made by John Moore and used overa periodof severalyears. Folger Shakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. 26, pages 397-401. WilliamShakespeare, Shakespeare's Othello, the Moor of Venice,a Tragedy,Revised byJ. P. Kemble;And Now FirstPublished as It Is Actedat theTheatre Royal in CoventGarden (London: T. N. Longmanand O. Rees,1804). Promptbook,inscribed at headof Act 1:T[heatre]. R[oyal]. D[rury].L[ane]. P[rompt]. B[ook]. Markedby several,including John Willmott and George Ellis. FolgerShakespeare Library, PROMPT Oth. 20, page 67. WilliamShakespeare, Othello, TheMoor of Venice.A Tragedy.Acting Edition, with Accurate Stage Directions, Hind's English Stage (London:Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1838). Promptbook,transcription of Macready's

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 500 SHAKESPEAREQUARTERLY Phelps used for many years is carefully annotated for performance, but the scene is also bracketed and shows a line struck through the center, indicating that while it was rehearsed and probablyperformed when the promptbook was first used, the scene was later cut from performance (Figure 3). Other books show that even the abbreviatedversion of 4.3 was dropped early in the production process. Edmund Kean's promptbook from Drury Lane, for example, has no blocking but has instead a marginal note that reads, "omitted by Mr. C. Kean, and generally now" and the word "out"written at the top of the page.42 The promptbook belonging to the Tremont Theatre, used there between 1820 and 1840, shows the scene crossed out with no blocking notation.43 By the late nineteenth century, certain acting editions fail to print even the shortened version of 4.3. Charles Fetcher'sedition of 1861, for instance, leaves it out altogether, so that lago and Roderigo exit only to reenter again for the beginning of Act 5. However, Fetcher'sscript calls for the "Song of Willow" to be played in the distance as the last scene of the play opens.44 Edwin Booth's promptbook includes only the Willow Song and moves it to a point earlier in the fourth act.45Cutting the scene apparentlybecame so entrenched in theater practice that attempts to reinstate it in the early twentieth century were not always successful. For example, Lewis Waller's 1906 promptbook, which uses the F text, shows blocking for the scene, but the stage manager crossed out the dialogue; a marginal note reads, "at Lyric Theatre / this Scene rehearsed but not played.'46Othello 4.3 was not fully restored to its proper place and length book made by George Ellis for Samuel Phelps and used by Phelps for years. Folger Shakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. 24, page 60. (See Figure 3 below at page 501.) 42 WilliamShakespeare, [Othello, the Moor of Venice,a Tragedy,Revised byJ. P. Kemble; and NowFirst Published as It Is Actedat theTheater Royal in CoventGarden (London: T. N. Long- manand O. Rees,1804)] (title page is missing).Promptbook, marked in severalhands, including thatof CharlesKean. Folger Shakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. 12, page67. Page67, whichcontains the entirescene, was sealed with wax to page66, apparentlyto ensurethat the prompter-stagemanager would disregard it duringperformance. 43 WilliamShakespeare, Shakespeare's Othello, the Moor of Venice,a Tragedy;Revised byJ. P. Kemble;and Now Published as It Is Performedat the Theatres Royal in CoventGarden (London: JohnMiller, 1814). Promptbook, Tremont Theater, Boston, Massachusetts, used for many years by a prompteror a theaterrather than an actor.Folger Shakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. 5, page68. 44 WilliamShakespeare, Shakspere. Charles Fechter's Acting Edition. Othello. Five Acts, 2d ed. ([London:]W R. Sams,1861). Folger Shakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. 6, page99. 45 William Shakespeare,Edwin Booth's Prompt-Book of Othello,ed. William Winter (New York:Francis Hart & Company,1878). Studybook of CharlesB. Hanford.Folger Shakespeare LibraryPROMPT Oth. 9, pages89-90. 46 WilliamShakespeare, Othello (n.p.: n.p., n.d.). Promptbook(from middle of Act 3 only) recordingLewis Waller's production at the LyricTheater, London. Folger Shakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. 35, page 111.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Figure 3: Page 60 from the Samuel Phelps promptbook showing Othello, 4.3. Folger Shakespeare LibraryPROMPT Oth. 24.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 502 SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY in regular productions until after the 1930s, when Paul Robeson began playing Othello.47 Once removed from the circumstances of the early Elizabethan playhouse, the purpose of 4.3 within the larger dramatic structure of the play became unclear, and critics found the scene offensive. Thomas Rymer, who was no fan, thought that the piquant barbs of Emilia's concluding speech were all that saved spectators from the dangers of indigestion brought on by its unappetizing melancholy.48In 1770, Francis Gentleman offered a more balanced view of the play, but he still found this moment extremely distasteful. He wrote, "If Des- demona was to chaunt the lamentable ditty, and speak all that Shakespeare has allotted for her in this scene, an audience... would not know whether to laugh or cry."He went on to say that Emilia's "quibblingdissertation on cuckold- making is contemptible to the last degree."49When not deployed to relieve the dramatic tension, the scene lost its power, and critics perceived or experienced it as maudlin. Cutting 4.3 has had disastrous consequences for both of the female characters, but especially for Desdemona. Helena Faucit, who never played the scene in her productions of Othello and never saw it presented except in a German production, found it "sad"that the "exigencies"of the nineteenth-century stage "require[d]the omission" of such an "exquisitescene ... a scene so important for the development of her character."50 Contemporary critics blame the cuts for diluting the character and causing an "unenthusiastic"response to her.51 Edward Pechter argues brilliantly that the theatrical and critical "interpretive tradition"rendered Desdemona silent and submissive for centuries. To demonstrate the silencing of Desdemona, he highlights 4.3 and points to both "'theatrical exigencies"'and "culturaldeterminants," such as the eighteenth-century belief that "domestic female babble"would "diminish the dignity of tragedy."52

47 See, for example, William Shakespeare, The Scriptof "Othello"as Producedat the Savoy The- ater London, on Monday, May 19th 1930 (n.p.: n.p., n.d.). Souvenir promptbook of the Maurice Browne-Ellen Van Volkenburg production with Paul Robeson, Browne, Peggy Ashcroft, and Sybil Thorndike. Folger Shakespeare Library PROMPT Oth. Fo.2. 48 Thomas Rymer, A Short View of Tragedy;Its Original, Excellency,and Corruption. With SomeReflections on Shakespear,and Other Practitioners for theStage (London, 1693), sig. K4v. 49 FrancisGentleman, The Dramatic Censor; Or, Critical Companion, 2 vols. (London: J. Bell andC. Etherington,1770), 1:146. 50 HelenaFaucit Martin, On Someof Shakespeare'sWomen by OneWho Has Impersonated Them(printed for private circulation, 188; variouspaginations),"Desdemona,"' 49-90, esp.85. 51 Potter,Shakespeare in Performance,49; and MarvinRosenberg, The Masks of Othello:The Searchfor the Identityof Othello,Iago, and Desdemonaby ThreeCenturies of Actorsand Critics (Berkeley:U of CaliforniaP, 1961), 215. 52 EdwardPechter, "Othello" and InterpretiveTraditions (Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1999), 113-31, esp. 114-16.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNPINNING DESDEMONA 503 The cuts to and eventual elimination of 4.3 have clouded the response to Desdemona because, as Cook and others have pointed out, the scene clarifies the character in ways that do not exist elsewhere in the play.53But as successive productions reduced and then eliminated 4.3, they created a character in performance wholly at odds with the version that exists in the Folio. Cook proposes that Shakespeare deliberately constructed Desdemona as morally ambiguousearly in the play so that spectatorscould sympathizewith Othello because,like him, they doubt Desdemona.54According to Cook, and Marvin Rosenbergas well, the Willow Song scene is essentialto understandingDes- demonabecause it clarifiesthe ambiguityin the characterby presentingher qualitiesof lovingdevotion, fidelity, and obedience,55

CONCLUSION

Shakespearewrote, and F reflects,exactly the kind of scene that Othello neededlate in the fourth act at the Globe-a scene, as Bradleysays, of great pathos. No doubt, the domesticaction of Emiliaunpinning Desdemona provided a welcomepause from lago's plots and schemes,Indeed, it servedas a momentwhen the Globe audiencecould catch its breathand readyitself for the denouement.At the Blackfriars,however, the scene must have appeared awkwardand artificial,slowing down the productiontoo much and for too long with Desdemona'sundressing just before the interval,Structurally, the end of the act no longer suited the staging practicesat the smaller theater and did not fit a new style of dramathat emphasizedsituation and action, Therefore,the scene was shortened;gone was Desdemona'stouching song and Emilia'stirade, Shakespeare, or the company,excised the singingand the

53 Cook arguesthat 4.3 is one of two"little islands" in the playwhere Desdemona's "character is illuminated";the otherscene is Desdemona'sconversation with Iagoin Act 2, uponhis arrival in Cyprus(194). Ronk assertsthat the Willow Song is the only point where"the audience is ableto'see' her andto knowher'inwardly"' (52-72, esp.62, 65). Accordingto ErnestBrennecke, the Willow Song alone"gives us a surprisingflash of insightinto the recessesof the heroine's character";see "'Nay,That's Not Next!': The Significance of Desdemona's'Willow Song;" Shake- speareQuarterly 4 (1953): 35-38, esp. 35. EvelynGajowski emphasizes how importantthe Willow Song scene is to representing the "realityof women" against the "fragmentednotions of them held by men"in the play; see"The Female Perspective in Othello; in "Othello":New Perspec- tives(see n. 2 above),97-114, esp. 97. Finally,Linda Phyllis Austern shows how Desdemona "transcends... Othello'searlier accusations" and "becomes an objectof pity and noblefeminin- ity" when she sings; see "'No women are indeed': The Boy Actor as Vocal Seductress in Late Sixteenth- and Early Seventeenth-Century English Drama,' in Embodied Voices:Representing Female Vocalityin Western Culture,ed. Leslie C. Dunn and Nancy A. Jones (Cambridge: Cam- bridgeUP, 1994), 83-102, esp. 102. 54 Cook, 194. 55 Cook, 194-95; Rosenberg, 215.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Figure4: Henry Singleton (1766-1839), Desdemona, n+p,n+d. Folger Shakespeare Library.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Figure 5: Richard Redgrave (1804-88), The Song of Poor Barbara,n.p., n.d. Folger Shakespeare Library.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Figure 6: Th6odore Chasseriau (1819-56), Othello,Plate 9 (1844). The Baltimore Museum of Art: The George A. Lucas Collection, purchased with funds from the State of Maryland and the Laurence and Stella Bendann Fund and contributions from individuals, foundations, and corporations throughout the Baltimore community. BMA 1996.48.12479.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Figure 7: Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Desdemona'sDeath-Song (1875/1880). Image courtesy of the Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; purchased through the New Century Fund and the Paul Mellon Fund.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 508 SHAKESPEARE QUARTERLY long speech in favor of the quicker, snappier dialogue in order to move the action into the break at a brisk clip, and in doing so produced the version that became Q. Later generations had little opportunity to experience the scene in its original state and lost sight of its effect; they began to find it sentimental, even mawkish (Figures 4-7), and it was further cut until it disappeared from production. Performative and textual disruptions to the scene eliminated the sense of pathos this scene provided, which caused more textual interference. These changes greatly influenced the way critics interpreted Desdemona. The troubled, fragmented stage history of Othello4.3 indicates the value of examining Shakespeare's texts with sensitivity to the performance conditions that governed his writing. Unfortunately, the performance history of Othello4.3 also reveals an incli- nation to suppress and restrain female agency. While staging prompted the initial edits, later deletions were perhaps made easier by the scene's content: its failure to advance the plot, the troublesome business of the undressing, its focus on minor characters, the fact that those characters are women and that they discuss female infidelity.56Certainly, successive generations express little compunction at sacrificing Desdemona and Emilia. The history of this scene in performance shows an unnerving disposition to still the female voice, which makes it all the more remarkablethat Shakespeare wrote the scene at all.

56 Recently,Lois Potterargued that Shakespeareor the companycut 4.3 becauseit "wasan embarrassment"for two women to discussmen and adulteryon the publicstage; see "Editing Desdemona,'in In Arden:Editing Shakespeare, Essays in Honourof RichardProudfoot, ed. Ann Thompsonand Gordon McMullan (London: Arden Shakespeare, 2003), 81-94, esp.91. Potter offersa plausibleand historicallysignificant interpretation of the relationshipbetween F and Q and demonstratesthe waygender prejudice works in moderntextual editing.

This content downloaded from 140.233.2.215 on Fri, 22 Mar 2013 08:40:27 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions