The Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistics

Edited by Manuel Díaz-Campos

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

9781405195003_1_pretoc.indd iii 11/23/2010 6:00:11 PM 99781405195003_4_000.indd781405195003_4_000.indd 6 111/23/20101/23/2010 12:01:3012:01:30 PMPM The Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistics

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99781405195003_1_pretoc.indd781405195003_1_pretoc.indd iiii 111/23/20101/23/2010 6:00:116:00:11 PMPM The Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistics

Edited by Manuel Díaz-Campos

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

99781405195003_1_pretoc.indd781405195003_1_pretoc.indd iiiiii 111/23/20101/23/2010 6:00:116:00:11 PMPM This edition first published 2011 © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of Manuel Díaz-Campos to be identified as the editor of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The handbook of hispanic sociolinguistics / [edited by] Manuel Díaz-Campos. p. cm. – (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9500-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Spanish language–Social aspects. 2. Sociolinguistics. I. Díaz-Campos, Manuel PC4074.75.H36 2011 306.44089′68073–dc22 2010035338 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12pt Palatino by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2011

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List of Figures viii List of Tables xi Notes on Contributors xv

Introduction 1 Manuel Díaz-Campos

I Phonological Variation 7 1 Laboratory Approaches to Sound Variation and Change 9 Laura Colantoni 2 Variationist Approaches: External Factors Conditioning Variation in Spanish Phonology 36 Antonio Medina-Rivera 3 Internal Factors Conditioning Variation in Spanish Phonology 54 Francisco Moreno-Fernández 4 Socio-phonological Variation in Latin American Spanish 72 John M. Lipski 5 Sociophonological Variation and Change in Spain 98 José Antonio Samper Padilla

II Morphosyntactic Variation 121 6 Variationist Approaches to Spanish Morphosyntax: Internal and External Factors 123 Scott A. Schwenter 7 Variation and Grammaticalization 148 Rena Torres Cacoullos 8 Morphosyntactic Variation in Spanish-Speaking Latin America 168 Paola Bentivoglio and Mercedes Sedano 9 Morphosyntactic Variation in Spain 187 María José Serrano

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III Language, the Individual, and the Society 205 10 Aging, Age, and Sociolinguistics 207 Richard Cameron 11 Gender and Variation: Word-final /s/ in Men’s and Women’s Speech in Puerto Rico’s Western Highlands 230 Jonathan Holmquist 12 Forms of Address: The Effect of the Context 244 Diane R. Uber 13 Becoming a Member of the Speech Community: Learning Socio-phonetic Variation in Child Language 263 Manuel Díaz-Campos 14 The Relationship between Historical Linguistics and Sociolinguistics 283 Donald N. Tuten and Fernando Tejedo-Herrero 15 The Acquisition of Variation in Second Language Spanish: How to Identify and Catch a Moving Target 303 Kimberly Geeslin

IV Spanish in Contact 321 16 Spanish in Contact with Quechua 323 Anna María Escobar 17 Spanish in Contact with Guaraní 353 Shaw N. Gynan 18 Spanish in Contact with Catalan 374 José Luis Blas Arroyo 19 Spanish in Contact with Portuguese: the Case of Barranquenho 395 J. Clancy Clements, Patrícia Amaral, and Ana R. Luís 20 Spanish in Contact with Haitian Creole 418 Luis A. Ortiz López 21 Palenque (Colombia): Multilingualism in an Extraordinary Social and Historical Context 446 Armin Schwegler 22 Spanish in Contact with Arabic 473 Lotfi Sayahi

V Spanish in the United States, Heritage Language, L2 Spanish 491 23 Spanish in the United States: Bilingual Discourse Markers 493 Lourdes Torres 24 Functional Adaptation and Conceptual Convergence in the Analysis of Language Contact in the Spanish of Bilingual Communities in New York 504 Ricardo Otheguy 25 Code-switching among US Latinos 530 Almeida Jacqueline Toribio

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26 Language and Social Meaning in Bilingual Mexico and the United States 553 Norma Mendoza-Denton and Bryan James Gordon 27 Intrafamilial Dialect Contact 579 Kim Potowski 28 Heritage Language Students: The Case of Spanish 598 Guadalupe Valdés and Michelle Geoffrion-Vinci 29 Language Maintenance and Language Shift among US Latinos 623 Jorge Porcel 30 Mockery and Appropriation of Spanish in White Spaces: Perceptions of Latinos in the United States 646 Adam Schwartz

VI Language Policy/Planning, Language Attitudes and Ideology 665 31 Planning Spanish: Nationalizing, Minoritizing and Globalizing Performances 667 Ofelia García 32 Bilingual Education in Latin America 686 Serafín M. Coronel-Molina and Megan Solon 33 Variation and Identity in Spain 704 Juan Manuel Hernández-Campoy 34 Variation and Identity in the Americas 728 Mercedes Niño-Murcia 35 Linguistic Imperialism: Who Owns Global Spanish? 747 Clare Mar-Molinero and Darren Paffey

Index 765

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1.1 Duration of each part of the diphthong (measured as a proportion of the whole sequence) in contact (CV) and non-contact varieties (NCV). V1 = first vowel in the sequence; T = transition; V2 = second vowel in the sequence. 13 1.2 F2 rate of change (Hz per ms) in the transition in contact (CV) and non-contact varieties (NCV). 13 1.3 Spectrogram of the sequence [aʎa], extracted form the word rallada ‘shredded’ (feminine, singular.) (Bella Vista, female speaker). Vertical lines approximately indicate the lateral, the transition, and a vowel. 16 1.4 Total vowel duration by speaker and context. 19 1.5 Medial stop-closure by word-type and speaker. 19 1.6 Average contours read by 10 Spanish-dominant subjects as a function of mode or language used (Spanish [L1] vs. Catalan [L2]) and gender. 23 1.7 Female (21): declarative sentence El agua hierve (‘the water boils’). High-rising-falling contour. 24 1.8 Male (19): declarative sentence El agua hierve (‘the water boils’). Rising-falling contour. 25 2.1 Diagram showing social factors. 42 2.2 Diagram showing attention paid to speech. 44 2.3 Diagram showing the register continuum. 45 4.1 Pronunciation of cada dos semana nos tocaba ‘every week it was our turn’ by an Afro-Bolivian woman from Dorado Chico, North Yungas. 86 4.2 El torito guapo es el mismo bledo pronounced by a male speaker from San Basilio de Palenque, Colombia. 87 4.3 Panamanian Congo woman’s pronunciation of huítero que elle no cambrasa ‘hey, I’m talking’; village of Escobal, Costa Abajo de Colón. 88

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4.4 Se debe de caminar con suerte pronounced by a man from northern Mexico. 89 4.5 Resolana ‘resentment,’ pronounced by a man from Albuquerque, New Mexico. 90 4.6 Aquí en Alburquerque pronounced by a man from Albuquerque, New Mexico. 90 4.7 A mi tío Ramón, pronounced by a man from northern New Mexico. 91 5.1 [ŋ] realizations in prevocalic context depending on the sociocultural level in the provincial capital of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (1 = medium–high; 2 = medium; 3 = medium–low; 4 = low). 111 7.1 Cross-linguistic imperfective/present grammaticalization path. 152 7.2 Cross-linguistic perfective/past grammaticalization path. 160 7.3 Present perfect-preterit variation. 161 10.1 Four sets of terms of address and summons in La Iglesia Cristo Misionera. 211 10.2 Degree of intimacy between speaker and addressee or one summoned. 213 10.3 Degree of age of addressee or one summoned. 214 11.1 Deletion of /s/ by first and second half-hour of conversation in Sample 1. 237 11.2 Deletion of /s/ by age group in Sample 1. 238 11.3 Deletion of /s/ in prevocalic position by age group for Sample 1. 239 11.4 Deletion of /s/ by occupation group in Sample 2. 240 13.1 Retention of intervocalic /d/ according to socioeconomic class and age. 266 13.2 Retention of syllable-final /ɾ/ according to socioeconomic class and age. 267 13.3 Retention of intervocalic /d/ according to age and style. 271 13.4 Model for studying the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation. 272 16.1 Map showing Andean languages in South America. 325 19.1 Map showing A Raia region on the Portugal-Spain border. 396 20.1 Map showing the Dominican-Haitian border. 422 20.2 Graph showing distribution of explicit and null pronouns, per group. 425 20.3 Graph showing comparison of explicit and null pronouns, according to group/dialects. 427 20.4 Graph showing distribution of overt and null pronouns in contexts of continuity, per participant group. 432 20.5 Graph showing distribution of explicit and null pronouns in contexts of contrast, per participants. 435 21.1 Map showing location of Palenque and Cartagena. 447 21.2 Map showing approximate area in which Kikongo is spoken: northern Angola, the Democratic Republic (DR) of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo. Author created – based on multiple sources. 448

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25.1 Diagram showing speakers and contact speech forms: a continuum. 536 26.1 Summary schema adapted by authors from Hamel (2006). 561 28.1 The Spanish Heritage Education Field: three different emphases. 608 29.1 The two basic stages in the study of LMLS. 625 33.1 Eight vowel system of Murcian Spanish. 710 33.2 Global rise per time cohorts and groups for the process of diffusion of standard Castilian Spanish and subsequent erosion of the local non-standard variety in Murcia (positive linear pattern). 710 33.3 Diachronic progression of the process of standardization of Castilian Spanish per variables and informants (Group 1: male politicians). 711 33.4 Diachronic progression of the process of standardization of Castilian Spanish per variables and informants (Group 2: male non-politicians). 711 33.5 The density of transportation provision (bus and train) for Murcia, Cartagena, Caravaca and Yecla. 715 33.6 Autonomous Community of Andalusia with its provinces and Region of Murcia with its main urban places. 718 33.7 Studies of intervocalic /-d-/ in Peninsular Spanish 720 33.8 Studies of subjunctive past perfect in Peninsular Spanish. 722

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2.1 Production of non-standard variants according to the speaker’s relationship to the interviewer (percentages and Varbrul probabilities). 43 2.2 (s)-deletion in Cartagena. 44 2.3 Probability of production of non-standard variants for two phonological variables: type of situation. 46 2.4 Frequency of non-standard variants for two phonological variables: topic of conversation. 47 2.5 Probabilities of non-standard variants for two phonological variables: type of discourse. 48 2.6 Varbrul probabilities of non-standard variants for two studies on phonological variation. 50 3.1 Phonic system of the Spanish language: phonemic and allophonic elements. 60 5.1 Distribution of /s/ variants among various Spanish regions. 101 5.2 Distribution of /s/ variants depending on position among various Spanish regions. 102 5.3 Sibilant realizations of context-dependent word coda -/s/ across diverse speech communities in Spain. 103 5.4 Deleted realizations of context-dependent word coda -/s/ in final position across diverse speech communities in Spain. 104 5.5 Elided variants according to grammatical status across diverse Spanish speech communities. 105 5.6 Elided variants according to the feature [± redundant] of plural marking within the complex NF in two Canarian speech communities. 105 5.7 Distribution of [ɾ] variants across diverse speech communities in Spain. 107 5.8 Coda [ɾ] deletion according to sociocultural level in different speech communities. 109 5.9 Distribution of -/n/ variants in diverse forms of Spanish speech. 110

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5.10 Velar realizations according to context in different forms of speech. 111 5.11 Distribution of -/d/- variants in Spanish speech communities. 112 5.12 Rates of -/d/- deletion in the speech communities surveyed by PRESEEA (high educational level). 113 5.13 Elided variants /d/ according to sociocultural level in diverse speech communities. 115 6.1 Significant factors for the choice of subjunctive mood with five epistemic adverbs, overall and individual country results. 128 6.2 Factors affecting mood choice with five epistemic adverbs. 129 6.3 Factors contributing to the use of a in Buenos Aires. 132 6.4 Factors contributing to the use of a in Madrid. 133 6.5 Summary of significant factor groups, by dialect. 134 6.6 Effect of noun form on a-marking of animate DOs, both dialects. 134 6.7 Rate of a-marking in animate DOs in the two dialects, by specificity. 135 6.8 Variation in marking of specific, animate DOs, by dialect. 135 6.9 Overall frequency of lo and Ø in Mexico and Spain (Reig 2009a). 140 6.10 Internal factors on the choice of null objects in Mexico and Spain. 141 6.11 External factors affecting lo/Ø variation in Mexican Spanish. 143

7.1 Spanish IR a + verbInf and -ré Future: token and relative frequency in written texts over time (from Aaron 2006: Table 5.36). 150 7.2 Grammaticalization of Progressive estar + V-ndo construction: unithood (from Bybee and Torres Cacoullos 2009: Table 4). 153

7.3 Factors contributing to the choice of the Progressive (estar + verb-ndo) over the simple Present (non-significant factors within [ ]). 155

7.4 Factors contributing to the choice of IR a + verbInf over the -ré Future (non-significant factors within [ ]) (from Aaron 2006: Table 5.45). 158 7.5 Temporal reference in the choice of the Perfect over the Preterit (from Schwenter and Torres Cacoullos 2008). 162 7.6 Temporal reference in the choice of the Perfect over the Preterit in Peninsular plays (from Copple 2009: Table 5.18). 163 8.1 Comparison of probability weights of pa use obtained in two analyses. 170 8.2 Percentages of haber pluralization. 173 8.3 Variable rule analysis of factors contributing to the probability of the presence of a resumptive element in relative clauses: comparison of Santiago and Caracas results. 177 10.1 Variable word-final (s) across San Juan, Puerto Rico. 217 10.2 Variable (ž) across Buenos Aires, Argentina. 218 10.3 Intervocalic (d) by age and gender in San Juan, Puerto Rico. 222 10.4 Variable (ž) by age and gender in Buenos Aires, Argentina. 224 11.1 Principal /s/ variants for men and women in Sample 1. 234 11.2 Deletion of plural /s/by presence and absence of disambiguating information in Sample 1. 235 11.3 Deletion of plural /s/by position in noun phrase in Sample 1. 235 11.4 Deletion of /s/by grammatical category in Sample 1. 235 11.5 Deletion of /s/by phonological position. 236

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12.1 Receptionist at employment agency, Bogotá, Colombia. 254 12.2 Classes in ceramics and porcelain decorating, Bogotá, Colombia. 255 12.3 Cash register, factory of ceramics and porcelain, Bogotá, Colombia. 255 12.4 Variables that favor informal or formal address in the workplace. 259 13.1 Deletion and retention of intervocalic /d/ according to socioeconomic class and age. 266 13.2 Deletion and retention of syllable-final /ɾ/ according to socioeconomic background and age. 267 16.1 Andean languages in South America. 324 16.2 Quechua borrowings in Spanish. 330 16.3 UNESCO criteria for measuring the ethnolinguistic vitality of a language (2003). 336 16.4 Sociodemographic data on Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru. 338 19.1 Portuguese consonants. 403 19.2 Spanish consonants. 404 19.3 Number of instances of enclisis and proclisis in four male Barranquenho speakers. 411 19.4 Historical use of the forms ancina, asina, and así in written Spanish. 415 20.1 Participants of the study, per age and linguistic description. 423 20.2 Distribution of verb forms, according to participant group. 424 20.3 Distribution of explicit and null pronouns, per group. 424 20.4 Comparison of participants, according to ANOVA. 426 20.5 Comparison of explicit and null pronouns, according to group. 427 20.6 Distribution of type of pronoun present, according to participants. 428 20.7 Distribution of null pronoun class, according to participants. 429 20.8 Distribution of the pronouns according to their position, per participants. 430 20.9 Distribution of overt and null pronouns in contexts of continuity, per participant group. 432 20.10 Comparison of explicit and null pronouns in contexts of continuity, per ANOVA. 432 20.11 Distribution of explicit pronoun type in contexts of continuity, per participant group. 433 20.12 Explicit and null pronouns in contexts of switch reference, according to participants. 434 20.13 Distribution of explicit and null pronouns in contexts of switch reference, per participants, according to ANOVA. 435 20.14 Distribution of overt pronoun type in contexts of switch reference, per participants. 436 20.15 Summary of the distribution of overt and null pronoun type in contexts of continuity and switch reference, per participant group. 436 20.16 Distribution of overt and null pronouns according to the age of participants. 437 20.17 Distribution of pronoun type in contexts of continuity, per the age of the participants. 438

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20.18 Distribution of pronoun type in contexts of contrast, per age of participant. 438 21.1 Representative samples of Spanish/Palenquero lexical sets. 449 21.2 Palenquero free subject pronouns and their sources. 452 21.3 Sampling of Palenquero words and their Kikongo etymologies (adapted from Schwegler forthc. a, forthc. c). 460 21.4 Sampling of Palenquero words of Spanish origin that are routinely labeled as “African” by Palenqueros. 462 21.5 Examples of word sets that are always code specific, that is never borrowed into the other language. 464 27.1 Population of Latino groups in several US cities (United States Census 2000). 580 27.2 Chicago’s six largest Hispanic communities (US Census 1990 and 2000). 589 27.3 Lexical items, vocabulary identification task (Potowski 2008). 591 33.1 Differences between innovative and conservative dialects of Spanish. 707 33.2 Non-standard postvocalic /s/ forms: percentage of usage in Murcia. 713 33.3 Correlation of results (Hernández-Campoy 2003a: 249). 716 33.4 Percentages of usage of the past perfect forms in Spanish. 721

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Patrícia M. Amaral is currently a Lecturer (US Assistant Professor) in the School of Cultures, Languages, and Area Studies at the University of Liverpool. She was a postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University, working with Professor Eve Clark on pragmatic development in first language acquisition. Her research focuses on pragmatics, language acquisition, and language and contact. Paola Bentivoglio is full professor of Spanish Linguistics at Universidad Central de Venezuela (Caracas), where she also coordinates the Master’s program in Linguistics. Her research areas are: syntactic variation, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics.

José Luis Blas Arroyo is a professor of Hispanic Linguistics at the Universitat Jaume I (Castellón, Spain), where he teaches sociolinguistics and pragmatics in the Faculty of Arts. His main research areas are devoted to variationist and pragmatic topics as well as to bilingual matters related to Spanish in contact with other peninsular languages. He has published a number of different books (Sociolingüística del español, Las comunidades de habla bilingües, etc.) and many articles in international journals on these subjects (Language Variation and Change, Journal of Pragmatics, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, Spanish in Context, Discourse and Society, Oralia, etc.). Richard Cameron works primarily in sociolinguistics and discourse analysis. In sociolinguistics, he pursues quantitative dialect research with the goal of applying or testing linguistic and social theory. Topics he has pursued include the functional compensation hypothesis, accessibility theory, language change, variationist gender expression meets Leonard Bloomfield, and successful communication in medical settings. Currently, he is the head of the Department of Linguistics and Less Commonly Taught Languages at the University of Illinois at Chicago where he also teaches on the Hispanic Linguistics Program in the Department of Hispanic and Italian Studies. He plays the harmonica.

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J. Clancy Clements is Professor of Linguistics and Spanish and Portuguese at Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. His main areas of interest are contact linguistics and functional syntax, with a focus on varieties of Iberian Romance languages. His publications include The linguistic legacy of Spanish and Portuguese (2009), Genesis of a language: the formation and development of Korlai Portuguese (1996), five co-edited volumes and many articles on language contact phenomena and functional linguistics. Laura Colantoni is associate professor at the Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Toronto. Her research focuses on experimental ap - proaches to sound change and categorization and the second language acquisition of variable phonetic parameters. Together with J. Steele, she has edited the Selected Proceedings of the Third Conference on Laboratory Approaches to Spanish Phonology, and her essays have appeared in Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, and Applied Psycholinguistics. Serafín M. Coronel-Molina is an assistant professor in the School of Education at Indiana University. His areas of research are revitalization of indigenous languages (Quechua and Aymara), politics of language, language attitudes and ideologies, minority languages and technology, language maintenance and shift, language contact phenomena, second and foreign language acquisition and learning, and culture and identity in the Andes and beyond. Manuel Díaz-Campos is an Associate Professor of Hispanic Sociolinguistics at Indiana University, Bloomington. He has published on the acquisition of sociolinguistic variables in L1, sociolinguistic variation, acquisition of second language phonology, and topics in Spanish laboratory phonology. He is especially interested in phonological variation in child and adult language as well as in the acquisition of second language phonology by native speakers of English learning Spanish. His research appears in notable journals such as Language in Society, Probus, Lingua, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Spanish in Context, among others. Anna María Escobar is an associate professor in the Department of Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her research and teaching interests include sociolinguistics, contact linguistics, language variation and change, and grammaticalization. Her research focuses on the origin, development, and diffusion of contact variants in Spanish in contact with Quechua. She is author, co-author or co-editor of five books and several articles. She is currently writing a book on the emergence of Andean Spanish. Ofelia García is a professor on the Ph.D. program of Urban Education and of Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian Literatures and Languages at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. She has been Professor of Bilingual Education at Columbia University’s Teachers College and Dean of the School of Education at the Brooklyn Campus of Long Island University. Among her recent books are: Bilingual education in the 21st century: a global perspective; Educating emergent bilin- guals (with J. Kleifgen); Handbook of language and ethnic identity (with J. Fishman);

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Negotiating language policies in schools: educators as policymakers (with K. Menken); Imagining multilingual schools (with T. Skutnabb-Kangas and M. Torres-Guzmán), and A reader in bilingual education (with C. Baker). She is the Associate General Editor of the International Journal of the Sociology of Language, and has been a Fulbright Scholar, and a Spencer Fellow of the US National Academy of Education. Kimberly L. Geeslin is an associate professor in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese, where she directs the program in Hispanic Linguistics. Her teaching and research focus on the acquisition of Spanish and the intersection of second language acquisition and language variation. Some of her recent publications have appeared in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, Hispania, Spanish in Context, and Bilingualism, Language, and Cognition. Michelle Geoffrion-Vinci is Associate Professor of Spanish at Lafayette College. A specialist in contemporary literature of Spain and language-teaching methodologies with emphasis on Spanish for Heritage Learners, her books include Woman as symbol in the poetry of Rosalía de Castro (2002) and ¡Sí se puede! (Yes you can!) a transitional course for heritage speakers of Spanish (2008), the latter co-authored with María Carreira. Geoffrion-Vinci has also published essays on female antiheroes, food and identity construction, and formations of l’ècriture féminine in the short narrative of contemporary Spanish author Cristina Fernández Cubas (Arenys de Mar, Barcelona, 1945–). Bryan James Gordon’s research spans over gender and sexuality, bridges between social and cognitive theories of language, and language-revitalization efforts with the Umónhon Nation Public School of Macy, Nebraska, building upon six years’ research with Pánka, Umónhon, Báxoje and Jíwere communities. He completed his MA, on an information-structural phenomenon in Pánka and Umónhon, at the University of Minnesota in 2008; and is currently on the joint Ph.D. program in Linguistics and Anthropology at the University of Arizona. Shaw N. Gynan holds a Ph.D. in Ibero-Romance Philology and Linguistics from the University of Texas at Austin. He is currently Director of the Linguistics Program at Western Washington University. His focus of interest since 1995 has been Paraguayan linguistic demography and language policy. Juan Manuel Hernández-Campoy is Full Professor in Sociolinguistics at the University of Murcia (Spain). His research interests include sociolinguistics, dialectology, and the history of English, where he has published extensively: books such as Sociolingüística británica (Barcelona: Octaedro, 1993); Geolingüística (Murcia: Editum, 1999); Metodología de la investigación sociolingüística (Granada: Comares; with M. Almeida, 2005); Diccionario de sociolingüística (Madrid: Gredos, with P. Trudgill, 2007), and articles in leading journals such as Language in Society, Journal of Sociolinguistics, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, Language Variation and Change, Language and Communication, Folia Linguistica, Spanish in Context, and several others.

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Jonathan Holmquist is an associate professor in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at Temple University in Philadelphia. His research has focused on dialectal variation and socio-historical context in northern Spain and central Puerto Rico. He is the author of Language loyalty and linguistic variation: a study in Spanish Cantabria and co-editor of the Selected Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics. His essays have appeared in Language in Society, the International Journal of the Sociology of Language, American Anthropologist, the Modern Language Journal, and in various proceedings of the Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics. John Lipski is Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Spanish and linguistics at Pennsylvania State University. His research involves language contact and bilingualism, especially involving phonological variation, and the contribution of the African diaspora to the development of Spanish. His most recent books include Varieties of Spanish in the United States, Afro-Bolivian Spanish, and A history of Afro- Hispanic language. Ana R. Luís is Assistant Professor in Linguistics at the University of Coimbra, Portugal. Her research focuses on morphology and its interfaces with phonology and syntax, including cliticization and inflectional paradigms. More recently, she has explored the morphology of Portuguese contact varieties, with a special emphasis on Barranquenho and Indo-Portuguese creoles. Clare Mar-Molinero is Professor of Spanish Sociolinguistics at the University of Southampton, UK, where she is Head of Modern Languages and Director of the Centre for Mexican-Southampton Collaboration. She teaches and has published widely on language ideologies, language and globalization and language and migration, focusing on Spanish. Significant books include The politics of language in the Spanish-speaking world, and as co-editor, Language ideologies, policies and prac- tices, Globalization in the Spanish-speaking world, and Discourses on language and integration. Antonio Medina-Rivera is Associate Professor of Spanish at Cleveland State University where he teaches linguistics and Latin American literature and culture. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Southern California. Professor Medina-Rivera’s areas of research include phonological variation, Spanish in the United States, male representation in film and literature, and Puerto Rican and US Hispanic literature. Norma Mendoza-Denton (Ph.D. Stanford 1997, Linguistics) is Associate Professor of Linguistic Anthropology at the University of Arizona – Tucson. Her areas of specialization are linguistic anthropology and multimedia ethnography, with an emphasis on youth, bilingualism, and style in language. Professor Mendoza- Denton conducted research among teenage Latina gang members in the San Francisco Bay Area. The gangs’ ideologies associated aspects of language behavior with concepts of femininity, ethnicity, and nationalism. This research led to the publication of her 2008 book Homegirls: language and cultural practice among latina youth gangs, published by Wiley-Blackwell. Mendoza-Denton’s recent research

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interests include gangs’ use of the internet, political speech, and the post-9/11 Latin American migration to Europe. Francisco Moreno-Fernández is Professor of Hispanic Linguistics at the University of Alcalá (Spain). His research focuses on Hispanic sociolinguistics and dialectology, as well as on international teaching of Spanish. He is author of Historia social de las lenguas de España (2005), Spanish in Spain: the sociolinguistics of bilingual areas (2007), The sociolinguistics of Spanish: social history, norm, variation and change in Spain (2008), Principios de sociolingüística y sociología del lenguaje (fourth edition 2008), and La lengua española en su geografía (2010). He is currently Executive Editor of Lengua y Migración, Editor of Spanish in Context, and member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Mercedes Niño-Murcia is Associate Professor of Hispanic Linguistics at the University of Iowa. She studies relationships between language and society, with an emphasis on vernacular literacy in the Peruvian Andes (co-authored ethnography forthcoming with Duke University 2011), multilingualism and identity (John Benjamins 2008), language codification processes, and the politics of language difference. She is currently working on the politics of writing and standardization in several Latin American contexts from writing on the walls to letters to saints, not the official ones but popular ones “canonized” by their faithful. Luis Ortiz-López is Full Professor in the Department of Hispanic Studies and on the Graduate Program in Linguistics at the University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras. His areas of research broadly include sociolinguistics, variation, language contact and second language acquisition. He has published extensively in national and international journals and in edited volumes. Recent work includes Huellas Etno- sociolingüísticas bozales y afrocubanas (1996); El Caribe Hispánico: perspectivas lingüís- ticas actuales (editor) (1998); Contacto y contextos lingüísticos: el español en los Estados Unidos y en contacto con otras lenguas (co-edited with Manel Lacorte) (2005), and El español y el criollo haitiano: contacto de lenguas y adquisición de segunda lengua (2010). Ricardo Otheguy is Professor of Linguistics at the City University of New York’s Graduate Center. His publications in theoretical linguistics are in the areas of Spanish linguistics, functional grammar, and the Spanish of the United States. His publications in applied linguistics have been in the area of bilingual education and the teaching of Spanish to native speakers of Spanish. Darren Paffey teaches Spanish linguistics and translation at the University of Southampton, UK. His Ph.D. thesis (2008) investigated language ideologies and standardization in the discourse of the Spanish Language Academy, particularly in the Spanish national press. His articles have appeared in Language Policy and in edited volumes published by Vervuert- Iberoamericana and Continuum. He is currently involved in establishing a center for research and educational collaboration between Southampton and Mexico. Jorge Porcel teaches at the Missouri University of Science and Technology. His area of specialization is sociolinguistics. In particular, he covers the areas of

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bilingualism, language contact, language attitudes, language maintenance and shift, language policy and politics, and language ideologies. He also has taught courses at the graduate and undergraduate levels, in Spanish phonetics and phonology, Latin American dialectology, general linguistics, generative grammar, and structure of Modern Spanish. Kim Potowski is Associate Professor of Hispanic Linguistics at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Her research focuses on Spanish in the United States, including work in a dual immersion school (Multilingual Matters 2007), discourse markers, the Spanish of “MexiRicans,” and teaching Spanish to heritage speakers. Her edited volume Language diversity in the United States (Cambridge University Press) profiles the most popular non-English languages spoken in communities in the United States. She is currently Executive Editor of Spanish in Context. José-Antonio Samper-Padilla is a professor at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain). His research focuses on sociolinguistics, the Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands and applied linguistics and language learning. He is the author of Estudio sociolingüístico del español de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and co- author of Producción y comprensión de textos, Léxico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las “Voces canarias” recopiladas por Galdós. He also co-edited the Macrocorpus de la norma lingüística culta de las principales ciudades del mundo hispánico. Lotfi Sayahi is Associate Professor of Hispanic Linguistics at the University at Albany, State University of New York. His articles on language contact and Spanish in North Africa have appeared in several journals including the Journal of Sociolinguistics, the Journal of Language Sciences, and La Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana. He has co-edited on three occasions the Selected Proceedings of the Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics. Adam Schwartz is a post-doctoral fellow in the Department of Modern Languages and Literature at the University of Texas-Pan American. He has published on the use and consumption of Spanish in public and private White spaces, and is particularly interested in understanding Spanish-language education in the United States as supported by – and complementary to – racism and White privilege. Armin Schwegler is Professor of Spanish Linguistics at the University of California, Irvine. He is the author of several books and numerous articles and his latest works include Lengua y ritos del Palo Monte Mayombe: dioses cubanos y sus fuentes africanas (2005) and Fonética y fonología españolas (2010, fourth edition). He is founding co- editor of the Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana (RILI), and co-editor of the Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages (JPCL). Scott A. Schwenter is Associate Professor of Hispanic linguistics and Vice Chair of the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at the Ohio State University. His research focuses on morphosyntactic variation and pragmatics, including their intersection, in both Spanish and Portuguese. He is the author of Pragmatics of con- ditional marking (Garland, 1999) as well as of numerous journal articles in, among

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others, Hispania, Hispanic Linguistics, Language Variation and Change, Linguistics, Journal of Linguistics, Journal of Pragmatics, Oralia, and Studies in Language. Mercedes Sedano is Full Professor of Spanish Linguistics at Universidad Central de Venezuela (Caracas), where she teaches syntax at the graduate level. Her research areas are: Spanish syntax, syntactic variation, and pragmatics. María José Serrano is Professor of Spanish Linguistics at University of La Laguna (Tenerife). Her research areas are: morphosyntactic variation, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and cognitivism. Megan Solon is a graduate student of Hispanic Linguistics in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at Indiana University. Her research interests include second language acquisition and language contact. She gained her MA in Spanish Language and Literature from Miami University in 2007. Fernando Tejedo-Herrero is Associate Professor of Spanish at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. His research focuses on socio-historical approaches to language, including changes from Latin to Romance (“The metalinguistics of the term latín in Hispano-romance (thirteenth to sixteenth centuries)” in Roger Wright, (ed.), Latin vulgaire – latin tardif VIII, Hildesheim, Zürich, and New York: Georg Olms Verlag) and standardization processes in Early Modern Spanish. His publications have appeared in journals such as Romance Philology and Bulletin of Hispanic Studies. Almeida Jacqueline Toribio is Professor of Linguistics in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at the University of Texas, Austin. Her scholarly interests reside at the intersection of linguistics and the sociology of language. She has co- edited, with Barbara Bullock, The Cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switching and a special issue of Bilingualism: Language and Cognition devoted to bilingual convergence and she has edited a special issue of Lingua presenting syntactic-theoretical perspectives on code-switching. Her research appears in notable journals, including Linguistic Inquiry, Lingua, Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Inter- national Journal of Bilingualism, Spanish in Context, among others. Lourdes Torres is the Vincent DePaul Professor of Latin American and Latino Studies at DePaul University. She is the author of Puerto Rican discourse and Co-editor of Tortilleras: Hispanic and Latina lesbian expression and Third world women and the politics of feminism. Her essays have appeared in MELUS, Centro Journal, and International Journal of Bilingualism. Rena Torres Cacoullos studies variability and change in data of language production. Her work addresses how to establish grammatical change diachronically and grammatical difference synchronically, including in language contact situations, by comparing patterns of linguistic variation. Donald Tuten is Associate Professor of Spanish and Linguistics at Emory University (Atlanta, Georgia, US). He is the author of Koineization in medieval Spanish (Mouton de Gruyter, 2003). His research in historical sociolinguistics focuses primarily on the question of how social and cultural factors influence language change.

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Diane R. Uber is Professor of Spanish at the College of Wooster in northeastern Ohio, and teaches courses in Spanish language and linguistics. She holds a Ph.D. in Linguistics from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Currently, she contin- ues research on forms of address in the workplace in the Spanish-speaking world. Guadalupe Valdés is the Bonnie Katz Tenenbaum Professor of Education at Stanford University. She specializes in language pedagogy and applied linguistics. She has carried out extensive work on bilingualism and education and in main- taining and preserving heritage languages among minority populations since the 1970s. Her book, Developing minority language resources: the case of Spanish in California (Valdés, Fishman, Chávez and Pérez, Multilingual Matters, 2006) exam- ined Spanish language maintenance and instruction in both secondary and post- secondary institutions. Her last book, Latino children learning English: steps in the journey, which examines the interactional language development of K-2 children over a three-year period is being published by Teachers College Press.

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MANUEL DÍAZ- CAMPOS

Research in Hispanic Sociolinguistics has grown in the last two decades to such an extent that it has become an independent subfield. Variationist studies as well as sociological and ethnographic approaches are used to study different issues involving the use of Spanish in native settings or in language contact situations in the United States, Latin America, Europe, and Africa. New methodologies have spread, influencing academic research in Latin America and Spain beyond tradi- tional areas of interest such as dialectology, thus re-directing investigations into novel endeavors. One cannot neglect the definite influence of mainstream sociolinguistic studies in the United States on the development of Spanish sociolinguistic research. The sociolinguistic tradition that began with the seminal work of William Labov (see Chambers 2004) has extended its branches in very productive ways. The publication of the Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistic responds to the need of providing a volume specially dedicated to sociolinguistic research in Spanish as a resource for scholars, graduate students, and professors interested in the diversity of Spanish in the variety of geographical and social contexts in which the language is used. The history of sociolinguistic studies is tied to progenitor disciplines such as dialectology. The study of geographic variation was the predominant focus of interest in Spain and Latin America until well into the twentieth century. Perhaps, El Estudio Coordinado de la Norma Lingüística Culta de las Principales Ciudades de Iberoamérica y de la Península Ibérica (Coordinated Study of the Educated Linguistic Norm of the Main Iberian- American Cities and Iberian Peninsula Cities) can be considered the most ambitious project on dialectology, whose goal was to capture dialectal variation across the Spanish-speaking world (see Lope Blanch 1986). Juan Manuel Lope Blanch, from Universidad Autónoma de México, proposed the idea of the Norma Culta Project during the Second Symposium of the Inter- American Program on Linguistics and the Teaching of Languages held at Indiana University,

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Bloomington in 1964. The goal of the project was to describe educated speech in informal and formal situations across the diverse dialects of Spanish. Taped- recorded materials were collected in several situations: semi-structured dialogues, unstructured dialogues with two informants, concealed recordings of unstructured dialogues, and formal speech from classes, talks, and so on. Participants were selected according to the following social and demographic criteria: (i) being born in the city where recordings were conducted or having lived in that city since childhood, (ii) having Spanish-speaking parents preferably born in the same city, and (iii) having completed elementary and high school education in the same city. Participants included were from different generational groups: 25 to 35 years old, 36 to 50 years old, and more than 50 years old. The valuable work done by several institutions in Spain and Latin America has produced oral samples from 12 cities including Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Caracas, La Paz, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Lima, Madrid, México, San José de Costa Rica, San Juan de Puerto Rico, Santiago de Chile, and Seville. Even though the main focus of the Norma Culta Project was to study dialectal variation, aspects of the research design that took into consideration social and stylistic factors can be considered advanced for the time the project was launched. Nowadays, there are new initiatives to collect oral data with a sociolinguistic approach. El Proyecto para el Estudio Sociolingüístico del Español de España y de América ‘Project for the Sociolinguistic Study of Spanish from Spain and America’ (PRESEEA) comprises the effort of more than 40 institutions to collect oral samples of speech taking into account geographical and sociolinguistic diversity in the Spanish- speaking world. Sociolinguistic studies in Spanish can be traced back to the 1970s. In well docu- mented articles about the history of sociolinguistics in Spain (Samper Padilla 2004) and Latin American (López- Morales 2004), Cedegren (1973) is regarded as the first variationist study examining Spanish data. The study of syllable- final /s/ deletion in Panamanian Spanish in Cedegren’s dissertation, entitled Interplay of social and linguistic factors in Panama, was a pioneering work that initiated the application of the variable rule analysis of linguistic phenomena by researchers on both sides of the Atlantic. Seminal as well is the groundbreaking theoretical proposal presented by Cedergren and Sankoff (1974), where the variable rule is adopted as a construct to describe language variation and change phenomena based on Spanish, French and English data. One could continue to add to this list the groundbreaking work of scholars such as Terrell who contributed to the study of Caribbean varieties of Spanish. In the 1970s, there was also the initial enthusiasm of the Symposium on Caribbean Dialectology (Simposio sobre Corrientes Actuales en la Dialectología del Caribe Hispánico), organized for the first time in the city of San Juan, Puerto Rico in 1976. This symposium on Caribbean Dialectology brought together linguists and sociolinguists from the United States, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela who were studying socio-phonological variation and syntactic variation phenomena using the new sociolinguistic methodologies at the time. There were also investigations focusing on theoretical descriptions of Caribbean phonology and morpho-syntax. Scholars such as Orlando Alba, Paola Bentivoglio, Henrietta Cedergren, Francesco D’Introno, Jorge Guitart, Robert Hammond, Humberto

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López-Morales, Amparo Morales, Rafael Núñez-Cedeño, Maximiliano Jiménez Sabater, Mercedes Sedano, Tracy Terrel, María Vaquero, among many others, presented their work in this forum. This event continued to be organized for many years and published proceedings are still available (such as López-Morales 1978, Alba 1982). Spanish as a language has gained momentum due to its large number of speakers, currently estimated to be around 425 million people worldwide (Azevedo 2009). Spanish is spoken in Europe, Latin America, certain areas of Africa, the United States, and to some extent in the Philippines. It is considered the fourth language with the most speakers in the world. The fact that Spanish is spoken in so many areas of the world creates an immediate interest for sociolinguists who focus on the effects of social contexts in language use. In the United States, Spanish currently has the sixth-largest speaking population in comparison to other Spanish- speaking populations (Azevedo 2009). Given this current state of affairs there exists a growing number of investigations about the societal effects of the use of Spanish in the context of the United States. The Modern Language Association reports that in 2002, over half a million undergraduate and graduate students in the United States were enrolled in Spanish language and literature courses (Welles 2004). A search performed via the Modern Language Association web site (available at http://www.mla.org) generates a list of 52 graduate programs in Spanish language and literature in the United States, and reports almost 10,000 graduate students enrolled in Spanish language programs in the year 2002 (Welles 2004). When considered together, these facts reveal the need for the special volume which you now hold in your hands, which brings together contributions by leading sociolinguists in order to provide a current perspective of key issues within the rele- vant subfield, as well as considerations of future research directions. The goal of this Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistics is to provide a comprehensive presentation of the field by including articles in the most researched areas of Hispanic sociolinguistics, from quantitative to qualitative, oriented research. Therefore, the book is structured in six sections: 1 – Phonological variation; 2 – Morpho- syntactic variation; 3 – Language, the individual and society; 4 – Spanish in contact; 5 – Spanish in the United States, heritage language, L2 Spanish; 6 – Language policy/planning. Language attitudes and ideology. The handbook includes research on both Spanish in the Americas and Spain as well as current variation theory applied to these varieties. The section on phonological variation includes chapters on linguistic and social factors conditioning variation as well as current laboratory approaches used to study sound variation and change. Special chapters are dedicated to socio- phonetic variation in Latin American and Spain. Section 2 deals with chapters concerned with linguistics and social factors conditioning morphosyntactic variation, grammaticalization, and studies about variation phenomena in Latin American and Spain. Section 3 is concerned with chapters on aging and variation, gender, forms of address, acquisition of phonological variation, historical sociolinguistics, and sociolinguistic variation in second language speakers. Section 4 is dedicated to Spanish in contact with Quechua, Guaraní, Catalan, Portuguese, Haitian Creole, Arabic, and the Creole language Palenquero. Section

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5 contains chapters on a diversity of issues including bilingualism, code-switching, identity in bilingual communities, heritage speakers, and language maintenance in the context of the United States. Section 6 includes chapters on language planning, bilingual education in Latin America, language and identity issues in Spain and Latin America, and linguistic imperialism. The comprehensive nature of the book facilitates using it for courses in Hispanic sociolinguistics, and research semi- nars on Hispanic linguistics in general. Students preparing for comprehensive Masters and PhD exams can also use the handbook as a resource for obtaining information about the most current developments in the field. The authors of the chapters include well- known researchers in the field of Hispanic sociolinguistics and young promising scholars, balancing the contribution of different academic generations in the handbook. The handbook is com- posed of 35 chapters written by 42 linguists, 18 women and 24 men. Our authors come from a diversity of academic traditions including Canada, England, Puerto Rico, Spain, the United States, and Venezuela. One can also point out the diversity of origin of the contributors comprising people from Argentina, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Peru, Spain, Tunisia, the United States, and Venezuela. We are proud to have a distinguished roster of scholars presenting a state-of- the- art perspective on Hispanic sociolinguistics in the Spanish-speaking world. Our hope is that this Handbook becomes a source for new ideas that future generations of scholars can pursue and refine in improving our understanding of Spanish sociolinguistics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistics is the result of the hard work of multiple people. I want to express my thanks to all my graduate and undergraduate students at Indiana University, Bloomington for inspiring me to create this book that I hope will be useful in the academic training of future generations. I am really grateful to Stephen Fafulas and Greg Newall for their help in assisting me with the editing of the book. We spent many hours together reading and thinking about the content and form of each chapter. Their help is invaluable and I want to recognize their efforts in the process of editing. I would also like to thank Danielle Descoteaux and Julia Kirk at Wiley-Blackwell, the publisher, for their support during the process of conceiving this handbook. I would like to give special thanks to the reviewers who did an outstanding job in reading each article and providing feed- back to the authors: Jorge Aguilar Sánchez, Paola Bentivoglio, José Luis Blas Arroyo, Richard Cameron, J. Clancy Clements, Laura Colantoni, Marcus Erikson, Stephen Fafulas, Richard File- Muriel, Tanya Flores, Kimberly Geeslin, Michael Gradoville, Shaw Gynan, Juan Manuel Hernández Campoy, Elizabeth Herring, Jonathan Holmquist, Jason Killam, Consuelo López-Morillas, Miguel Márquez Martínez, Antonio Medina-Rivera, Jim Michnowicz, Clare Molinero, Greg Newall, Mercedes Niño Murcia, Kim Potowski, Rafael Orozco, Ricardo Otheguy, Scott Schwenter, Lauren Schmidt, Adam Schwartz, Mercedes Sedano, María José Serrano, Megan Solon, Rena Torres- Cacoullos, Lourdes Torres, Diane Uber, and Erik Willis. I would like to thank my S429 class who read and made valuable

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suggestions on a number of chapters: Morgan Beatty, Margaret Bruce, Heydi Correa- Encarnación, Chelsea Crean, Benjamin Eisenkramer, Jamie Enright, Allison Gray, Tiffany Guridy, Austin Hall, María Victoria Iglesias, Lionel Montenegro, Sasha Newkirk, Alaura Ruterbories, Nicole C. Slivensky, Amy Stoller, Kaitlin Williams, and Lauren Young. I would like to express my gratitude to each one of the authors who made the Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistics a reality. Their hard work and academic commitment are reflected in each chapter. Last but not least, I would like to thank my wife, Maribel Morean Anzola, who sat with me on many occasions to review references. She provided me with her love and uncondi- tional support.

REFERENCES

Alba, O. 1982. El español del Caribe. Santo Lope Blanch, Juan Manuel. 1986. El estudio Domingo: PUCMM. del español hablado culto. Historia de un Azevedo, Milton. 2009. Introducción a proyecto. México: UNAM. lingüística española. Upper Saddle River, López-Morales, Humberto. (ed). 1978, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Corrientes actuales en la dialectología del Cedregren, Henrietta. 1973. The interplay Caribe. San Juan de Puerto Rico, of social and linguistic factors in Universidad de Puerto Rico. Panama. Cornell University Ph.D. López-Morales, Humberto. 2004. La dissertation. investigación sociolingüística en Cedergren, Henrietta and David Sankoff. Hispanoamérica durante los últimos 1974. Variable rules: performance as a veinticinco años. Lingüística española statistical reflection of competence. actual 26 (2). 151–173. Language 50 (2). 333–355. Samper Padilla, José Antonio. 2004. La Chambers, Jack. 2004. Studying language investigación sociolingüística en España variation: an informal epistemology. durante los últimos veinticinco años. In Jack Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Lingüística española actual 26 (2). 125–149. Natalie Schilling- Estes (eds), 3–14. The Welles, Elizabeth. 2004. Foreign language handbook of language variation and change. enrollments in United States institutions Oxford: Blackwell. of higher education. ADFL 35. 7–26.

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