The Representation of Ethiopian Politics in Selected Amharic Novels: 1930 - 2010. Anteneh Aweke Ewnetu Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject Theory of Literature at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA (UNISA) Supervisors: Professor Johan Coetser Associate Professor Zerihun Asfaw July, 2014 0 1 Declaration Student number: 45450145 I declare that “The Representation of Ethiopian Politics in selected Amharic Novels: 1930 – 2010” is my own work and that all sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ……………………… ……........ ................... Ewnetu, Anteneh Aweke Signature Date i Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Johan Coetser (UNISA) and Associate Professor Zerihun Asfaw (AAU) for their assistance and insightful comments that have shaped the thesis in this form. My deepest gratitude goes to Dr. Tesfaye Dagnew, for his editorial assistance, invaluable comments, corrections, cooperativeness, moral help and guidance that has won my greatest admiration. My gratitude also goes to my colleagues, Ato Abdu Mohammed, Dr. Berhanu Semegne, Dr. Fentahun Ayele, Dr. Seyoum Teshome and Dr. Zewdu Emiru for their editorial assistance. Besides, I would like to thank my colleagues and friends, Ashenafi Tesfaye, Aster Mulu, Aynalem Girma, Hirut Admasu, Dr. Marew Alemu, Mastewal Wubetu, Sefa Meka, Selamawit Garedew, Solome Zewdalem, Teshome Yimer and Dr. Tesfaye Abera for their encouragement and moral support. I further need to acknowledge the Ethiopian Ministry of Education, Bahir Dar University and the University of South Africa for granting me a scholarship. Without the help of each institution mentioned, my doctoral study would have never been finalized. My thanks finally go to my beloved wife, Tigist, my daughters, Betel and Hana, and my mother, sisters and brothers for their love, patience and encouragement that gave me the strength to accomplish my study. ii Abstract Amharic literature has always occupied an important place in the history of the literary traditions of Ethiopia. Although this literature is believed to be strongly related to the politics of the country, there has been no study that proves this claim across the different political periods in the country. It would be ambitious to deal with all the literary genres in this respect. Therefore, delimiting the investigation of the problem is considered to be useful to filling the knowledge gap. Accordingly, this comparative research which investigates a representation of Ethiopian politics in selected Amharic novels across three political periods: 1930 – 2010 was designed. The objective of the research is to investigate the representation of Ethiopian politics in selected Amharic novels. The basic research question focuses on how these representations can be explained. An eclectic theoretical approach (the New Historicism, Bourdieu’s System Theory and the Critical Discourse Analysis) is employed to understand the representations. The main method of data collection focuses on a close reading of non-literary and literary texts. A purposive sampling technique is used to select the sample novels as the technique allows to select those that yield the most relevant data using some criteria. Based on the criteria set, sixteen novels are selected. The manners in which the political events represented in the novels are examined using different parameters. The parameters also look into the methods used in representing the political events and the time in which the events were represented, i.e. whether they are represented contemporarily, post-contemporarily or before the actual happening of the event. Having read the novels critically, the political events that took place in the three respective states are identified, analyzed and interpreted. The analysis mainly shows that different novels represented the political events in different manners: lightly or deeply, overtly or covertly, positively or negatively, contemporaneously or post-contemporaneously. Regarding the ‘how’ of the representations, it is observed that the critical novels, for instance, Alïwälädïm and Adäfrïs are covert and use symbols, direct and indirect allusions and other figures of speeches, and other techniques including turn taking, and size of dialogues to achieve their goals. Some political events are found to be either under-represented or totally un-represented in the novels. In some cases, same political events are represented differently in different novels at different times. Some novels that criticized the political events of the governments contemporaneously have been removed from market, republished in the political period that followed and exploited by the emerging government for its political end. There are some patterns observed in the analyses and interpretations of the politics in the novels. One of the patterns is that sharp criticisms on the events of an earlier political period are usually reflected in novels published in a new period. The critique novels of the Haileselassie government, for instance, Maïbäl Yabïyot Wazema , were published during the Darg period, and those that were critical of the Darg government, for instance, Anguz , were published in the EPRDF period. Another pattern observed is that there is no novel that praises a past regime, even despite being critical of a contemporary government. No novel written during the Darg period admired the Haileselassie period; and no novel written during the EPRDF period appreciated the Darg period. iii There are cases in which novelists who were critical of the contemporary Haileselassie and Darg periods, for instance, Abe and Bealu, respectively, ended up in detention or just disappeared and their novels, Alïwälädïm and Oromay, respecitely were banned from being circulated. Unlike the two previous political periods, the critique novels of the EPRDF period, for instance Dertogada, Ramatohara , and Yäburqa Zïmïta , have been published, or even republished, several times. Novels written during the Haileselassie period, such as Alïwälädïm, which were critical of the respective contemporary period, made their criticism covertly, using probes and imaginary settings and characters, while the critique novels of the EPRDF period, criticize overtly, and boldly. Generally, it could be concluded that the novels had the power to reflect history, and show human and class relationships implicitly, through the interactions of characters, story developments, and plot constructions, and the impact that politics has on the literature, and the influence of literature on politics. Key terms : representation, novel, discourse, Ethiopian politics, history, context, censorship, power, New Historicism, System Theory, Critical Discourse Analysis, ideology, field, habitus, intertextuality, overt, covert, contemporary, post contemporary. iv Symbols 1 The following symbols are used for the transliteration of Ethiopian words Vowel Symbol Example 1st order ä ²ð’ zäfänä 2nd order u G<K< hulu 3rd order i H>É hid 4th order a ^^ rarra 5th order e u?ƒ bet 6th order ï Ó` ïgïr 7th order o JÉ hod Consonant Symbol Example g š gg šäššä k q qp qoq † č †[†[ čärä čč arä – ñ ™™ ñoñño ¶ ž Ñ» gäž ¾ y Ãà yittay Ë ĵ ËÓ“ ĵägna Ö ť Ö× ťäťť a Ú č' }”ÝÝ tän č'a č'č'a â p' ä¨<KAe p'awlos ì s' ììƒ s'äs'ät TE mwa LTE lamwa 1 The symbols except ĵ, and the examples are taken from Journal of Ethiopian Studies. But, in this research the Amharic letter “ ” is represented using the symbol “ ĵ” for the researcher could not find the program/symbol used in the journal of Ethiopian Studies(December, 2000). v Acronyms AESM – All Ethiopian Socialist Movement COPWE – Commission for Organizing the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia EDU – Ethiopian Democratic Union ELF – Eritrean Liberation Front EPLF – Eritrean People Liberation Front EPRDF – Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front EPRP – Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party EOPRS - Ethiopian Oppressed Peoples’ Revolutionary Struggle Ič’ïat – Amharic acronym of (Yäityop’iya č’ïqun hïzbo č abïyotawi tïgïl (Ethiopian Oppressed Peoples’ Revolutionary Struggle) in that “I” stands for Ityop’ya, “č’ï” stands for č’ïqun hïzbo č, “a” stands for abïyotawi and “t” stands for tïgïl. Imaledïh – Amharic acronym of Yäityop’iya Markisist Leninist dïrïjïto č hïbrät (Union of Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Organizations) in that “I” stands for Ityop’yia, “Ma” stands for Marksist, “le” stands for Leninist, “dï” stands for dïrïjïto č and “h” stands for hïbrät. Malerid - Amharic acronym of Marksist-Leninist rivolušïnari dïrïjït (Marxist-Lennist Revolutionary Organization) in that “Ma” stands for Marksist, “le” stands for Leninist, “ri” stands for rivolušïnari and “d” stands for dïrïgït. MOND –Ministry of National Defence OLF – Oromo Liberation Front POMOA – Provisional Office for Mass Organizational Affairs RRC - Relief and Rehabilitation Commission TPLF – Tigray People’s Liberation Front WPE – Workers’ Party of Ethiopia WSLF - Western Somalia Liberation Front vi Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... ii Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iii Symbols ....................................................................................................................................