Armeria Pungens (PLUMBAGINACEAE)

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Armeria Pungens (PLUMBAGINACEAE) UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS, DEPARTAMENTO DE BIOLOGÍA ESTUDIO FILOGEOGRÁFICO DE UNA ESPECIE LITORAL, DISYUNTA, CORSO-SARDA / IBÉRICA: Armeria pungens (PLUMBAGINACEAE) TESIS DOCTORAL ROSALÍA PIÑEIRO PORTELA DIRECTORES: GONZALO NIETO FELINER JAVIER FUERTES AGUILAR TUTOR: HELIOS SAINZ OLLERO Madrid, 2007 INDICE INTRODUCCIÓN GENERAL El estudio de los procesos evolutivos en el nivel intraespecífico 2 El papel del flujo génico en la evolución intraespecífica 2 Evolución intraespecífica de Armeria pungens y A. maderensis 4 Rango geográfico actual de Armeria pungens y de sus congéneres costeros en el W del Mediterráneo 5 Estructura de la memoria doctoral 9 Referencias 11 1. ANÁLISIS MULTIVARIANTE DE LOS CARACTERES MORFOLÓGICOS EN Armeria pungens 1.1 Introducción 16 1.2 Material y Métodos 18 1.2.1 Recolección del material vegetal 18 1.2.2 Selección de caracteres para el estudio morfométrico 18 1.2.3 Análisis morfológico de A. pungens 19 1.2.4 Análisis morfológico a nivel de género 19 1.3 Resultados 24 1.4 Discusión 29 1.4.1 Variabilidad morfológica de A. pungens en el contexto de los tratamientos taxonómicos previos 29 1.4.2 Valor del indumento de las hojas como marcador evolutivo 30 1.5 Referencias 32 2. ECOLOGY MATTERS: ATLANTIC-MEDITERRANEAN DISJUNCTION IN THE SAND-DUNE SHRUB Armeria pungens 2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 Materials and Methods 40 2.2.1 The species 40 2.2.2 Sampling, DNA extraction 40 2.2.3 AFLP protocols: EcoRI/MseI and KpnI/MseI 40 2.2.4 AFLP analysis 45 2.2.4.1 Genetic distance- degree of similarity between individuals and populations 45 2.2.4.2 Genetic differentiation- the distribution of genetic variation among populations and regions 45 2.2.4.3 Genetic diversity within populations 46 2.2.5 Bioclimatic envelope model 47 2.3 Results 48 2.3.1 AFLP profiles 48 2.3.2 Genetic groups vs. geographical disjunctions 49 2.3.3 Genetic distance among groups 50 2.3.4 Genetic diversity and differentiation 51 2.3.5 Bioclimatic envelope model 54 2.3.5.1 Total data approach 54 2.3.5.2 Subsets of the total data 55 2.4 Discussion 59 2.4.1 Long-distance dispersal of A. pungens into continental islands 59 2.4.1.1 Corsica and Sardinia 59 2.4.1.2 Cies islands 61 2.4.1.3 Dispersal agents 61 2.4.2 Isolation by distance in SW Iberian Peninsula 61 2.4.3 Introgression in the Camarinal population 62 2.4.4 Interpreting genetic structure with bioclimatic modelling 63 2.5 References 64 3. COLONIZATION FOUNDER EVENTS AND HYBRIDIZATION IN MARGINAL AREAS DRIVE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF RECENT EXPANSION IN THE LINEAR DISTRIBUTED SHRUB Armeria pungens 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Materials and Methods 75 3.2.1 Sampling strategy 75 3.2.2 DNA isolation, PCR amplification 78 3.2.3 Analysis of cpDNA within Armeria pungens 81 3.2.4 Analysis of cpDNA variation across species 82 3.2.5 Analysis of ITS sequences within A. pungens 82 3.2.6 Analysis of ITS sequences across species 83 3.2.7 cpSSR test 83 3.3 Results 84 3.3.1 Genetic variation within A. pungens 84 3.3.1.1 Pilot study of choroplast microsatellites 84 3.3.1.2 cpDNA analysis within A. pungens 85 3.3.1.3 ITS analysis within A. pungens 90 3.3.2 Genetic variation above the species level 91 3.3.2.1 cpDNA analysis across species 91 3.3.2.2 ITS analysis across species 92 3.4 Discussion 95 3.4.1 Waves of expansion from Portugal into Corsica-Sardinia and the Gulf of Cadiz 95 3.4.2 Hybridization at the margins of the distribution 96 3.4.2.1 Putative Ancient hybrids in the Cíes islands 96 3.4.2.2 Recent hybrids in Cies and Camarinal 97 3.4.3 Contrasting expanding mechanisms long-distance dispersal, linear colonization and hybridisation in marginal areas 98 3.4.3.1 Role of founder events in population differentiation 99 3.4.3.2 Expansion through hybridisation in marginal areas 100 3.5 References 101 4. USE OF LOW-COPY NUCLEAR GENE GapC IN PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF Armeria pungens 4.1 Introduction 109 4.2 Materials and Methods 113 4.2.1 Sampling 113 4.2.2 Design and selection of locus-specific primers 113 4.2.3 PCR Amplification with A1F-A4R 117 4.2.4 Direct sequencing 118 4.2.5 Genealogical relationships and allele frequencies 118 4.2.6 Genetic diversity 118 4.2.7 Cloning 118 4.2.8 Recombinants 120 4.3 Results 120 4.3.1 Structure of the GapC region in A. pungens 120 4.3.2 Identification of Gap C sequence types 120 4.3.3 Direct sequencing vs. cloning 124 4.3.3.1 Sequence types retrieved 124 4.3.3.2 Nucleotide composition 124 4.3.4 Variation of GapC in A. pungens: genealogical relationships, haplotype frequencies and genetic diversity 125 4.3.4.1 Phylogeographic patterns of Type I and Type II 127 4.3.4.2 Type III 127 4.3.4.3 Genetic diversity 129 4.4 Discussion 130 4.4.1 Lack of coalescence of the GapC at the species level 130 4.4.2 Interpreting population history from polyphyletic gene patterns 131 4.4.3 Inference of phylogeographic events limited by low levels of phylogenetically useful variation 131 4.5 References 132 5. GRAZING-INDUCED GENETIC BOTTLENECK THREATENS THE MACARONESIAN ENDEMIC Armeria maderensis 5.1 Introduction 137 5.2 Materials and Methods 140 5.2.1 Study system 140 5.2.2 Sampling strategy, DNA isolation, AFLP protocol 140 5.2.3 Genetic structure of A. maderensis 143 5.2.4 Genetic diversity of A. maderensis 145 5.2.5 Comparisons of the genetic diversity levels 146 5.2.5.1 Comparison with the widespread congener A. pungens 146 5.2.5.2 Comparison with reference values of AFLP diversity in plants 146 5.3 Results 147 5.3.1 AFLP profiles 147 5.3.2 Genetic structure 147 5.3.3 Genetic diversity 152 5.4 Discussion 155 5.4.1 Is Armeria maderensis genetically depauperate? 155 5.4.1.1 Genetic diversity comparisons 155 5.4.1.2 Genetic structure 158 5.4.2 Threats for Armeria maderensis and future prospects 158 5.5 References 160 6. FILOGEOGRAFÍA DE Armeria pungens y Armeria maderensis 6.1 Utilización e interpretación de los marcadores para inferencia filogeográfica en Armeria pungens 168 6.1.1 Herencia materna vs. biparental 169 6.1.2 Marcadores de huella genética (fingerprinting) vs. secuencias 170 6.1.3 Marcadores para inferencia filogeográfica en A. pungens 172 6.1.3.1 La morfología 172 6.1.3.2 AFLP 172 6.1.3.3 ITS 174 6.1.3.4 GapC 176 6.1.3.5 Secuencias de ADN cloroplástico 177 6.1.3.6 Microsatélites cloroplasticos 179 6.2 Filogeografía de A. pungens 180 6.2.1 Linajes genéticos en A. pungens 180 6.2.2 Rutas de Colonización: relaciones genealógicas entre poblaciones y patrones de diversidad genética 181 6.2.2.1 Córcega-Cerdeña 181 6.2.2.2 Golfo de Cádiz 182 6.2.3 Reticulación en los límites del área de distribución: comparación de marcadores de herencia materna y biparental 182 6.3 Comparación con la filogeografía de Armeria maderensis 187 6.4 Referencias 189 CONCLUSIONES 195 ANEXOS Anexo I Fragmentos de AFLP totales, privados y raros en A. pungnes 200 Anexo II Porcentaje de fragmentos de AFLP compartidos entre poblaciones de A. pungens 201 Anexo III Matriz de presencia/ausencia de AFLP de A. pungens 202 Anexo IV Árbol de Neighbour-joining entre individuos de A. pungens basado AFLP 277 Anexo V Matriz de presencia/ausencia de AFLP de A. pungens 278 INTRODUCCIÓN GENERAL Introducción general El estudio de los procesos evolutivos en el nivel intraespecífico La genética de poblaciones clásica explica la estructura genética de las especies por la interacción entre: 1) el patrón de flujo génico actual entre poblaciones y 2) la adaptación a las condiciones ecológicas actuales (Schaal et al., 1998). La genética de poblaciones se centra, pues, en la estima de parámetros de la diversidad genética asumiendo condiciones de equilibrio histórico de las poblaciones (equilibirio Hardy- Weinberg). La aparición de la filogeografía en 1987 revoluciona los estudios poblacionales añadiendo una perspectiva temporal (Schaal et al., 1998; Schaal y Olsen, 2000; Avise, 2000; Widmer y Lexer, 2001). Esta disciplina estudia las frecuencias génicas y relaciones filogenéticas entre poblaciones (filo) en un contexto geográfico explícito (geografía), lo que permite considerar la influencia de los eventos históricos (fluctuación de tamaños poblacionales, colonizaciones, expansiones del área de distribución, etc.), además del flujo génico y la selección natural, en la evolución intraespecífica (Avise 1989; Schaal y Olsen, 2000). La filogeografía se basa en la teoría de la coalescencia, según la cual en una población de tamaño constante, reaparecen nuevos alelos por mutación o se pierden alelos por deriva génica, de manera que todos los alelos actuales derivan de un alelo ancestral común, o lo que es lo mismo en un sentido retrospectivo, coalescen en ese único alelo (Schaal et al., 1998; Hare, 2001). El papel del flujo génico en la evolución intraespecífica Bajo la visión Neo-Darwinista, se reformuló el concepto biológico de especie, (Dobzhansky, 1937; Mayr, 1942; Stebbins, 1950), que considera las especies como entidades reproductivas aisladas. Se creía, pues, que era el flujo génico extensivo entre las poblaciones de una misma especie el responsable del mantenimiento de las especies.
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