Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence Volume IV Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence JUR Press Office for Undergraduate Research and Artistry Colorado State University 801 Oval Drive Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1052 Fax: (970)-491-3483
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ii A Letter from the Editor:
The Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence has grown into so much more than a journal for undergraduates by undergraduates. While our flagship journal maintains the mission to share the most prominent undergraduate work across all disciplines, our organization has expanded into the JUR Press which now publishes a new line of discipline-specific journals and books. Our first disciplinary journal will be released in 2013 as a collaboration with the Rocky Mountain Sustainability and Science Network in the form of a journal of sustainability.
As our scope of services has expanded, so too has our staff. In addition to our core team of editors, operations and management personnel at our headquarters on the campus of Colorado State University, we also have staff working in countries around the world such as Mexico, India, and the United Kingdom. Most exciting, we have established JUR Editorial Offices on the campuses of the Autonomous University of the Yucatan (Mexico), the University of New Haven (Connecticut), and Schreiner University (Texas). This spring, JUR hosted our first annual Editors’ Training Conference at our headquarters on the campus of Colorado State University. This annual event will allow us to expand our editorial board to the campuses of over twenty-two domestic and international institutions over the course of the next five years!
This May, I will be graduating with a degree in Biology from Colorado State University. My next endeavor includes medical school. Thus, in keeping with the policies of JUR, I will be stepping down as the Editor in Chief to make room for the next generation of JUR’s leadership. I would like to thank all those who have helped facilitate our expansion during my tenure at the Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence. I extend my special thanks for the amazing support we have received from our donors, Colorado State University, and the surrounding community. My most sincere thanks go to our Faculty Advisory Board and our Faculty Supervisor, Dr. Mark Brown. Several years ago, Dr. Brown had the vision of establishing a journal for undergraduates, by undergraduates. We know we have made him proud. I would also like to thank our hundreds of referees for helping us select the most professional and high impact pieces for our publication and I thank our authors for having the courage to submit their amazing work.
I would like to personally thank the amazing staff with whom I have had the pleasure of working for the past fourteen months. Getting to know each one of you on a personal and professional level has been a life changing experience for me. Our staff exhibits the strongest work ethic and nothing that this organization has accomplished could have been done without the personal commitment made by each of you. I wish you all the best.
Finally, I am excited to hand the reins over to our new Editor in Chief, Deanna Cox. Deanna is completing her second year as a Natural Resource Management major in the University Honors Program at Colorado State University. As an Associate Editor for Natural Resources, Deanna has taken great strides and exhibited unequaled initiative and leadership potential. As Editor in Chief, I know she will take the journal to new heights. I invite our readership, referees, and staff to join me in welcoming Deanna.
Sincerely, Pasha Lookian Editor in Chief Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence
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T A I P Height variations in football shoes (cleats) for running backs and Peyton P. Faganel, Ty C. Drake, Angela R. Dahl-Miller, 6 receivers may not alter ankle spatting effects in football field drills ATC and David S. Senchina, PhD Drake University, Iowa Beware Thin Air: Altitude’s Influence on NBA Game Outcomes Shane Moore and Jonathan Scott 11 Colorado State University, Colorado Inhibition of Human Glutaminase by 5-[3-bromo-4- Paul R. West, Matthew Scholfield and Norman P. 18 (dimethylamino)phenyl]-2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-2,2-dimethylbenzo[a] Curthoys phenanthridin-4(1H)-one Colorado State University, Colorado From the Pupil’s Perspective Amanda H. Beach and Lindsay S. Leech with Tod R. 24 Clapp, PhD Colorado State University, Colorado Evaluating Medical School Selection Criteria: Are we choosing Ryan Knodle 27 the best candidates? Staff Editorial, Colorado State University, Colorado The Differentiation of Radial Glial Cell Line C6 in vitro Kevin Christopher with Andy Cook, PhD 30 Wheeling Jesuit University, West Virginia The Glorification of Gluten-Free Kapila Pothu 34 Staff Editorial, Colorado State University, Colorado Effect of capping ligand on serum protein adsorption and cell Catherine Kiyota and Michelle Kiyota with Christin 36 uptake of gold nanoparticles Grabinski, MS and Saber Hussain, PhD Air Force Academy, Colorado Emergence of structures and forms in complex adaptive systems Atanu Bikash Chatterjee 40 in nature Bhilai Institute of Technology and Indian Astrobiology Research Centre, India Detritus, Water Volume, and pH in Epiphytic Bromeliads’ Central Nicholas A. George 45 Tank Colorado State University, Colorado Effects of caffeine on the growth and post-embryonic Emily C. Perregaux with Nathalie Van Der Rijst and 49 development in Manduca Sexta Kurt P. Vandock Houghton College, New York Windows & Doors | Going Under for the Third Time | My Paula Giovanini-Morris 54 Mother, I Am | Shattered Colorado State University, Colorado Untitled Frances Ritchie 58 Colorado State University, Colorado Untitled Zachary Heil 59 Colorado State University, Colorado June 22, 2009 | Secrets | Born and Raised Adrian R. P. Brown 60 Oregon College of Art & Craft, Oregon Books or Stories? The Changing Value of Social Education in Elena C. Robertson 62 Rural Morocco Occidental College, California The Impacts of Westernization through Short-Term Volunteer Elena C. Robertson 69 Teaching in Ayutthaya, Thailand: An Observational Study Occidental College, California Does race matter in international beauty pageants? A quantitative Selena Zhong and Rima Wilkes, PhD 74 analysis of Miss World University of British Columbia, Canada
iv Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV T C
T A I P The Crippling Effects of Labeling on the Public School System Jamie McLaughlin with Fred Ulrich 83 University of South Florida, Florida Sovereignty and Underdevelopment in China: The 1842 Treaty of Jacob R.W. Damstra 86 Nanjing and the Unequal Treaties The University of Western Ontario, Canada On Ice Nicholas Kirkland 90 Colorado State University, Colorado An Epiphany from One Crazy Time when I Went to the Library Elizabeth Strait 93 for the Books Staff Editorial, Colorado State University, Colorado
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E S O S A B Editor in Chief: Director of Operations: Graduate Advisor: Pasha Lookian Tysha Medeiros Kate Wilkins Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Managing Editor: Administrative Director: Colorado State University Jessica Anderson Kendall Hershey Faculty Advisor: Associate Editors: Media Director: Dr. Mark Brown Colorado State University Kasey Broscheit Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences Deanna Cox Director of the Office for Undergraduate Jeffrey Dale Promotional Director: Research and Artistry Benjamin Fisk Monique Veiga Faculty Advisory Board: Ryan Henderson Dr. Susan Athey Kevin Jasica Expansions Associate: Business Ryan Knodle Jaime Pritchard Dr. Ken Blehm Meng Koh Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences Elizabeth Linxwiler Layout Production Intern: Dr. John Didier Irene Lui Jessica Ness Liberal Arts Kapila Pothu Dr. Chris Myrick Elizabeth Strait Copy Editor: Natural Resources Luke Wadman Elizabeth Linxwiler Dr. Matt Hickey Applied Human Sciences Schreiner University, Texas Director of Operations (India Branch): Dr. Nancy Irlbeck Jake Crawley Atanu Chatterjee Agricultural Sciences Claire Real Bhilai Institute of Technology, India Dr. Don Mykles Natural Sciences University of New Haven, Connecticut International Marketing Consultants: Dr. Tom Siller Alyssa Abraham Robert White Engineering Alexis Kellogg Natural Sciences, University of Leicester, Kayla Maciejewski England Michael Parlato
Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, México Martha Carreño Arely Lara Copy Editors: Victoria Burket Sarah West
Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV v Height variations in football shoes (cleats) for running backs and receivers may not alter ankle spatting e ects in football eld drills B P P. F , T C. D , A R. D -M , ATC D S. S , PD D U
Abstract: Spatting is one option for increasing ankle support for football players. It is unknown how the effects of spatting may be infl uenced by the height of the football shoe (cleat). Nine young adult males (21.6 ± 1.8 yr., 180 ± 1.7 cm, 72.6 ± 2.4 kg) performed two football drills (60 yd. sprint and 25 yd. cutting drill) with their ankles taped and spatted, once in low-top and once in mid-top football cleats. Heart rate, performance time, and measures of foot comfort and stability were recorded for each drill. Four ankle range-of-motion (ROM) measurements (dorsifl exion, plantarfl exion, talar eversion, talar inversion) were recorded for both conditions, plus additional control conditions. Subjects rated their feet as signifi cantly more comfortable in the low-top compared to the mid-top (p=0.015). Although there were no signifi cant differences in perceptions of stability, the average stability rating was higher for the mid-top. Expectedly, ankle ROM decreased in a statistically signifi cant manner (all p≤0.06) with increasing layers on the ankle: barefoot > taped only > taped + shod > taped + shod + spatted. However, there were no signifi cant differences in ROM by shoe height when ankles were either taped + shod + spatted or taped + shod. Heart rate and performance outcomes did not differ based on cleat. Despite the fact that the mid-top cleat covers the ankle malleolus, whereas the low-top cleat does not, it appears that shoe height infl uences perception but not performance or ROM when ankles are taped or taped and spatted.
Introduction often wear other ankle support measures changed how athletes performed in football Football players take care in selecting such as tape jobs, spat jobs (additional tape drills when their ankles were taped and their footwear, and different cleat models jobs over the cleat and sock), or ankle braces. spatted. Nine young adult males had their are marketed for different positions. In this Standard taping and bracing restrict ROM ankles taped and spatted in both low-top paper, the word “cleat” will be used in the and are effective at reducing the rates of or and mid-top football cleats in a balanced common or vernacular sense to refer to the stabilizing pre-existing ankle sprains.1,19 Also, randomized crossover design. Subjects entire shoe and not just the studs on the sole, a recent comprehensive review concluded performed both a sprint and cutting drill in which are technically also called “cleats” or that standard tape jobs, braces, and high- both conditions where performance time, “studs” or “spikes”. Running backs and tops do not impact performance.15 Much footwork errors, heart rate, and perceptions receivers usually choose a low- or mid-cut less is known about spatting. In terms of ankle comfort and stability were recorded. cleat, whereas linemen or linebackers usually of ROM, spatting or spatting + taping is choose a mid-cut (¾-cut) cleat. Lower-cut more restrictive than taping alone, though Materials & Methods cleats are lighter weight, whereas higher-cut there may be a loosening effect during Subject Characteristics cleats provide more support. exercise.10,12,16,18 In terms of performance, All procedures were approved by the The main reason why an athlete chooses a spatting + taping has not been associated Drake University Institutional Review Board more supportive, higher-top shoe is to reduce with declines in performance when compared (Drake IRB ID 2009-10031) prior to the the risk of or to stabilize pre-existing ankle to taping, but one study reported spatting commencement of the experiment, and all sprains by limiting ankle range-of-motion + bracing induced larger performance subjects gave written informed consent prior (ROM). Early work suggested that athletes losses than bracing alone.2,12,16 In terms of to participation. Subjects were included if who wore high-top shoes did not experience athletes’ perceptions, conditions for tape they were male, between the ages of 18-35, lower ankle sprain rates compared to athletes alone or brace alone were perceived as and could safely and competently exercise wearing low-top shoes.3,4 Subsequent work more comfortable than conditions involving in a size 11 football shoe. Subjects were suggested that shoes with taller uppers may spatting; for “stability,” athletes either excluded if they presented any physical reduce sprain rates depending on loading perceived spatted conditions were more conditions that precluded safe exercise, or if forces and foot angle.5,9,13 Most recent reviews stable or equivocal to other conditions.12,18 It they had sustained an ankle injury within two conclude high-top shoes reduce ankle ROM is not known whether the height of the cleat years of the study. Nine young adult males and can reduce ankle sprain rates.19,20 Most modifi es the effects of spatting. participated. Subject characteristics were of these studies occurred within the context The purpose of this investigation was as follows, expressed as means ± standard of basketball. to determine if the height of football cleats error: age = 21.6 ± 1.8 yr., height = 180 In addition to the cleat, football players typically used by running backs or receivers ± 1.7 cm, mass = 72.6 ± 2.4 kg, body fat
6 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S
both Cramer Products Inc.). A single layer before the cutting drill. For the sprint drill, of underwrap was applied (2 ¾” prewrap; a 60-yd. distance was measured and subjects Mueller Sports Medicine Inc.) Standard ran the distance as fast as possible. For the ½” athletic tape (Johnson & Johnson, Inc.) cutting drill, ten disc cones (Adidas Inc.) was used with half-width overlap between were arranged on the ground in two columns adjacent tape strips. The taping procedure is of fi ve cones each such that they alternated. described in detail elsewhere, but consisted Subjects were asked to run (“cut”) from the of anchor strips, stirrup strips, alternating fi rst cone in column A, to the fi rst cone in medial and lateral heel-locks, fi gure-8’s, and column B, to the second cone in column A, fi nishing strips.12 Spatting methodology and so forth, to the end of the series. Cones was identical to ankle taping except the within a column were spaced 5-yd. from following: no underwrap/spray adhesive was each other. The distance between the two used because the tape was applied directly columns was also 5-yd., but cones within over the cleat/sock, tape strips were adjusted the two columns were staggered such that when going under the cleat so that the tips the “forward distance” from a cone in one of the studs were left uncovered, and an column to the cone on the other column extra volume of tape was necessary given the was 2.5-yd. The total “forward distance” of added size of all coverings atop the ankle. the cutting drill was 25-yd., even though the subject ran over twice that distance within Procedures the drill. Initial anthropometric measurements After completing each drill, time-to- were taken in the laboratory. Height and completion and heart rate were recorded. weight were determined by a physician’s scale Accuracy measures (number of correct Figure 1: Subject wearing low-top cleat (top) and mid- (Health-o-Meter Professional), and body contacts and number of misses) were also top cleat (bottom). The white tape mark indicates the composition was determined via bioelectrical recorded for the cutting drill. Subjects were ankle lateral malleolus. impedance analysis, or BIA (BodyStat Inc.). presented with two separate 10-cm visual Subjects were fi tted with a heart rate monitor analogue scales after each drill for perception percentage = 12.3 ± 0.9%, resting heart rate worn directly against the chest (F6 model; of comfort and stability. Each scale consisted = 66.4 ± 4.1 beats per minute (bpm). For Polar Electro Oy). Football drills were of a 10-cm line anchored with two directives comparison to the football shoes used in performed on artifi cial turf (“Field Turf ” on either end. For the comfort scale, the the study, subjects were asked to bring their 2nd generation; Tarkett Sports Co.) at the anchor phrases were “least comfortable normal training shoes. The average mass of Drake University outdoor football stadium. imaginable,” [sic] and ”’most comfortable the subjects’ training shoes was 364.6 ± 9.9 Prior to exercise, subjects were allowed imaginable,” [sic] whereas for the stability g. ROM was determined using a standard up to fi ve minutes to warm up on the turf 12” goniometer (HPMS Inc.) with all in their normal training shoes. Subjects measurements taken at rest and on the right were asked to remove their shoes and socks. ankle. The four measurements taken were Goniometry was performed barefoot, dorsifl exion, plantarfl exion, talar eversion, and again after both of their ankles had and talar inversion. been taped. The same researcher (Drake) performed all the goniometry. Subjects were Shoes and Taping Regimens given a pair of socks and either the low-top The football shoe used in this study was or the mid-top football cleat to wear (order a size 11 Nike Land Shark molded cleat. randomized). Goniometry was repeated, All shoes were brand new when the study both of the subjects’ ankles were spatted, and began. Masses of the low-top and mid-top goniometry was again performed. Subjects cleats were 439 g and 447 g, respectively. completed both football drills (described The low-top shoe does not cover the ankle below) then the spatting and cleat were lateral malleolus, whereas the mid-top shoe removed. Subjects were then given the other does (Fig. 1). All subjects completed the football shoe, goniometry was performed, experiment in the same two pairs of shoes both of the subjects’ ankles were spatted a and were given identical socks to wear second time, then goniometry was repeated. (BodyGlove Inc.) that extended midway up Thus, goniometry was performed on six the leg. Ankle taping was performed directly different ankle conditions: (1) barefoot, (2) on the ankle itself, whereas the spatting tape-only, (3) tape + low-top, (4) tape + low- occurred over the ankle taping, sock, and top + spat, (5) tape + mid-top, and (6) tape cleat (Fig. 2). The same researcher (Faganel) + mid-top + spat. However, exercise was did all the taping. For the ankle taping, both performed in only two conditions: tape + of the subjects’ ankles were sprayed with an low-top + spat and tape + mid-top + spat. adhesive (Tuf-Skin Tape Adherent; Cramer Only two conditions were tested during Products, Inc.) over which were placed exercise to minimize both physical and two heel-and-lace pads (3×3-in. cushioned psychological fatigue. Figure 2: Ankle taping (top) and ankle spatting pad and Skin-Lube lubricating ointment, The sprint drill was always conducted (bottom) techniques.
Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 7 H S
signifi cant differences between ROM in the tape-only condition compared to tape + low-top or tape + mid-top. Similarly, no signifi cant differences in ROM were found when tape + low-top was compared to tape + mid-top, nor when tape + low-top + spat was compared to tape + mid-top + spat. Taken together, these results indicate that the height of the football shoe itself does not alter ROM in any comparisons, despite the fact that the low-top shoe does not cover the ankle malleolus, whereas the mid-top shoe does. In terms of the effects of taping regimens, there was a signifi cant difference when the tape-only condition was compared to tape + low-top + spat (p=0.011) and there was a trend towards a signifi cant difference when tape-only was compared to tape + mid-top + spat (p=0.057). The tape-only condition was associated with greater ROM in both instances. There was signifi cantly greater ROM for tape + low-top compared to tape + low-top + spat (p=0.038), and for tape + mid-top compared to tape + mid- top + spat (p=0.026). Taken together, these results suggest that both taping regimens restricted ROM over the barefoot condition, and that spatting on top of standard ankle taping restricted ROM more than standard ankle taping alone.
Figure 3: Ankle ROM (as determined by manual goniometry) for all conditions tested in this study. “Low” and Comfort and Stability Perception “mid” indicate data from the low- and mid-top football cleats, respectively. “Tape” indicates the ankle was taped, There was a signifi cant difference in “Spat” indicates the ankle was spatted in addition to being taped. For ROM measurements: PF = plantarfl exion, subjects’ perception of comfort such that DF = dorsifl exion, Ever = talar eversion, Inver = talar inversion. they perceived the low-top as being more comfortable than the mid-top (p=0.015; scale, the anchor phrases are the same only separate ANOVA was performed with each Fig. 4). However, there was not a signifi cant the word “comfortable” was replaced with performance outcome serving as a distinct difference in perception of stability between “stable.” Subjects were asked to mark a dependent variable. Whenever signifi cant the two football shoes despite the fact that vertical line along the continuum based on main effects were uncovered (such as a average stability scores were lower for the how their ankle felt after performing each main effect of test or a main effect of ankle low-top versus the mid-top. There were no drill in comparison to wearing an “ideal condition in the case of ROM), follow-up signifi cant differences between the two drills football shoe.” post-hoc pairwise comparisons (using LSD) in terms of subjects’ perceptions of comfort were conducted. and stability. Statistics Univariate ANOVAs were performed Results Performance Parameters using PASW 19.0 (SPSS, Inc./IBM) with Range-of-Motion No signifi cant differences were found signifi cance defi ned as p<0.05, and a Expectedly, there was a signifi cant between the low-top and mid-top shoes trend defi ned as 0.05 8 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S tested. Previous work has indicated that spatting may or may not have performance effects.2,12,16 These fi ndings may be helpful for athletes as well as coaches, athletic trainers, or other game personnel including sports medicine professionals. For athletes, the results suggest that low-top and mid-top cleats normally worn by running backs and receivers may provide similar benefi ts during practice drills and presumably during game scenarios, though we did not directly test the latter. In either practice or game scenarios, spatting may provide more of a placebo effect than actual benefi t and the height of the cleat upper does not change the effects of spatting. For coaches and athletic trainers, these results suggest the additional height of mid-top cleats does not appear to have any additional benefi ts over low-top cleats, at least Figure 4: Athletes’ perceived ankle comfort (blue) and ankle stability (red) assessed using a 10-cm visual analogue for players of builds similar to running backs scale. and receivers, and at least for contexts such as those used in this study. Cleats selection, than the spatted mid-top cleat. Our data also comfortable. The lack of research in this area at least in terms of height, should be based hinted that subjects might have perceived the has recently been discussed elsewhere.7 One on player preference. More importantly, the spatted mid-top cleat as more stable than the study investigating three different types of extra time, effort, and money required to spat spatted low-top cleat, but our sample size was ankle braces reported that braces that elicited ankles may not be justifi ed from an injury too small to achieve statistical signifi cance. the higher ratings of perceived stability prevention standpoint. All that said, the These results are consistent with others also elicited the lower ratings of perceived spatting of ankles may be an integral part of in several ways, but also expand on current comfort, indicating that the two perceptions pre-game rituals for some teams, analogous knowledge. Previous research has shown that may be inversely related.17 Both our team and to donning armor before battle, and as such ankle ROM decreased with increasing layers another have shown that comfort expectedly may serve important social or psychological of tape or clothing on the ankle.10,12,16,18 Our decreases as layers of ankle restriction roles unrelated to athlete safety. results (Fig. 3) echoed that, but also showed increase.12,18 Athletes in our study rated the This work has some limitations. First, that football cleat height (at least among low-top cleat more comfortable than the we tested only two ankle conditions in two cleats like those commonly worn by running high-top cleat when their ankles were taped football fi eld drills. It is likely other results backs and receivers) does not infl uence and spatted, a fi nding congruent with the may have been obtained if other ankle ROM when ankles are taped and spatted. It above studies, yet still novel. Though stability conditions were used in other drills. The is possible that differences would be found if ratings were not signifi cant in our study fact that our exercise bout lasted less than a low-top cleat was compared to a high-top (likely due to small sampling size), they were 10-min. does have an experimental design cleat because the difference in the height of lower for the mid-top cleat versus the high- advantage though. Tape jobs are known to the uppers would be greater, though brand top cleat, which would be consistent with the loosen as early as 15-min. post-application, new true high-top football cleats were not inverse relationship between comfort and and our study design eliminated that possible available at the time of the study. [Note: “¾ stability noted earlier. Another interesting factor.6,8,11 Second, we tested cleats most cleats” are the same as “mid-top cleats” in future experiment would be to have athletes often used by running backs, receivers, football footwear.] Some football players wear shoes of differing heights during and defensive backs, and our subjects opt to wear soccer cleats because they are simulated games and then rate those shoes were anthropometrically analogous to that designed better for running on turf. Soccer for comfort and stability as it appears there population. It is likely that using different cleats often have a lower cut than low-top is no data on how the height of an athletic cleat models or athletes of different builds football cleats, but it may be diffi cult to shoe infl uences its comfort or stability would produce different results. This means make comparisons between soccer cleats ratings. Such a study would be most feasible our results may not be applicable to all and football cleats due to differences in with basketball shoes or football cleats as football players, as our athletes were on the the uppers (materials, stitching patterns) manufacturers oftentimes produce a series smaller end of the football spectrum. Third, or in studs and stud confi gurations. Future of shoes with more or less identical soles our sample size could have been increased studies on football shoe height effects could but different uppers. Further research could to generate more statistical power, though explore soccer cleats or high-top cleats in also be done across different stud types such given our specifi c results, the addition of comparison to the more widely used low- or as blade, edge, fl at, molded, pivot disk, or more athletes may not have enhanced the mid-top football cleats as used in this study. screw-in. fi ndings too much. Fourth, our results were Regarding perception, we could Performance outcomes did not differ all based on acute effects and do not directly not locate any studies that specifi cally based on ankle condition in our study, speak to injury prevention. Just because an investigated whether athletes found athletic suggesting that there are no spatting-shoe ankle is more restricted does not mean it is shoes of varying heights to be more or less height interactions among the cleats we more protected from ankle sprains.19 One Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 9 H S study showed that National Football League design procedures and Senchina was the S.S. and Allsen, P.E. (1997) “The effects of spatting and athletes had similar ankle injury rates when research mentor. Drake, Faganel, and ankle taping on inversion before and after exercise.” Journal of Athletic Training 32.1. Pg 29–33. spatted versus not spatted; although their Senchina produced the graphics and wrote 11Purcell, S.B., Schuckman, B.E., Docherty, C.L., sample size was low (12 or fewer athletes the paper. Schrader, J. and Poppy, W. (2009) “Differences in ankle per group), that particular study may suggest range of motion before and after exercise in 2 tape References conditions.” American Journal of Sports Medicine 37.2. Pg the relation between spatting and injury 1 14 Abián-Vicén, J., Alegre, L.M., Fernández-Rodríguez, 383–389. prevention is poor. J.M. and Aguado, X. (2009) “Prophylactic ankle taping: 12Reuter, G.D., Dahl, A.R. and Senchina, D.S. (2011) In conclusion, we demonstrated that elastic versus inelastic taping.” Foot and Ankle International “Ankle spatting compared to bracing or taping during there were perceptual differences, but not 30.3. Pg 218–225. maximal-effort sprint drills.” International Journal of performance or ROM differences, when 2Barlow, G,. DuBois, B., Kern, B. and Niedermeyer, R. Exercise Science 4.1. Pg 49–64. (2010) “The effect of spatting on speed, agility, power, 13Ricard, M.D., Schulties, S.S. and Saret, J.J. (2000) athletes’ ankles were taped and spatted in and balance.” Journal of Undergraduate Kinesiology Research “Effects of high-top and low-top shoes on ankle football cleats of varying heights similar 6.1. Pg 55–62. inversion.” Journal of Athletic Training 35.1. Pg 38–43. to what running backs or receivers use. 3Barrett, J. and Bilisko, T. (1995) “The role of shoes in 14Scranton, P.E. Jr., Whitesel, J.P., Powell, J.W., et al. Directions for future research are many the prevention of ankle sprains.” Sports Medicine 20.4. Pg (1997) “A review of selected noncontact anterior 277–280. cruciate ligament injuries in the National Football and include investigating cleats that have 4Barrett, J.R., Tanji, J.L., Drake, C., et al. (1993) “High- League.” Foot and Ankle International 18.12. Pg 772–776. greater differences in the heights of their versus low-top shoes for the prevention of ankle sprains 15Thacker, S.B., Stroup, D.F., Branche, C.M., et al. (1999) uppers, recruiting athletes resembling a in basketball players: A prospective randomized study.” “The prevention of ankle sprains in sports. A systematic more diverse range of football player body American Journal of Sports Medicine 21.4. Pg 582–585. review of the literature.” American Journal of Sports 5Brizuela, G., Llana, S., Ferrandis, R. and García- Medicine 27.6. Pg 753–760. shapes, investigating spatting performance in Belenguer, A.C. (1997) “The infl uence of basketball 16Trower, B., Buxton, B., German, T., et al. (1997) “The different types of drills, determining whether shoes with increased ankle support on shock attenuation effects of prophylactic taping on ankle joint motion and these effects are consistent on natural grass and performance in running and jumping.” Journal of performance.” Journal of Athletic Training 42(Suppl 2). Pg versus turf (as employed in this study), Sports Science 15.5. Pg 505–515. S–14. 6Cordova, M.L., Ingersoll, C.D. and LeBlanc, M.J. (2000) 17Ubell, M.L., Boylan, J.P., Ashton-Miller, J.A. and and determining whether similar results “Infl uence of ankle support on joint range of motion Wojtys, E.M. (2003) “The effect of ankle braces on are found on actual game scenarios versus before and after exercise: a meta-analysis.” Journal of the prevention of dynamic forced ankle inversion.” practice drills (as employed in this study). It Orthopedic Sports Physical Therapy 30.4. Pg 170–177. American Journal of Sports Medicine 31.6. Pg 935–940. is clear from the present data and literature 7Iacovelli, J.N. (2011) Effect of fi eld condition and shoe type 18Udermann, B., Miller, K., Doberstein, S., et al. (2009) on lower extremity injuries in American football. M. A. Thesis, “Spatting restricts ankle motion more effectively than review that much basic research still needs to Department of Industrial Engineering, University of taping during exercise.” International Journal of Exercise be conducted on football cleats. Iowa. Science 2.2. Pg 72–82. 8Meana, M., Alegre, L.M., Elvira, J.L.L. and Aguado, 19Verhagen, E.A., Van der Beek, A.J. and Van Mechelen, Acknowledgments X. (2008) “Kinematics of ankle taping after a training W. (2001) “The effect of tape, braces and shoes on ankle session.” International Journal of Sports Medicine 9.1. Pg range of motion.” Sports Medicine 31.9. Pg 667–677. We would like to thank the nine 70–76.4. 20Verhagen, E.A.L.M. and Bay, K. (2010) “Optimising participants who volunteered their time for 9Ottaviani, R.A., Ashton-Miller, J.A., Kothari, S.U. and ankle sprain prevention: a critical review and practical our study and Matt Miller for coordinating Wojtys, E.M. (1995) “Basketball shoe height and the appraisal of the literature.” British Journal of Sports our use of the football fi eld with Athletics. maximal muscular resistance to applied ankle inversion Medicine 44.15. Pg 1082–1088. and eversion moments.” The American Journal of Sports Drake and Faganel collected all the data. Medicine 23.4. Pg 418–423. Dahl consulted on ankle taping and study 10Pederson, T.S., Ricard, M.D., Merrill, G., Schulthies, 10 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV Beware in Air: Altitude’s In uence on NBA Game Outcomes B S M J S C S U Introduction has on athletic performance, high-altitude 4) Success at the foul line Few can dispute the effects altitude has teams like the Denver Nuggets (Pepsi in sports. When one examines the statistics Center elevation: 5197 ft) and the Utah Jazz (Free Throws Made/Field Goals released from Major League Baseball, it is (EnergySolutions Arena elevation: 4268 Attempted) easy to see why Denver, Colorado’s Coors ft) may hold a signifi cant advantage over FTM/FGA Field is a sought-after destination for their sea-level opponents.4 With the basic offensive production. At an elevation of understanding that lower air density, and (Oliver, 2004). 5,280 feet, a baseball hit in the mile-high thus less oxygen per cubic centimeter, grants city will travel an additional 9-10% further a performance advantage to high-altitude We will include both home and away than it would in sea level Yankee Stadium.1 teams, our hypothesis is the point differential values for each of these measures as well, The cause of this dramatic effect is found for a team in a given game is directly affected to capture the effects of both defensive in the less-dense air of the high altitude by the altitude of the game site with respect production and opponent skill on point environment when compared to the density to each team’s home altitude. In short, we differential. We will defi ne the fi nal of air particles at sea level—deemed the believe high-altitude teams hold an advantage independent variable and subject of our “Coors Field Effect.”1 both home and away. analysis, altitude difference (DALT), as: Aside from the physics of altitude, Using regression analysis of data from home team arena altitude (HA) – away team there is much evidence that demonstrates the 2010-2011 NBA season, we aim to arena altitude (AA). The dependent variable the infl uence that the density of air has on discern, ceteris parabis, the signifi cance of we will use, as a team’s measure of success athletes’ performance as well. Observations the advantage high-altitude teams gain from on the basketball court, is margin of victory at the 1968 Mexico City (elev. 7350) Summer descending, and conversely, the disadvantage (MOV), defi ned as: points for (PF) – points Olympics showed those athletes from low-altitude teams face when ascending. allowed (PA). Kenya, who traditionally train in the city of NBA statistician Dean Oliver has written Research on this topic has several Eldoret (elev. 7,000-9,000 feet), dominated that the four primary factors that contribute potential uses. Investors considering in medium and long-distance events.2 to winning basketball games are: potential locations for new sports teams or The performance of soccer teams at high existing teams seeking new homes can use altitudes caused FIFA, a governing body in 1) Shooting, measured by effective fi eld goal the information our research will provide the professional soccer community, to ban percentage to determine how location will contribute international matches played above 8,000 to their team’s ability to succeed in highly feet.3 The same research that led to this ban (Effective Field Goal % = (Field Goals competitive professional sports leagues. showed high altitude teams perform much Made + 0.5*Three-point Field Goals Furthermore, teams considering trades or better in lower altitude games, to the tune of Made)/Field Goals Attempted) free agents should also take into account an average increase of half a goal per 1,000m how a player who is conditioned to play in descended.3 EFG% = (FGM + 0.5*FG3M)/FGA a high-altitude environment might receive The NBA, the premier league for performance benefi ts with relocation to a professional basketball, has two teams 2) Turnover percentage low-altitude city, and vice-versa. However, that hold home games above 4,000 feet, when such transactions take place, players three between 1,000 and 1,200 feet, and (Turnover % = Possessions/Turnovers = moving from high-altitude cities may lose the remaining 25 teams play at a home (Field Goals Attempted – the competitive advantage they held over the court below 1,000 feet above sea level.4,5 Offensive Rebounds + Turnovers + 0.4 * rest of the league during their high-altitude Professional basketball players are regarded Free Throws Attempted)/Turnovers) tenure. Relocations like this would correct as highly conditioned athletes with programs the potential statistical abnormality that high- emphasizing both endurance (aerobic, TO% = Poss./TO = (FGA - OR + TO + altitude training gives to their performance, oxygen-dependent exercise) and quick bursts 0.4 * FTA)/TO thus revealing what was previously perceived of speed (anaerobic, oxygen-independent as superior talent as mere conditioning (if exercise). Of the two types of exercise, it 3) Offensive rebounds per 100 rebounding one assumes that conditioning will refl ect has been found that in a game, basketball is opportunities location and decrease after some time spent around 80% anaerobic and 20% aerobic.6 at a lower altitude). However, different positions require (Offensive Rebounding % = [Offensive different “attitudes” on the court, some of Rebounds / (Offensive Rebounds + Economic Analysis which will require a consistently fast player Opponents Defensive Rebounds)] * 100) The relevant economic model for while others will require a man to fi ght for this analysis is a production function. A a dominant position.6 With the staggering ORB% = [OR / (OR + Opponents Def production function is any combination of evidence pointing to the effect altitude Reb)] * 100) inputs for which a producer produces the Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 11 H S comparative advantage (RCA).8 Tcha and Pershin divided the whole of the Olympic Games categorically into swimming, athletics, weights, ball games, gymnastics and other, running regressions for each separately.8 They also compared variables that included relative altitude, coast length, temperature, population, gross domestic product, GDP per capita, and dummy variables for former/ current socialist countries and Asian and African countries.8 From the results, the authors then compared sport specialization with RCA and economic variables such as GDP per capita. The results from the research showed high-income countries did not specialize in sports but rather they diversifi ed their medals showing they were able to be competitive in several sports, a pattern, they claim, to be analogous to a developed economy’s behavior in production. In regards to medals awarded and relative altitude, the regression analysis showed the Figure 1: Relationship between game altitude and point differential in NBA basketball games relative altitude variable was only statistically signifi cant in the athletic (coeffi cient = highest amount of output.7 In a typical and the away team’s home elevation, is a 0.8279) and weight events (coeffi cient = equation, the quantity produced is based on signifi cant determinant of outcomes in the -0.9662). For ball sports, which include the function of capital and labor.7 A general production function. Holding all inputs basketball, relative altitude showed a production function equation takes the constant, adding altitude as a new technology statistically insignifi cant coeffi cient (-0.2696). following form: with an effect on the production of points According to their research, altitude is not a will constitute a substantial factor in a team’s signifi cant determinant in the outcome of Q = f(X1 + X2… + Xn) production function if it signifi cantly affects ball sport events. However, lumped together output, points (both scored and allowed). under the ball sports category were disparate where Q, quantity, is a function of in variable We will not consider altitude change as an sports such as table tennis and volleyball. and fi xed inputs (X).7 The contribution input, but rather as a technology change These sports differ from basketball in type an addition unit of input makes to the because it affects the effi ciency of all inputs of conditioning demanded, so one would overall product is measured by the marginal in the function. As the hypothesis states and assume that endurance does not play a productivity as is shown in the equation: is demonstrated in Figure 1, we believe there relatively signifi cant role in determining is an inverse relationship between altitude match outcomes. Were Tcha and Pershin to Marginal product of an input = ∆q/∆x 7 change and point differential; as a team disaggregate their categories further, running ascends their point differential (points for - separate regressions for each ball sport, Measuring success in NBA basketball points against) will decrease, and vice-versa. their results would be more conclusive and games is quite straightforward; the team As Figure 1 shows, we expect a change in pertinent to our research. Nonetheless, their that scores more points wins. Teams altitude to shift the production function analysis showed that relative altitude plays employ differing strategies for achieving down. In other words, holding all else equal, a signifi cant role in determining a country’s this objective, but all have essentially the a change in the away team’s altitude difference success in aerobic events (the athletics same inputs. In the equation proposed in will shift the away team’s MOV function. category), giving credence to our hypothesis. the hypothesis, the output of a given team’s The regression analysis of the inputs in this Research of the effects of altitude in production in a game, points, is a function production function will aim to discern the forecasting sports performance includes of inputs that most importantly include marginal productivity of a change in altitude. analysis of FIFA World Cup Qualifying fi eld goal percentage, turnover percentage, For clarity we will interpret altitude change matches in South America.9 Following offensive and defensive rebounding, free in feet/1000, because the marginal effect of a 2007 FIFA ruling that no World Cup throw shooting, steals and blocks. These a one-foot change is likely quite small. Qualifying matches be played at elevations inputs, as in a production function, can be above 8,200 feet, Rómulo A. Chumacero put together in any combination to produce Previous Research analyzed the effects of various factors on the output, points.7 That is to say, a team can Using data from the Seoul (1988), outcomes in soccer matches. Included are the emphasize outside shooting and have roster Barcelona (1992) and Atlanta (1996) quality of the teams playing, socioeconomic dominated by shooters, or a team constructed Olympic Games, Tcha and Pershin studied characteristics of the countries playing, crowd of more tall players to emphasize rebounding determinants of performance by country effects, humidity, temperature, and altitude.9 and second chance points. and sport.8 The authors used econometric Found signifi cant were team rankings prior However, it is the aim of this study modeling to determine the impact of to the game, humidity and temperature; to determine whether altitude, measured by various geographic, social, economic among the insignifi cant variables were the the difference between game site elevation and demographic factors on revealed socioeconomic factors, the crowd effects, 12 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S and, most notably, altitude.9 errors to correct for heteroskedasticity, = [OR / (OR + Opponents Def Reb)] Chumacero’s results may initially be performed with Gretl 1.9.0. Game data was * 100) to be signifi cant as well, because discouraging for our hypothesis. However, obtained from Basketball-reference.com, more offensive rebounds lead to more he notes that, because of FIFA’s belief and altitude data is from Google Earth.5,4 opportunities to score. We include the next that altitude is a signifi cant determinant We begin with the following comprehensive independent variable, success at the foul line of match outcomes, there is a mandatory estimated equation, to include all potentially (FTM/FGA) because it takes into account acclimatization period of one week for infl uential inputs: the relative frequency that a team gets to matches played above 9000 feet, and two the free throw line as well as the ability to 9 3 weeks for matches played above 9800 feet. MOV = β1 + β2EFG% + β TOV% + make the free throws attempted. Defensive Also, Chumacero’s two regressions resulted β4ORB% + β5(FT/FGA) + β6DRB + β7STL rebounding (DRB) is likely important as 2 in R values of 0.208 and 0.209, respectively, + β8BLK + β9AEFG% + β10ATOV% + well because it prevents the opponent from so it is apparent that his estimated equations β11AORB% + β12A(FT/FGA) + β13ADRB getting offensive rebounds, thus limiting are not effective in forecasting match + β14ASTL + β15ABLK + β16DALT + second chance points. Steals (STL) are outcomes and require further research to α1HTL + α 2LTH + ε potentially signifi cant determinants of conclusively say that altitude is insignifi cant success in basketball games because they as an independent variable.9 In this equation the dependent variable, transfer possessions from the offense to Previous literature includes inquiry in margin of victory (MOV) is calculated by: defense, leading to opportunities to score. modeling success in basketball games as well. (points for – points allowed) for each team The next variable included in the regression Estimating technical effi ciency in basketball in each game of the 2010-11 NBA season. is blocked shots (BLK), which have promise games, Rimler et al. modeled factors for The fi rst independent variable, effective for infl uence on MOV because they deny success in 296 games played in the 2005- fi eld goal percentageEFG ( % = (FGM + fi eld goal attempts. 2006 season of the men’s NCAA Atlantic 0.5*FG3M)/FGA) is a measure of shooting The independent variable under 10 Conference.10 Independent variables percentage with differential weight on scrutiny in this study is altitude, which we have included in the authors’ proposed production three-point shooting.11 Next is turnover formulated in several ways. The fi rst version function were two-point fi eld goal percentage, percentage (TOV% = Poss./TO = (FGA of the altitude variable is altitude difference three-point fi eld goal percentage, free throw - OR + TO + 0.4 * FTA)/TO), a measure (DALT = home team arena altitude – away shooting percentage, offensive rebounds, of possessions per turnover, signifying the team arena altitude). Alternately, we will defensive rebounds, personal fouls, assists, likelihood that a team will turn the ball over also try two dummy variables, one for low- turnovers, blocked shots, and steals.10 Rimler on a given possession.11 We also expect altitude teams playing at high altitude (LTH) et al. found that shooting percentages and offensive rebounding percentage (ORB% and one for high-altitude teams playing at offensive rebounding positively impacted point production and turnovers negatively impacted point production, while the effects of defensive variables (e.g. blocks, steals, defensive rebounds) were negligible.10 Assists appeared to be signifi cant determinants of point production, but Rimler et al. deem that assists are merely correlated with shooting percentage and affect point production insofar as they help the offense generate easier shots.10 The authors conclude that high effi ciency contributes to success on the basketball court, but employment of resources (the independent variables suggested by Rimler et al., e.g. shooting percentage and offensive rebounding) is far more important.10 The variables that Rimler et al. found statistically signifi cant in their analysis in NCAA basketball games are, though formulated slightly differently, the same as proposed in our hypothesis. Shooting percentage (both two- and three-point as well as free throw), turnovers and offensive rebounding were concluded to be signifi cant determinants of point production by the authors, reinforcing our proposal to use these variables in our regression analysis. Data and Methodology Figure 2: Elevations of all NBA team arenas For this analysis we will use OLS regression, adjusted for robust standard Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 13 H S Table 1: Summary statistics Variable Mean Min Max N (Continued) PTS 101.134 59 144 1230 Variable Mean Min Max N APTS 97.967 56 137 1230 ATRB 40.996 24 60 1230 MOV 3.163 -41 55 1230 AAST 20.764 4 37 1230 ALT 675.890 2 5197 1230 ASTL 7.232 0 18 1230 DALT 3.644 -5195 5195 1230 ABLK 4.459 0 14 1230 HTL 0.063 0 1 1230 ATOV 13.845 4 28 1230 LTH 0.063 0 1 1230 APF 21.143 8 37 1230 FG 37.778 23 56 1230 AEFG% 0.492 0.305 0.703 1230 FGA 81.192 59 120 1230 ATOV% 7.316 3.333 20.700 1230 FG% 0.466 0.291 0.658 1230 AORB% 25.838 0.222 50 1230 TP 6.561 0 21 1230 AFT/FGA 0.227 0.045 0.566 1230 TPA 18.128 4 38 1230 Source: Data retrieved from Sports Reference LLC (http://www.basketball-reference. com/) TP% 0.356 0 0.833 1230 FT 19.017 3 45 1230 FTA 24.888 4 59 1230 FT% 0.764 0.375 1 1230 ORB 10.962 2 27 1230 DRB 30.820 14 50 1230 TRB 41.781 21 66 1230 AST 22.233 8 40 1230 STL 7.421 0 22 1230 BLK 5.270 0 15 1230 TOV 13.335 3 28 1230 PF 20.282 7 34 1230 EFG% 0.510 0.316 0.736 1230 TOV% 7.636 3.415 29.067 1230 ORB% 26.406 4.7 51.2 1230 FT/FGA 0.238 0.033 0.672 1230 AFG 36.713 21 53 1230 AFGA 81.239 59 111 1230 AFG% 0.453 0.296 0.629 1230 ATP 6.354 0 22 1230 Figure 3: Actual vs. Predicted Margins of Victory (demonstrating goodness of ATPA 17.898 3 41 1230 fi t) for Model (4) ATP% 0.351 0 0.700 1230 AFT 18.186 4 43 1230 AFTA 23.841 4 52 1230 AFT% 0.761 0.357 1 1230 AORB 10.863 2 26 1230 ADRB 30.133 15 47 1230 14 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S low altitude (HTL). If the altitude difference these coeffi cients by 100 to see their marginal shooting percentages, offensive rebounding, is greater than or equal to 3069 the dummy effects on MOV. Model (4)’s coeffi cient for and turnovers, but unlike Rimler et al. we LTH gets a 1, if not, a 0. This is because TOV%, 0.930, therefore means that a one- found defensive rebounds, steals and blocks all other teams play at least 3069 feet below percent increase in TOV% (Possessions/ to be signifi cant.10,11 Utah (EnergySolutions Arena, home of the Turnovers) results in a 0.93-point increase In Models (1) & (3) we included Utah Jazz, has an elevation of 4268 feet, in the home team’s MOV. Similarly, the the dummy variables for low altitude team minus the altitude of the next highest arena, coeffi cient on ORB% (Offensive rebounds playing at high altitude (LTH) and for high Chesapeake Energy Arena, home of the per 100 opportunities) in Model (4) is 0.471, altitude team playing at low altitude (HTL) in Oklahoma City Thunder, with an elevation meaning that a one-percent increase in an attempt to capture the effects of playing of 1199 feet). This captures the effect of a ORB% results in a 0.471-point increase in the at an altitude signifi cantly different than their low-altitude team playing in either Denver or home team’s MOV. The variable for success home arena altitude. However, the inclusion Utah. If the altitude difference is less than at the foul line, FT/FGA, has an estimated of these variables had an adverse effect on or equal to -3069, the dummy HTL gets a 1, coeffi cient of 25.393 in Model (4). This the explanatory power of the variable DALT if not, a 0. This is to capture the effect of a means that, all else equal, if a team were to because multicollinearity issues arose when high-altitude team (Denver or Utah) playing make one free throw per fi eld goal attempted the three altitude variables were included. In in a low-altitude arena. Our sample size is (FT/FGA = 1), their MOV would increase order capture effects of altitude differences, 1230 games, representing all 82 games in by over 25 points, as compared to a game in DALT was determined to have more the 2010-11 season for each of the 30 NBA which that team made zero free throws per explanatory power and was substituted for teams. Margin of victory minimum (-55) and fi eld goal attemptedFT/FGA ( = 0). The LTH and HTL variables. maximum (55) values represent the January variable for defensive rebounds (DRB) has In the models where only DALT was 11 game in which the Los Angeles Lakers a coeffi cient of -0.145 in Model (4), which used to measure the effects of altitude beat the Cleveland Cavaliers by 55 points.5 is rather counterintuitive. One would think (Models (2) and (4)), the coeffi cients were As shown in Figure 2, there is not much that, ceteris parabis, one additional rebound for nearly identical, both rounding to 0.0002. variation in arena elevation in the NBA. the home team would increase their MOV, DALT was found to be statistically signifi cant Aside from the Utah Jazz and the Denver not decrease it. Each defensive rebound in both Models (2) and (4): at the 1 percent Nuggets, who both play above 4200 feet, prevents one’s opponent from getting an level in Model (2) and at the 5 percent level in the rest of the league plays below 1200 feet. offensive rebound, therefore increasing the Model (4). This consistency across various The minimum altitude (2 ft) is New Orleans home team’s possessions and limiting the model specifi cations is demonstrative of Arena, and the maximum altitude (5197 ft) is opponent’s possessions. However, as seen in robust results, showing that altitude is indeed Denver’s Pepsi Arena; the altitude difference Table 2, the coeffi cient is approximately -0.14 a signifi cant determinant of MOV. The minimum and maximum values seen in Table in each of the specifi ed models, meaning coeffi cient of 0.0002 shows the effect a 1 represents matchups between the New that an additional defensive rebound for the 1-foot increase in altitude has on the margin Orleans Hornets and the Denver Nuggets. home team results in a 0.14-point decrease in of victory (+0.0002 points/foot). However, Notably, the mean altitude is 675.89 feet, that team’s MOV. One potential explanation when viewed in terms of 1,000-foot signifi cantly below the NBA’s two high- for this coeffi cient is an increased amount increments the effect on margin of victory altitude teams in Denver and Utah. As of defensive rebounds could signify an is interpreted as (+0.2 points/1,000 ft). This one might assume, the game statistics show increased amount of shots taken by the result is unlike the research evaluated above considerable variation, demonstrating a wide opposing team, and with more shots taken (e.g. Tcha and Pershin, 2003; Chumacero, variety of team performances throughout the opponent has more opportunities 2009), insofar as where we fi nd altitude to the season. to score points. Further study must be be a statistically signifi cant determinant of devoted to resolve this uncertainty. The game outcomes, they did not. Results coeffi cient for blocks BLK( ) has a similarly Team dummy variables were included Various potential formulations of OLS counterintuitive coeffi cient (-0.208). This in Model (4) to capture any home court regressions are shown in Table 2. Margin of means for each block the home team achieves advantage effects (aside from altitude). It is victory is measured for the home team, so the their MOV decreases by 0.208 points. One noteworthy that DALT remained signifi cant coeffi cients found for each variable signify possible explanation is that blocked shots do in Model (4), even after accounting for any the effect that a one-unit change has on the not lead to turnovers, but rather are likely to home court effects. This shows that the home team’s MOV. For example, in Model be rebounded by the offense and result in advantage that high-altitude teams have (4), the model with the highest R2 value (a more high-effi ciency shots. The coeffi cient does not come from any intangible arena measure of a model’s goodness of fi t), the for steals (STL) is a positive 0.292, denoting effects, but from altitude. Included in coeffi cient on EFG% is 135.307. This the positive effect that forcing turnovers Model (4) are dummies for all teams except means that if a team’s EFG% increased by has on scoring opportunities and MOV. the Washington Wizards; all coeffi cients one unit, their MOV would have a resulting The away variables (denoted by the prefi x are relative to this omitted team. The only increase of about 135 points, holding all else A) have the opposite effect of the variables teams that were seen to have any statistically equal. This, however, is entirely unrealistic, explained above on determining home team signifi cant coeffi cients were the Golden State so by dividing the coeffi cient by 100 we get margin of victory. In Model (4), all of the Warriors (10 percent level of signifi cance) the effect a one-percentage point change in aforementioned variables are statistically and Portland Trail Blazers (5 percent level EFG% has on the home team’s MOV: 1.35 signifi cant at the 1 percent level aside from of signifi cance). Explanations for these points. As shown in Table 1, TOV% and ABLK, which is statistically signifi cant at coeffi cients are beyond the scope of this ORB% are recorded differently than EFG%, the 10 percent level. Our work confi rms research but may be attributed to arena they are recorded in whole numbers rather previous research on the determinants of atmosphere, noise, alcohol sales, etc. than as a decimal. As such, one needn’t divide basketball game outcomes, which includes Among the models specifi ed, the2 R Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 15 H S Table 2: Regressions Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (Continued) const 3.205 3.663 3.461 4.005 Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (0.379) (0.308) (0.335) (0.355) HOME_ — — — 1.765* EFG% 135.871*** 135.555*** 134.835*** 135.307*** GSW (0.057) (8.16e-214) (1.40e-213) (5.84e-221) (4.54e-210) HOME_ — — — 1.238 TOV% 0.985*** 0.987*** 0.993*** 0.930*** HOU (0.171) (2.48e-22) (1.72 e-22) (1.67 e-22) (1.15 e-20) HOME_ — — — 0.822 ORB% 0.479*** 0.479*** 0.484*** 0.471*** IND (0.364) (1.68 e-81) (4.56 e-81) (4.85e-84) (5.29 e-78) HOME_ — — — -0.569 FT/FGA 26.341*** 26.075*** 26.219*** 25.393*** LAC (0.546) (1.60e-45) (1.39 e-44) (7.41e-45) (7.05 e-39) HOME_ — — — 1.327 DRB -0.144*** -0.144*** -0.137** -0.145*** LAL (0.177) (0.007) (0.007) (0.011) (0.008) HOME_ — — — 0.426 STL 0.320*** 0.323*** 0.321*** 0.292*** MEM (0.667) (2.08 e-08) (1.89 e-08) (2.44e-08) (1.09 e-06) HOME_ — — — 0.500 BLK -0.202*** -0.205*** -0.198*** -0.208*** MIA (0.604) (9.02 e-05) (8.33 e-05) (0.001) (0.001) HOME_MIL — — — 0.424 AEFG% -136.580*** -136.777*** -136.118*** -136.367*** (0.657) (1.19 e-209) (1.41 e-210) (3.35e-209) (3.95 e-199) HOME_ — — — -0.756 ATOV% -1.354*** -1.354*** -1.360*** -1.335*** MIN (0.399) (1.45e-45) (1.81 e-45) (5.02e-46) (1.86 e-43) HOME_ — — — -0.565 AORB% -0.435*** -0.435*** -0.433*** -0.438*** NJN (0.582) (1.28 e-56) (2.75 e-56) (1.09e-55) (5.59 e-53) HOME_ — — — 0.326 AFT/FGA -25.590*** -25.578*** -25.447*** -25.154*** NOH (0.747) (1.39 e-52) (8.70 e-54) (3.65e-52) (2.04 e-49) HOME_ — — — 1.552 ADRB 0.145*** 0.142*** 0.145*** 0.146*** NYK (0.140) (0.007) (0.009) (0.007) (0.007) HOME_ — — — 1.102 ASTL -0.386*** -0.390*** -0.382*** -0.394*** OKC (0.230) (2.67 e-09) (1.76 e-09) (4.46e-09) (2.05 e-09) HOME_ — — — -0.055 ABLK 0.093 0.085 — 0.107* ORL (0.958) (0.104) (0.127) (0.090) HOME_PHI — — — 0.127 DALT -9.082e-5 0.0002*** — 0.0002** (0.893) (0.683) (0.010) (0.015) HOME_ — — — -0.732 HTL -1.578 — -1.182*** — PHX (0.446) (0.146) (0.009) HOME_ — — — 2.231** LTH 1.122 — 0.805* — POR (0.014) (0.277) (0.098) HOME_ — — — -0.448 HOME_ — — — 0.224 SAC (0.620) ATL (0.829) HOME_SAS — — — 0.102 HOME_BOS — — — -0.093 (0.914) (0.925) HOME_ — — — -0.179 HOME_ — — — -0.203 TOR (0.863) CHA (0.828) HOME_ — — — -0.175 HOME_CHI — — — 0.793 UTA (0.863) (0.409) Adjusted R2 0.891 0.891 0.891 0.892 HOME_ — — — -0.901 Model S.E. 4.161 4.161 4.163 4.140 CLE (0.336) Observations 1230 1230 1230 1230 HOME_ — — — -0.476 DAL (0.691) Source: Data retrieved from Sports Reference LLC (http://www.basketball-reference. com/) HOME_ — — — 0.399 Notes: Alternative model formulations using OLS; *** = signifi cant at the 1 percent DEN (0.724) level; ** = signifi cant at the 5 percent level; * = signifi cant at the 10 percent level; p-values shown in parenthesis underneath each coeffi cient HOME_ — — — 0.082 DET (0.932) 16 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S traveled in order to discern travel affects on NBA performance. Inclusion of a dummy variable for back-to-back games could prove to be signifi cant as well, especially if the second were played at a high altitude. All of these research variables would help to strengthen the predictive power of the regression and better predict margin of victory for a given NBA team. References 1Heiny, E., & Schaffer, J. (2006) “Home Runs & Hole- in-one.” Scientifi c Daily. ScienceDaily LLC. http://www.sciencedaily.com. (Accessed 03/01/2012). 2N/A. (2009) “Mexico 1968” Olympic.org. The International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/mexico-1968-summer- olympics. (Accessed 02/26/2012). 3Dickinson, E. (2007) “High Altitude Football Teams Have Signifi cant Advantage Over Lowland Teams.” Eureka Alert. http://www.eurekalert.org. (Accessed 03/01/2012). 4Google Earth (Version 6.0.3.2197). (2012). Google Inc. http://www.google.com/earth/index.html. (Accessed 03/01/2012). 5N/A. (2011) “2010-11 NBA Schedule and Results” Basketball-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. http://www.basketball-reference. com/leagues/NBA_2011_games.html. (Accessed Figure 4: Difference in altitude’s effect on margin of victory 03/09/2012). 6Brittenham, G. (1996) Complete conditioning for basketball. Human Kinetics Publishers. Pg 4-6. values are all very similar (0.891) with when playing the Denver Nuggets at 5,197 7Pindyck, R., & Rubinfeld, D. (2009) Microeconomics. Pearson Education, Inc. Pg 197-198. Model (4) only slightly higher at 0.892. feet above sea level. The same holds true 8Tcha, M., & Pershin, V. (2003) “Reconsidering This signifi es a marginal improvement in for the Nuggets traveling to New Orleans. Performance at the Summer Olympics and the goodness of fi t, and all four versions The difference in altitude becomes -5,195, Revealed Comparative Advantage.” Journal of Sports of the model have good explanatory value leading to about a 1.04-point disadvantage Economics. 4.3. Pg 216-239. 9Chumacero, R. (2009) “Altitude or Hot Air?” Journal of in determining the margin of victory for a for the Hornets. These results show an Sports Economics. 10.6. Pg 619-638. home team. We believe that Model (4) is the obvious advantage for high-altitude teams in 10Rimler, M., Seongho, S., & Yi, D. (2010) “Estimating specifi cation that best forecasts home team the NBA. Production Effi ciency in Men’s NCAA MOV. This model includes no insignifi cant Our original hypothesis held to be true; College Basketball: A Bayesian Approach.” Journal of Sports Economics. 11.3. Pg 287-315. variables, incorporates home team dummy there exists a positive correlation between 11Oliver, D. (2004) “Roboscout and the Four Factors of variables to account for any intangible home the size of the altitude difference of home Basketball Success.” Journal of Basketball Studies. http:// arena effects and has the highest R2 value of and away teams and margin of victory in www.rawbw.com/~deano/. (Accessed 02/26/2012). the variations specifi ed. Model (4)’s2 R of the NBA. We can conclude that altitude, as 0.892 means that over 89% of the variation seen as a new technology in the production in MOV is explained by the regression’s function, affects point production for variables. As Figure 3 demonstrates, Model any team in the NBA. The results do not (4) fi ts the data quite well and as such has agree with previous research conducted by substantial predictive power. Chumacero and Tcha & Pershin, whose literature showed altitude as an insignifi cant Conclusion input in the outcomes of soccer and ball Based on results gathered from the sports, respectively. The results did show regression analysis, we can prove a correlation certain defensive inputs, blocks, steals and between home and away altitude and NBA defensive rebounding, to be signifi cant, game performance. This means that high- contrary to the fi ndings of Rimleret al. altitude teams do hold an advantage over Nonetheless, certain changes could their low-altitude counterparts. To interpret be made in order to better predict margin the DALT coeffi cient, the difference of victory, and therefore determine with in altitude (home minus away) must be more certainty to what extent altitude is an considered. At 0.0002, the coeffi cient is important technology in the production signifi cant in that a 1,000-foot increase in the function of NBA game performance. For altitude difference between home and away example, including more seasons to have teams leads to a 0.2-point advantage to the even more observations would prove helpful home team. However small this may seem, to reinforce the robust nature of our fi ndings. the New Orleans Hornets (elevation 2 ft.) Also, we would like to compare vertical face a disadvantage of almost 1.04-points distance traveled to horizontal distance Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 17 Inhibition of Human Glutaminase by 5-[3-bromo- 4-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-2,2- dimethylbenzo[a]phenanthridin-4(1H)-one B P R. W M S N P. C C S U Abstract: The reliance of cancer cells on glutamine catabolism to provide biosynthetic precursors and sustain energy requirements has focused interest on glutaminase inhibition as a potential strategy for treating malignant tumors. “Compound 968”, 5-[3-bromo-4-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-2,2-dimethylbenzo[a] phenanthridin-4(1H)-one, was recently reported to selectively block the growth of human breast cancer and B lymphoma cells by inhibiting glutaminase. The present study was undertaken to characterize the kinetics of 968 inhibition of the GAC isoform of human glutaminase in order to determine its mechanism of action and to facilitate the design of more effective benzophenanthridinone derivatives. However, when assayed in the absence or presence of either low or high phosphate concentration, very little inhibition of recombinant GAC was observed with concentrations of 968 up to 50 μM. By contrast, the glutaminase activity in intact mitochondria was inhibited about 30% by 10 μM 968. Thus, the reported effects of this small molecule on the growth of transformed cells may involve a mechanism other than direct binding to glutaminase. Introduction human B lymphoma and in prostate cancer activity was not characterized. Therefore, the Glutamine is the most abundant amino cells.4 These observations suggest that present study was designed to characterize acid in the blood.1 This distinction refl ects selective inhibition of GAC could attenuate the kinetics of 968 inhibition of GAC, with the important role of glutamine in nitrogen the growth of malignant cells. hopes that the resulting information would transport as well as its ability to serve as an A number of glutaminase inhibitors facilitate efforts to synthesize more effective anaplerotic substrate for the citric acid cycle. have been reported. Some, such as the analogues of 968. The ability of glutamine to be catabolized to KGA inhibitor L-2-amino-4-oxo-5- α-ketoglutarate is particularly important for chloropentanoic acid (CK), are reactive Experimental Procedures cancer cells. Cancer cells are known to rapidly analogues of glutamine that bind to a site that hGACΔ1 Expression 5 metabolize glucose, but favor an anaerobic is specifi c for glutamate. Another reactive E. coli containing the hGACΔ1 plasmid, process in which the pyruvate produced by analogue, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine which encodes a truncated form of glycolysis is reduced to lactic acid instead of (DON), competes with glutamine for binding human GAC that lacks the N-terminal entering the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA.2 to the active site of KGA.6 More recently, mitochondrial targeting signal, were grown in To maintain the citric acid cycle, cancer cells the compound bis-2-(5-phenylacetamido- LB media.10 The plasmid was isolated using depend upon the hydrolysis of glutamine to 1,2,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)ethyl sulfi de (BPTES) a Qiagen Plasmid Maxi kit and it exhibited glutamate, which is subsequently oxidized to was identifi ed as a particularly potent a 260/280-absorbance ratio of 1.6. BamH1 α-ketoglutarate. uncompetitive inhibitor of KGA or GAC and Nde1 restriction digests were analyzed Hydrolysis of glutamine is catalyzed that functions by promoting the formation to confi rm the plasmid. BL-21(DE3) by the mitochondrial enzyme glutaminase. of an inactive tetramer of glutaminase.7 competent E. coli cells were transformed Three glutaminase isoforms have been This conclusion was recently confi rmed by with the purifi ed hGACΔ1 plasmid and plated described in mammals: KGA and GAC, determination of the X-ray crystallographic on agar/LB medium containing 0.25% which are splice variants of the GLS1 structure of the GAC/BPTES complex.8 ampicillin and 0.125% chloramphenicol to gene, and LGA, which is encoded by the The benzophenanthridinone derivative, select for transformed cells. Single colonies GLS2 gene. LGA is found only in the liver, 5-[3-bromo-4-(dimethylamino)phenyl]- from the plate were cultured for seventeen while KGA occurs in a number of tissues, 2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-2,2-dimethylbenzo[a] hours at 37oC in three separate tubes of including kidney and brain, and GAC is most phenanthridin-4(1H)-one, or “compound 2xYT medium containing 0.01% ampicillin abundant in the pancreas and heart muscle.3 968”, was fi rst reported as a GAC inhibitor and 0.0025% chloramphenicol. Aliquots (500 Since it was fi rst identifi ed in 1999, GAC in 2010.9 Similar to BPTES, 968 blocked μL) of each culture were transferred to three has attracted particular interest because it the growth of transformed cells and was 1-L Erlenmeyer fl asks containing 500 mL is the principal isoform of glutaminase in initially described as an allosteric inhibitor of 2xYT containing 0.01% ampicillin. Cell malignant cells such as human breast cancer of glutaminase. However, the kinetic growth was promoted by shaking at 37oC cells. Its expression is also increased in mechanism by which 968 inhibits GAC and monitored by recording the absorbance 18 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S Figure: 2: Phosphate activation profi les of hGACΔ1. The hGACΔ1 Figure 1: FLPC elution of hGACΔ1 from the Nickel-affi nity column. Fractions activity was measured in the presence of increasing phosphate 17-24 were separated on an SDS-10% polyacrylamide gel and stained with concentrations (2.5 to 150 mM) and in the absence and presence of 968. Coomassie-Blue. Fractions 20 and 21 were combined and used for the kinetic The data are the mean of three measurements for the control and 20 assays. μM 968 and of two measurements for 50 μM 968. at 600 nm. The cell cultures reached an μM level to both chilled buffers prior to of glutamate assay mixture. After thirty- OD600 value of 1.3 after fi ve hours. At this fractionation, which was carried out in a fi ve minutes at room temperature, the point, the cells were cooled to 18oC and cold room. Fractionation was achieved at a absorbance at 340 nm was measured. Units induced by the addition of 250 μL of 100 3 mL/min fl ow rate while collecting 3 mL of activity were then calculated using an mM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside fractions. The fi rst 8 fractions were eluted NADH extinction coeffi cient of 6.27 mL (IPTG). After 18 hours of shaking at 18oC, with 1% “Buffer B” (10 mM imidazole) and μmol-1. Protein was determined using the the cells were pelleted by centrifugation at then stepped up to 5% and 10% “Buffer B” Bradford dye-binding assay.12 2000 x g for fi fteen minutes at 4oC and then at fractions 9 and 11, respectively. Gradient Enzyme kinetics experiments were stored at -80oC. elution was initiated at fraction 15 at a rate conducted in 96-well clear bottom plates that would have reached 100% “Buffer B” using a Biotek Synergy 4 plate reader to hGACΔ1 Purifi cation composition over a period of 25 minutes, measure path lengths and optical densities. Cells containing the expressed hGACΔ1 but was switched back to isocratic elution Inhibition studies were carried out with 968 were thawed and re-suspended in 20 mL of a with 65% “Buffer B” at fraction 30. SDS- dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). The lysis buffer consisting of 300 mM potassium 10%-PAGE followed by Coomassie Blue fi nal DMSO concentrations in the assays chloride, 10 mM Tris chloride (pH 8), 10 staining was used to determine which FPLC ranged between 5 - 10%. Microplate assays mM potassium phosphate (pH 8), 10 mM fractions contained the highest percentage were generally initiated by the addition of imidazole, 10% v/v glycerol, and 1 tablet of of hGACΔ1. enzyme, but some assays were initiated by complete Protease Inhibitor Cocktail (Roche adding glutamine after addition of hGACΔ1. Diagnostics) per 50 mL of buffer. The Glutaminase Assay The kinetics of 968 inhibition in the combined cell suspensions were subjected hGACΔ1 activity was quantifi ed using presence of 150 mM or 10 mM phosphate to four 30-second disruption cycles using an a modifi ed version of the assay published was performed by adding 20 μL of either ultrasonic probe set to a 70% duty cycle and by Curthoys and Weiss.11 The standard the standard glutaminase assay mixture or an an output setting of 7. The cell suspensions glutaminase assay mixture contained 20 mM assay mixture containing 10 mM phosphate were cooled in ice water during the sonication, glutamine, 150 mM potassium phosphate, to the 96-well plate. This was followed by with 1-minute pauses between cycles. Cell 50 mM Tris acetate (pH 8.6), and 0.2 mM adding 2.5 μL of 968 solutions in DMSO and debris was pelleted by ultracentrifugation at EDTA. The standard glutamate assay either 1 μL of a 20-fold dilution of hGACΔ1 128,000 x g for thirty minutes at 4oC, and mixture contained 80 mM Tris acetate (pH for wells containing 150 mM phosphate the supernatant was fi ltered through 0.22 9.4), 200 mM hydrazine, 0.25 mM ADP, or 2 μL for the wells containing 10 mM μm syringe fi lters. Fractionation of His6- 2 mM NAD+, and 0.2 mg/mL glutamic phosphate. The reactions were incubated tagged hGACΔ1 was performed by FPLC dehydrogenase. The assay was initiated by at 37oC for ten minutes and then quenched on a 5-mL HiTrap Chelating HP nickel- adding 2-5 μL of enzyme to 100 μL of by the addition of 3 μL of 2 N HCl. The resin column using gradient elution with glutaminase assay mixture in a test tube at assay was completed by adding 200 μL of “Buffer A” (300 mM potassium chloride, 37oC. The reaction was stopped after ten the glutamate assay mixture, incubating for 10 mM trishydroxyethylammonium chloride minutes by the addition of 10 μL of 3 N thirty-fi ve minutes at room temperature, and (pH 8), 10 mM potassium phosphate (pH HCl. Blanks were run for each experiment recording the absorbance of each well at 340 8), and 10% v/v glycerol), and “Buffer B” by adding the HCl to the glutaminase assay nm. A similar experiment was performed (“Buffer A” containing 1M imidazole). Tris- mixture before addition of enzyme. The in the absence of added phosphate by (2-carboxyethyl)phosphine hydrochloride amount of glutamate formed in the initial charging a 96-well plate with 35 μL of a (TCEP) reducing agent was added at a 50 incubation was determined by adding 1 mL glutaminase assay mixture lacking both Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 19 H S Figure 3: Glutamine saturation profi les for hGACΔ1 determined in Figure 4: Effect of 0.5-10 μM 968 on hGACΔ1 activity in the absence the absence and presence of either 20 μM or 50 μM 968. The data are of added phosphate. The data represent the mean of four measurements the mean of three measurements for the control and for 20 μM 968 and ± the standard deviation. of two measurements for 50 μM 968. A) Assay at 100 mM phosphate; B) Assay at 10 mM phosphate; C) Lineweaver-Burk plot of 100 mM phosphate data; D) Lineweaver-Burk plot of 10 mM phosphate data. phosphate and glutamine. This was followed conducted by charging a 96-well plate with exons 1-15 of the GLS1 gene that is located by the sequential addition of 5 μL of a 2-fold 20 μL of glutaminase assay mixtures in on chromosome 2.10 The enzyme used in dilution of hGACΔ1, 4 μL of 968 solutions which the phosphate concentration ranged this study, hGACΔ1, is a truncated version of in DMSO, and 16 μL of 25 mM glutamine. from 6.25 mM to 187.5 mM, followed by 2.5 hGAC that lacks the sequence encoded by the To replicate the previous experimental μL of DMSO or either 0.2 mM or 0.5 mM fi rst exon, which contains the mitochondrial protocol, 75 μL of a solution containing 64 968 in DMSO. The reactions were initiated targeting signal. This modifi cation mM Tris acetate, 0.27 mM EDTA, and 4.4 with 2.5 μL of a 5-fold dilution of hGACΔ1 prevents aggregation without affecting the 10 μg of hGACΔ1 were added to each well of a and incubated for ten minutes at 37oC. The glutaminase activity. The recombinant 9 96-well plate. Subsequently, 5 μL of various assays were completed as for the glutamine hGACΔ1 enzyme includes an N-terminal dilutions of 968 in DMSO were added and saturation profi les. His6-sequence to facilitate its purifi cation by the samples were incubated at 35oC for 30 Mitochondria were isolated by nickel-affi nity chromatography. Attempts to minutes. Then, 35 μL of 60 mM glutamine differential centrifugation of rat brain that purify the hGACΔ1 by gravity elution with were added and the wells were incubated for was homogenized in isotonic sucrose.13 buffers containing imidazole proved to be another hour at 35oC. Glutamate formation The purifi ed mitochondria were diluted to surprisingly non-reproducible. However, was determined by transferring 10 μL of a protein concentration of either 5.2 or 2.4 gradient elution using an FPLC proved each sample to 200 μL of standard glutamate mg/mL. Samples containing 100 μL of the more effective. The enzyme required assay mixture and incubating for forty-fi ve mitochondrial preparations were incubated approximately 200 mM imidazole to elute minutes at room temperature. for thirty minutes at room temperature with from the nickel-affi nity column. Analysis Glutamine saturation profi les were 2.5 μL of either DMSO or 968 solutions of the eluted fractions by SDS-PAGE obtained by adding 10 μL of glutaminase ranging in concentration from 0.22 to 10.9 demonstrated that considerable purifi cation assay mixture containing either 250 mM or mM. The wells of a 96-well plate were of hGACΔ1 was accomplished (Fig. 1). The 25 mM phosphate to the wells of a 96-well charged with 20 μL of glutaminase assay bands corresponding to hGACΔ1 migrated plate, followed by adding 10 μL of glutamine mixtures containing 150 mM, 10 mM, or 0 slightly below the 55-kDa protein standard. solutions ranging from 1.25 to 50 mM. To mM potassium phosphate followed by 5 μL The identifi cation of this band as hGACΔ1 each well, 2.5 μL of either DMSO or 0.2 of the 968/mitochondria mixtures (2.4 mg/ was confi rmed by a Western blot using a mM or 0.5 mM 968 solutions in DMSO mL levels for the wells containing phosphate rabbit polyclonal antibody to glutaminase were added. The reactions were initiated by and 5.2 mg/mL mitochondrial solution for (Aviva Systems Biology) that recognizes the addition of 2.5 μL of a 5-fold dilution the wells lacking phosphate). The plate was both the KGA and GAC isoforms. Protein of hGACΔ1 and incubated for ten minutes incubated at 40oC for ten minutes and the concentrations for fractions 20 and 21 were at 37oC. The assays were completed by assay completed using 200 μL of glutamate determined to be 0.81 mg/mL and 0.69 mg/ adding 200 μL of standard glutamate assay assay mixture for each well as for the mL, respectively. The calculated specifi c mixture, incubating for thirty-fi ve minutes glutamine saturation profi les experiments. activities for the two fractions were 102 at room temperature, and then reading the units/mg and 95 units/mg, respectively. absorbance at 340 nm. Results Based upon this analysis, fractions 20 and The phosphate activation profi les were Human GAC (hGAC) is encoded by 21 were combined and used for the kinetic 20 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S analyses. determined using Lineweaver-Burk double 968 (Fig 5). In the absence of phosphate, the purifi ed reciprocal plots (Fig. 3C and D) and Hanes- The possibility that 968 inhibits glutaminase exists as a dimer that has Woolf plots of glutamine concentration glutamine transport into the mitochondria little activity.14 The addition of phosphate divided by activity vs. glutamine rather than glutaminase itself was examined promotes the formation of a tetramer that concentration (data not shown). This by conducting an assay using whole is highly active. The phosphate activation analysis indicated that the Km for glutamine mitochondria isolated from rat brain in place profi le of hGAC was determined in the was decreased when the enzyme was assayed Δ1 of the hGACΔ1 construct. In this analysis, the presence of 20 and 50 μM 968 and compared with the lower concentration of phosphate mitochondria were incubated with various to a control containing the same level of (Table I). However, the addition of either concentrations of 968 for thirty minutes at DMSO (Fig. 2). The control assay exhibited concentration of 968 had no effect on the room temperature before initiating the assay. an activation profi le that is characteristic apparent binding of glutamine to hGACΔ1. A 30 % inhibition of the mitochondrial of the enzyme purifi ed from kidney As a follow up to the apparent lack of glutaminase activity was observed when mitochondria when assayed in the absence inhibition by 968, an assay was run in the assayed with 150 mM phosphate, but no of DMSO.14 The activation profi les for the absence of added phosphate (Fig. 4). In inhibition was apparent when the assays control and the 20 μM 968 samples were this experiment the hGACΔ1 was pre-diluted were performed with 10 mM phosphate or identical. However, the profi le obtained with only by a factor of two, the fi nal DMSO with no added phosphate (Fig. 6). 50 μM 968 exhibited a very slight inhibition concentration was 7%, and the assay was at all concentrations of phosphate. Thus, initiated by the addition of glutamine. A Discussion 968 may be a weak inhibitor of the hGACΔ1 modest inhibition by 968 was detectable The principle goal of this study was to enzyme. without added phosphate. This analysis characterize the kinetics of 968 inhibition The potential inhibitory effect of 968 on is not consistent with the previous report of a human GAC construct with the hope hGACΔ1 activity was also characterized by that 10 μM 968 was suffi cient to produce a that this data might be used to direct future analysis of its effect on activity with increasing potent inhibition of GAC.9 Therefore, the modifi cations to the chemical structure concentrations of glutamine. The glutamine glutaminase assay was repeated exactly as of 968. Although assays conducted in the saturation profi les were determined with described in the previous publication. In this absence of phosphate suggested that 968 10 mM and 100 mM phosphate and a fi ve- assay, undiluted hGAC was pre-incubated Δ1 produced a slight inhibition of hGACΔ1 fold dilution of the purifi ed enzyme (Fig. for thirty minutes at 35oC with various (Fig. 4), the glutamine saturation profi les 3A and B). The addition of either 20 μM or concentrations of 968 in a phosphate-free showed that 968 in fact had almost no effect 50 μM 968 produced no inhibition at either buffer before initiating the assay through on the activity of this glutaminase construct concentration of phosphate. Michaelis the addition of glutamine. This experiment (Fig. 3). Furthermore, phosphate activation constants for glutamine activation under produced greater variability, but showed no profi les gave no indication that 968 had any high and low phosphate conditions were clear evidence of inhibition of hGAC by Δ1 greater effect on hGACΔ1 at low phosphate Figure 6: 968 inhibition of glutaminase activity in whole rat brain Figure 5: Effect of pre-incubating hGACΔ1 and the inhibitor 968 in the absence of added phosphate. The data are the mean of three mitochondria at various phosphate levels. Freshly isolated rat brain measurements ± the standard deviation. mitochondria were pre-incubated with increasing concentrations of 968 and with three different concentrations of phosphate. The 150 mM phosphate data represent the mean of 6 measurements obtained from two experiments, while the 10 mM phosphate and no phosphate data are the mean of two measurements and three measurements, respectively, from a single experiment. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 21 H S Table 1: Effect of 968 on the Michaelis Constants for Glutamine 2 [PO4-3] [968] Slope Intercept R Km Lineweaver-Burk: 100 mM 0 μM 2.74 0.419 0.9986 6.6 mM 20 μM 3.01 0.313 0.9973 9.6 mM 50 μM 2.84 0.357 0.9988 8.0 mM Hanes-Woolf 0 μM 0.344 2.94 0.9914 8.6 mM 20 μM 0.329 3.03 0.9943 9.2 mM 50 μM 0.354 2.86 0.9889 8.1 mM 2 [PO4-3] [968] Slope Intercept R Km Lineweaver-Burk 10 mM 0 μM 3.01 1.71 0.9908 1.8 mM 20 μM 2.97 1.66 0.9782 1.8 mM 50 μM 2.64 1.93 0.9830 1.4 mM Hanes-Woolf 0 μM 1.76 3.09 0.9954 1.8 mM 20 μM 1.70 3.09 0.9967 1.8 mM 50 μM 1.68 3.60 0.9909 2.1 mM Linear transformations of the hyperbolic data from Fig. 3 were used to determine the Km values from the glutamine saturation profi les conducted at either 100 mM or at 10 mM phosphate in the absence or presence of either 20 μM or 50 μM 968. concentrations than at the standard inhibition. However, the inhibition of catalytic activity. The patent presents data phosphate level used in glutaminase assays oncogenic activity in the earlier study was indicating that GAC isolated from cancer cells (Fig. 2). demonstrated using human cells. It should is more active in the absence of phosphate The fi rst disclosure of compound also be noted that the His6-tag used to isolate than GAC isolated from non-transformed 968 was by Iconix Pharmaceuticals in a cloned mouse GAC in the original study was cells. The patent also suggests that only in patent application fi led in 2001 claiming cleaved prior to use in kinetic experiments, cancer cells is mouse GAC phosphorylated 15 its use as a modulator of Rho C activity. while the tag was left in place in the hGACΔ1 at Serine 103 (corresponding to Serine 95 The association of 968 with glutaminase used in the present study. in human GAC). The authors suggest that inhibition fi rst appeared in a publication Some understanding regarding the 968 may block this phosphorylation and focusing primarily on 968’s ability to block lack of agreement between the original thus prevent the phosphate-independent transformation of cells by the oncogenic 968 publication and the current study activation of GAC that is unique to cancer guanine nucleotide exchange factor Dbl.9 may be gleaned from the revelation that cells. The glutaminase construct used Glutaminase was identifi ed as the target of 968 is apparently ineffective at inhibiting in this study, hGACΔ1, lacks the fi rst 123 968 by affi nity purifi cation experiments using glutaminase that has been activated by amino acids from the N-terminus. Thus, it 968 conjugated to biotin. Pre-incubation of phosphate.16 Although efforts were made lacks the predicted site of phosphorylation GAC with 10 μM 968 produced greater than in the present study to assess inhibition by and its activation is highly dependent upon 80% inhibition of the glutaminase activity. 968 in the absence of added phosphate, the phosphate. However, this serine residue is Glutamine saturation profi les, presented hGACΔ1 used in all experiments had been conserved in the rat brain glutaminase. Thus, as supplementary material, supported isolated using a buffer containing 10 mM it is tempting to ascribe the limited inhibition the authors’ contention that 968 is not a phosphate. In this connection, it is interesting of glutaminase activity from the rat brain competitive inhibitor with respect to either to consider the hypothesis that accumulation assay of the current study to a portion of glutamine or phosphate ion, but rather of phosphate in mitochondria is what the glutaminase that is not phosphorylated functions as an allosteric inhibitor. triggers increased GAC-based glutaminase (Fig. 6), although the question would remain It is diffi cult to reconcile the discrepancies activity in cancerous cells.17 Should this in as to why inhibition was only evident under between the results of the current study and fact be the case, the use of 968 in treating high phosphate concentrations. those from the original 968 disclosure. Even cancers characterized by high GAC activity Another consideration with respect to the attempts to replicate the published protocol might be futile. failure of this study to show GAC inhibition afforded no indication of hGACΔ1 inhibition A somewhat different account of the role by 968 is that the inhibitory properties of 968 by 968 (Fig. 5). One identifi able difference of 968 in glutaminase inhibition can be found have been observed to diminish with time.16 between the studies is the fact that the in a recent patent application fi led by Cornell This is a surprising observation, since 968 original report used the mouse ortholog University.18 It is stated in this application might be expected to be quite thermally stable of human GAC in assaying glutaminase that 968 does not directly inhibit glutaminase and show little propensity to react with water 22 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S or with oxygen. Precautions were taken to References Dias, S.M.G., Dang, C.V. and Cerione, R.A. (2010) confi rm the identity of the 968 sample used 1Nelson, D.L. and Cox, M.M. (2008) Lehninger Principles “Targeting mitochondiral glutaminase activity inhibits of Biochemistry, 5th Ed., W. H. Freeman and Company, oncogenic transformation”. Cancer Cell 18, Pg 207-219. in the present study through electrospray New York, NY. 10Hartwick, E.W., and Curthoys, N.P. (2011) “BPTES time-of-fl ight mass spectroscopy. However, 2Erickson, J.W. and Cerione, R.A. (2010) “Glutaminase: inhibition of hGA(124-551), a truncated form of we could not reproduce the inhibition of A hot spot for regulation of cancer cell metabolism?” human kidney-type glutaminase”. Journal of Enzyme GAC using the exact conditions described Oncotarget 1, Pg 734-740. Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry. 3Elgadi, K.M., Meguid, R.A., Qian, M., Souba, W.W. and 11Curthoys, N.P. and Weiss, R.F. (1974) “Regulation previously and could only show partial Abcouwer, S.F. (1999) “Cloning and analysis of unique of renal ammoniagenesis: subcellular localization of inhibition of the crude rat brain glutaminase. human glutaminase isoforms generated by tissue- rat kidney glutaminase isoenzymes. Journal of Biological Thus, we cannot exclude the possibility specifi c alternative splicing”. Physiological Genomics 1, Pg Chemistry 249, Pg 3261-3266. that our sample of 968had undergone 51-62. 12Bradford, M.M. (1976) “A rapid and sensitive method 4Gao, P., Tchernyshyov, I., Chang, T., Lee, Y., Kita, K., for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein some non-detected change that resulted Ochi, T., Zeller, K.I., De Marzo A.M., Van Eyk, J.E., utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding”. Analytical in loss of activity. In conclusion, 968 may Mendell, J.T. and Dang, C.V. (2009) “c-Myc suppression Biochemistry 72, Pg 248-254. yet prove to be a promising material from of miR-23a/b enhances mitochondrial glutaminase 13Haser, W.G., Shapiro, R.A., and Curthoys, N.P. (1985) which therapeutic cancer treatments may be expression and glutamine metabolism”. Nature 458, Pg “Comparison of the phosphate-dependent glutaminase 762-766. obtained from rat brain and kidney”. Biochemistry Journal developed. However, it appears that studies 5Shapiro, R.A., Clark, V.M. and Curthoys, N.P. 229, Pg 399-408. directed towards improvements of the (1978) Covalent interaction of L-2-amino-4-oxo- 14Godfrey, S., Kuhlenschmidt, T., and Curthoys. effi cacy of 968 will not be able to relyon 5-chloropentanoic acid with rat renol phosphate- N.P. (1977) “Correlation between activation and assays predicated on the direct inhibition of dependent glutaminase. Journal of Biological Chemistry 253, dimer formation of rat renal phosphate-dependent Pg 7086-7090. glutaminase”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 252, Pg 1927- glutaminase activity. 6Shapiro, R.A., Clark, V.M. and Curthoys, N.P. (1979) 1931. “Inactivation of rat renol phosphate-dependent 15Sun, D., Perkins, E.L. and Tugendreich, S. US Patent Acknowledgements glutaminase with 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine”. Journal 6800634 (WO 2003/043582). The reported experiments were of Biological Chemistry 254, Pg 2835-2838. 16Katt, W.R., Ramachandran, S., Erickson, J.W., Cerione, 7Robinson, M.M., McBryant, S.J., Tsukamoto, T., R.A. (2012) “Dibenzophenanthridines as inhibitors completed by PRW as partial fulfi llment Rojas, C., Ferraris, D.V., Hamilton, S.K., Hansen, J.C., of phosphate-activated glutaminase C and cancer of the Senior Thesis requirement for a B.S. and Curthoys, N.P. (2007) “Novel mechanism of proliferation”. Molecular Cancer Therapy 11, Pg 1269-1278. degree in Biochemistry. This study was inhibition of rat kidney-type glutaminase by bis-2-(5- 17Cassago, A., Ferreira, A.P.S, Ferreria, I.M, Fornezari, supported in part from grant DK037124- phenyladcetamido-1,2,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)ethyl sulfi de C., Gomes, E.R.M., Greene, K.S., Pereira, H.M, (BPTES)”. Biochemical Journal 406, Pg 407-414. Garratt, R.C., Dias, S.M.G. and Ambrosio, A.L.B. 23 from the National Institutes of Health 8DeLaBarre, B., Gross, S., Cheng, F., Gao, Y., Jiang, F., (2012) “Mitochondrial localization and structure-based awarded to NPC. We wish to thank Lynn Jha, A.K., Song, J., Wei, W and Hurov, J. (2011) “Full- phosphate activation mechanism of Glutaminase C Taylor for her assistance in preparing the rat length human glutaminase in complex with an allosteric with implications for cancer metabolism”. Proceedings of brain mitochondria that were used in this inhibitor”. Biochemistry 50, Pg 10764-10770. the National Academy of Sciences, USA 109, Pg 1092-1097. 9Wang, J.B., Erickson, J.W., Fuji, R., Ramachandran, S., 18Cerione, K.W. and Cerione, R.A. International Publication study. Gao, P., Dinavahi, R., Wilson, K.F., Ambrosio, A.L.B., Number WO 2012/034123. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 23 From the Pupil’s Perspective B A H. B L S. L T R. C , PD C S U Abstract: We suggest university anatomy outreach programs promote the personal and professional development of student presenters, better preparing them for healthcare professions. Through presentations to high school students, university student-led anatomy outreach programs provide opportunities to develop unique skills that may better prepare the university students to be successful future health care professionals. Some of these skills include time management, professional communication, scheduling, and working with emotional barriers. Importantly, delivering these presentations requires students to acknowledge and address their own weaknesses. Interacting with a variety of audiences, the university student presenters also learn how to communicate effectively by having to accommodate and adapt to varying knowledge levels. Ultimately, this better prepares them to convey diffi cult scientifi c information to a wide variety of individuals. These outreach programs benefi t both presenters and audiences, allowing students to apply their knowledge, share their enthusiasm, as well as encourage an interest in science. Introduction and deliver anatomy-based presentations skills which will be acknowledged and The anatomy program at Colorado State to interested Colorado K-12 classes. The discussed in this paper. University (CSU) is structured around a goal of our anatomy outreach program dissection course consisting of approximately is to expose the K-12 classes to the fi eld Description fi fty students and twelve cadavers. This of science through interactive, hands- The core background knowledge enabling course takes a regional approach to on anatomy presentations, and increase our students to be successful in delivering dissection and runs over the course of a 16- awareness of current health issues. Visual the anatomy outreach presentations is week semester every fall. The undergraduate aids, which include healthy and diseased obtained largely from the Human Anatomy human anatomy prosection course parallels organs, are critical during these presentations Prosection course. In addition, the student the dissection course as well as provides to emphasize healthy lifestyles. They allow presenters involved in this outreach program access to ten additional cadavers dissected students to touch and manipulate preserved are enrolled in a breakout honors section in the previous fall. In this prosection course, human organs. This haptic experience which material from lecture is supplemented there are fi ve-hundred junior and senior provides a greater impact as compared to through the use of didactic case studies and level undergraduate students distributed purely oral presentations. These presentations the outreach presentations. While the case among fi ve laboratory sections allowing for also provide a venue to promote some of the studies require students to do their own a ratio of four to fi ve students per cadaver. unique opportunities at CSU; for example, investigation and subsequently apply material The prosection course is both laboratory and CSU holds unprecedented access to twenty- that they have learned in lecture to diagnose lecture based. The lecture portion is grounded two human cadavers. hypothetical patients, the creative outreach in clinical applications strengthened by the The anatomy outreach program facilitates presentations allow the anatomy students to intensive laboratory portion. To deepen the student presenters’ personal and share their knowledge with students from this anatomical understanding, concepts academic growth. Student presenters have around the state. from embryology, histology, anthropology, the opportunity to improve a variety of skills First, the student presenters work in pairs and physiology are also incorporated. In including: time management, scheduling to develop informative and entertaining addition, digital supplementation with The multiple agendas, overcoming emotional presentations to be given in front of the Visual Human Dissector (VHD) and The barriers, and professional communication. honors breakout class. Then, using feedback Virtual Edge Anatomy software is used in These skills correlate to the general skills from classmates and instructors, the student the lab so students can compare live and needed to succeed in science careers and presenters improve their presentations for virtual cadavers for an enhanced learning in future clinical applications such as the delivery to K-12 audiences. The student experience. This software also exposes patient-physician relationship. Current presenters are required to coordinate multiple students to cross-sectional images, vital for research has shown a linear relationship aspects of the visit including room and date future healthcare professionals, and it serves between involvement in educational scheduling, distributing teacher guidelines, as a valuable at-home study tool. outreach programs and successful clinical and ensuring specimen availability. The Accompanying the human gross anatomy communication.1 In this paper we examine fi nal product involves a group of visitors prosection course is an outreach program the implications and impact of our anatomy attending an hour-long presentation. During that provides students in Colorado State outreach program. We have found that the the fi rst 30-40 minutes of the presentation, University’s honors program with unique presentations increase student presenters’ the student presenters use a collection of opportunities. Through this program, understanding of the material and facilitate organs to advocate living a healthy lifestyle, students from the prosection course develop the development of a variety of unexpected spark an interest in science, and illustrate 24 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S key anatomical concepts from a clinical pacemaker. A component of the student the K-12 audiences’ reactions to cadavers.5 perspective. In the remaining 20-30 minutes, presenters’ responsibility is to maintain the Encouraging students to sit down if they feel the K-12 audiences are given the opportunity integrity of these specimens. nauseated or to leave the room for water are to explore a cadaver and challenge the Several measures are taken to clean essential elements of these presentations as student presenters with questions. In some and prepare the laboratory to safely they address the safety concerns of the K-12 instances, if a group wishing to receive a accommodate around 40 K-12 students plus audiences. The emotional responses range presentation is not able to travel to CSU, two cadavers on the day of the presentation. from sadness to fear, thus, student presenters student presenters will travel to a school Student presenters are responsible for learn to adapt and understand the individuals with the collection of organs and deliver ensuring adequate seating for all visitors and they are working with. This creates a sense a 45-minute interactive oral presentation. may encourage the visitors to sit down if they of trust and establishes the presenters’ roles The outreach presentations are centered are feeling uncomfortable. After prepping as educators. Effective communication is a on encouraging healthy lifestyles through the room, one presenter is responsible for critical skill honed from this outreach, and exposure to diseased organs. greeting and directing the visitors to the it plays an important role in enhancing the The success of these presentations laboratory, and the presentation begins. student presenters’ competitive skills in their hinges on the student presenters’ mastery chosen fi elds.4 of a variety of skills such as thorough Discussion Student presenters present to audiences anatomical understanding, professional For over thirty-fi ve years the Association with varying educational levels. Because of communication and scheduling, adept of American Medical Colleges has this, student presenters must adapt their laboratory preparation, familiarity with the recognized the importance of scientifi c presentation to each audience. For example, specimens, presentation skills, and dynamic outreach programs that serve to educate student presenters have the fl exibility to teamwork. In addition, the student presenters and recruit future students into the fi eld emphasize healthy diet and exercise for are faced with the task of developing a of science.2 The described presentations middle school students, whereas older presentation that is both engaging and of the anatomy program acknowledge this students’ presentations place emphasis on informative to audiences of different ages importance of outreach and service learning. physiological and anatomical effects of with a variety of educational backgrounds. With initial hopes of educating K-12 schools drugs, alcohol, and smoking. Furthermore, Student presenters are given signifi cant in Colorado through awareness of science the student presenters are expected to utilize freedom with their presentation content, and the human body, the program today the age-appropriate tone and pitch for each leading to a multitude of creative outlets not only educates the K-12 audiences but K-12 audience. The ability to communicate such as audience participation, metaphorical it also allows the presenters to develop scientifi c knowledge to others is a skill that language, and the incorporation of personal personal and professional skills. The student presenters can apply in future careers anecdotes. One of the few requirements of program includes 22-28 student presenters in which they must assess the needs of an the presentation is the discussion of body per year who reach approximately 3,000 individual and facilitate learning in a manner donation. This ensures all visitors that the K-12 students from Colorado each year that is comprehensible to that individual.6 cadavers and specimens were voluntarily through their presentations. Student A personally challenging aspect of donated and wished to contribute their presenters’ participation and the demand delivering these presentations is learning to body to learning. One major challenge to for presentations have increased since the acknowledge and address one’s weaknesses. the student presenters is to leave the K-12 program was fi rst implemented in 2008. In When learning through teaching, the thinness audiences with a greater understanding and/ this type of outreach, the student presenters of knowledge is exposed to each student or interest in science, specifi cally involving engage in activities that meet community presenter, their peers, and instructors.7 The the human body and how to properly care needs of coordinating with formal education obstacle is not to be intimidated by this for it. to support an academic curriculum.3 exposure, but rather to use this transparency The anatomy outreach program requires Although the goals of the program as fuel to master the material. Many outreach a signifi cant amount of preparation from are formally outlined (see addendum), programs show that student presenters student presenters and staff. A list of from student presenters’ perspectives, recognize that teaching material requires a schools that have previously participated in the development and delivery of the deeper level of understanding in contrast the outreach program is given to the student presentations is a dynamic process. Of the to the fundamental college coursework.7 presenters who are required to personally many challenges of this process, scheduling This outreach program is no exception contact the teachers. If a teacher expresses is at the forefront. Ideally, the visiting groups to that realization as student presenter interest in receiving a presentation, then request a date and time that works with both pairs continuously practice and research the student presenters begin coordinating the presenters’ schedules and laboratory the material on which they are presenting. with the teacher. This entails sending availability. However, this is rarely the case; Throughout the semester, there is a shift teacher guidelines that encompass parking instead, the scheduling tends to be a lengthy from apprehension to enthusiasm in the and building location, size limitations, fees process requiring multiple emails until a fi nal delivery of the presentations. involved, and the scope of the presentations. date and time is confi rmed. This acquisition Feedback surveys were designed to assess Typically, this communication continues over of time management skills and effective the impact of the outreach presentations the period of a month. As the dates are being communication through a real-world on both the visitors as well as the student fi nalized, the student presenters compile a application is essential to undergraduate presenters. The feedback survey of the collection of diseased and healthy human students.4 student presenters includes questions organs obtained from prior dissections. The student presenters must anticipate regarding motivation, skills obtained, Some of the interesting specimens include the challenges that they will encounter on the and attitudes towards the experience. a brain, a melanoma liver, a cirrhotic liver, day of the presentation. With cadavers on Participation in these surveys is voluntary; an emphysemic lung, and a heart with a display, student presenters must be aware of therefore, the conclusions drawn do not Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 25 H S account for the total population involved emotional component one step further by between the successful communication in these presentations. According to the requiring student presenters to help their of trained teachers versus those with no surveys, the outreach presentations have been audiences cope with seeing and exploring previous experience.6 Perhaps by practicing well received by all of those involved. Many a cadaver. This element corresponds to the the art of teaching via the anatomy outreach of the students participate in the optional responsibility that health-care professionals presentations, student presenters master a survey and refl ect upon their experience. A have in regard to communicating with the variety of skills better preparing themselves frequent theme cited by student presenters is families of terminal patients. Ultimately, to ensure patient understanding and trust enjoyment. This outreach program involves these presentations give student presenters upon becoming a physician. a role-reversal opportunity that gives the a glimpse of their future professional role.6 presenters the chance to share their passion Multiple roles have been assigned Notes on contributors and challenge others with science. Many to physicians: expert, communicator, LINDSAY S. LEECH, is a junior students make a connection between the collaborator, manager, health advocate, Biomedical Science student in the skills obtained and their future professional scholar, and professional.1 In order to Department of College of Veterinary goals. A former student now at medical address this array of responsibilities, Medicine and Biomedical Sciences at school states, “The program helped me to many medical schools have implemented Colorado State University, Fort Collins, learn to better communicate with students a curriculum involving the six core Colorado. She is active in anatomy outreach effectively, and it also helped me to develop competencies adopted by the Accredation presentation and aspires to attend medical professionalism. It challenged me to really Council for Graduate Medical Education school. ‘know’ the material, because when you can in 1999.1 The competencies include patient AMANDA H. BEACH, is a senior teach it, then you really know it.” care, medical knowledge, practice-based Biomedical Science student in the A separate survey was sent to the visiting learning and improvement, interpersonal Department of College of Veterinary K-12 teachers, which provided them the and communication skills, professionalism, Medicine and Biomedical Sciences at opportunity to critique the student presenters. and systems based practice.1,8 This anatomy Colorado State University, Fort Collins, The teachers unanimously indicated that outreach program caters to each of these Colorado. She is active in anatomy outreach student presenters were well prepared, competencies. Student presenters use various presentation and aspires to attend medical knowledgeable, and able to appropriately specimens as well as cadavers to demonstrate school. communicate with their student audiences certain pathologies, treatments, prevention, TOD R. CLAPP, Ph.D. is an assistant of varying educational levels. Teachers and to advocate for a variety of careers professor in the Department of Biomedical commonly note that in many cases the within the medical fi eld. We believe this Science at Colorado State University, Fort presentations exceeded their expectations. enables them to practice the competencies Collins, Colorado. He teaches Human Gross The overall attitude expressed by visiting of patient care, medical knowledge, and Anatomy, Human Dissection, and Human teachers is refl ected in this comment from systems-based practice respectively. Student Functional Neuroanatomy. an instructor who brought his class for a presenters take part in self-directed learning presentation, “The CSU cadaver lab is a in regard to the anatomy and pathology that References 1Gregory, J.K., et al. (2009) “Restructuring a basic terrifi c resource for instructors preparing they plan to emphasize in their presentation. science course for core competencies: An example from students for health care careers. Aside Self-directed learning has shown to be a key anatomy teaching.” Medical Teacher 31.9. Pg 855-861. from the information presented at the labs, component to professional development 2Houtz, L.E. and Quinn, T.H. (2007) “Build a Human encountering the cadavers is a way to prepare and the delivery of high-quality care.1 The Project: Improving Attitude and Increasing Anatomy Content Knowledge and Skills for Middle-Level students for the rigors in the medical fi eld competencies of professionalism and adept Students.” Journal of Higher Education Outreach & on a psychological level.” The psychological communication are addressed through the Engagement 11.2. Pg 21-32. preparation noted is an item of importance student presenters’ interactions with a variety 3Andrews, E., et al. (2005) “Scientists and public for not only the K-12 audiences but also the of audiences, allowing the student presenters outreach: Participation, motivations, and impediments.” Journal of Geoscience Education 53.3. Pg 281. presenters themselves. to master the material at hand via practiced- 4Rao, S., Shamah, D. and Collay, R. (2007) “Meaningful Anatomy has historically served not based learning. This type of teaching has Involvement of Science Undergraduates in K-12 only as a technical training tool but also as also shown to be a valuable method for self- Outreach.” Journal of College Science Teaching 36.6. Pg 54- 1 58. a means for training healthcare professionals improvement. The ability to acknowledge 5 5 Arráez-Aybar, L.-A., Castaño-Collado, G. and Casado- to handle diffi cult emotions. Undergraduate personal weaknesses and, furthermore, to Morales, M.I. (2008) “Dissection as a modulator of anatomy students in this program, many of address those weaknesses is perhaps one of emotional attitudes and reactions of future health which aspire to be physicians, are able to the challenging parts of being a physician. professionals.” Medical Education 42.6. Pg 563-571. reap these benefi ts prior to matriculation Early exposure to this type of introspection 6Amorosa, J.M.H., Mellman, L.A. and Graham, M.J. in medical school. Students in the anatomy is certainly advantageous to pre-medical (2011) “Medical students as teachers: How preclinical 1 teaching opportunities can create an early awareness of program become profi cient anatomists, and undergraduates. the role of physician as teacher.” Medical Teacher 33.2. additionally, they begin to understand their There is no denying that teaching is a Pg 137-144. emotions in regard to death. It has been vital part of being a physician.6 Through the 7Elmendorf, H.G. (2006) “Learning Through Teaching: A New Perspective on Entering a Discipline.” Change noted that one of the greatest challenges delivery of anatomy outreach presentations, 38.6. Pg 36-41. to fi rst year medical students is dealing students are exposed to instances in which 8ACGME. (2010) “Common Program Requirements”. with the reality of facing death on a regular they must convey sensitive information. Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education basis.5 Practice in handling these complicated Teaching correlates to future patient 26 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV Evaluating Medical School Selection Criteria: Are we choosing the best candidates? B R K C S U What makes a good physician? What are it, the distinction of “best” does not seem varies from school to school. The items that some of the character traits or personalities as obvious as we would have thought. are rather ubiquitous on these applications, that you look for in someone who is charged Unfortunately, these misconceptions of however, are essay questions designed to with examining, discussing, and deciding on “best” permeate through the entire system glean a better idea of a particular candidate. some of the most personal and important of education; from the upper echelons of These questions range from “What unique aspects of your life? What characteristics professional schools to acceptance into characteristics would you bring to X make you trust someone to be scalpel-deep undergraduate programs out of high school. school?” and “Describe a time in your life in the intimate details of the people you love? The focus of this article will revolve around in which you faced adversity and discuss Do you consider yourself a valuable member the medical school admissions process. how you overcame that adversity”. The of your health care team? How many times It is pertinent to fi rst start off with an secondary application also contains the have you walked into your physician’s offi ce overview of the medical school application letters of recommendation from faculty or a hospital and asked the receptionist process. There are two major types of members that speak about the abilities of the where each of your potential physicians went medical schools in the country: allopathic candidate. After the secondary application is to medical school? Or did their residency? and osteopathic. Students who attend returned, the waiting period for the interview Does the answer to the last two questions allopathic programs will graduate with commences. Schools can choose to deny matter? If so, why? It’s simple: you want to “M.D.” (medical doctor) after their names candidates right off the bat or can choose be served by the best physician available in and are what many people associate with the to call candidates for a face-to-face interview a particular specialty. You want your spouse term “physician”. Students who graduate and offer them acceptance, waitlist them, or and your children and your parents to be from osteopathic programs carry the letters deny them. treated by the most knowledgeable, the most “D.O.” (doctor of osteopathy) after their An appropriate question at this point skilled, and the highest regarded physician. name. Both M.D.’s and D.O.’s are bestowed might be, “so what’s wrong with the That elucidates one last question: does our with the same credentials and have almost process?” It sure seems as if adequate perception of “best” actually match those identical training. In most respects they are measures are in place to identify strong last three superlatives? the same, and many patients wouldn’t be able candidates and rank them based on all of the Best can be an arbitrary description. As to tell which one is treating them. information and essay responses provided. a well-educated society, we tend to assign The application process begins with a Students are given ample opportunity to the distinction of “best” to the top tier in general, primary application that is sent to provide detailed information about volunteer a statistical or performance category. The all of the schools a student chooses to apply and clinical experiences, leadership roles, best 100m sprinter is Usain Bolt.1 The to. This application contains demographic undergraduate research and publications, best country in terms of math and science and transcript information, work experience, and a myriad of other résumé building education is Singapore.2,3 Inherently, we leadership roles, and other extracurricular blocks. They are afforded the opportunity associate “best” physicians with top-ranked activities. It contains the infamous personal to use their mastery of the English language schools, top performance on board exams, statement which asks students to answer in to succinctly, yet effectively, answer why they and top salaries. But is that really the most 5300 characters, “Why do you want to be are pursuing a career in medicine. They are appropriate application of the adjective a physician?” It also contains information even given an opportunity to appear in front “best” for a physician? Are we relegated about your standardized test scores: the of an admissions committee and, in a poised to these few, tangible criteria to proclaim medical college admissions test (MCAT). and professional manner, answer questions someone in charge of our health and often The MCAT can be thought of as “the great about ethics and motivations while coming times our life, the best? Where is the set of equalizer”, the one criterion that puts all off as amicable and competent. Isn’t this rankings that rates physicians on their ability candidates on a level playing fi eld to gauge the suffi cient? to explain complex medical conditions in competence of a candidate in relation to his I would argue that it is not. As a disclaimer, a vernacular that the common man can or her peers. A 4-5 hour online examination, medical schools currently utilize the tools at understand? Where is the poll that groups the MCAT serves to test students on the their disposal and do their best to objectively clinicians on their bedside manner, on their information they should have learned during judge candidates and select the best. The ability to offer comfort and tacit reassurance their undergraduate studies necessary for goal of these admissions committees is to in even the bleakest of times? Where is the beginning medical school. In short, it tests fi nd the candidates that will be successful, list of physicians who are not ashamed or students on the carry-forward prerequisite not to beleaguer applicants out of spite embarrassed to be faced with a complex courses for medical school curricula. or malice. That being said, the system has condition, an anomaly in terms of pathology, This initial screening is used to confi rm some fl aws, with the most tragic result look directly into your face, and say “I don’t minimum requirements and can determine being that superb and qualifi ed candidates know, but I am going to do everything in my whether or not individual schools will send can fall through the cracks because of power to fi nd the answer”? the secondary or supplementary application. rather minor shortcomings in this process. When we take the time to think about This application is school-specifi c and thus Perhaps the greatest fl aw in this process is Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 27 S E the transformation of a student candidate of approach involves some of the most are intelligent enough to attend and do well into an aggregate of numbers: GPA, MCAT evaluative and analytical types of critical in medical school. There are far fewer people score, number of credits taken, and number thinking and requires the synthesis of that have the ability to face a patient and of volunteer hours collected. Unfortunately, concepts from the whole of the pre-med communicate on a level in which the patient when 40,000 applicants apply to an average curriculum. understands exactly what is happening to of 15 schools each, admissions committees Students who possess the aforementioned them. The MCAT, although a great equalizer are forced to look at an aggregate of skills may not be able to convey these among candidates, cannot account for the numbers.4 The rationale behind candidate attributes on the primary application. social competencies and communication frustration with this aspect of the process Someone who doesn’t fall into the optimal skills that compose the large gap between is simple: a patient does not go see an range for GPA, the MCAT score, or a smart kids who can dictate the laws governing aggregate of numbers; a patient goes to see a combination of both will not be offered quantum physics and those students who can physician. Physicians are people who can feel an interview and possibly not even the relate to the person who is the patient. The emotion and empathize or can be cold and secondary application. Interviews are only cases that physicians see each day are people; standoffi sh. Physicians are individuals who offered for the best applicants. Ah, and here they are certainly more than an aggregate of can converse with people from all different we get back to the distinction of “best”. signs and symptoms waiting to be treated. backgrounds and relate to each of their Medical schools can only use the tools they The essence of interaction, empathy, and situations; or, they can be recalcitrant and are given to judge a particular applicant; the recognition of human dignity cannot far from personable. Clinicians are persons that point is not being contested. GPA’s can be found in a scaled score. As such, the who discuss lab results, test values, and post- be a fairly accurate predictor of scholastic disqualifi cation of a student based on his or operative procedures and formulate a plan aptitude and it would be foolish not to factor her MCAT score would be a travesty. on how to proceed such that the patient’s in one’s GPA in consideration for entrance So how do we solve the problem of best interest is always in mind; they can also into medical school. The MCAT, again, is the admitting students who lack these skills be persons that see little value in bedside “great equalizer”, the single part of all 40,000 yet have numbers on their application that manner and reassuring patients. My point is, candidates’ applications that can be measured suggest they might be the “best” candidates, how accurately can an aggregate of numbers equally by Lady Justice and her scales. The while denying students who possess attributes gauge someone’s personality, problem- effort made here by AAMC and AACOM, we want in our physicians because they didn’t solving skills, willingness to learn, and ability the two governing bodies of allopathic and score among the top tier candidates? This is to work with and read people? osteopathic programs, respectively, is a good not an easy question to answer. Interviewing Sure, many steps in the application one, but it is not suffi cient. They are limited, all candidates would give committees a much process attempt to illuminate these of course, due to the number of applicants. clearer picture of candidates but is vastly characteristics in a candidate. The essays The goal of the current admissions implausible with the number of applicants allow for expression of ideals and morals process is not strictly seeking students who for each school. Letters of recommendation that are not clarifi ed elsewhere, the GPA will be good medical school students, they should delineate these skills for a candidate, gives some indication about the ability to are looking for people who will be good but these letters don’t appear to carry the handle copious amounts of scientifi c data, physicians. I argue that this should involve weight with a committee that they should. and the MCAT is an attempt to test aptitudes searching for students with aptitudes I suggest this: medical schools ultimately in basic science concepts. But in this time of that the MCAT cannot test: the ability to need an insider, someone who has observed grade infl ation at all colleges and universities, break complex medical jargon down into and interacted with candidates in more than does GPA paint an accurate picture? The language that patients can understand and an academic capacity. They need someone MCAT tests retention from required courses, feel comfortable about, a bedside manner who not only sees a student digest new but does it accurately predict a student’s that is warm and reassuring, and critical information, but also identifi es students with ability to think critically? I would argue that thinking skills that lead to the best possible an aptitude for application. This is manifested critical thinking and application are the most care. Students who score below or even in best when this insider can observe the level important attributes of a candidate, as they the lower tiers of a school’s MCAT range of understanding a student has when that estimate the ability to solve novel problems. may possess these aptitudes while other student teaches it to someone else. Seeing a This invites a new question: have we students who scored in the top percentiles student in a TA or GTA role or in a tutoring as undergraduates been taught clinical may be severely lacking. A high score on the capacity can provide the insider with all the application? One method of successfully MCAT by no means guarantees a person information they need about responsibility, accomplishing this is through clinical case who displays any of the aforementioned owning their work, teamwork, being a leader, studies. These involve applying basic science characteristics that we expect in physicians interacting with people, simplifying complex knowledge to solve unique and complex who care for ourselves and for our loved issues, breaking down concepts, and, perhaps problems. Along with this application, ones. The MCAT successfully measures most important, truly caring about others. students develop the ability to defend and some ability to perform well under stress, Unfortunately, systems like this are explain their decisions. When proctored rote memorization of basic concepts in diffi cult to implement. Recently, however, correctly, medical case studies turn into a physics, biology, and chemistry, and some a collaboration between Colorado State mock differential diagnosis with a team of degree of critical thinking in the application University (CSU) and Rocky Vista University “specialists” discussing all possible causes for of that knowledge to diffi cult questions College of Medicine (RVU) has begun which a particular condition. After generating a list asked on the exam. may serve as a model for future changes in of possibilities, the group or individual can One shortfall of the “great equalizer” is this process. As part of this collaboration, systematically move down the list, describing that it cannot test the skills that distinguish a select few students are recommended for tests or assays that should be performed to medical school graduates from great acceptance into the medical school after confi rm or deny each condition. This type physicians. There are plenty of people who completion of a master’s program at CSU. 28 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S E This agreement provides the ability to assess crucial intangible skills that should typify a References a number of things: the degree to which physician. 1Shelton, Gary. (2013) “Usain Bolt leaves no doubt he is the fastest man ever.” Tampa Bay Times. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 29 e Di erentiation of Radial Glial Cell Line C6 in vitro B K C A C, PD W J U Abstract: Radial glia are cells found in the ventricular zone of the brain in the embryonic and neonatal neuroepithelia. These cells then differentiate into astrocytes, ependymal cells, and B-cells (sub-ventricular zone astrocytes) in the adult brain. Radial glia are hypothesized to have the capability to differentiate into oIPCs (intermediate progenitor cells that generate oligodendrocytes) and nIPCs (intermediate progenitor cells that generate neurons).4 This research was an independent, experimental project to test these hypotheses. Using the radial glial cell line C6, cultures were grown to differentiate into astrocytes (as a control for cell potency) and oIPCs and nIPCs. This study showed that the C6 cell line does indeed have the potential for differentiation into oligodendrocytes and neurons in vitro, therefore lending evidence to their hypothetical role in the development of the central nervous system in vivo. Introduction Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) to a fi nal cultures of the C6 cells were frozen in culture Neuronal and glial cells were long concentration of 2.5%, horse serum to a medium (95%) and Dimethyl Sulfoxide thought to differentiate from different stem fi nal concentration of 15%, and Penicillin- (DMSO) (5%) and stored at -150°C. All cell lines. Recent research, however, shows Streptomycin to a fi nal concentration of 1%. cells were taken through 13 passages before that these two cell types are much more The cells were then incubated at 37.0°C in the fi rst 24-well plate treatment. When cell 4 closely related than previously thought. a 5% carbon dioxide (CO2) incubator. Next, cultures were split, the fl ask with higher Some glial cells, such as the sub-ventricular the C6 cells (ATTC CCL-107, radial glial viability was chosen for continued passaging. zone (SVZ) astrocytes, have shown the cells isolated from the brain of a rat glial Viability was determined by a Nexcelcom capacity to differentiate into neurons in the tumor induced by N-nitrosomethylurea) adult mammalian brain.1 Radial glial cells were passaged every 3-4 days at a 1:2 or 1:3 (RG cells) give rise to these SVZ astrocytes, ratio. This was accomplished by removing and it is hypothesized that RG cells are in and discarding the culture medium, adding fact pluripotent primary progenitor cells, 2.0 to 3.0 ml of Trypsin-EDTA solution to meaning that they are capable of giving rise to the fl ask, and incubating at 37.0°C for 5 -15 a variety of neuronal and glial cell types. RG minutes. Following this treatment, 6.0 to 8.0 cells are derived from the neuroepithelium ml of complete growth medium was added during development and are therefore found and the cell suspension was aspirated by throughout the central nervous system gently pipetting. Then, appropriate aliquots (CNS) until birth. However, RG are thought of the cell suspension were added to new to persist in the CNS through adulthood culture vessels and incubated at 37° C. Stock as well.4 This work shows that radial glial cells have the capability to differentiate into astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neurons, and are therefore pluripotent cells. As these cells may be found throughout the central nervous system, exploiting their pluripotency could have powerful implications for Figure 2: Calcein AM stain after 4 days of treatment. brain and nerve repair. The capability to A) Cells cultured in DMEM/F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL differentiate into almost any type of CNS FGF-2 and 1% N2 for 2 days, then for an additional cell could make repair to almost any CNS 2 days after withdrawal of FGF-2 for Oligodendrocyte tissue possible. differentiation. B) Cells cultured in DMEM:F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL FGF-2, 50 ng/mL BMP-2, 50 ng/mL LIF, and 1%FCS for 4 days for Astrocyte differentiation. Methods C) Cells cultured in DMEM/F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL Cell Culture FGF-2, 1% N2 supplement, 1uM RA (300.4 ng/mL) Cells were cultured in American Type and 5uM forskolin for Neuronal differentiation. D) Figure 1: C6 cells cultured in a T-25 fl ask, observed Control cells cultured in normal culture media. Note Culture Collection (ATCC) complete on an inverted microscope and photographed. The the distinct morphological differences of A, B, and C growth medium, Dulbecco’s Modifi ed elongated shape is typical of a fi broblast and the thin when compared to D, the control. Each image is to scale Eagle Medium (DMEM)/F12 (1:1) (ATTC), processes being characteristic of RG cells. respectively. 30 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S CO2. The cells were rinsed three times with PBS, and then observed with a fl uorescent microscope. Immunofl uorescence Cells were cultured on poly-L-lysine coated coverslips in a 24-well plate, at approximately 1.74x104 cells per well. After 4 days of treatment (described above), the cells were fi xed with 4% paraformaldehyde. The cells were then permeabilized with 0.5% Triton X-100 in PBS for exactly 2 minutes. The primary antibody was rabbit α-MAP2 (1:500) (Sigma) in 1x block solution (20% goat serum, 2% BSA in PBS). The secondary antibody was Alexa Fluor 647 (Far Red) goat α-rabbit (1:1000) (Sigma) in 0.5x block solution. Phalloidin (1:1000) (Sigma) in 0.5x Figure 3: Immunofl uorescent stain using phalloidin (red), anti-MAP2 (yellow), and DAPI (blue) visualized block solution was used to stain the actin under a fl uorescent confocal microscope. Cells cultured in DMEM/F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL FGF-2 and 1% N2 for 2 days, then for an additional 2 days after withdrawal of FGF-2 for Oligodendrocyte differentiation. cytoskeleton. Coverslips were mounted onto A) Characteristic morphology of an immature Oligodendrocyte. The cell appears yellow-orange due to high slides with Prolong Gold with DAPI. The levels of MAP2. B) Characteristic morphology of a mature Oligodendrocyte. The cell body is reduced and is cells were then observed with a Zeiss LSM surrounded by many fi brous dendrites. The cell appears more reddish as MAP2 is no longer highly expressed 510 laser scanning confocal a microscope at after formation of the dendrites. 630x magnifi cation. The slides were stored at 4°C. Results While in culture in the T-25 fl asks, the cells remained highly confl uent with typical fi broblast morphology (Fig. 1). Viability of the cells remained high throughout passaging, often well above 90% viability. When observed, the treated cells appeared to have lower confl uency and viability than when cultured in the normal culture media. On the fourth day of treatment, the cells were stained with Calcein AM and observed. The living cells absorbed the Calcein AM stain and the morphology of the cells was easily observed (Fig 2). The cells treated to differentiate into oligodendrocytes displayed an oligodendrocyte like morphology from Figure 4: Immunofl uorescent stain using phalloidin (red), anti-MAP2 (yellow), and DAPI (blue) visualized under a fl uorescent confocal microscope. Cells cultured in DMEM:F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL FGF-2, 50 ng/ the original fi broblast. The oligodendrocyte mL BMP-2, 50 ng/mL LIF, and 1%FCS for 4 days. A) Immature astrocytes expressing high levels of MAP2. like cells were rounded and considerably B) Mature astrocytes with the characteristic bushy appearance. smaller, with many small processes along the periphery of the cell. The astrocytes Auto T4 cell counter. Once treatment began, (300.4 ng/mL) (Sigma), and 5μM forskolin displayed an enlarged cell body with several the cells were observed each day using a (Sigma). For oligodendrocyte differentiation, processes along the periphery of the cell. stereomicroscope. Cells thawed from the cells were cultured in DMEM/F12 (1:1) The neurons did not show a distinct change tenth passage were used for the second with 20ng/mL FGF-2 and 1% N2 (R+D in the size of the cell body, but did however, 24-well plate treatments. These cells were Systems) for 2 days, then for an additional possess morphologically distinct processes. treated in two 24-well plates. For astrocyte 2 days after withdrawal of FGF-2.5 The The control cells retained the fi broblast differentiation, cells were cultured in media was changed at the second day for all morphology suggesting no differentiation DMEM:F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL Fibroblast treatments. took place. The Calcein stain confi rmed Growth Factor 2 (FGF-2) (Sigma), 50 ng/ the earlier observations of apparently lower mL Bone Morphogenic Protein 2 (BMP-2) Calcien AM staining viability, as many of the cells did not absorb (Sigma), 50 ng/mL Leukemia Inhibitory The media was removed with a the dye. DAPI was used to ensure that the Factor (LIF) (Sigma), and 1% Fetal Calf micropipette and then the cells were washed Calcein was not auto fl uorescing. The images Serum (FCS) for 4 days. For neuronal, with 150μL of Phosphate Buffered saline in Figure 2 are not representative images and differentiation cells were cultured in (PBS). Next, 200μL of 2μM Calcein AM do not encompass all of the morphologies DMEM/F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL FGF-2, solution was added to the cells, followed by observed. In order to better observe the 1% N2 supplement, 1μM Retinoic Acid (RA) incubation for 30 minutes at 37°C and 5% differences in morphology a Zeiss LSM 510 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 31 H S laser scanning confocal microscope at 630x magnifi cation was used. Under the confocal microscope, it was observed that the cells were in various stages of differentiation. Those in the midst of differentiation expressed high levels of Microtubule Associated Protein 2 (MAP2), as it is necessary in the building of microtubules, which are in turn necessary for the building of new dendrites. These cells appeared yellow-orange in color due to the superposition of the anti-MAP2 antibody (yellow) and the phalloidin (red) antibody (Fig 3 A). Those cells that displayed a mature morphology express lower levels of MAP2, thus appear redder in color (Fig 3 B). Like the oligodendrocytes in Figure 3, the astrocytes were observed in different Figure 5: Immunofl uorescent stain using phalloidin (red), anti-MAP2 (yellow), and DAPI (blue) visualized phases of differentiation (Fig 4). The under a fl uorescent confocal microscope. Cells cultured in DMEM/F12 (1:1) with 20ng/mL FGF-2, 1% N2 supplement, 1uM RA (300.4 ng/mL) and 5uM forskolin. A) Typical multipolar neuron morphology with immature astrocytes also appeared yellow- dendrites extending radially from the cell. B) Bipolar neuron morphology; dendrites extending from the cell orange in color due to high levels of MAP2 body near the nucleus and a long axon at one end. expression, with decreased expression in the mature cells.7 Figure 6: Immunofl uorescent Unlike the oligodendrocytes and stain using phalloidin (red), anti- astrocytes, those cells treated for MAP2 (yellow), and DAPI (blue) differentiation into neurons did not appear visualized under a fl uorescent confocal microscope. to be in different stages of differentiation. The neuronal cells were observed to have A) Control cells cultured in differing morphologies. Some neuron DMEM/F12 (1:1) high glucose like cells displayed the morphology of a medium containing 2.5mM L-glutamine, 10% FBS, and multipolar neuron, which is characterized 20ng/mL of FGF-2. Note the by the axon and dendrites extending radially low levels of MAP2 (yellow) from the cell body (Fig 5A), whereas others expressed and the retention of displayed a more bipolar nerve morphology, the fi broblast morphology. characterized by the dendrites extending B) Cells cultured in DMEM:F12 from the cell body near the nucleus with a (1:1) with 20ng/mL FGF-2, 50 long axon at the opposite end of the cell (Fig ng/mL BMP-2, 50 ng/mL LIF, 5B). and 1%FCS for 4 days. These cells are beginning to differentiate into While those cells that were treated for astrocytes. Note the high levels of differentiation displayed distinctly different MAP2 (yellow) expressed and the morphologies than the original fi broblast, distinct changes in morphology. and expressed high levels of MAP2, the control cells did not. Those cells that were grown on the poly-L-lysine coated coverslip in the normal culture media retained the fi broblast morphology. In addition, the levels of MAP2 were extremely low, especially when compared to an actively differentiating cell (Fig 6). Discussion The use of anti-MAP2 to detect the levels of MAP2 within the cells proved to be an effective way of testing for differentiation, and was actually more sensitive than expected. Those cells in the midst of differentiation expressed the highest levels of MAP2, as this is indicative of a cell actively building new dendrites.8 Following differentiation the levels of MAP2 decreased, as no new dendrites were being made. This provided a method to estimate how mature 32 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H S the cell type was based on morphology and capable of differentiating into not only Glial Cell Line C6-R Integrates Preferentially in Adult MAP2 levels. The presence of immature astrocytes, but oligodendrocytes and White Matter and Facilitates Migration of Coimplanted Neurons in Vivo.” Experimental Neurology 168 (2001): oligodendrocytes and astrocytes suggests neurons as well. Further experimentation 310-22. that longer treatments would be needed for will be needed in order to determine the 4Kriegstein, Arnold, and Arturo Alvarez-Buylla. “The complete maturation. The neurons however, appropriate lengths for treatments to ensure Glial Nature of Embryonic and Adult Stem Cells.” appear to mature more rapidly as many of that the cells reach maturity. In addition to Annual Review of Neuroscience 32 (2009): 149-84. 5Kuwabara, Tomoko, Jenny Hsieh, Kinichi Nakashima, the cells had already matured by the end of this, further studies with radial glial cells in Kazunari Taira, and Fred H. Gage. “A Small Modularity treatment. situ and in vivo will be needed to determine dsRNA Specifi es the Fate of Adult Neural Stem Cells.” The lower viability observed during the the possibility, practicality, and applicability Cell 116 (2004): 779-93. Calcein staining would seem to suggest that of the pluripotent nature of the radial glial 6Kuwabara, Tomoko, Jenny Hsieh, Kinichi Nakashima, Masaki Warashina, and Kazunari Taira. “The NRSE the treatments may have been too harsh. cell in brain repair. smRNA specifi es the fate of adult hippocampal neural However, the decreased viability was seen in stem cells.” Nucleic Acid Symposium Series 49 (2005): 87- References 88. all of the treated wells, including the control. 1 Therefore, the decreased viability may have Doetsch, Fionna, Isabelle Caille, Daniel A. Lim, 7Wharton, S B., K K. Chan, and I R. Whittle. Jose M. Garcia-Verdugo, and Aturo Alvarez-Buylla. “Microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP-2) is expressed been due to another factor, perhaps leaving “Subventricular Zone Astrocytes Are Neural Stem Cells in low and high grade diffuse astrocytomas.” Journal of the cells exposed too long while changing in the Adult Mammalian Brain.” Cell 97 (1999): 703-16. Clinical Neuroscience 9, no. 2 (2002): 165-169. media. 2Gage, Fred H., Penelope W. Coates, Theo D. Palmer, H 8Al-Bassam, Jawdat, Rachel S. Ozer, Daniel Safer, Shelley Despite a decrease in viability and many G. Kuhn, and Lisa J. Fisher. “Survival and differentiation Halpain, and Ronald A. Milligan. “MAP2 and tau bind of adult neuronal progenitor cells transplanted to the longitudinally along the outer ridges of microtubule cells not achieving a mature morphology adult brain.” Neurobiology 92 (1995): 11879-83. protofi laments.” Journal of Cell Biology 157, no. 7 (2002): after treatment, this experiment suggests 3Hormigo, Adilia, Maria McCarthy, Jean M. Nothias, 1187-1196. that radial glial cells are pluripotent cells Koichi Hasegawa, and Wenchang Huang. “Radial Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 33 e Glori cation of Gluten-Free B K P C S U The last few years has seen an increase will present itself with mild feeling of personal reasons as well as those that have in dietary options available to people who being bloated, uncomfortable gas, or even become gluten-free due to medical necessity, have made the lifestyle decision to be a slight uneasiness in the stomach. For a in reality this creates a problem for those gluten-free. This rise is due in part to the select group of people, however, gluten individuals who do have an actual sensitivity. mainstream popularization of diets like The sensitivity is a much more severe problem. When restaurants cater to a large number Paleo Diet, which advocate that many health This is true in the population of people who of people who do not consume gluten for problems are due to the modern human diet have been diagnosed with Crohn’s or Celiac non-medical reasons, the employees may deviating from what humans have evolved disease. These two clinical conditions are become relaxed about cross-contamination. to consume. According to this and other often incorrectly used interchangeably in the Those individuals without true gluten evolution-based diets, humans have not media, but they are two unique pathological sensitivity do not care if their gluten-free evolved to consume dairy, legumes, and conditions. In Celiac disease, consumption bread is cut on a surface that also touches especially grain products. Gluten is found of gluten triggers an autoimmune reaction bread-containing gluten. Similarly, I have in the majority of grains that are consumed in the stomach. The individual’s immune witnessed employees at a major coffee chain in the standard Western diet. Furthermore, system begins attacking the villi. The villi spreading cream cheese from a communal the sudden glorifi cation of gluten-free diets are essentially the functional lining of the container on both gluten-containing and can also be attributed to a growing body of stomach and are absolutely imperative in gluten-free food. Breadcrumbs that end up scientifi c literature which has linked gluten the gastrointestinal chain for preliminary on a knife can contain trace amounts of consumption to more than a handful of nutrient absorption. Over time, repeated gluten, enough to trigger sensitivity in some common and debilitating autoimmune damage to the villi impairs the ability to patients. The popularization of gluten-free disorders.1 In the scientifi c community, the properly process essential nutrients. Thus, diets detracts from the necessity to prevent precise mechanistic link between gluten an individual with uncontrolled Celiac cross-contamination, as some employees consumption and autoimmune disorders is disease can show signs of malnourishment see it as extra work without justifi cation still being heavily investigated. At best, it can despite having a balanced diet.3 In Crohn’s or reward. This puts those suffering from be said that there is an observable relationship disease it is unknown what exactly triggers a medical condition at increased risk for between halting the consumption of grains the autoimmune reaction. Some research gluten related outbreaks. Currently, the and quantifi able changes in progression of suggests that gluten is the cause of this Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does certain autoimmune disorders. Meanwhile, immune system overreaction.4 Additionally, not regulate what makes food gluten-free. in the mainstream media, gluten has been in Crohn’s the immune system attacks the Common sense would dictate that a food extensively vilifi ed, and thus, people who do intestines and not the stomach.5 However, be considered gluten-free only if it is free not have clinically diagnosed gluten sensitivity since both conditions are autoimmune from any minute traces of gluten. However, have made the decision to be gluten-free. disorders of the gastrointestinal system since it is not regulated, food manufacturers In theory, having more people adopt the some experts recommend that both types of can label anything as gluten-free. It is really gluten-free lifestyle should be benefi cial to patients manage symptoms by cutting gluten dependent on the integrity of a company everyone: those with clinically diagnosed from their diet. to test their products to be free of gluten gluten intolerances will have more gluten- Many researchers are starting to associate prior to advertising it as such. This creates free options, food manufacturers will be gluten sensitivity as a possible precursor to a worry for those who are gluten-free for able to charge more for producing products the chronic infl ammation that is observed medical reasons since there is the fear that verifi ed to be free of gluten, and individuals in the progression of many autoimmune companies label their foods as gluten-free without diagnosed gluten sensitivity can disorders.1 As this information makes simply to appeal to those on gluten-free make decisions regarding their own health. its way into mainstream media, many diets without insuring that there is no cross- When it comes down to it, gluten is people are making the leap in logic and contamination. Alarmingly, some companies not a known toxin or a known poison to are choosing to go gluten-free without any have chosen to increase sales of products by the human body. In fact, gluten is simply a medical diagnosis. Similarly, individuals explicitly marking them as gluten-free even storage protein found in wheat and many who subscribe to lifestyles such as The Paleo though the product itself never contained other commonly consumed cereal grains.2 Diet or the Specifi c Carbohydrate Diet also go gluten. For example, this can be seen in the What makes gluten such a unique protein is gluten-free without a medical diagnosis. supermarket when certain foods such as that, in some individuals, consumption can The result of this is that more and more corn tortilla chips have the gluten-free label. trigger a sensitivity or intolerance. For the food manufacturers and restaurants are While it is true that the chips are gluten-free, majority of people who consume a typical starting to label foods as gluten-free. While it is dishonest because it makes consumers Western diet, this sensitivity is negligible. this would seemingly benefi t those that seeking out gluten-free products pick that The often undiagnosed gluten sensitivity made the transition to a gluten-free diet for preferentially over comparable corn tortilla 34 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S E chips that are not labeled as gluten-free but must meet be to be labeled gluten-free. the upcoming and long awaited regulation are inherently gluten-free. This can lead While that is an important step in the right of the label gluten-free by the FDA will help consumers to choose the product labeled direction, the solution is multifaceted. ensure that those with true gluten sensitivity as gluten-free to be safe. Products with Individuals who choose to be gluten-free will reap only the positive benefi ts of the the label are often more expensive. The for reasons other than medical implications glorifi cation of gluten-free. popularization of gluten-free diets and the must begin to recognize the problems caused gluten-free lifestyle can be benefi cial for by cross-contamination. The preparation of References everyone, but only if people understand the gluten-free and conventional gluten products 1Petersen, V. (2012) “Is Gluten Intolerance the Cause of Autoimmune Disorders?” Health Now Medical Center importance of keeping gluten-free products on the same surface must no longer be Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 35 E ect of capping ligand on serum protein adsorption and cell uptake of gold nanoparticles B C K M K C G , MS S H , PD A F A Abstract: Gold (Au) nanoparticles (NP) exhibit plasmonic properties, which make them ideal for biosensing, imaging, and drug delivery. Due to the range of applications for Au NPs, it is necessary to evaluate their interactions in biologically relevant media. The objective of this study is to investigate protein adsorption and uptake trends for 60 nm Au NPs capped with citrate (CA) versus tannic acid (TA). To approach this objective, Au NPs capped in CA versus TA were dispersed in water or media supplemented with increasing amounts of serum protein (0- 10%). The resulting dispersions were characterized using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging, dynamic light scattering and laser Doppler electrophoresis. Signifi cant agglomeration in media without serum and complete re-stabilization at 2% serum in media was observed for both CA or TA capped Au NPs, with no statistically signifi cant change for increasing concentrations of serum (0-10%). NP characterization techniques indicated a statistically signifi cant difference in size increase of about 21.4±1.8 nm and 27.2±1.8 nm for CA and TA capped NPs, respectively when dispersed in 10% serum. Cellular uptake into a lung epithelial cell-line (A549) was investigated qualitatively with darkfi eld microscopy and quantitatively via inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Uptake studies did not reveal a difference between the Au NPs capped with different ligands dispersed in 10% serum. Introduction nm Au NPs was systematically investigated electron microscopy (TEM) to determine Gold (Au) nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit for serum concentrations ranging from size and morphology. plasmonic properties, which make them ideal 0-10% in non-conductive (water) and Au NPs were diluted to 10 μg/mL for biosensing, imaging, and drug delivery.1,2 conductive media (RPMI media). Cell uptake in either water or RPMI-1640 media Due to the range of applications for Au NPs, was then quantifi ed for CA-Au NP and TA- (ATCC) supplemented with 1% penicillin/ it is necessary to evaluate their interactions Au NP dispersed in RPMI media containing streptomycin and increasing concentrations in biologically relevant media and with cells. 10 % serum. of fetal bovine serum (0- 10%). Solutions Au NPs agglomerate in the presence of the were made by adding in order, serum, salts found in cell culture media and are Approach NPs, and water or media to prevent the readily stabilized by the addition of serum Au NPs (60 nm) capped in CA or TA aggregation of Au NPs in media without proteins.3 The agglomeration state for Au were used in this study. CA capped Au NPs serum proteins. The resulting dispersions NPs has been shown to affect cell uptake, (60 nm) were purchased from the National were characterized using ultraviolet-visible where the relative uptake of either single Institute of Standards and Technology spectroscopy (UV-vis; Varian Cary 5000 UV- or agglomerated particles was unique for (NIST) and TA capped Au NPs (60 nm) VIS-NIR Spectrophotometer), hyperspectral different cell types.4 were purchased from nanoComposix. NPs imaging (HSI; CytoViva, Inc.), dynamic It was previously shown that the capping were characterized using transmission light scattering (DLS) and laser Doppler agent can also play a role in cell uptake of 10 nm Au NPs.3 Au NPs are often stabilized using electrostatically bound capping ligands, such as citric acid (CA) and tannic acid (TA). Additionally, many studies have demonstrated that regardless of size and capping agent, Au NPs adsorb serum proteins, which stabilize them in high conductivity media (i.e. cell culture media).3,5 The adsorbed proteins serve as the primary interface for interaction with cells.6,7,8,9 In this study, the role of 2 different Figure 1: TEM data for 60 nm Au NPs. A. Image of TA capped Au NPs; B. Image of CA capped Au NPs; C. capping agents on protein adsorption for 60 Histogram showing the size distribution for each NP. 36 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV N S in RPMI-1640 media (ATCC) supplemented with 1% penicillin/streptomycin and 10% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum. Cellular interaction was studied qualitative using hyperspectral imaging, while quantitative Au NP uptake was analyzed using total metal analysis by inductively coupled Plasmon mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results and Discussion Au NPs were characterized using TEM (Figure 1). The Au NPs exhibited a mostly spherical morphology, with an average diameter of 58.1 ± 9.5 nm and 59.2 ± 6.5 nm Figure 2: UV-vis data for 60 nm Au NPs. A. TA and CA capped Au NPs in water; B. Stability ratio for TA and CA capped Au NPs in water (solid lines) or media (dashed lines) with varying concentration of serum (0-10%). for TA and CA, respectively, corroborating the values provided by the manufacturers. The average diameter was measured as described in materials and methods and a histogram for the size distribution is shown in fi gure 1C. Au NP dispersions were characterized spectrally using UV-vis (Figure 2). The spectra shows slight variation in intensity for samples diluted to equal concentration (Figure 2A), but this difference is not expected to affect the results for stability ratios or dynamic light scattering. The peak absorption wavelength was 534 and 533 nm for TA- and CA-Au NPs, respectively, which correlates with the theoretical value for uncoated 60 nm Au NPs in water (536 nm).14 The reason for the slight discrepancy is unclear, but may be related to Figure 3: Darkfi eld images of Au NPs functionalized with tannic acid (A1-4) or citrate (B1-4) after dispersion the local refractive index variation caused in (1) water, (2) water + 8% serum, (3) media, or (4) media plus 8% serum. by the presence of citric acid and tannic acid in solution or the slight size deviations observed by TEM. electrophoresis (Malvern Zetasizer nano resolution darkfi eld microscopy can be used The stability ratio is an analysis of the ZS). Due to the plasmonic properties of to illuminate dense structures, such as cell peak intensity and curve shape from the UV- Au NPs, many characterization techniques membranes, organelles, and NPs without vis data for TA- and CA- Au NPs in water can be used to investigate their interaction fl uorescent tagging, but the identity of or media with increasing concentration with serum proteins. Using more than the dense structure cannot be confi rmed of serum protein. The results show that one characterization technique is useful to using this technique alone.11 Hyperspectral the samples exhibit reduced stability in validate and clarify results. Imaging (HSI) is a spectroscopy technique exposure media without serum and that the In order to compare the curves acquired that can be employed with both fl uorescence samples are stabilized after the addition of by UV-vis, a stability ratio was calculated and darkfi eld microscopy to confi rm the 2% serum, remaining stable for increasing by dividing the area under the curve by the 2-dimensional location of inorganic optically concentrations of serum in media and magnitude of the peak wavelength. The active NPs based on their spectral signatures. water (Figure 2B). There is no statistically stability ratio was normalized to 1.0 based When HSI is employed in conjunction signifi cant difference for the stability ratio on the average stability ratio value for each with ultra resolution darkfi eld microscopy, between samples from 2-10% FBS in either sample. A drawback to the UV-vis technique an image resolution of less than 150 nm particle type. is that the fi nal curve is an average of the and detection of less than 30 nm can be Darkfi eld images are displayed in Figure entire solution. This can be complimented achieved.11,12,13 3. TA-Au NPs can be seen in Figure 3A1- by analyzing individual particles and clusters Hydrodynamic diameter and zeta A4, while CA-Au NPs are shown in Figure using HSI, which can measure the scattering potential data are useful for assessing changes 3B1-B4. For each capping ligand, the trends spectrum from individual pixels in an in properties of NPs in different media. remain consistent with results observed via image of NPs. Theoretical data for surface However, dynamic light scattering is limited UV-vis. When dispersed in water without plasmon resonance was calculated based on to monodisperse spherical particles. Also, serum or media supplemented with 8% an in-house program written in Matlab based this technique is optimal within a specifi c serum, Au NPs appear to be green and are on Mie theory.10 concentration range and is not applicable for well-dispersed on the slide (Figure 3A1, 3A4, Optical microscopy is a useful tool sub-10 nm size particles. 3B1, 3B4). For Au NPs in water supplemented in characterizing cell morphology and A human lung epithelial cell-line (A549) with 8% serum, TA-Au NPs appear yellow, NP interactions with cells in vitro. Ultra was used for uptake studies. Cells were cultured and CA-Au NPs appear green (Figure 3A2 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 37 N S and 3B2). The yellow appearance of the TA-NPs in water supplemented with serum Figure 4: Peak scattering may be caused by experimental error, as this wavelength for TA- and CA- NPs in water (solid fi ll) indicates the formation of agglomerates, and media (white fi ll) for 0% which is not supported by the UV-vis or and 8% serum. Dotted line HSI data. The signifi cant decrease in stability indicates theoretical plasmon observed via UV-vis is supported by visual resonance peak for 60 nm Au NPs with a local refractive observation using darkfi eld microscopy for index of glass or immersion oil both TA- and CA-Au NPs (Figure 3A3 and (1.515). 3B3). The scattering wavelengths collected from the darkfi eld images shown in Figure 3 are expressed in the bar graph in Figure 4. When dispersed in water without serum, the NPs scatter light with a peak wavelength of 567 and 569 nm for TA- and CA-Au NPs, respectively. This correlates well with theoretical data for the plasmon resonance peak of 60 nm Au NPs with a local refractive index of 1.515 (silica glass slide; immersion oil), which is 567 nm. The peak wavelengths are 563 and 574 for TA-Au NPs, and 560 and 563 for CA-Au NPs dispersed in serum supplemented water and media, respectively. These values are also close to the theoretical estimations. Wavelength values for the NPs dispersed in media correlate with the agglomeration observed in darkfi eld images. The peak wavelength for Au matches closely to the theoretical value, which is 545 nm in water.10 The shift of about 10 nm is due the higher refractive index of glass and microscope oil, which must be accounted for when using HSI.15,16 Hydrodynamic diameter (A) and zeta potential data (B) for increasing serum concentration in water (solid fi ll) and media (white fi ll) are shown in Figure 5. DLS characterization data indicate a statistically signifi cant difference in size increase of about 27.2±1.4 nm and 21.4±1.8 for TA- and CA- Au NPs, respectively when dispersed in serum. When dispersed in water, the difference in size increase is not statistically signifi cant for any serum concentration (2- 10%). Signifi cant agglomeration in media without serum and complete re-stabilizatxion at 2% serum in media was observed for both NPs. The zeta potential for TA-Au NP is about -38 mV versus -43.1 mV for CA-Au NP (Figure 5B). This is likely due to innate differences in the capping ligand chemistry. Once 2% serum is added, the value for zeta potential increases by 14.1 mV to -24.0 mV for TA-Au NPs. The value for CA-Au NPs increases by 19.4 mV for a zeta potential of -23.7 mV. The change in zeta potential with the addition of serum indicates protein Figure 5: Hydrodynamic diameter (A) and zeta potential data (B) for increasing serum adsorption; the similarity between the fi nal concentration in water (solid fi ll) and media (white fi ll). values indicates the outer layer of proteins adsorbed to the Au NPs is similar regardless 38 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV N S Figure 6: Interaction of Au funding for this research was leveraged by NPs with A549 cells. A-C. Darkfi eld images; A. Control; funding from the Air Force Surgeon General. B. Cells exposed to TA-Au References NPs; C. Close-up image of cell 1 exposed to CA-Au NPs; D. Hao, R.Z., Song, H.B., Zuo, G.M., Yang, R.F., Wei, H.P, ICP-MS results. Wang, D.B., Cui, Z.Q., Zhang, Z., Cheng, Z.X., and Zhang, X.E. (2011) “DNA probe functionalized QCM biosensor based on gold nanoparticle amplifi cation for bacillus anthracis detection.” Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 26. Pg 3398-3404. 2Brown, S.D., Nativo, P., Smith, J.A., Stirling, D., Edwards, P.R., Venugopal, B., Flint, D.J., Plumb, J.A., Graham, D., and Wheate, N.J. (2010) “Gold nanoparticles for the improved anticancer drug delivery of the active component of oxaliplatin.” Journal of the American Chemical Society. 132. Pg 4678-4684. 3Mukhopadhyay, A., Grabinski, C., Afrooz, A.N., Saleh, N.B., and Hussain, S. (2012) “Effect of gold nanosphere surface chemistry on protein adsorption and cell uptake in vitro.” Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, accepted 29 March 2012. 4Albanese, A. and Chan, W.C.W. (2011) “Effect of gold nanoparticle agglomeration on cell uptake and toxicity.” ACS Nano. 5. Pg 5478-5489. 5Murdock, R.C., Braydich-Stolle, L., Schrand, A.M., Schlager, J.J., and Hussain, S.M. (2008) Characterization of nanomaterial dispersion in solution prior to in vitro exposure using dynamic light scattering technique. Toxicological Sciences. 101. Pg 239-253. 6Lynch I., Cedervall T., Lundqvist M., Cabaleiro-Lago C., Linse S., Dawson K.A. The nanoparticle-protein complex as a biological entity; a complex fl uids and surface science challenge for the 21st century. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 2007, 134-135, Pg 167- 174. 7Nel A.E., Madler L., Velegol D., Xia T., Hoek E.M.V., of capping ligand. For Au NPs with both This result is interesting because it has been Somasundaran P., Klaessig F., Castranova V., Thompson capping ligands, the change from 2% serum previously shown that the capping agent can M. Understanding biophysicochemical interactions at is statistically signifi cant from 6, 8, and 10% affect cell uptake for 10 nm Au NPs.3 the nano-bio interface. Nature Materials 2009, 8, Pg serum conditions. The fi nal value for these 543-557. 8Alkilany A.M. and Murphy C.J. J. Toxicity and cellular conditions is -20.2 mV for both TA- and Conclusion uptake of gold nanoparticles: What we have learned CA-Au NPs, further indicating the similarity The results of this work indicate that so far? Journal of Nanoparticle Research 2010, 12, Pg in protein adsorption trends for the different ≤ 2% serum is needed for stabilizing Au 2313-2333. capping ligands. NPs in cell culture media. The adsorbed 9Ehrenberg M.S., Friedman A.E., Finkelstein J.N., Oberdörster G., McGrath J.L. The infl uence of protein The zeta potential data for conditions protein layer does not appear to change as adsorption on nanoparticle association with cultured in media indicate a decrease in value for all the concentration of serum is increased; endothelial cells. Biomaterials, 2009, 30, Pg 603-610. samples compared to the 0% serum in water however, the composition of the adsorbed 10Yguerabide, J..; Yguerabide, E.E. Light scattering condition. The value for zeta potential in proteins is unknown. Based on preliminary submicroscopic particles as highly fl uorescent analogs and their use as tracer labels in clinical and biological media with 0% serum is -20.7 and 19.0 mV research, questions arise, including: what applications: I. Theory. Analytical Biochemistry 1998, for TA- and CA- Au NPs, respectively. This concentration of serum will not stabilize the 262, Pg 137–156. increase is likely related to the adsorption particles and does penicillin/streptomycin 11Skebo J. E., Grabinski C.M., Schrand A.M., Schlager of Na+ to carboxylic acid groups on citric affect the stability. In conclusion, the capping J.J., Hussain S.M. Assessment of metal nanoparticle agglomeration, uptake, and interaction using high- acid and tannic acid.4 After addition of ligand does not seem to strongly infl uence illuminating system. International Journal of Toxicology serum, the value further increases to -11.8 the adsorption of proteins or cell uptake of 2007, 26, Pg 135-141. mV and -10.7 mV, respectively, with no Au NPs. 12Vodyanoy, V. High resolution light microscopy of live signifi cant difference for the 2-10% serum cells. Microscopy Today 2005, 17, Pg 26-28. 13Foster, B. Focus on microscopy: A technique for concentration in either sample. This indicates Acknowledgements imaging live cell interactions and mechanisms. American that proteins may adsorb onto the NPs in a We would like to acknowledge the Laboratory 2004, 11, Pg 21–27. unique manner in media versus water. United States Air Force Academy Cadet 14Haiss W., Thanh N.T.K., Aveyard J., Fernig D.G. NP uptake was investigated in cells using Summer Research Program for providing Determination of size and concentration of gold nanoparticles from UV-Vis spectra. Analytical darkfi eld microscopy (Figure 6). The images the research opportunity for Cadet Michelle Chemistry 2007, 79, Pg 4215-4221. show strong association of NPs will cells, Kiyota and Cadet Catherine Kiyota and Oak 15White B., Strawbridge A., Grabinski C.M., Hussain and when compared to darkfi eld images of Ridge Institute for Science and Education S.M. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) to evaluate the NPs in Figure 3, demonstrates the presence for supporting Ms. Christin Grabinski a interaction of optically active nanoparticles in biological media and cells. Bios, accepted 2012 March 15. of primary particles and agglomerates. ICP- fellowship. We would also like to thank Ms. 16Mock, J.J., Smith, D.R., Schultz, S. Local refractive MS was used to quantify the particle uptake Elizabeth Maurer for assisting in TEM data index dependence of plasmon resonance spectra from in the A549 cell-line. Results show that there collection, Mr. Bradley Stacy for assisting individual nanoparticles. Nano Letters 2003, 3, Pg 485- is not statistically signifi cant difference in cell in UV-vis data collection, and Dr. Amanda 491. uptake for CA- or TA-Au NPs (Figure 6D). Schrand for ICP-MS data collection. The Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 39 Emergence of structures and forms in complex adaptive systems in nature B A B C B I T I A R C Abstract: Structure is an emergent property. The law of divergence (Second Law of Thermodynamics) proposes the increase of disorder with every spontaneous natural process. However, systems existing in nature constantly tend toward a state of increasing order. The self-organizing property present within these systems makes them robust and reliable to sustain changes in their surroundings. These systems inherently possess two intrinsic mechanisms. The fi rst is a control mechanism that drives these systems away from a state of physical equilibrium or dead state, and the second is a feedback mechanism that enables these systems to adapt to the ever-changing environment through self-organization. The system elements organize themselves through various cycles of evolution by applying work on the system constraints in order to minimize them in the least possible time. Through this paper we investigate the cause of existence of an exergy gradient between the systems found in nature and their surrounding media. We relate the exergy fl ow current and constraint minimization to understand the existence of diverse forms and emergent complexity in nature, and we argue the existence of microscopic heat engines, which, by operating between two potentials, minimize physical constraints and optimize global exergy fl ow current in open adaptive complex dynamical systems, thereby giving rise to beautiful structural forms and varied species. Keywords: accelerate, action, asymmetry, complex adaptive systems, complexity, constraint, minimization, emergence, entropy, exergy fl ow, feedback loop, fractal, microscopic heat-engines, organization, Principle of Least Action, self-organization, symmetry in nature. Introduction Natural structures have living and evolving identify, measure, engineer, and re-engineer Nature has inspired man time and time geometries that continuously optimize their such systems for the development of society again to design structures, imagine processes, struggle for better performance through to ensure our sustainable existence.10, 11 and propound theories. Natural systems progressive development.2 Near symmetry Prior to proposing any law or theory are beautiful and complex in construction, in nature is a topic of thorough discussion to investigate nature or natural processes, exhibiting enormous varieties of shapes at various interdisciplinary levels. It would we must look into the most fundamental and structures. Geometric perfection is require physicists, chemists, mathematicians, principles on which lies the foundation of rarely observed in natural systems. It is biologists, complexity theorists, all physical laws (i.e. the Principle of Least almost impossible to fi nd perfect symmetry astrobiologists, and engineers, all focused to Action). The Principle of Least Action is an in animate systems (systems which are develop a common world view, to decipher inherent law of nature which states that every continuously self-organizing and intrinsically nature’s enduring mysteries. Architecture in spontaneous process tends to follow the adaptive with the externally surrounding nature has been extensively investigated by path which will take least time to complete. environment) in nature. There is a gate in the Constructal Law, widely regarded as the Through this paper, we intend to present Japan, Neiko, which is sometimes called by Fourth Law of Thermodynamics.3 Natural an idea on how the elements constituting a the Japanese the most beautiful gate in all of structures evolve at various levels of hierarchy complex system obey the Principle of Least Japan. The gate is very elaborate, with many and become increasingly complex with time. Action and hence, minimize the constraints gables, beautiful carvings, columns, and Investigating such systems with continually by performing work on them. This is done dragon headed princes carved into the pillars. optimizing geometries (architectures) through grouping and adding to the global But when one looks closely, they see that becomes signifi cantly diffi cult with passage exergy current fl owing through the system, in the elaborate and complex design along of time. Also, with growth of complexity, giving rise to various architectural structures one of the pillars one of the small design systems become greatly organized at various and forms in nature. Exergy of a system elements is carved upside down; otherwise, hierarchical levels, namely physical, chemical, is defi ned as the maximum possible work it is completely symmetrical. The error was biological, societal, and technological.4, 5, 6, 7, that it can perform. Mathematically, exergy purposely put so that the gods would not 8, 9, 10 However, in accordance to the Second is equal to Carnot effi ciency times the be jealous of man’s perfection.1A question Law of Thermodynamics, systems should heat contained by a system. In this paper, arises, why is nature nearly symmetrical? come into a state of equilibrium with the we present some analogies between the What eludes that perfect geometry with surrounding by continuously dispersing classical formulations of the motion of sharp curves and faultless rounded circles energy. We need to develop certain system elements, incorporating variational that we spend time learning at schools? fundamental laws and governing principles to principles and thermo-dynamical aspects 40 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV N S of work, exergy and entropy. We believe be taken into consideration. The rational connected network. Systems found in every scientifi c theory must be broad in choices of the system elements or agents are nature are structurally complex. Complexity scope, present a constructive common to pursue the shortest possible path in order increases not with the amount of connections worldview, be able to address a wide range of to organize in the least possible time span, between the nodes that are present in a system phenomena, and be able to sustain the tests which drives the system towards greater but due to the numerous combinations of of time like the laws of thermodynamics and entropy generation and irreversibility.13, 19 In possible connections. In a system open to quantum mechanics that have successfully a networked complex system, each element surrounding environment, the state of least explained countless natural phenomena. The will compute all possible paths from one action behaves as an attractor.6, 7, 8, 9 The long-range implications of our ideas have node to another and thus will render the system elements progressively optimize their been presented in the discussion section.7, 11, system towards a state of uncertainty. trajectories to achieve the least action state 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 In a one-dimensional state space, but ultimately fail to achieve that stationary the equation of trajectory of a system (least action) state. The pursuit of the system Methodology element can be written as20: elements to reach the stationary state causes A complex system is a system composed the action of the system as a whole to of many interacting elements, often called (1) increase and gradually diverges the system agents, which display collective behaviour away from equilibrium, but at the same time, that does not follow the behaviours of the The above equation signifi es that the mutual interactions between the system individual parts.17 The collective behaviour actual path of a system element is greater elements induce internal irreversibility within of the constituting elements is an emergent than the shortest path by an amount ‘ε(t)’ the system that make the process of self- property. The word ‘complex’ has Latin termed as the ‘variation parameter’. When organization irreversible, causing dissipation origin, complexus, meaning consisting of a system element is free from mutual of free energy and information from the many different and connected parts or not interactions, fi elds, and forces then, its actual system and the entropy to rise.9, 21 The easy to understand. Nature inevitably consists path will always coincide with its shortest interaction or variation parameter thus plays of complex systems that are continuously path, rendering the variation parameter to a crucial role in complexation of a system. evolving and optimizing themselves through zero. For a two-element system, the elements According to the Principle of Least various cycles of evolution to attain greater in a system are labelled by α and β. So, the Action, the variation of the path is zero for degrees of order; they recursively optimize new trajectories of the two system elements any natural process occurring between two their performance and get organized over due to mutual interaction are expressed as, points of time,t1and t2. Nature acts in the time. Emergence is hard to quantify because, for system element α: simplest way, in the shortest possible time. in a multi-element open system, there are Thus, the action integral is given by: infi nite parameters controlling any emergent (2) property of that system. Any change may (4) cause that property to either totally disappear In eqn. (2), the left side represents the or appear altogether in a new form. Through actual trajectory of the system element α Where L is the Lagrangian, T and V are this paper, we intend to present a new due to its interaction with β.The right-hand the kinetic and the potential energies of the form of the Principle of Least Action to side of the equation consists of two parts, system (respectively) and L=T-V. For the develop the idea as to how complexity xαα(t), the trajectory of element α in absence motion of the system between time t1and evolves in multi-element systems, move of any other interacting element which t2, the Lagrangian, L, has a stationary value into the domain of Constructal Theory, must inherently be its shortest path and the for the correct path of motion. This can be 18 and eventually relate the two to describe the variation parameter, εαβ(t), due to mutual summarized as the Hamilton’s Principle. coherent interdependency between them. interaction between the elements. Similarly, Rewriting eqn. (4) in multi-agent notation: the trajectory of element β can be expressed Principle of Least Action: a multi-agent approach similarly as: (5) The Principle of Least Action has emerged as the foundation for almost all (3) Iαα represents the action of element α in physical laws, particularly those describing absence of any other element. Eqn. (5) on natural processes. There is not a broader The variation parameter employed here is solving will give the shortest possible path and more fundamental principle in science different from the one generally used in the between two points in state space at times than this. The Principle of Least Action has analysis of calculus of variation to evaluate t1and t2. In presence of a second element, β been refi ned time and again to describe a the shortest path. In open systems there is eqn. (5) gets modifi ed into: wide range of natural phenomena, be it the an incessant in-fl ux and out-fl ux of mass, Gauss Principle of Least Constraint, Hertz’s energy, and information so the fi nal state of (6) principle of Least Curvature, or the path such a system is often indeterminate. The integral formalism for quantum mechanics variation parameter employed in eqn. (1, 2 Iαβis the action of element α in presence by Feynman. The conventional Least Action and 3) has to be, thus, weakly constrained. of other interacting system elements. From Principle is highly deterministic in nature and A natural question arises here as to how eqn. (2, 3) we can observe that the trajectory takes into account the variation in trajectory this parameter can establish the growth of obtained by solving eqn. (6) is greater than of a single system element between two complexity in a system with time. that obtained by solving eqn. (5) by an pre-determined fi xed points or states in amount εαβ. Hence, Iαβ is greater than Iαα. space.18 The cause of variation in trajectory Exponential growth of complexity: an empirical Neglecting the existence of any fi eld, the of an element due to its interaction with relationship potential energy term vanishes. So, we are other elements within the system needs to A system can also be defi ned as a left with: Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 41 N S food, or perhaps information. In a complex (11) networked system the global currents fl owing in the network could be exergy and In the above equation α is the measure information. A very interesting property of of organization in a complex networked complex adaptive systems is that they operate (7) system.7 From the above equation it can be a feedback loop by which they interact with seen that action and organization are related the surrounding and self-organize them with inversely. Thereby, reduction in action with time (a continuous learning process). Also, time and achieving a least action or maximum at the same time, they possess an intrinsic (8) organized state is the elucidating motive of control mechanism that diverges the system the system which it fails to achieve. This is away from equilibrium.7, 11 It is due to the Eqn. (8) states that the integration of the because a maximum organized state for a irreversibility generated because of mutual time derivative of the variation parameter system is also a state of maximum action.8 interaction (eqn. (8, 10)). The self-organizing 7, 8, 10, between times t1and t2 is always positive. Such a state thus acts as an attractor. process operating through a feedback loop is As it was discussed earlier, the interaction 11, 12 So, for natural systems the Lyapunov’s analogous to parallel computation processes parameter induces irreversibility in a process exponent in eqn. (10) becomes negative. In by which information gets stored into the due to mutual interactions and hence, a two-dimensional state space, the second physical memory of the system.7, 27 generates entropy. Thus, the left side of the Lyapunov’s exponent should be positive in In the earlier sections we analysed the eqn. (8) represents the mechanical analogy order to satisfy the Liouville’stheorem.18For cause of internal irreversibility and related it of the entropy principle. For a system a two-dimensional state space: to entropy generation (eqn. (8, 9 and 10)), undergoing a process 1 →2, with entropy but we did not discuss the existence of transfer across the system boundary due to any physical constraints present within the heat transaction, the entropy system. The physical constraints can be the must be greater than zero.22 physical boundary of the system, distance (12) between nodes in a networked complex (9) system, physical hindrance to the motion of Constructal Theory: optimizing physical constraints the system elements within, or can be any From the above equation it can be in a system energy barrier. In addition to the generated seen that the rate of change in entropy is a The Constructal Law states that if a irreversibility due to motion and mutual monotonically increasing function. Further, system has freedom to morph, it develops interaction, the physical constraints provide if we compare eqn. (8) and (9) we can so that the fl ow architecture provides easier another challenge for natural systems to fi nd an analogy between them. Both the access to the currents that fl ow through it.2, organize, to sustain, and also enhance rate of change of the variation parameter 25 The system’s purpose is global existence. It their performances with time. So, what and entropy are related. With increase in is present along with fi xed global constraints mechanism does a natural system employ interactions due to multiple elements in the which may include the space allocated to the to organize itself with time? How does the system the loss in information about each system, available material and components, system morph and transit from one level of element becomes increasingly signifi cant and allowable temperature, pressure or stress complexity to the other? contributes to overall complexity growth. ranges, etc. The system designer brings Thus, the growth of complexity with time is together all components and optimizes the profound and has been found to follow an arrangement in order to reach maximum Emergence of geometry in nature and enhancing exponential distribution.7, 23, 24 The variation performance. In this way, he “constructs” the performance through constraint minimization and parameter controls the rational choices optimal fl ow architecture. Therefore the fl ow parallel computation of the system elements to pursue specifi c architecture shape and structure are deduced, It was discussed in earlier sections that trajectories to optimize their action.12 not assumed in advance. A design engineer, geometries in nature are alive and imperfect. Optimizing this parameter through cycles of thus, designs a system by optimizing the The existence of physical imperfections evolution is the process of self-organization constraints and maximizing the performance. and asymmetry are signs that, they are and complexity growth. We therefore A fl ow system is also characterized by continuously evolving and are living.2 present an empirical (although incomplete) “performance” (function, objective) and Geometry and design are weakly connected expression for this parameter here. “fl ow structure” (confi guration, layout, in the sense that geometry is concerned with geometry, architecture). Unlike the black the shape and the form of a system, whereas (10) box of classical thermodynamics, which design is concerned with its function and represents a system at equilibrium, a fl ow achievable performance. Thus, geometry Eqn. (10) gives an expression for the system has performance and especially represents the evolving system and design growth of complexity in a system with time. confi guration. Each fl ow system has a represents the sustaining system. In the Here, is a function depending drawing.26 Natural structures are fl ow empirical function to denote complexity we upon velocity and displacement, x0 is the structures through which heat, work, energy had multiplied a function with the initial variation, i.e., at time t1 and λxαβ is the fl ow inwards and outwards with time. How exponential term. The function depends upon Lyapunov’s exponent for the two element do natural structures sustain and enhance the inter-nodal distance and instantaneous pair, αand β. In the metric formulation of their performances with time? How does velocity of the elements crossing the nodes. complex systems action possessed and nature create its structures? Continuous self-organizing processes aim degree of orderliness are inversely related.7,8,9 The global exergy currents fl owing towards minimizing action and reducing the through natural animate systems are fuel, inter-nodal distance or displacement. With 42 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV N S self-organization the distances between the them to make way for effi cient exergy fl ow the system from reaching the least action nodes shrink and the system’s geometry within the networked system. The fl ow state. Grouping causes multiple processing varies continuously with time.7 With of exergy currents through the system within the system thus accelerating the rate shrinkage, the action of individual element establishes a gradient between the system and of self-organization. These two processes is reduced and the elements evolve through the surrounding. Exergy of the surrounding are constantly in operation, preventing any time by approaching the shortest path. The is null, i.e. the surrounding environment can complex-adaptive system reaching the dead continuous variation (geometrical) of a be considered as a dead state compared to the state and also allowing the system to grow and system or morphing would provide multiple system. The existence of this exergy gradient develop in time and progressively enhance pathways for the exergy currents to fl ow. between the system and the surrounding its performance. The fi gure below shows an Since a natural system is open, the search causes the system elements to act as evolving complex networked system with for shortest path for the exergy currents microscopic heat engines. The work output various nodes (concentric circles, green), to fl ow through it will cause the system to of these heat engines (system elements) inter-nodal trajectory of system elements continuously morph. On one hand, this is used up in minimizing constraints. The (thin arrows, black), the exergy fl ow current would cause the system to change its shape energy rejected while performing work, (thick arrows, cyan), and system elements by enlarging or shrinking its boundaries by the Second Law, is dissipated into the (solid spheres, black). The system elements along its different axes of symmetry. On surrounding media. According to the exergy work between the exergy gradients of the other hand, the continuous search for principle, exergy of a system can never system and surrounding (dotted red arrows) shortest paths for currents to fl ow would increase. The rate of decrease in exergy of and perform work (thick black arrows) to cause internal differentiation of the paths a system is equal to difference between the minimize physical constraint (thick black at fi ner levels leading to alveoli structure internal irreversibility and cumulative exergy line). In the fi gure below, three elements of lungs, veins for blood circulation, a of the system elements. group, and together they apply cumulative fl owing river with numerous branches and efforts to modify the constraint. This tributaries, etc. Thus, the combined effect is (14) causes simultaneous work and accelerates seen in the form of asymmetrical structures the feedback loop. The history (in the form showing self-similarity at fi ner levels. This irreversibilties in shape or structural from) “self-similarity” is signature in fractals. (15) gets stored in the physical memory of the Nature is full of fractals. Everything system. around us, animate or inanimate; for So, eqn. (15) can be rewritten as: example, a leaf, a tree, the human body, a mountain range, snowfl akes, etc. are all fractals. Fractals possess a great deal of self-similarity when examined successively (16) at fi ner scales. The fractal dimensiond ( F) of the least state attractor can be deduced From the above expression it can be from the Lyapunov’s exponents; the negative deduced that internal irreversibility due X exponent (-λ αβ) denoting shrinkage along to rise in complexity is greater than the the x-axis and the positive exponent λyαβ difference between global entropy of the denoting elongation along the y-axis.18 system and summation of local entropy for Discussion the all constituting system elements due to (13) heat (energy, information) exchange with the The aim of this section is to discuss surrounding media. Internal irreversibilities the long-range implications of the ideas Thus, the growth of complexity in natural or inherent complexities restrain the system presented in this paper and the future work systems along with progressive development elements from performing maximum work to be done using them. or self-organization generates fractals in to minimize constraint and limits the system nature, the reason of enormous varieties of from achieving least action state. The work 1. In the future, we can work on defi ning beautiful structural forms, asymmetry, and lost due to irreversibility is the exergy the function and investigate geometric imperfections. Sustenance and destruction. Accelerating the self-organizing complexity growth in greater detail. We never-ending struggle for achieving better process causes the system elements to can also work to formulate the multi-agent performance takes place by two proposed perform cumulative work on the constraints approach of the Principle of Least Action and ways: in a parallel arrangement. The parallel quantify organization, parallel computation, arrangement gives multiple simultaneous and accelerated self-organization.7, 13 1. Allow better access to the fl ow of paths for exergy currents to fl ow by 2. According to the Space Time Energy exergy currents within the system through minimizing constraints along them. This also Matter (STEM) compression, systems constraint minimization. enhances the processing speed of the system increasingly get localised in space and 2. Through numerous simultaneous by accelerating the feedback mechanism increase their performance effi ciency.10 (parallel) self-organizing processes operating loop. This induces rapid decrease in action We have seen earlier how self-organization between nodes within the networked system of the system as a whole and organizes processes shrink inter-nodal distance in (Accelerated Natural Computation). the system at an accelerated rate. Thus, a system. Thus, STEM compression and complexity present in the system generates approach to a least action state are analogous. Interestingly, both the processes are irreversibility, preventing the system Both appear to be unrealized attractors for intrinsically linked. The system elements elements from minimizing the constraint the leading edge of complexity development apply work on the constraints and minimize to a possible minimum, thereby preventing (of emergent hierarchical intelligence) in the Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 43 N S universe.10 Universiteit Brussels, Belgium), John Smart 578-583. 3. A debatable question has many a time (Futurist, President of Acceleration Science 10. Smart, J. M. (2002) “Answering the Fermi Paradox.”J. of Evol.and Tech.. erupted in our minds: are we alone in this Foundation and Professor, University of 11. Vidal, C. (2010) “Black Holes: Attractors for universe? The Search for Extra Terrestrial Advancing Technology, USA), Gerard Intelligence?” Towards a scientifi c and societal agenda on extra- Intelligence (SETI) project, Black hole Jagers Op Akkerhuis (Senior Scientist, terrestrial life, Kavli Royal Society International Centre. intelligence, XRB’s11, the Cosmic Contact Wageningen University and Research Centre, 12. Chatterjee, A. B. (2012) “Game – theoretic 14 formulation of complex systems.” Proc. of the Sixth Censorship can be explained by the idea of The Netherlands), Quiping Alexandre International Conference on Game Theory and Management, St. exergy fl ow and constraint minimization. Wang (ISMANS, France), Pushkar Ganesh Petersburg State University, Russia. 4. Using geometry in nature to design Vaidya (Head Scientist, Indian Astrobiology 13. Chatterjee, A. B. (2012) “Principle of Least Action: more effi cient structures that allow for better Research Centre), and Milind Kshirsagar a multi – agent approach.” Foundations of Physics, (under review). exergy fl ow can optimize our resources and (Assistant Professor of Mechanical 14. Vaidya, P. G. (2007) “Cosmic Contact allow our sustainable existence. Engineering, SVPCET, India) for invaluable Censorship.”Arxiv Physics. http://www.arxiv.org/. 5. Are Cosmological Natural Selection discussions, motivation, and support. I also (Accessed 04/12/1990). (CNS) and natural selection of rational thank Catherine Nipps (Department of 15. Vaidya, P. G. (2007) “Are We Alone in the Multiverse?” Astrobiology Newsletter 3. 4. Pg 4-6. choices of system elements in game-theoretic Computer Science and Engineering, Bhilai 16. Vidal, C. (2010) “Computational and Biological formulation of complex systems related? Institute of Technology, India) for her Analogies for Understanding Fine-Tuned Parameters in patience in editing the paper. The author Physics.” Foundations of Science 15.4. Pg 375-393. wishes to express his sincere gratitude 17. Heylighen, F. (1999)The Growth of Structural and Conclusion Functional Complexity during Evolution, The Evolution towards Prof. Adrian Bejan for putting up of Complexity, eds. F. Heylighen, J. Bollen& A. Riegler, Through this paper, the key features of his papers and related works for open-access Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, Pg 17 – 44. complex systems, their continuously evolving at his site: http://www.constructal.org. 18. Goldstein, H. (1980) Classical Mechanics. Addison – geometries, the process of self-organization Wesley. (by operating a feedback loop), the growth References 19. Wang, Q. A. (2004) “Maximum path information 1. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1963) and the principle of least action for chaotic system.” of complexity with time, and accelerated rate The Feynman Lectures on physics Vol. 1. Addison – Wesley. Chaos, Solutions & Fractals 23.1253. of organization by minimization of physical Pg 664–665. 20. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963) constraints through parallel processes 2. Reis, A. H. (2006) “Constructal Theory: From The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. 2. Addison – Wesley. have been addressed by making use of the Engineering to Physics, and How Flow Systems 21. Annila, A. et al (2009) “In the Light of Time.” Proc. Develop Shape and Structure.” Applied Mechanics Reviews R. Soc. A465. Pg 1173. Constructal Law and Principle of Least 59. Pg 269–280. 22. Nag P. K. (2007) Engineering Thermodynamics. Tata Action for multi-agent systems. We believe 3. Bejan, A. (1997) Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. McGraw Hill. these ideas will open up new gateways to John Wiley &Co. 23. Chaisson, E. J. (1998) “The cosmic environment for engineer and redesign our future structures 4. Bar – Yam, Y. (1997) Dynamics of Complex Systems. the growth of complexity.”BioSystems 46. Pg 13–19. Addison – Wesley. 24. Chow et al. (2011) “Nonlinear pedagogy: Learning and technologies. Finally, in the words 5. Chaisson, E. J. (1998) Order, Form and Complexity. design for self-organizing neurobiological systems.” of Feynman, “God made the laws only nearly Harvard University Press. New Ideas in Psychology 29. Pg 189–200. 6. Georgiev, G. and Georgiev, I. (2002) “The Least 25. Bejan, A. (2005) “The Constructal law of symmetrical so that we should not be jealous of His organization in nature: tree-shaped fl ows and body perfection!” Action and the Metric of an Organized System.” Open Systems and Information Dynamics size.” The J. of Exp. Biology 208. Pg 1677–1686. 9.4. Pg 371-380. 26. Bejan, A. and Lorente, S. (2004) “The Constructal Acknowledgements 7. Georgiev, G. (2012) “A quantitative measure, law and the thermodynamics of fl ow systems with mechanism and attractor for self-organization in confi guration.”Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer 47. Pg The author thanks Georgi Georgiev networked complex systems.” Sixth International 3203–3214. Workshop on Self-Organizing Systems, Delfts University, 27. Devezas, T. C. (2005) “Evolutionary theory of (Physicist and Assistant Professor of The Netherlands. technological change: State–of–the art and new Physics and Astronomy, Department of 8. Chatterjee, A. B. (2012) “Action, an Extensive approaches.” Tech. Forec. & Soc. Change 72. Pg 1137-1152. Natural Sciences, Assumption College, Property of Self-Organizing Systems.” Int. J. of Basic and USA), Clément Vidal (Philosopher and App. Sciences 1.4. Pg 584-593. 9. Chatterjee, A. B. (2012) “Intrinsic Limitations of the Researcher, Centrum Leo Apostel, Vrije Human Mind.” Int. J. of Basic and App. Sciences 1.4. Pg 44 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV Detritus, Water Volume, and pH in Epiphytic Brome- liads’ Central Tank B N A. G C S U Abstract: Tropical plants are known for their highly effi cient nutrient cycles; some of the best examples of this are epiphytic bromeliads. Epiphytic bromeliads rely solely on precipitation and leaf detritus for nutrients; such as nitrogen and phosphorous. However, little is known about the impact of detritus and water volume on the central tank chemistry in these bromeliads. Using pH as a bioindicator, this study examined this relation in epiphytic bromeliads along the Continental Divide in Monteverde, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. The collected data showed no statistical signifi cance in pH when compared by four categories: (1)Detritus Dry Weight, (2)Total Water Volume, (3)Ratio of Dry to Wet Detritus Weight and (4)Ratio of Dry Detritus Weight to Total Water. Detritus was also ranked qualitatively on a scale from one to fi ve based on decomposition level. The pH of these groups was compared by Kruskal-Wallis test and found not to be signifi cant. Differences in pH imply either synergistic effect between two or more of these groups or infl uence from physiological characteristics of the bromeliad itself. Key words: bromeliad, detritus, epiphyte, pH, water volume Resumen marshes’”, but unlike terrestrial water bodies Los plantas tropicales son conocidas por which get nutrients from silt and soil, these sus efi cientes ciclos de nutrientes; algunos plants must rely solely on nutrients from de los mayores ejemplos son las bromelias detritus, specifi cally decaying leaf material, epifítas. Las bromelias epifi tas cuentan con to survive.1 Epiphytic bromeliads are a la precipitación y los detritos solamente highly specialized group of vascular plants de hojas como nutrientes; tales como from the Bromeliaceae family. They are nitrógeno y fósforo. Sin embargo poco se important in Neotropical forests in nitrogen conoce sobre el impacto de los detritros y and phosphorous cycles, as well as increasing volumen de agua en la química del tanque biomass and providing unique habitats. dentro de estas bromelias. Al usar pH By growing leaves in a tight, overlapping como un indicador biológico, este estudio rosette pattern bromeliads form a central examinó la relación entre bromelias epifi tas tank for nutrient and water collection. Their en la division continental en Monteverde, morphology also allows them to grow on Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Los datos recogidos trees and branches with no contact to the Figure 1: Example of epiphytic bromeliad.3 Bromeliad no mostraron una diferencia siginifi cativa en ground. Since epiphytic bromeliads do depends solely on water and nutrients stored in its pH cuando se compararon cuatro categorías: not absorb nutrients from their substrate, central tank for survival. Breakdown of detritus is the (1)Peso Seco del Detrito, (2) Todo Volumen they are highly dependent on detritus and source of nutrients for central tank. de Agua, (3) Relación de Detrito Seco a precipitation trapped in their central tank for Mojado y (4) Relación del Peso Seco de sustenance.2 Detrito con todo el Volumen de Agua. Los Detritus, as well as the bacteria, fungi, of epiphytic bromeliads and on how detritos fueron clasifi cados cualitativamente and protozoa that consume it, live in the detritus affects terrestrial bromeliads.7,9,10,11,12 en una escala de uno a cinco basado también bromeliad’s central tank and make up the However, little is known about effects of en el grado de descomposición. El pH de basic trophic level of bromeliad habitats.4,5 detritus on the chemistry in the central tanks los grupos fue comparado con la prueba de These organisms perform anaerobic and of epiphytic bromeliads. The focus of this Kruskal-Wallis y no se encontró ninguna aerobic respiration, and release CO2 as experiment is to test whether detritus and diferencia signifi cativa. Las diferencias en a byproduct of detritus decomposition.6 water volume amounts infl uence epiphytic pH implican ya sea un efecto sinérgico entre Dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with water bromeliad tank environment. This study dos o más de estas grupos o una infl uencia to form dissociated carbonic acid (Fig. 1). uses the pH of the water in the central de características fi siológicas de la bromelia This reaction can lower the pH of the water. tank as a bioindicator of respiration and en sí misma. The actions of the biota present in the decomposition. This research is important in central tank therefore affect the chemistry of identifying and exploring the nutrient cycling Introduction the water present in the central tank.7 processes of the unique habitats formed by Epiphytic Bromeliads are often called “’aerial Research has been done on the microfuana epiphytic bromeliads. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 45 N S tank diameter of 4 cm were sampled (Fig. This revealed the dry weight of the detritus 3). There was also no specifi cation of the and the weight of the water that had been substrate on which the individual grew. sequestered in the decomposition process. Figure 2: Reaction of aqueous dissolved carbon dioxide Sequestered water was assumed to be the to dissociated carbonic acid. pKa=6.35.7 Sampling Procedure difference between wet weight minus dry Once a bromeliad had been selected, weight. After this, the detritus was discarded. detritus was remove and bagged. Latex gloves Water samples were centrifuged to were worn to protect the material removed. remove suspended debris. The free water Methods After any major debris was removed, a was transferred to a container, weighed and Sampling Site pipette was used to siphon off any water discarded. This study was conducted in the in the central tank and surrounding rosette. Monteverde Cloud Forest, in Puntarenas, This liquid was then transferred to a water Results Costa Rica along the Continental Divide tight container. The pH of the solution Detritus and water volume amounts were near Cerro Amigos and the Monteverde was measured using a portable pH meter. found to have no signifi cant impact on Biological Station property (Fig. 2). All The vial was then labeled with the sample epiphytic bromeliad tank water. Five samples were taken on the Pacifi c slope (10° number and pH reading. Any further detritus parameters were investigated in this study: 19’ N, 84° 47-8’ W) during the wet season, was collected from the specimen. The leaves’ (1) Dry Weight, (2) Total Water Volume, (3) (July 23rd-31st 2012) at an altitude of 1845 asl. crevices were probed with a fi nger and Ratio of Dry to Wet Detritus Weight, (4) The site is classifi ed as lower montane wet any available material was removed. The Ratio of Dry Weight to Total Water and (5) forest by the Holdridge life zones; with an sample was then examined for extent of Detritus Decomposition Level. The fi rst four average yearly rainfall of 3.5 meters. detritus decay. A qualitative scale was used sets were log transformed to create normal to rank the detritus from one to fi ve, with distributions. This allowed for regression Bromeliad Selection a one corresponding to solid detritus, a fi ve comparisons with pH, which was found to Individuals were sampled only along corresponding to complete decomposition, be normally distributed already. the Pacifi c slope of the continental divide. and a three being about fi fty-fi fty (Fig. 4). The regression between pH and log Dry This insured similar exposure to conditions The amount of detritus was not considered, Weight (ANOVA F=2.020, p>.05, DF=34) such as wind, precipitation, and sunlight. only the level of decomposition. showed no statistical signifi cance. Dry The Continental Divide was selected weight did have the greatest infl uence on because strong winds keep trees shorter, Detritus and Water Weighing pH (correlation coeffi cient=0.24) but was making them easier to work with. Within Detritus and water samples were kept still not signifi cantly different than zero. A the selected area, there was variability in the refrigerated overnight in the lab. The samples coeffi cient between 0.1 and 0.3 is considered microhabitats where the epiphytes grew. For were then removed from storage and their to be a small relationship between the this experiment a strict set of criteria were individual bags. The detritus was compacted variables.13 The three parameters (Total imposed on possible samples. This was done by hand in the bag and any excess water Water Volume, Ratio of Dry to Wet Detritus to minimize any confounding variables that was removed through applied pressure. The Weight and Ratio of Dry Weight to Total might impact the study. Only specimens matter was removed by hand and placed in a Water) also fi t this trend, but had lower found at eye level or below in areas of at least paper towel of a standardized weight (1.45 correlation coeffi cients (0.13, 0.09, and 0.06). partial shade during the day were sampled. g). The inside of the bag was then cleaned All four showed wide spreading (Fig. 6), and Any specimens found in light patches or to remove any additional debris. The paper all four have low F statistics (Table 1). on downed trees not overshadowed were towel and detritus were weighed using a The pH was investigated at different avoided. There were no restrictions placed standard scale. The detritus was placed in a Detritus Decomposition Levels. The samples on species, genus, or morphospecies of hot box at 66°C for twenty four hours. The were grouped by decomposition level (1, 2, bromeliads used. Only bromeliads with a detritus was removed and weighed again. 3 and 4+) (Fig. 7). Categories 4 and 5 were Figure 3: Topographic map of Monteverde, Puntarenas, Figure 4: Example of epiphytic bromeliad sampled. Figure 5: Detritus removed from a sample epiphytic Costa Rica. Red line indicates Pacifi c slope of Cerro Specimen grew on main trunk of a tree along the bromeliad. A qualitative scale was used to classify each Amigos. Continental Divide in Monteverde, Costa Rica. Habitat sample by decomposition level. From one to fi ve the conditions included strong winds, precipitation from scale progressed from solid matter to complete decay. clouds and being shaded for part of the day. This sample was ranked a three out of fi ve. 46 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV N S Figure 6: The effect of detritus load (mean weight 0.46 ± 0.32) on Figure 7: Box and Whisker plots of pH and detritus decomposition level. Level 4+ is water pH in the central tank formed by the leaf rosette of epiphytic a combination of samples with highest decomposition levels. Whiskers represent one bromeliads. Samples were taken along the continental divide in standard deviation from the mean. Level 4+ had the most basic average pH of 6.83 ± Monteverde, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. pH ranged from 4.8-7.9 0.41. The lower levels (1, 2, 3) all have slightly more acidic pH averages (6.62 ± 0.84, with a mean of 6.42 ± 0.82. A non-statistically signifi cant positive 6.03 ± 1.09, 6.27 ± 0.67). The overall mean pH was 6.42. Samples were taken along correlation is present in graphs depicting pH as a function of the the continental divide in Monteverde, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. log transformed data of Total Water Volume, Ratio of Dry to Wet Detritus Weight and Ratio of Dry Weight to Total Water (0.12 ± 0.33, -0.59 ± 0.77 and 1.9 ± 2.6 respectively. combined to 4+ to meet minimum sample precipitation levels, the central tank pH The more degraded leaf matter size to run a non-parametric test. The would simply be a function of dilution. To corresponded to more basic water (Fig. 7). Kruskal-Wallis test returned no statistical test this, pH was compared to Total Water Level 1 detritus, which corresponds to no difference in mean pH between the Volume and was found to have no statistical decomposition in the matter, had an average groupings (χ2=5.08, p>.05, DF=3). signifi cance. This indicates that pH depends pH close to that of measured rainwater on more factors than precipitation input. pH (6.42) in Monteverde.14 Then for Level Discussion It was hypothesized that the 2, the water had the lowest pH. The water These investigations showed no statistically decomposition level of matter in the became more basic in Level 3 and Level signifi cant relationship between detritus bromeliad would infl uence the central tank’s 4+ had the most basic pH. This could be amount, decomposition level, and the water pH. As heterotrophs consume the due to an initial surge of degradation thus 5 central tank’s pH for epiphytic bromeliads. detritus for respiration, they release CO2. It releasing carbon dioxide from the material. This implies that the pH is not solely was thought that this byproduct would lower In a study of terrestrial bromeliads, the dependent on either the decomposition or pH as carbon dioxide reacts with water. microhabitat was characterized as dominated on the amount of leaf material in the central Higher decayed matter was assumed to have by respiration consumers.11 This appears tank. This fi nding is supported by research been present in individuals longer and that to hold true, at least at low decomposition done by Benzing et al. in which terrestrial more of its carbon would have been reduced levels, for the epiphytes in the family. After bromeliads were found to create stable and released as CO2. This should result in a the initial break down, there seems to be a microhabitats with little variation based on lower pH of the aquatic environment. Data period of stabilization. This effect could external factors.7 It was also thought that from this showed that litter decomposition come from the host bromeliad itself in an because bromeliads are exposed to varying level had no statistical effect on pH. attempt to keep a favorable central tank environment.11 This could signify that the Table 1: Test statistics from the four linear regression correlation tests. All four had low F statistics and high p values. Only dry detritus weight had a small correlation with pH value; all others had coeffi cients that signifi ed bromeliad processes are most effi cient at a no impact. specifi c pH, and that the plant has pathways 15 2 to maintain this equilibrium. Regression of F statistic p value dF R value Correlation The investigation of the relationship pH by (Model,Error) Coeffi cient between pH parameters of detritus and Dry Detritus 2.020 >.05 1,33 0.057 0.24 water volume revealed no signifi cant Weight results. Neither the detritus nor the water Total Water .1315 >.05 1,33 0.004 0.06 volume seemed to affect the habitat of the Volume bromeliads. The amount of dry detritus had Ratio of Dry .5384 >.05 1,33 0.019 0.13 the biggest impact on pH. Biologically this to Wet Detritus implies that the amount of available material Weight for degradation does play some role in the chemistry of the central tank water, even if Ratio of Dry .5382 >.05 1,33 0.10 0.09 it is a minor one. However, since there was Weight to Total some noticeable difference in pH for all four Water comparisons, maybe there is a synergistic Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 47 N S effect between two or more of these to Valarie Ferrer for being meticulous in her Robinson, E.A. (1986) Chemistry. Allen and Bacon, Inc, categories. This opens up the possibility of proof reading and making my paper better. Newton, Massachusetts. 9Goffredi, S.K., Kantor, A.H. and Woodside, W.T. research that investigates the relationship All of these people deserve more credit than (2011) “Aquatic microbial habitats within a neotropical between epiphytic bromeliads, habitat, and I can give, so they will all have to make due rainforest: bromeliads and pH-associated trends in tank water. with a simple thank you. bacterial diversity and composition.” Microbiology Ecology. 61:529–542. Epiphytic Bromeliads offer a unique 10 research opportunity. Their evolution has References Bogusch, W., Hietz, P., Ketteler, N., and Zotz, G. 1Richards, P.W. (1981) The tropical rainforest. (2010) “Growth of epiphytic bromeliads in a changing turned them into little microcosms of life. Cambridge University Press, Ames, Iowa. Pg 84. world: the effects of CO2, water and nutrient supply.” More research needs to be done to better 2 Acta Oecol. 36:659-665. Utley, J.F. and Burt-Utley, K. (1983) “Species account 11 fully understand how these plants are able of bromeliads In Costa Rica natural history.” Janzen, Bento, L., Enrich-Past, A., Estevese, F.A., Farjalla, V.F., to survive, and thrive, under conditions that D.H., ed. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Pg Guimaraes-Souza, B.A., Marotta, H., Mendes, G.B., and 412-414. Santoro, H. (2006) “Limnological parameters of the seem inhospitable. 3Tristram, Peter. (2013) “Vriesia.” Photograph. Coffs water collected in tropical bromeliads.” Acta Limnologica Brasiliensis. 18:47-53. Harbour Bromeliads. Forest Drive Nurse. 48 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV E ects of ca eine on the growth and post-embryonic development in Manduca Sexta B E C. P N V D R K P. V H C Abstract: This study evaluated the impact of caffeine on the growth, metamorphosis, and adult development of Manduca sexta larvae. A range of dosages were administered in an artifi cial diet according to insect weight. Corresponding growth and progress through development stages of the animals yielded a negative correlation between caffeine ingestion and maturation. Data indicated that caffeine caused signifi cantly decreased growth rates and hindered development in Manduca sexta. Ingestion of caffeine retarded growth rates and reliably culminated in defective development and/or death of the insect. These results support the potential use of caffeine as a means for control of insect development. Introduction that it is inhibited in the presence of caffeine.6 produced data that suggests some reasonable Over the past half century, the xanthine In hornets, Vespa orientalis, and bees, Apis possibilities. One potential explanation, alkaloid compound, caffeine (1,3,7, tri- mellifera, signifi cant sensory and physiological suggested by the results of a study with methylxanthine) has been heavily ingested by changes were observed when the insects were moth fl ies, proposed that caffeine may affect humans.1 Concerns have arisen as a result of exposed to caffeine. These effects included larval growth by retarding DNA synthesis.10 observed negative effects on development but were not limited to alteration in motor Administration of caffeine to moth larvae, and possible toxicity of the compound.2,3 This abilities, sensory responses to light and noise, Hyalophora cecropia, indicated that the knowledge, and the potential development increased irritability, and changes in appetite, synthesis or release of a brain hormone was for use as a pesticide, prompted an evaluation copulation, hibernation, and longevity. The disrupted and that the xanthine compound of how the continuous ingestion of caffeine, insects did not development any observable likely acts at other sites within the sequence in varying dosages, impacts the growth, tolerance or addiction to caffeine.7 These of events leading to adult development.8 development, and metamorphosis of the studies give reason to consider that caffeine In Callosamia promethea, giant silk moths, it tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta.4 does impact insect behavior, growth, and was shown that caffeine caused extensive Caffeine is known as a stimulant drug development. degenerative damage in the brain and that inhibits the enzyme cyclic AMP Several invertebrate studies have shown segmental ganglia, and resulted in arrested phosphodiesterase (E.C. 3.1.4.53). Cyclic that growth and metamorphosis of the adult development through augmentation of AMP is released in the human body when it organism display a negative correlation with the central nervous system.11 These studies is in an excited state. In a typical adrenaline respect to caffeine ingestion through dietary illustrate the multiple mechanisms and sites response, cyclic AMP is broken down by means. For example, caffeine is known to of action that the caffeine compound has on phosphodiesterase and the body returns be a potent inhibitor of adult development invertebrate systems. to a resting state. The presence of caffeine in the moth Hyalophora cecropia by disrupting The brain and associated neural causes a prolonged alerted response because the synthesis or release of a brain hormone hormones are crucial to normal insect cyclic AMP is not broken down. In humans, among impacting other crucial events.8 development. For example, caffeine induces caffeine has also been found to cause the Caffeine arrested growth and severely changes in gene expression in the honey bee, antagonization of adenosine receptors, affected pupae formation in Musca domestica Apis mellifera, brain that exert both cognitive increased cytosolic calcium levels, blocked (common house fl y) larvae.9 In the larvae and developmental effects.12 The Hyalophora stimulation of glucose transport, and of the moth fl y, Telmatoscopus albipunctatus, cecropia silkmoth exhibits a change in the inhibited intrinsic protein kinase activity.5 caffeine is known to cause retardation of levels of cyclic AMP prior to the initiation These symptoms can have many negative growth and development and along with a of normal adult development, potentially implications for the human body, especially high mortality rate.10 Additionally, caffeine providing a signifi cant opportunity for under long term exposure to caffeine. was shown to prevent the initiation of adult caffeine to impact subsequent development.13 The fact that caffeine has several development in various silk moth pupae, Additionally, caffeine has been shown to mechanisms of action can help to explain Samia cynthia, Callosamia promethea, and specifi cally attack the central nervous system its pleotropic effects and physiological Bombyx mori.6,11 in the giant silk moth, H. cecropia, resulting in properties. Studies of the silk moth, Bombyx Caffeine has been shown to reliably inhibit changes that successfully inhibit growth and mori, have shown that the enzyme cyclic AMP growth and metamorphosis in a number of metamorphosis.11 phosphodiesterase is active throughout the insects. However, the mechanism by which Manduca sexta (tobacco hornworm) serve growth and development of the moth and this effect manifests itself is unknown and as an important model for the study of the may vary between species. Studies have Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 49 N S at 63% humidity with a 12-hr light/dark cycle. Caffeine powder was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (CAS# 58-08-2). Caffeine was carefully mixed with the artifi cial diet and administered through dietary ingestion. Each insect was raised in an individual specimen cup. Evaluation and maintenance of insects was performed on a daily basis as per Hatakoshi, Nakayama, and Riddiford.22 All food prepared with caffeine was retained with that particular larva until completely consumed. Caffeine allotments were recalculated periodically as animals increased in size in order to maintain correct proportions to respective lethal dose values. Experimental Design Three experimental trials were conducted. The fi rst trial was designed to establish the lethal dosage (LD) of caffeine in Manduca sexta and consisted of fi ve experimental groups: control, LD25, LD50, LD75, and LD100. Insects used in this trial ranged from early third instar to mid-fourth instar. Dosages for each experimental group were developed Figure 1: Regulation of metamorphosis in Manduca sexta by key developmental hormones.24 The insect brain secretes PTTH (prothoracicotropic hormone) and JH (juvenile hormone). PTTH acts on the with the goal of simulating mammalian prothoracic gland to promote the synthesis of ecdysteroids such as ecdysone. Ecdysone is converted to toxicity equivalents. Calculations were the active form of the molting hormone by the mitochondrial ecdysone 20-monooxygenase. Together performed in accordance to the lethal dosage 20-HE (20-hydroxyecdysone) and JH work synergistically to regulate larval molts as the insect grows recorded in humans where LD in humans through each instar. Ultimately, the presence of ecdysone relative to the absence of JH results in the 50 formation of a pupa and eventually the emergence of an adult. is approximately 150-200 mg/kg.3 Caffeine doses were calculated for each experimental group based on an average of 175 mg/kg for growth, development, and metamorphosis in an ecdysone-induced molt that produces LD50. Values are listed in Table 1. of insects. They are an ideal candidate due a pupa.21 Following the fi nal larval-pupal Dosages were calculated based on the to their pest reputation, rapid growth, large molt, the larvae develop into opaque green initial weight of the animal. The amount size, and ease of laboratory rearing.14Manduca pupae that gradually tan.22 Juvenile hormone of caffeine was increased by one order of sexta have a complete life cycle lasting 30- (JH) levels are responsible for the induction magnitude in order to encourage more 50 days with several larval stages.14 When of larval molting and regulate the cuticular pronounced results as it became apparent the larvae have reached the fi fth instar, the melanization of the new endocuticle formed in initial trials that Manduca sexta are not process of metamorphosis begins. A variety when the pupa is generated.23 Eventually as sensitive to caffeine as humans. Insects of hormones are responsible for the steps there is no active JH present and the naturally have higher levels of P450 enzymes involved in this process. An endocrine pupa gives rise to an adult.24 The roles of that allow them to metabolize harmful cascade begins once the larvae have reached these hormones in the process of insect compounds at a faster rate than humans.25 As a critical weight.15 Once the process has development are displayed in Figure 1. a result, increased LD values were established been initiated metamorphosis is continually Considering the reviewed examples as a baseline for in vivo assessments. Doses regulated by ecdysteroid hormones which and the paucity of information linking were measured and incorporated into two ensure that each step occurs in a coordinated caffeine to specifi c developmental pathways, grams of the artifi cial diet. fashion.16 The brain controls the secretion the synthesis and activity of these brain- The second trial was designed of the hormones controlling development associated hormones could potentially be based upon the results of the fi rst trial based on the action of its tropic hormone affected by caffeine ingestion. The results with the goal of obtaining a higher degree (prothoracicotropic hormone) on the of this study seek to clarify and characterize of fatality. The dosage was increased by prothoracic glands.17 The secretion of the the impact of caffeine on insect larval another order of magnitude in order to brain peptide hormone prothoracicotropic development. account for the high P450 metabolism of hormone (PTTH) positively regulates the toxic compounds noted in insects and with production of ecdysteroids by activation Materials and Methods hopes of obtaining consistent lethal results. of ecdysone synthesis.18,19 Subsequent Manduca sexta Rearing Three experimental groups were established: conversion of the molting hormone ecdysone Manduca sexta eggs and artifi cial diet control, LD50x100, and LD100x100. Insects used to the active form 20-hydroxyecdysone (20- were purchased from Carolina Biological for this experiment were in late second to HE) by the NADPH-utilizing ecdysone (Burlington, NC). Manduca sexta were early third instar. In this age range insects 20-monooxygenase (E20-M; E.C.1.14.99.22) grown on an artifi cial diet in a Percival were large enough to receive a measurable is essential to the development from larvae to Intellus Environmental Controller (Perry, caffeine dosage, but also young enough to pupae.20 Lower concentrations of JH result IN) at a constant temperature of 27°C provide suffi cient time to observe long-term 50 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV N S Figure 2: Average weight gain in Manduca sexta upon exposure to Figure 3: Average weight gain in Manduca sexta upon exposure to caffeine in trial caffeine in trial 1. Average weight gain values were determined as per 3. Average weight gain values were determined as per the protocol described in the protocol described in the Materials and Methods section under the Materials and Methods section under Evaluation and Analysis. Experimental groups are designated as control (1), LD25 (2), LD50 (3), LD75 (4), LD100 (5), LD25x100 Evaluation and Analysis. The experimental groups LD50, LD75, and (6), LD50x100 (7), LD75x100 (8), and LD100x100 (9). The following experimental groups LD100 receiving higher dosages of caffeine experienced signifi cantly receiving higher dosages of caffeine, LD75, LD100, and LD25x100, LD50x100, LD75x100, lower levels of growth than the Control and LD25 groups. LD100x100, experienced signifi cantly lower levels of growth than the control, LD25 and LD50 groups. effects. established by determination of the level of normal developmental molts between The purpose of the third trial was to relative activity (based on reaction to touch instars in the fi nal molt prior to pupation. further test the effects of various caffeine and amount of movement on the scale), the If the insects do not reach a critical weight, dosages on Manduca sexta larvae in terms of presence/quantity of feces, whether or not they cannot mature correctly.21 A number lethal dosage and developmental impacts. food was consumed, and the condition of of insects tanned without attempting the Nine experimental groups were established the animal in terms of size and coloring as fi nal larval-pupal molt or forming a pupa. 22 in the third trial: control, LD25, LD50, LD75, per Hatakoshi, Nakayama, and Riddiford. The majority of the animals that were fed LD100, LD25x100, LD50x100, LD75x100, and Results from each trial included a caffeine died before reaching maturity and LD100x100. Insects chosen for this trial were quantitative analysis of overall weight gain did not proceed through development in a also in the late second to early third instar. and growth rate. Experiments were replicated successful manner. Dosages were calculated as previously in order to obtain a compilation of accurate In the fi rst trial, control animals developed described using increases of one and two and consistent results. Behavioral and normally and gained an average of 4.85 orders of magnitude to account for increased physical observations were also noted. For grams. LD25 animals exhibited an average P450 metabolism. all trials the change in total weight for each weight gain of 3.05 grams. In the LD50 insect was calculated and then averaged to experimental group, the average growth was Evaluation and Analysis determine an average change in total weight 0.22 grams. In the LD75 group, the average Animals were maintained and evaluated for a particular experimental group. This growth was 0.24 grams. In the LD100 group, through pupation. All resulting pupae number is referred to as average weight gain. average growth was 0.26 grams. Physical were stored in the incubator following For an individual insect, the change in weight effects of caffeine ingestion manifested the experiment for comparison between was calculated by subtracting the initial themselves primarily in the fi nal stages of experimental groups. Weight, behavioral weight from the fi nal weight at the end of adult development and varied between observations, and physical observations the trial. Chi-squared analysis was performed individuals. Symptoms included failure to were recorded daily. Insects were weighed for the fi rst and the third trial on the average complete the fi nal molt prior to pupation and on a Fisher Scientifi c scale (Model S-300D). weight gain data to determine signifi cance of premature tanning with no fi nal larval-pupal Behavioral and physical observations the values. molt and no pupa formation. In general, consisted of an overall assessment For each experimental group in the third insects either produced malformed pupae trial, the maximum change in growth was or failed to complete the last larval-pupal taken for each animal and averaged. The molt prior to pupation hindering any further Table 1: Established caffeine dosage for each maximum change in growth for an individual development. Some successful pupation experimental group. This table shows the relative dosages used to calculate measured amounts of was designated as the day in which the insect was noted, but resulting pupae appeared caffeine. Each amount was used to determine the gained the most weight. squished or were malformed. Manduca sexta amount to feed each individual and corresponds to a were observed repeatedly to have diffi culty certain experimental group. Results molting at each instar. This diffi culty resulted Experimental Group Dosage (mg/kg) The results of the fi rst trial indicated that in constrictions of molted skin that could Control 0.0 increased dosages of caffeine corresponded have contributed to premature death. Several to decreased overall weight gain. This was individuals in the LD75 and LD100 groups died LD 87.5 25 especially notable in the LD50, LD75, and with no signifi cant growth and no sign of any LD50 175.0 LD100 groups as shown in Figure 2. In terms progress toward adult development. Those LD 262.5 of general post-embryonic development, insects in the higher dosage experimental 75 Manduca sexta in the LD , LD , and LD groups that did accomplish some weight LD 350.0 50 75 100 100 groups exhibited diffi culty accomplishing gain tanned with no fi nal molt and did not Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 51 N S lower the rate of growth, decrease the extent of weight gain, and hindered the ability to complete healthy development. Insects receiving caffeine administered through their diet did not match the growth rate or size of control insects. Indeed, total growth was signifi cantly decreased in all experimental trials along in correlation with increased caffeine ingestion and exposure. As caffeine administration was increased, weight gain was substantially lessened and eventually caused mortality. In addition to decreased weight gain, it was also apparent that caffeine slowed down the growth rate of the larvae. Decreased observed weight gain and growth rate could be the result of diminished appetite Figure 4. Average maximum growth rate of Manduca sexta upon exposure to caffeine in treated animals; the cause for this could be in trial 3. Average maximum growth rate values were determined as per the protocol two-fold. The fi rst possibility is the detection described in the Materials and Methods section under Evaluation and Analysis. of caffeine, resulting in rejection of the Experimental groups are designated as control (1), LD (2), LD (3), LD (4), LD 25 50 75 100 artifi cial diet and depreciated nutrition. The (5), LD25x100 (6), LD50x100 (7), LD75x100 (8), and LD100x100 (9). Control and lower caffeine dosage groups had higher maximum growth rates overall. second is that their ingestion of the caffeine brought about a decreased appetite response that also resulted in lowering overall food consumption. These reasons are reviewed by survive. Chi-squared analysis showed a underside or had misshapen hooks. In the John Glendinning.26 signifi cant decrease in average weight gain LD group, all animals failed to complete 75 Behavioral modifi cations were also for the LD , LD and LD groups. the fi nal larval-pupal molt and died. Insects 50 75 100 noted for animals treated with caffeine. Results of the second trial are replicated in the groups above LD died prior to 75 Manduca sexta that were fed and exposed in the third trial and are therefore not achieving any successful development. Any to the intermediate amount of caffeine on shown. Results from the third trial were individuals that did manage to accomplish a regular basis had more extreme reactions obtained in much the same way as the fi rst some weight gain reached the same fate to stimulation via touch or noise and were trial. It is apparent from these data that as those in the LD group. Chi-squared 75 more active overall during observation the animals receiving a diet with caffeine analysis found the decrease in average weight periods. Consequently, these results suggest did not achieve the same degree of weight gain values to be signifi cant for LD , LD , 75 100 that caffeine impacts the animals in a similar gain as the control. Increasing caffeine LD , LD , LD , and LD . 25 x 100 50 x100 75 x 100 100 x 100 way to how it impacts humans as described dosage corresponded to decreasing overall As expected, the control group had the by Isaac et al., and causes to some degree a weight gain. Excluding a few animals from largest maximum growth rate. These data heightened state of alert or hyperactivity.27 LD and LD groups, respectively, did not show as much of a change in rate as 25x100 50x100 It was also observed that the animals all of the animals in the LD , LD , might have been expected, but it was clear 100 25x100 receiving caffeine had diffi culty completing LD , LD , and LD groups that insects fed caffeine grew signifi cantly 50x100 75x100 100x100 the fi nal stages of larval development. showed no signifi cant growth and died prior less each day and reached an overall smaller Manduca sexta from the highest dosage to reaching the fi nal stages of development weight as shown in Figure 4. Average groups perished before reaching the before they could even have a chance to maximum growth rate for control animals fourth and fi fth instars and therefore never attempt pupation. Control, LD , and LD was 2.38 grams. The average maximum 25 50 pupated. However, animals from the lower experimental groups experienced signifi cant growth rate for animals received caffeine dosage groups typically did survive until overall weight gain throughout development ranged from 0.2 to 1.59 grams. this stage and several different observations as seen in Figure 3. Throughout the experiment, it was were made. Typically, one of two things General observations regarding how the observed that animals that received caffeine happened: mortality was observed prior to fi nal stages of development for the insects in often had an aggressive or irritable response the fi nal larval-pupal molt or they exhibited the third trial progressed revealed a low level to touch. This was exhibited with fl ailing and premature tanning with no indication of of successful pupation and a high level of biting motions. Some individuals showed a complete pupation. Animals that showed mortality. Many of the animals that received high level of activity during handling and such mortality developed pronounced lateral caffeine did not achieve successful adult when placed on the scale. A few insects sat white striping. The animals that tanned development and could not form a normal on the scale with their heads up in the air prematurely during the fi fth larval instar pupa. Results were similar to observations swaying back and forth. In comparison, the did so without pupating and did not display made in the fi rst trial. Control insects animals in the control group were relatively these white strips. These results suggest that developed normally. In the LD group, docile. They did not signifi cantly react to 25 the overall impact of caffeine administration animals tanned without pupating and some touch and were not overly active. lead to the inhibition of Manduca sexta failed to complete the fi nal larval-pupal molt 21 growth and post-embryonic development. as indicated by white stripes on the side. In Discussion It is possible that caffeine contributes the LD group, all the insects in the group As reported, caffeine retarded the growth 50 to the activity or inactivity of important formed an unhealthy pupa. Pupae typically of Manduca sexta. Overall, feeding caffeine developmental hormones, for instance had a clear, fragile membrane area on the via artifi cial diet toManduca sexta appeared to 52 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV N S different ecdysteroids like ecdysone.16 work was supported by Houghton College 103-114. Another potential is that the inhibited growth research funds provided to Dr. Kurt P. 17Marchal, E., Vandermissen, H., Badisco, L., Van de Velde, S., Verlinden, H., Iga, M., Van Wielendaele, P., of the organism overall negatively impacts Vandock. Huybrechts, R., Simonet, G., Smagghe, G. and Vanden the stages of its development. If the animal Broeck, J. (2009) “Control of ecdysteriodogenesis in References prothoracic glands of insects: A review.” Peptides 31.3. is moving through stages of development 1 too quickly or too slowly, an early or delayed Gilbert, R. (1984) “Caffeine consumption.” Progress in Pg 506-519. Clinical and Biological Research 158. Pg 185-213. 18Rybczynski, R., Snyder, C. A., Hartmann, J., Sakurai, S. response by hormones, such as PTTH 2Bracken, M., Triche, E., Belanger, K., Hellenbrand, and Gilbert, L. (2009) “Manduca sexta prothoracicotropic (prothoracicotropic hormone), ecdysone, K. and Leaderer, B. (2003) “Association of Maternal hormone: evidence for a role beyond steroidogenesis.” and JH (juvenile hormone), could be causing Caffeine Consumption with Decrements in Fetal Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 70.4. Pg 217- these kinds of results. If the animal is not Growth.” American Journal of Epidemiology 157.5. Pg 456- 229. 466. 19Rountree, D. and Bollenbacher, W. (1986) “The release at a critical weight, then the release of the 3Peters, J. M. (1967) “Factors Affecting Caffeine of the prothoracicotropic hormone in the tobacco developmental hormones is delayed as Toxicity: A Review of the Literature.” Journal of Clinical hornworm, Manduca sexta, is controlled intrinsically by 28 Pharmacology 7. Pg 131-141. juvenile hormone.” Journal of Experimental Biology 120. described by Nijhout and Williams. 4 It is known that various fl avonoids, Kim, Y., Uefuji, H., Ogita, S. and Sano, H. (2006) Pg 41-58. “Transgenic tobacco plants producing caffeine: a 20Smith, S. (1985) “Regulation of Ecdysteroid Titer: other plant allelochemicals, and compounds potential insect pest control.” Transgenic Research 15.6. Synthesis.” In: Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry, such as caffeine have an effect on insect Pg 667-672. and Pharmocology. 7. Kerkut, G.R. and Gilbert L.I., eds. growth, development, and reproduction. 5Foukas, L., Daniele, N., Ktori, C., Anderson, K., Jensen, Pergamon Press. Pg 295-341. However, the mechanisms for these effects J. and Sheperd, P. (2002) “Direct Effects of Caffeine 21Reynolds, S., Brown, A., Rakesh, S., Riddiford, L. and Theophylline on p110δ and other phosphoinositide and Hiruma, K. (2009) “Induction of Supernumerary require more study. The inhibition of 3-kinases. Differential effects on lipid kinase and protein larval molting in the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta: post-embryonic development in insects by kinase activities.” The Journal of Biological Chemistry Interaction of bisacylhydrazein ecdysteroid agonsits 277.40. Pg 37124-37130. with endogenous juvenile hormone.” Physiological allelochemicals and other compounds such 6 as caffeine is considered. It is recognized that Morishima, I. (1973) “Cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase Entomology 34.1. Pg 30-38. activity during the development of the silkworm, 22Hatakoshi, M., Nakayama, I. and Riddiford, L. (1988) these compounds could potentially function Bombyx mori.” Journal of Insect Physiology 19.11. Pg 2261- “The induction of an imperfect supernumerary larval as biopesticides that act to control insect 2265. molt by juvenile hormone analogues in Manduca sexta.” development.24 By preventing the insects 7Ishay, J. and Paniry, V. (1979) “Effects of caffeine Journal of Insect Physiology 34.5. Pg 373-378. from reaching sexual maturity, the pest can and various xanthines on hornets and bees.” 23Curtis, A., Hori, M., Green, J., Wolfgang, W., Hiruma, Psychopharmacology 65.3. Pg 299-309. K. and Riddiford, L. (1984) “Ecdysteroid regulation of be effectively controlled. The mechanism of 8McDaniel, C. and Berry, S. (1974) “Effects of caffeine the onset of cuticular melanization in allatectomized how ingested caffeine affects the insect, as and aminophylline on adult development of the and Black mutant Manduca sexta larvae.” Journal of Insect well as how it impacts humans, mammals, Cecropia silkmoth.” Journal of Insect Physiology 20.2. Pg Physiology 30.8. Pg 597-599. 245-252. 24Vandock, K. (2010) Mitochondrial Transhydrogenations and other insects, must fi rst be understood 9 Srinivasan, A. and Kesavan, P. (1977) “Toxic effects of in Manduca sexta: Relationship between Reversible in order to determine the impact of the caffeine on growth and metamorphosis of the larvae NADPH�NAD+ Transhydrogenase and Ecdysone compound on subsequent development. of Musca domestica.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental 20-Monooxygenase in Fifth Instar Larvae. Ph.D. Health 2. Pg 569-576. Dissertation, Department of Biological Sciences. These evaluations would yield information 10 that should be taken into consideration Sehgal, S. Simoes, L.G. and Jurand, A. (1977) “Effects Bowling Green State University. of caffeine on growth and metamorphosis of moth 25Scott, J. and Wen, Z. (2001) “Cytochromes P450 of when considering caffeine and any other fl y Telmatoscopus albipunctatus (Diptera, Psychodidae).” insects: the tip of the iceberg.” Pest Management Science compound as a potential biopesticide. Entomologia Experimentalis Et Applicata 21.2. Pg 174-181. 57.10. Pg 958-967. Further investigations are required to 11Blaustein, M. and Schneiderman, H. (1960) “A brief 26Glendinning J., Davis A. and Ramaswamy S. (2002) determine the feasibility of this application survey of potential antimetabolites and enzymes on “Contribution of Different Taste Cells and Signalling the development of giant silkmoths.” Journal of Insect Pathways to the Discrimination of “Bitter” Taste due to the high concentrations of caffeine Physiology 5.2. Pg 143-159. Stimuli by an Insect.“ The Journal of Neuroscience 22.16. required to achieve a negative effect. 12Kucharski, R. and Maleszka, R. (2005) “Microarray Pg 7281-7287. The results of this in vivo study demonstrate and real-time PCR analyses of gene expression in the 27Isaac, R., Chenxi, L., Leedale, A. and Shirras, A. (2010) that caffeine causes signifi cantly decreased honeybee brain following caffeine treatment.” Journal of “Drosophila male sex peptide inhibits siesta sleep and Molecular Neuroscience 27.3. Pg 269-276. promotes locomotor activity in the post-mated female.” growth rates and hinders development in 13Rasenick, M., Neuburg, M. and Berry, S. (1976) Proceedings of the Royal Society in Biological Sciences 277.1678. Manduca sexta. While the exact biochemical “Brain cyclic AMP levels and the initiation of adult Pg 65-70. mechanisms of this inhibition have yet to development in the Cecropia silkmoth.” Journal of Insect 28Nijhout, F. and Williams, C. (1974) “Control of Physiology 22.11. Pg 1453-1456. moulting and metamorphosis in the tobacco hornworm, be elucidated, a correlation between caffeine 14 Kingsolver, J. (2007) “Variation in growth and instar Manduca sexta: growth of the last instar larva and the and invertebrate development is evident. number in fi eld and laboratoryManduca sexta.” Proceedings decision to pupate.” Journal of Experimental Biology 61. Pg Certainly further study of this model system of The Royal Society in Biological Sciences 274.1612. Pg 977- 481-491. may lead to a better understanding of the 981. 15Callier, V. and Nijhout, H. (2011) “Control of effects of caffeine on insect development. body size by oxygen supply reveals size-dependent and size-independent mechanisms of molting and Acknowledgements metamorphosis.” The National Academy of Sciences of the The assistance of Brianna Consiglio and United States of America 108.35. Pg 14664-14669. 16Schwartz, L. and Truman, J. (1983) “Hormonal control Jessica Perregaux in the preparation of this of rates of metamorphic development in the tobacco manuscript is gratefully acknowledged. This hornworm Manduca sexta.”Developmental Biology 99.1. Pg Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 53 Paula Giovanini-Morris C S U P. Giovanini-Morris, Windows & Doors, 2009 Hand embroidery with bead embellishments. DMC fl oss. Beads; 10.5”x10.5” 54 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV A Embroidery is the medium I choose to create narratives on the human condition and my journey through it. The vibrant colors of the fl oss and the textures I am able to create utilizing different thickness of fl oss and various stitches create a dialogue that invites the viewer to look deeper into the work to explore the basics of technique and the implied messages in the imagery. The stitching process is meditative, repetitive, tedious, and ultimately rejuvenating. By the time of completion, I have arrived at a satisfactory answer to the question I was contemplating. Much of my work explores relationships and biological processes that occur in the body and brain. The human emotions of joy, hope, grief, loss, and psychiatric pathologies are issues I continue to encounter and contemplate. My Mother, I Am concerns the relationship of mothers and daughters, specifi cally my relationship with my mother, a repeating theme in my work. Mothers can be extremely loving and supporting as well as critical, cruel, and competing. Windows and Doors is another piece that was sparked by my elderly mother’s decline into Alzheim- er’s dementia. This work explores the concept of memory. The biochemical explanation of the release of neurotransmitters at the neuron synapses in the brain allows for registration and encoding of the event, retainment, and ultimately the retrieval of the memory. Metaphorically, the “windows and doors” in this brain speak visually to the places I imagine my “snapshots,” or memories, of personal life events are placed for safe keeping, allowing for later refl ection and meaning in my life journey. Going Under for the Third Time explores the concept of hope in the face of sadness and despair. The work speaks to the forces occurring on the earth—the pollution of the land, waters, and atmosphere, as well as personal hardship and loss. I believe in a higher power in the universe, a creator and destroyer, the human need to call on the divine in times when one is unable to control the forces around you, and on the hope that this intervening force will restore balance, harmony and peace. Shattered is a piece about psychiatric illness and culminated from my experiences working in a psy- chiatric facility with adolescents. These individuals suffered from major depression, schizophrenia, and personality disorders. While working on this piece, I was exploring the various pathologies these children exhibited and their inability to control what lies inside them. In closing, I invite the viewer to explore the colors, textures, and variety of stitches which create the imagery embedded in my embroidery. My greatest desire is for the viewer to be able to connect with my work. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 55 A P. Giovanini-Morris, Shattered, 2005 Hand embroidery with bead/mirror/ acrylic paint embellishments. DMC embroidery fl oss; 6.5” X 6” P. Giovanini-Morris, Going Under for theThird Time, 2007 Hand embroidery with bead embellishments. DMC fl oss, beads. Gold purl; 6” X 7” 56 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV A P. Giovanini-Morris, My Mother, I Am. 2011 Hand embroidery. Machine embroidery. DMC fl oss, silk ribbon, gold cord; 7” x 10” Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 57 Frances Ritchie C S U F. Ritchie, Untitled, 2012 Aquatint on Paper; 12”x18” For me, this work was an investigation into the freedom of experimentation. Many times artists get caught up in the specifi cs of what we are creating and why, but with this piece I was deter- mined to let that go. As children, we explore art through the process of play. We scribble with a crayon, sketch with a marker, poke at clay, pull a brush down on a page, and there is a fulfi lling joy in that process. Art emerges through experiment. Ultimately, through this piece, I reverted back to the childhood process of play, acknowledging the beautiful forms that transpired. 58 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV Zachary Heil C S U Z. Heil, Untitled, 2009 Acrylic paint; 2’x3’. This painting is based off of a trip I was fortunate enough to go on to the Oregon coast with a good friend and his family. At the time, I was inspired by how dynamic the landscape around the area was and decided to make a picture plain that contained unique scenes all of the same beach area. Outside of wanting to re-create the distinct atmospheres of each scene, the piece is about orchestrating colour in different ways, whether in a landscape or abstraction, and seeing how the pigments and styles affect each other. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 59 Adrian R. P. Brown O C A C Adrian R. P. Brown is a metalsmith in Portland, Oregon. She holds a Bachelor of Environmental Design from Texas A&M University and a Bach- elor of Fine Art in Craft from the Oregon College of Art & Craft (expected 2013) with an emphasis in metalsmithing. These two disparate courses of study inform her most recent body of work as she explores the relationship between place and identity. Her pieces frequently confront issues of utility, gender, and sexual identity while investigat- ing scale, material, and craft in a digital age. She is the recipient of numerous scholastic awards, a two-time Niche Awards fi nalist, and the winner of the 2013 Niche Awards Student Fashion Acces- sory category. June 22, 2009 depicts scattered motorcycle parts under a street sign at the intersection of NW Glisan Street and NW 14th Avenue in Portland, Oregon. This closely personal piece represents the largest obstacle Brown ever faced: a near-fatal motorcycle accident. In her lifelong recovery, art became the most effective tool for restor- ing her wellness, both in body and mind. Born and Raised is a more cheerful piece, celebrating her upbringing in Bossier City, Louisiana, and her fond memories of Mardi Gras celebrations. Secrets (Belt) embodies the ambiguity of gen- der that is often kept behind closed doors. The hinged members can be displayed one at a time or together, though any pieces folded inside are not A. Brown, June 22, 2009, 2010 hidden but magnifi ed. The wearer of the belt is Sterling silver, nickel-plated copper and brass; never identifi ed as wholly male or female, always a 8”x2”x3”. combination of the two. 60 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV A A. Brown, Secrets (Belt), 2012 Sterling silver, nickel, copper, fl ocking, found object (lens); 3”x35” x1” A. Brown, Born and Raised, 2011 Electroplated copper, feathers, enamel paint; 24”x15”x8”. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 61 Books or Stories? e Changing Value of Social Education in Rural Morocco B E C. R O C Formalized, secular education is neighbors, Morocco did not undergo a bicycle, motorcycle, radio, refrigerator, generally regarded by the western world as massive political revolution following the telephone, or television.2 The maximum the “cure-all” for the developing world’s Arab Spring, thus making its position in MPI score is 100, with the poverty threshold problems and under many circumstances the context of the UNMDGs easier to being 33.3—that is, any household with a this is true: religious fanaticism, child and analyze since the government has not been MPI score greater than 33.3 is categorized mother mortality rates, violent crime, and overthrown. This observational study aims as impoverished. A rating of .048 means general human rights abuses have been to do two things: fi rst is to examine Feriyat, that 4.8% of households in Morocco fall shown to decrease in educated communities. a village in rural Morocco in the context of into the UNDP’s “poor” category. 2.5% In recognition of the positive impacts the UNMDGs and how a village that exists of Moroccans live below the international education can have upon developing nations, with virtually no chance of achieving all of poverty line of $1.25 purchasing parity the United Nations has included several the MDGs functions; second is to show that power/day, down from 8.4% in 1985 and provisions for universal education in the while this village is relatively ‘un-modern,’ 9.7% of the total population is unemployed Millennium Development Goals, created in the women of Feriyat lead very beautiful, while around 20% of Moroccans between 1990 and meant to be achieved by 2015. Due meaningful lives. 15-24 are unemployed.3 in part to the United Nation’s Millennium Feriyat, in the context of this goal, is Development Goals (UNMDG), the global Examining Feriyat through the lens of very interesting. Throughout this project, spotlight has begun to focus on increasing the UNMDGs observational research was conducted on the universal education rate, particularly Goal 1: End Extreme Poverty and Hunger: the El Amm family. Within the El Amm in the developing world.1 Much of the Halve the proportion of people whose family, the parents received no education focus has been on the African continent, income is less than $1 a day; Achieve full and while the younger generations of children especially Sub-Saharan Africa because the productive employment and decent work and grand children have completed or continent plagued by disease, high mortality for all, including women and young people; are enrolled in primary schooling. There rates, and some of the world’s worst human Halve the proportion of people who suffer were no school-aged children who did not rights abuses. By focusing on the regions from hunger. attend school. From my observations of of the world that are most desperate for The United Nations Human families living in rural areas, meals consist development, the United Nations has been Development Index (HDI) ranks Morocco mainly of bread and potatoes, and a truly able to identify and begin to solve some at 123 out of 177 countries with regards to extraordinary amount of sugar is consumed of the root causes of much the world’s poverty. The HDI is composed of many on a daily basis. Because of cultural norms, problems. factors, all of which are used in tracking women receive very little meat, should any While much of the emphasis of the countries’ progress towards achieving the be available. Unlike other families in Feriyat, UNMDGs has been on Sub-Saharan Africa, UNMDGs. According to the United Nations the El Amm family possessed only male/ the North African region has made some Development Program’s Multidimensional bull cows. Because a cow must produce a notable strides in achieving the UNMDGs: Poverty Index (MPI), Morocco has an calf to produce milk, and male cows do not Morocco is likely to achieve goals 3 and 4, index of 4.8%. The MPI is calculated by birth calves, bull cows do not give milk.3 may achieve 2 and 5 with some changes, data taking household size and examining those Milk is a major source of protein, vitamins, is unavailable for goals 1, 6, and 8, while they households having no household member and vital nutrients, especially when meat is are unlikely to achieve goal 7; Algeria is on who has completed fi ve years of schooling unavailable. The El Amm family does not track for goals 2-7 and data is unavailable for and having at least one school-age child (up have access to sanitized drinking water or goals 1 and 8; Libya is likely to achieve goal 4, to grade 8) who is not attending school; “adequate” sanitation (both of which shall may achieve goals 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 with some having at least one household member who be discussed later). They do, however, have changes, and data is unavailable for 6 and 8; is malnourished and having had one or more several televisions, several cellular phones, Egypt is likely to achieve goals 1, 2, 4, 5, and children die; not having electricity, not having and a bicycle. The fl oors are cement and 6, may achieve goal 3 with some changes, access to clean drinking water, not having while propane is the main source, both coal and data is unavailable for goals 7 and 8. access to adequate sanitation, using “dirty” and wood are also used for cooking. Out of this entire region, Morocco cooking fuel (dung, wood or charcoal), Feriyat is primarily an agricultural village proves to be an especially interesting country having a home with a dirt fl oor, and owning where men work with livestock or in the to study in the context of the UNMDGs no car, truck, or similar motorized vehicle fi elds while the women cook, clean, and take for several reasons: unlike it’s North African while owning at most one of these assets: care of all domestic tasks. The proportion 62 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S of unemployed people is astronomically development than previously existing factors their schooling at a much older age than is high. Not only could most people be found such as GDP/GNP, the overall HDI of standard. In Feriyat, there are undoubtedly sitting idly throughout the day, but it seems the Arab world increased from .444 (1980) more boys in each classroom than there that the only realistic option for employment, to .641(2011).5 Morocco’s HDI, according are girls, whether this is due to more boys at least in the eyes of male Feriyat citizens, to the most recent data published by the of primary school age living in the region is immigrating to Spain to do menial labor UNDP, is .582, contributing to an overall or due to societal expectations regarding and sending money home. In the El Amm HDI rank of 130 out of 187 countries girls’ education is unknown. However, it is family, two of the four sons live and work and below the average HDI in comparison of note that every teacher in Feriyat’s lone in Spain and another is in the process of to the rest of the Arab world. One of the school is male, which speaks to the history of obtaining the necessary paperwork and contributing factors to Morocco’s fairly inequality in education in rural Morocco. The visas to immigrate and join his brothers. As dismal HDI ranking is its Gender Inequality mere creation of a primary school in Feriyat there is no solid defi nition of “meaningful Index (GII) ranking: Morocco’s GII ranking within the last decade shows initiative, and employment,” it cannot be determined with has gone from .706 (1995, fi rst available with the increase in fi nancial support from the available information whether or not ranking) to .510, refl ecting an increase in both the government and various NGOs, domestic tasks are considered “meaningful.” female achievements in reproductive health, of girls’ secondary education, Morocco is In examining Feriyat through the context empowerment, and participation in the dedicated to achieving universal education. of this goal, it becomes obvious that much labor force. The Gender Inequality Index work needs to be done in order to meet (GII) refl ects gender-based disadvantage Goals 4 and 5: Child and Mother Mortality this particular UNMDG, particularly with in three dimensions: reproductive health, Rates: Reduce, by two-thirds, Infant regards to diets. empowerment, and the labor market. The Mortality Rate for children under 5; Reduce, index shows the loss in potential human by three-quarters, Mother Mortality Rate; Goal 2 and 3: Universal Education: Ensure development due to inequality between Achieve Universal Access to Maternal Care that children everywhere, boys and girls female and male achievements in these According to UNICEF, the infant alike, will be able to complete a full course of dimensions. It varies between 0, when mortality rate for children under 1 year primary schooling; eliminate gender disparity women and men fare equally, and 1, where in 1990 was 69/1,000 and, as of 2009, is in in all levels of education one gender fares as poorly as possible 33/1,000 live births; and for children under These goals are two of the most in all measured dimensions.5 As this 5 years was 89/1,000 (1990) and is now interesting and important UNMDGs, and explanation shows, having a ranking closer 38/1,000(2009). The decreases in infant are the main focus of this paper: not only to 0 is desirable. Over the last fi fteen years, mortality rate are on track with the goals of do they state the importance of universal Morocco has made many changes to its the UNMDGs: mortality for children less access to education, but emphasize the fact society that have contributed to its overall than 1 has been reduced by 47% and less that mere physical access to a school is not improvements in the HDI. There are now than age 5 by 43%. Morocco is 74th in world enough. In developing nations around the more women in parliament than ever before for infant mortality, with each woman having world, there are sometimes enough schools and the recent Moudwanna reforms greatly a 1/360 chance of dying due to pregnancy/ but not enough teachers or supplies. In increased women’s rights regarding marriage birthing related complications, and 66th for some cases, the mere physical presence of and divorce and shared responsibility of the maternal mortality: one of the reasons for an education system is not enough. Children household.6 There has been an infl ux of this relatively high ranking could be that in developing nations, especially females, government support in sending rural girls there are only .62 physicians for every 1,000 are usually burdened with a large load of to school, with the development of live-in persons (in comparison with, as a base, the domestic responsibilities from a young age. dormitories/student houses at little or no U.S’. 2.672 physicians/1,000 persons and They are expected to assist in household cost (as subsidized by the government or Egypt with 2.83 physicians/1,000 persons).6 chores and take care of younger siblings as various NGOs) to accommodate the need Because there has been a low physician soon as they are old enough to do so. These for housing nearer to secondary schools. to person ratio for a long period of time, societal expectations prove to be a challenge UNICEF’s data shows that girls’ education Moroccans have become adept at home- to achieving universal education. Morocco in Morocco, in light of the UNMDGs, has birthing in areas where doctors are not readily has made great strides towards the goal been doing very well: (all data 2005-2009) available. That is refl ected by the relatively of universal education. Between 1990 and primary school attendance ratio of females low maternal mortality rate. This being said, 2011, Morocco’s Education Development to males (gross) is 88; survival rate to last it is important to note that many women Index ranking for education rose from .254 primary grade administration data is 76%; prefer to give birth at home. Giving birth to .447.4 The education index measures a secondary school enrolment ratio of females in the home is preferable to some because country’s relative achievement in both adult to males (gross) is 51; secondary school the home is seen as a warm atmosphere literacy and combined primary, secondary, attendance ratio among females to males is where a woman can be surrounded by her and tertiary gross enrollment. First, an index 36; and literacy rate for females 15-24 years family members. “Giving birth is perceived for adult literacy and one for combined gross of age is 68%.7 as a natural event and not a sickness,” enrollment are calculated. Then, these two Feriyat is an excellent example of recent so many women do not understand why indices are combined to create the education change in the global effort to reach universal they should go to a health center. Norms index, with two-thirds weight given to adult education. Approximately ten years ago, among rural Moroccan communities have literacy and one-third weight to combined according to Dr. Lahcen Haddad, a primary shifted: no longer are women expected, gross enrolment.4 In fact, the entire Arab school was built to cater to the villages’ young because of cultural/religious reasons, to region has seen a drastic increase in HDI: children. Both boys and girls attend the go through pregnancy unaided by medical in 1980, when the HDI was introduced as school, with the age range being larger than professionals. However, after speaking with a more comprehensive means to analyze the typical school as some children began several pregnant women, it was ascertained Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 63 S S that while traveling to nearby Bejaad for sustainable access to safe drinking water and communication regular check-ups is now the norm, it is still basic sanitation; By 2020 to have achieved As Morocco is not a landlocked country, expected that a woman will give birth in her a signifi cant improvement in the lives of at small-island state, or classifi ed as a “least home. Despite this societal expectation, the least 100 million slum dwellers developed country,” and has a strong increase in hospital visits during pregnancy In light of the global population reaching import/export relationship with the Western has resulted in a decrease in both mother and 7 billion, the need for environmental world and is not a country with a high risk of infant mortality rates in rural Morocco. sustainability will become even more major infectious diseases, many of aspects important. In the context of Feriyat, of this particular UNMDG are to some Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS: achieve however, the idea of environmental extent irrelevant. Furthermore, many of the universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS sustainability is virtually non-existent. goals of “Global Connectedness” are geared for all those who need it; have halved by Feriyat is a community that survives mostly towards improvements that can be made 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of off of agriculture and because of that by the government and large corporations, malaria and other major diseases there is rampant over-harvesting and illegal and as this paper focuses on the grass roots Morocco does not have a serious clearing of land in-order to make way for level, inappropriate to discuss here. There problem with HIV/AIDS: according to more useful or profi table crops. As of are, however, some aspects of this UNMDG UNICEF, only 19,000-34,000 people are 2008, 81% of Moroccans have access to that can begin at a grass roots level. The living with HIV/AIDS as of 2009, and the improved drinking water sources, with 98% use of internet and social media websites, nation-wide prevalence rate is .1%. Other of urbanites having access and 60% of rural such as Facebook, played a major role in major infectious diseases such as Typhoid, persons having access. 69% of Moroccans the recent Arab Spring. The worldwide Malaria, and Encephalitis are similarly have access to improved sanitation facilities, popularity of such websites speaks to the a non-issue in Morocco. The biggest with 83% of urban persons and 52% of interconnectedness of the entire world, as challenge faced by HIV/AIDs prevention rural persons having access to improved people of all ages living in any country are and education organizations is social stigma. sanitation facilities.7 It should be noted capable of connecting with one another over In the conservative Muslim culture of that traditionally, Moroccans (along with the Internet. Even people living in rural areas Moroccan society, discussing sex is taboo, many other countries around the world) use have “profi les” on Facebook, despite having thus the discussion on how to prevent Turkish/squat toilets instead of western extremely irregular access to the Internet. HIV and other STD transmission does not toilets. The possession of Turkish toilet that In Morocco, the prevalence of social media occur in a formal setting. As a result of connects to a septic system is considered an networks and cell phones is a nationwide this, only 12% of girls between 15-24 have “improved sanitation facility,” thus the lack phenomenon: 72/100 people have cellular a “comprehensive understanding of HIV”.7 of a Turkish toilet or septic system would be phones while 33/100 have regular access High risk groups such as truck drivers, sex considered unimproved. In Feriyat, toilets of to the Internet. It should be noted that workers, and prisoners are typically more any kind are far and few between and there the cellular phone statistic is skewed; prone to contracting HIV and other STDs is no septic system—the majority of families many urban Moroccans have two or more than other people. As a result of this, use nature as their bathroom. Plumbing is personal cellular phones, thus increasing the organizations such as Moroccan Association similarly unheard of or very few families density of cellular phones throughout the for the Fight Against Aids and Pan-African have even squat toilets and those that do lack country. In Feriyat, all men were observed Association for the Fight Against Aids have any form of plumbing. Thus, their waste to have cellular phones while their female begun programs that target at risk individuals. goes directly into the ground. Most families counterparts did not have personal phones. One of the main forums for teaching safe in Feriyat are dependent upon the rains for Phone service in Feriyat is extraordinarily sex practices is through sessions that teach their water, as they get water from illegal limited: in order to make or receive calls, sex workers how to properly use condoms. wells that collect rainwater. Running water one must climb up a hill and continually According to a 2010 article written on AIDs is scarce: at the time of writing, there is only adjust his or her position to receive a signal. awareness in Morocco, because Moroccans one known family in Feriyat with running Another aspect of global connectedness see themselves as living in a conservative water. Because of the vague nature of that is not addressed in the UNMDG but culture, there is strong resistance against ‘signifi cant improvements in the lives of 100 should be noted is the international quality HIV/AIDs education because it necessitates million slum dwellers’ it is unknown whether of Feriyat. As has already been mentioned, discussing sex outside of marriage.8 While or not this applies to Morocco. many of the native inhabitants of this region no data was available on the attitudes of immigrate to Spain in order to fi nd lucrative the Feriyat education system towards HIV Goal 8: Global Partnership: Develop work, and a few times each year to see their education, it can only be assumed that in this further an open, rule-based, predicable, families. Another exceptional characteristic extremely conservative community the issue non-discriminatory trading and fi nancial of Feriyat is that American students come is not discussed, partly because it may seem system; Address the special needs of the for a weeklong “Village Stay” through the irrelevant or because it is taboo. least developed countries; Address the SIT study abroad program. Some of these special needs of landlocked developing students elect to return later in the semester Goal 7: Environmental Sustainability: countries and small island states; Deal and, in one case, in their post-collegiate lives. Integrate the principles of sustainable comprehensively with the debt problems of This introduces an interesting dynamic into development into country policies developing countries; In cooperation with the village, as the visiting American students and programs and reverse the loss of pharmaceutical companies, provide access are expectedly unaccustomed to village life, environmental resources; Reduce biodiversity to affordable essential drugs in developing and force the citizens of Feriyat to examine loss, achieving, by 2010, a signifi cant countries; In cooperation with the private how their lives differ from Americans’ lives. reduction in the rate of loss; Halve, by 2015, sector, make available benefi ts of new the proportion of the population without technologies, especially information and 64 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S Conclusions on UNMDG Status of education increased a girls’ bride price). Again, this proved extraordinarily diffi cult: As can be seen from the brief examination Prior to Lyuatey’s “rule” of Morocco, young Arabic, unlike French, is a highly impractical above, Morocco as a whole is doing fairly well girls were generally unable to attend school language for education “because of a lack in the context of the UNMDGs, partially as learning academic subjects decreased of technical vocabulary in the language.” because some of the issues the UNMDGs their bride price. While Lyuatey can be Additionally, the Berber population had aims to change have already been achieved accredited with greatly advancing the status “no knowledge of French and very little to in Morocco. However, the UNMDG that of women’s education, it was only after no knowledge of Arabic” as a result of its rural Morocco in particular is having the Morocco’s independence that girls were former segregation. These obstacles are most diffi culty with are the ones concerning truly given the opportunity to learn. In 1956, what make Morocco such a unique case: in universal education and gender equality. Morocco gained tangible independence Northern Africa, there were no other states The remainder of this research examines from its former colonizer, France. This does that faced these exact issues, as the native the historical and contemporary challenges not, however, mean that Morocco gained tongue was usually relevant to education. related to these issues, and will look at the ideological independence from France. Despite the many challenges facing viability of non-formal education as a means At the time of independence, business, Morocco with regards to educational to create a meaningful society among those politics, and all aspects of life considered reforms, Morocco has made great strides who are unable to receive the formal, secular “upper class” were conducted in French, in improving overall literacy. In 2006, education the UNMDG aim for. while Arabic/Darija were reserved for the UNESCO awarded Morocco the Confucius “lower class” and more rural communities. Prize for Literacy as a result of the success Recent History of Education in Morocco Under French rule, education was non- of Morocco’s Non-Formal Education In order to understand the current compulsory; at the time of independence Program. According to UNESCO’s press situation in rural Morocco, it is important a mere 10% of children were enrolled in release regarding this award, the Non- to have a background that provides context primary school, 15,000 boys and zero girls Formal Education program in an “innovative for the recent happenings and the societal were enrolled in secondary school, and 350 national literacy initiative designed structure. In 1912, Morocco became a students were enrolled at the university specifi cally for marginalized adolescents in French protectorate under General Louis level.10 Thus, despite Morocco’s political rural areas,” coupled with training for recent H. Lyuatey as the resident general.9 Lyuatey independence from France, the vestiges of dropouts who wish to return to school. created an intricate and extremely hierarchical French supremacy and colonialism remained. The mere creation of this program speaks system of education. Five different types of Lyuatey’s system of education was, again, volumes about Morocco’s desire to have schools were created for each social class geared only towards educating extremely universal and democratized education for and, as a student progressed from primary to wealthy Moroccan families and the European all children. While Morocco’s literacy rate secondary school, family lineage determined community of Morocco, as there were very is still unfortunately low (hovering around whether or not he could continue his few corresponding Arabic schools for the 54%), the initiative to improve education and education. In addition to his schools that general Moroccan populace. Immediately eventually achieve universal literacy has been separated children by their social class, following the formal decolonization of shown by the government.6 In requiring all Lyuatey created an entirely different school Morocco, the administration’s effort to children regardless of gender, social class, system for the Berbers as well; “the French improve agricultural techniques and expand ethnic group, or religious affi liation to attend regarded the Berbers as a group that needed educational opportunities was an indication school, Morocco has fi rmly asserted itself as taming”. This belief ultimately led to the that it was more concerned with processes a nation willing and eager to participate in creation of a legal separation between the rather than simple forms. Numerous other the rapidly globalizing world. Education is, Berber and Moroccan Arab populations in a programs have been evolved to bring greater without a doubt, one of the most obvious document called the Berber Dahir. While the benefi ts to Morocco’s rural population, ways for a nation to increase its participation dream of a “Franco-Berber” education never including the scores of work centers, in international organizations; as a larger came to pass, this strict separation of nations community development pilot stations percentage of the populous receives within a state caused deep harm to Moroccan (in conjunction with an expert United education, the status of a country increases culture as a whole. In 1940, approximately Nations staff), and the national anti-illiteracy rapidly in the eyes of global leaders. 3% of the school-aged population was in campaign for adults.11 In 1963, education school, a statistic that caused Lyuatey to was made compulsory and mandatory for Contemporary Issues in Education drastically increase the number of schools all children between ages 6 and 13. This Now, 55 years after independence, throughout Morocco. However, “Lyuatey mandate led to an immense overhaul of the Morocco faces a fairly different set of issues never envisioned educating the greater mass education system. The Ministry of National when it comes to education. Education in of Moroccans becausehe wanted only to Education (MOE) put in place two policies Morocco is free and compulsory through create an educated Moroccan elite,” a fact called Moroccanization and Arabization. primary school (age 15). Nevertheless, many that is painfully obvious through his policies. Moroccanization refers to the replacing of children, particularly girls in rural areas, do Despite exacerbating the socio-economic expatriate teachers with Moroccan teachers, not attend school, and most of those who tensions with his new system of schooling, a feat that proved particularly diffi cult as do drop out after elementary school. The Lyuatey did a great deal to advance women’s there were very few trained Moroccan country’s literacy rate reveals sharp gaps education in his tenure as resident general. educators as a result of Lyuatey’s former in education, both in terms of gender and In 1933, the fi rst all girls’ school opened education system.9 It was not until the mid- location; while countrywide literacy rates followed by another in 1939. These schools 1970s that Moroccans fi lled the majority are estimated at 39.6% among women and did not, however, instruct their female of teaching positions. Arabization was the 65.7% among men, the female literacy rate students in academic subjects, but only in process by which Arabic would replace the in rural areas is estimated only at 10%.12 the skills necessary to run a home (this type French language in all of Morocco’s schools. According to Dr. Lahcen Haddad, a member Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 65 S S of the Committee for the Promotion of kindest, most beautiful women I have ever creating a beautiful rug. Sitting on her low Girls’ Schooling in Rural Areas and President had the pleasure of meeting. None of them stool in the cool comfort of one of the many of Bejaad for Sustainable Development, the had attended school and all were illiterate, small rooms in her compound, Khadija half main obstacle facing Morocco in its efforts but living with them that helped me realize listened to the sounds of the Moroccan to achieve universal education is accessibility. that education does not always come in the hillside and half hummed a song she’d Because a large proportion of the population classroom. Rayhana, the eighteen-year- never heard as she waited for her family to lives in rural communities which do not old wife of one of my brothers, was seven assemble en masse for tea. necessarily have schools, the education rate months pregnant with her fi rst child. Despite “Dada Dada Dada!” A miserable wail is very low among these people.6 Children being so young, so newly wedded, and so very suddenly pierced through Khadija’s calm. sometimes have to walk miles in order to pregnant, Rayhana was the fi rst of my three Seconds later, a sticky toddler stumbled into reach a secondary school, as most villages “sisters-in-law” to truly welcome me into her the weaving room, tugging on Khadija’s have primary schools, but a group of villages household. She decorated me with beautiful pajamas, a look of pure ecstasy at the sight will usually ‘share’ a secondary school to henna, asking questions about my life and, of his grandmother erasing the misery supplement the lack of available teachers when my limited Darija ran out, speaking to of moments before. It was not just baby and funding. Furthermore, Dr. Haddad says me as if I could understand simply because Abdhakim who was fi lled with happiness oftentimes families cannot pay to send all of she did not want me to feel isolated in whenever he was in the presence of Khadija, their children to boarding schools in order to this strange new home. Rayhana had been but everyone who encountered her. continue their education. In this situation, married into a polygamist household, that is, Khadjia could always solve the most male children are almost always given she had two mothers-in-law. Both of these diffi cult of problems. When she was sixteen, preference over female children. To combat women, whom I called Mama Wahed and she became the second wife of Hassan, a this, organizations such as the Committee Mama Jooj, were incredible human beings man in the village next to where she had for the Promotion of Girls’ Schooling in who possessed enormous hearts capable grown up. Hassan’s fi rst wife, Fatima, was Rural Areas have begun to crop up all over of loving any and every one that came into a beautiful, fi ercely proud woman, and was Morocco. These organizations offer rural their home. They were around 55 years old furious that her husband had deigned to take girls the opportunity to live in dormitories and had born many children: in my home, a second wife. Fatima, of course, could not for free and study at the secondary level. fi ve sons remained and several of the other fully express her anger to Hassan, but held But what happens to the girls who are not families in the village were borne of their no reservations in ensuring that Khadija lucky enough to attend school or become kin. I wrote a short story that showed that knew she was not welcome in Fatima’s home. literate? Are they relegated to live rural lives, education does not only imply formalized Fatima refused to help Khadija in fetching following in the uneducated footsteps of the schooling, and that women from very water, causing Khadija to spill much of ancestors? In learning more about Moroccan different backgrounds in Morocco are able her precious cargo whenever she returned society through personal experiences in rural to live in an inexplicably beautiful manner home. Her young arms were too weak to and urban communities, the conclusion was regardless of whether or not they have gone lift the heavy jugs from the family’s donkey. reached that the women who live these rural, to school. Khadija bore these cruelties with a smile, uneducated lives are living lives that are never complaining about her burden and equally as valuable and meaningful as their Wabi-Sabi, or, The Act of Finding Beauty answering in only the sweetest tones when educated, urban counterparts. in Inherent Imperfection Fatima addressed her. At fi rst, this caused Khadija, so it was said, was born on a Fatima to become colder and angrier. But Challenges Specifi c to Rural Populations cloudless night when the moon was so bright slowly, Khadija’s shy smile and laughing eyes with Regards to Education: Observational that one could see as if it were day. Her melted Fatima’s heart, and she relented in her Research in Feriyat birth was miraculous, so it was said, because anger. As was mentioned earlier, signifi cant despite the cloudless sky, rain pounded the Khadija, of course, had recognized portions of Moroccans live in rural earth and the wind raced through the air, Fatima’s hatred for her and was not communities. Generally speaking, rural creating rivers that swept away chickens unaffected by it. She was acutely lonely for communities are much more ‘traditional’ and threatened to fl ood even the loftiest the fi rst months of her marriage, living in this than their urban counterparts, with gender of compounds. Perhaps owing to her strange village with an unwelcoming woman roles being much more polarized. Women extraordinary beginning, Khadija possessed and large, gruff husband. Khadija’s mother bear the brunt of cooking, cleaning, fetching an innate ability to shed light on beauty in had always taught her that if she could laugh water, and generally ensuring that their the most dire of circumstances. Or perhaps, instead of weep, smile instead of frown, and household runs smoothly. Men tend to it was her ability to do this that allowed her hug instead of hit, Allah’s kindness would the livestock and were observed to have an to be born in the midst of a wild storm. beam down upon her. And so this is what enormous amount of leisure time compared Despite her incredible creation, Khadija was Khadija did for several years until, one day, to women. A very small number, if any, of not destined to live an extraordinary life, at fi nally, Fatima relented. the adult women in Feriyat, the rural village least not in any tangible manner. Her life was “It is not the fault of Khadija that where a portion of the observations were to be spent raising and caring for a sprawling Hassan took her to be his wife. It could not conducted, were literate. However, most of family in the rural Moroccan countryside, hurt to show this girl some kindness,” Fatima the female children in this community were toiling away to create a paradise for her loved thought. And so, day-by-day, Fatima allowed enrolled in the local school, illustrating the ones. Khadija to become a member of the family shift in attitudes towards and the availability The lazy buzz of fl ies in the mid and to share in the love that enveloped their of education. afternoon sun lulled Khadija into a soothing home. These fi ve women, who were all as rhythm as she wound row upon row of Khadija and Fatima grew old together different in looks as in personality, were the colorful yarn into intricate patterns, slowly under the hot sun of the African sky, 66 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S fetching water, cooking bread, and birthing written alphabet while she clapped in delight, without HIV/AIDS, infectious disease, many, many children. The two women her joy in sharing in their knowledge more malnutrition, and poverty. However, altering grew inseparable, to the point that it seemed than if she herself had suddenly learned to the employment, education, and “global impossible to imagine a time when they read. The many years under the unforgiving connectedness” status of any community, had been anything less than sisters. Their sun and stinging dust had taken its toll on rural or not, would have an enormous impact daughters grew up and moved on to have Khadija’s body, yet her spirit went unmarred. upon societal functions. One of the most families of their own, some of their sons Khadija’s gift lay not in any ability to toil common effects of an increase in education moved abroad to seek their fortunes, but away at a desk or in leading a country, but in in a community is an increase in the number the two women were never alone. Slowly teaching those around her how to love one of people who choose to leave their homes their remaining sons married women, who, another, and the steps necessary in order to after fi nishing education. Because education like Khadija had done so many years before, carry out their lives in a peaceful, wonderful, is known to open students’ minds to new made treks from villages near and far to beautiful way. In order to do all of this, ideas, cultures, and places, it stands to reason appear at their compound, eyes wide with Khadija always said, you must share what that after fi nishing a full course of schooling nerves and hands clutching their belongings. Allah has given you, and only then will the a student would choose to live elsewhere. Fatima realized that Khadija was most world become beautiful. This can be positive, if the hypothetical adept at welcoming these frightened, young While this story depicts a woman whose is escaping a community that is rife with women into their homes and serves them life falls far outside of the UNMDGs, it poverty or violence or this can be negative their fi rst tea. is meant to show that living a life outside because it contributes to a loss of culture. The fi rst child to bring a new wife into of these lofty goals is by no means less With each person that moves away, their Khadija’s home was Abdwahed, her second meaningful or less “good” than living a life cultural traditions are diminished as they son and most beloved (though this was, of within the UNMDGs. Despite Khadija’s change to accommodate the cultures of the course, a secret). When Abdwahed’s young lack of formal education, she passed on new community. That being said, universal wife, Miriam, appeared in Khadija’s home, the what are perhaps the most important human education should remain a global priority: elderly woman’s heart swelled with empathy qualities to her children and those around the positive externalities of educating as she recalled her fi rst time stepping through her, teaching them to be kind, sharing, and even a small portion of any community the low doorway into the dusty compound. patient. are numerous, and the opportunities made Miriam wore a similar look of fear and available to educated persons are virtually anxiety as Khadija poured her a glass of Final Conclusions endless. In light of the struggle to achieve impossibly sweet tea. Khadija told Miriam It would be ignorant and cruel to say that universal education, Morocco has done a all about her new home, trying to prevent the the women in Feriyat are better off without wonderful job in implementing new strategies foreboding silence from creeping into the formal education or to say that their lives are to make up for so-called “lost time” during cracks of their conversation. Miriam sat, her fi lled with a simplicity that is unavailable in its colonization. Morocco, as a whole, has eyes like orbs, as she did her utmost to listen the developed world. These women lead done a great deal in furthering girls’ primary to the words of this kindly woman and blink intellectually and physically challenging lives, and secondary education. Various political back the tears that constantly threatened to in a way that is unimaginable to someone and social programs have resulted in a shift fall in her tea. Gradually, Miriam’s pounding from the western world. Would their lives in cultural norms, particularly within the heart slowed its pace and her tears dried be different if they had been able to attend last fi fty years that encourage girls to attend before they could even fall. school? Would Mama Wahed and Mama Jooj school and to seek work outside of the As the years passed, new wives entered have entered into a polygamous marriage domestic sphere. While there is still a long Khadija’s home and soon there were babies as very young women? Would they still be way to go before Morocco can be categorized and children running around her family’s living in Feriyat, weaving rugs and baking as a country with universal education and compound. Their musical voices carrying loaves upon loaves of bread? Would they equality in education, the recent efforts of through the still summer nights. Khadija too still be laughing with their sons, engaging the Moroccan government and various grew older as the seasons changed, yet her in animated conversations with each other NGOs should inspire hope in the eyes of ability to soothe those around her remained. and appreciating the mere presence of their education-activists. Only time will tell how Even during the harshest of winters, when family members in the same way? Most likely, the efforts of the global community to create it seemed the sun would never emerge the answer is no. In comparison with their a system of universal education will impact from its lair and when the food was scarce urban counterparts, the women in the village global society and social constructs. If and the wells frozen, Khadija refused to are far more welcoming and possess a unique progress continues to be made at its current let her family go hungry. She meticulously and innate sense of sharing. rate, it would appear the future holds great portioned every morsel of food at each After a thorough examination of Feriyat things for universal education and gender meal, ensuring that all the members of her through the lens of the UNMDGs and equality. continually growing family were always well after spending considerable time with the fed and left mealtimes with smiles upon their El Amm family, a conclusion has been References 1(2010) “We Can End Poverty 2015.” A Gateway to the UN worn faces. reached: it is not reasonable to speculate System’s Work on the MDGs. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 67 S S Reports. UNDP. 171. 6(2009) “CIA-The World Factbook: Morocco.” Central Intelligence Agency. 68 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV e Impacts of Westernization through Short-Term Volunteer Teaching in Ayutthaya, ailand: An Observational Study B E C. R O C Analyzing the manner in which developing came to Ayutthaya to sell their wares, the one of Thailand’s leading Buddhist scholars, nations are incorporating western ideas Thai people and government have had to “technology and modernity uproot and into their social, economic, and educational adapt accordingly to the presence of non- destroy the traditional way of living and development is integral in understanding traditional beliefs. In the 17th century a large the traditional conception of beauty and the consequences of “globalization/ number of Muslim merchants had settled in goodness. …All this is being done in westernization” in developing nations. In Ayutthaya so King Narai (r.1656-1688) built the name of ‘being civilized’ or western emerging Southeast Asia, the incorporation a mosque to show that his government and civilization.”6 Buddhism does not hold the of western values into a traditional system country welcomed the Muslim merchants same place in modern Thai culture as it once has greatly increased in the last several and respected their faith.3 This shows that the did in the traditional culture. However, it is decades. Therefore, it is an ideal region for Thai kingdom has a history of “openness” still seen as an integral part of the education observational research on globalization in when faced with the necessity to adapt, a system and society. For example, the older the volunteer teaching industry. willingness that is more than crucial in the student body of Pratomwittahyakom While it has been frequently occupied globalization of an ancient culture. School visited Wat Pranhomyong. During by various militaries throughout its This readiness to adapt can further this time at Wat Pranhomyong, students history, Thailand is the only country in the be seen in the recent increase in Foreign were instructed by monks in the many region that has retained autonomous rule. Direct Investment (FDI) in Thailand and, different ways of praying, meditating, and Because of this, Thailand’s experience with surprisingly in Ayutthaya. Several Chinese the core social values of Buddhism. The globalization/westernization is fairly distinct. and Japanese factories have businesses in monks used a range of media to instruct the The globalization of Thailand has largely Central Thailand and have branches in the children, utilizing mainly a lecture style for been driven by a strong tourism as Southeast greater Ayutthaya area.4 With an increase prayer instruction, interactive sessions for Asia, and Thailand in particular, is one of the in FDI; the region has seen a shift in meditative instruction, and a variety of videos most popular backpacker destinations in the employment opportunities, especially for downloaded from the internet to illustrate world.1 the middle class. This in turn has caused the the Dos and Don’ts of Buddhist culture. The government to design educational reforms usage of non-traditional media to convey Thai Culture: The Struggle to Maintain meant to better prepare students for non- very traditional Thai values epitomizes the Tradition in a Global System traditional jobs. While these businesses changing status of Thai culture within the Ayutthaya was the capitol of the may be Eastern in nature, their presence education system. Kingdom of Siam until 1767 and is still often suggests a greater level of connectivity While Ayutthaya is a relatively considered the cultural capitol of Thailand. between Thailand and other Asian countries. heterogeneous population (approximately Located two hours by train outside of Furthermore, the move of these companies one third are Muslim, a very high Bangkok, Ayutthaya has a constant stream into Thailand will likely provide job concentration for its region), Thailand as of tourists who patronize the many ruins opportunities that may necessitate some sort a whole is still relatively homogeneous in and more than 500 temples within the city. of standardized education, which is where religious association. 90% of Thailand With this constant fl ow of foreign nationals a generic “western” education could come nationals identify with Theravada comes an inevitable exchange of ideas into play. Buddhism, which is the traditional and more between tourists and inhabitants. A culture steeped in tradition, the idea conservative form of Buddhism.6 Buddhism The presence of tourists and foreign of introducing a western education is often has infl uenced Thai culture and education in business people is not new to Ayutthaya. met with resistance from Thai people. “In many ways, including the strong belief in the In its peak in the 18th century, Ayutthaya the past…the lives of Thai people revolved importance of literacy and the emphasis of was a haven for a large portion of the around the temple…[but] ever since learning through experience. It has also lead world’s sea merchants. Indians, Malays, [Thailand] opened its doors to the western to the building and maintenance of expansive Vietnamese, Japanese, Persian, and later powers, the Buddhist condition has gradually libraries and to the idea of learning from Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and French deteriorated. Our ruling elites were sent to all fi elds of knowledge.7 Buddhism played traders made their port in Ayutthaya.2 The study abroad instead of to the local temples… a fundamental role in the development of presence of these traders has created many relegating the temple to the backseat.”5 With Thailand as a state and culture, a fact which sub-groups within Ayutthaya, as strong western cultural infl uences come western is still observable in educational values. Chinese and Japanese infl uences can be ideals, some of which are thought to be seen in the architecture, religious sites, and rather incompatible with a culture rooted in food. Because so many non-Thai traders Buddhism. According to Sulak Sivaraksa, Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 69 S S The History of Western Ideals in material and teaching styles.10 these reforms, the Thai government sought Thailand: The Pibul Era Throughout Thailand’s long history of to bring the Thai education system up to the Returning once more to Thailand’s education, there have been several periods same standards as its western counterparts; history of autonomous rule, it is important of extreme change within the system. In no longer would Thai students learn by to examine the manner in which Thailand Buddhism, the concept of education is very rote memorization. Instead, an actual has introduced western ideals into its society. important. Literacy is thought to enable one understanding of the “why” aspect would Unlike their Malaysian, Indonesian, or to better understand and analyze the world, become an integral part of the education Vietnamese counterparts, the Thai people which furthers one’s ability to understand system. never had a western societal framework how to distance oneself from the mundane The actual presence of these reforms brought on by colonization. This has resulted and eventually achieve Nirvana. Thailand in Prattomwittahyakom School was less in the Thai government having to internally has had at least some form of formal than obvious. While it is not possible for set up a system of globalization, which, education for several thousand years and the this research to include a comparative fi eld according to some, was highly detrimental education system has changed based on the analysis of the pre and post-1999 reforms, for Thai society. introduction of new ideas or even on the it is worthy to note that at least within Chao-Tzeng Yawnghwe, of the whim of a leader. The fi rst modern reform Prattomwittahyakom School, the teaching University of British Colombia wrote for education came in 1921, when King Rama style continues to be based almost entirely that “Pibul was very much infl uenced by V enacted a compulsory primary education off of rote memorization. With that being ultra-nationalistic, authoritarian European law that made some primary education said, and with a short background of the regimes and Japanese militarism… He strove mandatory for all children. Previously, the history of the region and general education to emulate…Mussolini and Hitler. Thus formal school system consisted of four reforms within Thailand, an analysis of inspired by fascism, he introduced measures years of lower-primary, three years of Ayutthaya’s school system and its efforts to to instill a nationalistic, militaristic spirit in the upper-primary, three years lower-secondary, modernize can begin. Thai people and to socialize them in the ways and two years of upper-secondary, or three of modern nationhood… Pibul changed the years for the vocational stream. It was The Education System and name of the country from Siam to…Thailand colloquially called a 4:3:3:2 (or 3) formal Westernization: Challenges with Short- in English. He also decreed a set of “cultural school system with four years compulsory Term Teaching Volunteers in Ayutthaya mandates”, which compelled Thais to learn for all geographical areas and seven years As the process of globalization has greatly the national anthem…and dress in western compulsory for some large communities. In accelerated within the last several decades, garb, among other things. He employed this system, it was found by many researchers the Thai school system has determined that the mass media and educational system to that half of the fourth-grade leavers did not the need to modify its educational system popularize a new history, [which] was fi lled graduate to the fi fth grade and in addition, in accordance with global expectations is with prideful ethno-national rhetoric, tales a third of those fourth-graders lapsed back of great importance. This movement has of great saviour-kings, ancient empires, and into illiteracy after three years. New reform resulted in many schools undergoing major glorious wars… It deliberately emulated changed the 4:3:3:2(3) school system to the reforms to incorporate a global curriculum contemporary western history books 6:3:3 system with six years compulsory for into their existing school system. However, which aimed to provide the nation with an all Thai children. some other schools have chosen to adhere organic-historical link to its “golden past””.8 Prior to this law, only students living in to their traditional values and incorporate Unlike many developing nations, Thailand the metropolitan areas were legally required only small amounts of global material in has had to internally force westernization to attend school. For the next several their curriculum. The struggle between through political policy instead of through decades, the percentage of students enrolled globalized culture and Thai culture can be colonization. in schools increased at a steady rate with the found time and again in the education sector. implementation of minor education reforms, This dichotomy between the two cultures History of the Thai Education System until 1999 when another series of major has manifested itself in the “widespread The easiest way to indoctrinate a society reforms were set into motion. A sudden, recognition that the current [education] with a new ideology is through the education dramatic increase was not seen partially system is ineffi cient and ineffective at system; if young children grow up learning a due to the shortage of trained teaching meeting the demands of the emerging era… certain set of ideas, they will act in accordance personnel. The 1999 reforms dictated several [but] the values and assumptions underlying with those principles. Indoctrination of a things: fi rstly, that the standard lecture/rote these ‘modern’ educational practices run countries youth allows ideas to become the memorization system of learning was no counter to traditional cultural norms of norm of a society. When Thailand laid out longer ideal and that a more dynamic and Thai Society”.12 In Pratomwittahyakom its ambitions to create a more global youth, analytical form of teaching would be used School, this dichotomy has manifested they identifi ed the educational system as one in the school system; secondly, the education itself into the importation of both native of the most important targets. This was system was also decentralized (from being and non-native English-speaking teaching seen in 1999 during the World Conference controlled entirely by the Ministry of volunteers in an effort to bring an element on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand, Education (MOE)) to allow communities of the West to students’ education without where leaders from 155 states from around to have more autonomy in their educative overhauling the entire system. There are the world agreed that education was a basic decisions; under these reforms, teachers many advantages and disadvantages to this fundamental right and necessary to develop.9 are now required to undergo more rigorous system of teacher-importation. Two of The government has passed many minor and training in order to obtain and maintain the most obvious are that Thai students several major reforms in order to ease the their positions; and, fi nally, a more stringent benefi t through the opportunity to learn transition of a totally Thai education system internal and external evaluation system was from Westerners of different nationalities to one that is capable of using western developed by the MOE.11 In implementing and backgrounds, but then are conversely 70 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S subjected to the many different “dialects” of twelve or more. During the period of study English instruction. Besides the obviously English that are heard between American, in Ayutthaya, the school semester was in full frustrating set of circumstances for each German, British, Australian, and Icelandic swing and the constant introduction of new volunteer, this “laissez faire” system is teachers. During research, volunteers from volunteers to the schools was a continual detrimental to the Thai students’ English all of the aforementioned regions as well as disruption for both permanent faculty acquisition. Because there was no coherent France, Mexico, Ecuador, and Canada. The and students. Each volunteer is essentially lesson plan available for volunteers, each subject of the different accents of English dropped into his/her respective school volunteer created his or her own curriculum upon English acquisition in English language without any guidance from the organization on a daily basis. Throughout the time spent learners has been studied for a number of or host school, and it is up to the individual researching for this project, there was never years. In one such study done on English volunteer to create a lesson plan each day. a coherent fl ow of teaching, mainly due to language learner accent preference, 52% This is clearly less than ideal; volunteers the informal nature of the instruction as well identifi ed American English as the easiest whose teaching experience ranges from none as the school’s ever-changing placement of form of English to understand.13 to being retired school teachers are left to each volunteer. This may be because American English their own devices to design and implement A volunteer’s placement varied on a (when compared with English spoken with daily lessons for children of all ages. Without daily basis between classrooms and age British, Chinese, and Mexican accents) the continuity of a long-term curriculum, groups, depending on the availability of the is spoken at 147 words per minute, as is students’ English education is extremely actual teachers. It appeared that the role of Chinese English, while British English is choppy and disorganized, which has little each teacher at Pratomwittahyakom School spoken at 160 wpm and Mexican English benefi t for the students. Furthermore, was undefi ned. Whenever a volunteer was is spoken at 180 wpm. This conclusion because so many of the teaching positions sent to a classroom, the class was always was evident in the communication between are often occupied by western volunteers, unsupervised. One could go hours without various volunteers at Pratomwittahyakom the need to fi nd permanent teachers does walking by a supervised classroom. In these school; teachers and students alike were not seem as prudent as it truly is. The “free” classrooms, students either sat in their virtually incapable of understanding English schools do not seem to be understaffed, desks quietly, played with whatever materials spoken by British volunteers purely because when in reality there is an extreme shortage were available, or talked to each other; of their accents. On multiple occasions, of hired teachers. At Pratomwittahyakom teachers could often be found snacking a British volunteer would ask a question School, for instance, there were seven full outside or chatting in the staff lounge. It and, instead of attempting to respond, time teachers and between one and three should be noted that, due to the researcher’s the person in question would immediately volunteers depending on the week. The lack of comprehension of Thai, it is possible default to an American volunteer to repeat use of short-term volunteer teachers by that the teachers were planning lessons or the question. Thus suggesting that it was the Ayutthaya’s school system is an extremely discussing topics relevant to the school year. accent, and not the content, that caused Thai unsustainable manner in which to teach However, due to the body language and persons such diffi culty in comprehension. In English. Furthermore, it brings about facial expressions of the teachers during Ayutthaya, there is an ever-changing range of negative economic consequences for Thai these periods, this seems unlikely. accents, from European to North and South teachers. That is, that Westerners pay to teach In a news article written by a teaching American, making it even more diffi cult for in the schools instead of being hired. Also, volunteer in Israel, he noted that the students to understand how to pronounce the fl ow of volunteers is inconsistent and school was always “noisy, with kids running many English words and even how to identify subject to major increases and decreases around everywhere, and no one listening certain objects. For instance, in Britain and depending on the season. The high tourist to anyone else. While the teachers do not Australia the word Honeydew refers to what season in Thailand is from November until seem fazed by this, it seems impossible to is called Cantaloupe in America. The word mid April, and with the infl ux of tourists get anything done.”15 This observation is Honeydew, in America, refers to a melon comes an increase in volunteer teachers. entirely applicable to the Ayutthaya school that is called Winter Melon elsewhere. While Because the Central Thai school year starts system-- not only were teachers not fazed this may seem like a trivial matter, these in May and goes until February, with a by the chaotic nature of their students, but minute differences in the English language month long break for the fl ood season in they seemed blissfully unaware of what was exacerbate the diffi culty of learning English mid-September through mid-October, the going on or, at least, were not perturbed from foreign nationals. arrival of volunteer teachers rarely coincides by the lack of formalized learning. At Many of the detrimental aspects of with the beginning of a school year. This Pratomwittahyakom School, the majority of short-term volunteer teachers observed in uneven distribution of teachers causes even the teachers could usually be found sitting Ayutthaya were also found in a study on more disruption to students’ education and under a tree and talking during school hours, volunteer teaching conducted in the Ningxia teachers’ yearly activities. while the Head Teacher (principal) was nearly province of China. In both the Ayutthaya always doing paperwork in the teacher’s and the Ningxia province, the short-term Role of the Volunteer and Effects Upon lounge. Unlike their western counterparts, aspect of the teachers “failed to solve the Students principals in Thailand are responsible not fundamental problem of teacher shortage It is entirely up to the volunteer to design only for paperwork and the daily goings-on [and]…disrupted the normal teaching and implement teaching plans, and the level at their school, but they are also responsible schedule.”14 Because teaching contracts in the of planning for this depends exclusively on for teaching one or two classes per day. aforementioned study are usually around one the dedication of each volunteer. There was A daily conversation in year long, the challenges seen by schools in no guidance from the volunteer organization Prattomwittahyakom School occurred Ayutthaya are greatly exacerbated. Volunteers or from the school on the classes’ English between Miss Sudha (the English teacher) in Ayutthaya are usually present between abilities. No advice was given on what to and various volunteers consisting of: one and eight weeks, but occasionally up to teach or the most effective manner for “Head Teacher busy, you teach.” It was Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 71 S S never made clear why so many classrooms nothing can be done if the volunteer ends up the primary school. Teachers appeared to be were unattended, or what the day-to-day being a nuisance and overall inconvenience terrifi ed to speak English to the volunteers, duties of the teachers actually were. Upon for teachers, staff, students, and other and would immediately default to Ms. Sudha entering unattended classrooms, students volunteers alike. Even in the cases of for any question the volunteer posed to a sometimes appeared to be occupied: on one volunteers who made every effort not to make Thai teacher. Some of this can be attributed such occasion, students were busily copying a fuss, it was clear that their presence was a to the teachers’ lack of knowledge of the a scientifi c diagram of the human digestive tax on the school system and staff. Volunteers English language; several staff members system. A teacher informed the researcher could not go anywhere unattended to by at knew nothing beyond basic greetings, while that this was “Health” class, and promptly least one student or teacher, and could not the Head Teacher/Principal did not appear left the room to attend to other matters. The do anything (such as go to the bathroom) to know any English whatsoever. secondary classes in particular were a most without being asked if everything was okay. concerning environment. When teaching Food and beverages were constantly being Anecdotal Observations of the in the secondary classes, there was a visible supplied to the volunteers, and the schools’ Relationship between Thai and Western divide between students who cared about cooks happily accommodated any and all Culture school and those who did not. This became of the volunteers dietary restrictions (such Despite the lack of an obviously evident in their handwriting and their ability as vegetarianism), and often made entirely western curriculum in Pratomwittahyakom to read, write, and speak English. This separate meals for the volunteers based upon School, there are many examples of a great observation is not meant to be unique to these restrictions. This, to a certain extent, is awareness of the western world. In the fi fth Thai schools; this scene could be played out part of Thai culture; volunteers are treated week of this study, students made posters to in any school in the world. It was of note with a great deal of respect and thus their decorate the various classrooms, and in any mainly because of the gross discrepancies happiness is very important to the school. poster featuring a person (to represent an in English fl uency between students. Some However, it was the continual disruption of action, for instance) the drawing was always students are able to read and write English the staff ’s daily activities that warrants note of a Caucasian person, and the activity was and understand the concepts of punctuation, as teachers would consistently accompany usually a non-traditionally Thai one, such as plural versus singular, and understood that volunteers anywhere they went and were Baseball or Ballet. Primary students were spaces are a necessity between words. Others known to pop into classrooms just to ensure given the afternoon off of regular classes in simply do not have this understanding, and that the volunteers were not thirsty or hungry. order to make these posters, and were more their handwriting is barely legible. While this This was an inconvenience for staff and than happy to curl up on the ground and issue cannot be blamed upon the short-term students. The aforementioned negativities color away for several unsupervised hours. volunteers, their presence does not help the of volunteer teachers are completely aside Several other observations are that matter. As was already mentioned, volunteers from any of the harmful psychological the new school building features western teach alone or with other volunteers, but effects volunteer teachers could potentially toilets instead of the normal squat toilet never with the assistance of a Thai teacher. have upon students and staff. If westerners found across Thailand. All of the students’ The language barrier between volunteer and are consistently seen as the only legitimate English workbooks are made in Thailand to students seemed far greater in the secondary English teachers in Ayutthaya’s schools, teach British English (and are subsequently classrooms (due to the type of activities this could decrease students’ motivation fi lled with activities that revolve around that were presented) and the material far to learn English and consider teaching as a British monuments and history). Students more integral to English comprehension. profession. Would this not also discourage wear uniforms that could be found in any Explaining the concept of spaces between Thai teachers from learning and then western school, complete with tall socks words is nearly impossible without a practicing their English with each other or and sneakers. While research was based at minimal comprehension of a common any volunteers present? The observations Pratomwittahyakom School, observations language. The discrepancy between students’ made during this research are that the answer were also made in Koh Samet, Koh Samui, English abilities speaks to the need to have to these questions is overwhelmingly: Yes. Chiang Mai, and Bangkok. In Chiang Mai, permanent teachers who are fl uent in English Older students have become so accustomed where there is a high concentration of hill and Thai instead of importing native/ to seeing westerners as their only role model tribes, mandatory, formalized education non-native volunteer teachers, as many for speaking English that they appear to might as well not exist; among indigenous of the issues found during transliteration have lost any desire to learn the subject and people formalized education is a sticky topic. cannot be communicated without a basic fail to realize why it could be useful in the When visiting the hill tribes, it seemed that understanding of Thai. In the context of the future. This could be due, in part, to their there was no formal building for education 1999 education reforms, it is obvious that English books. These books were made and that all children were assisting their there is much work to be done regarding in Thailand to teach British English at an parents in their duties as opposed to attending teaching style in Pratomwittahyakom School. extremely advanced level that lacked any school. There is the possibility that this was cohesion between lessons. One section in done solely for the enjoyment of the tourists Volunteers and the Potential particular was extremely inconsistent; in one (that is, that when tourists were present the Inconvenience for All lesson, students were learning to identify tribes people abandoned their usual duties During the period of research, many objects in the classroom, and in the next they to participate in more aesthetically pleasing volunteers came and went without making were supposed to conjugate and practice tasks such as embroidery), but with the too many ripples, so to speak. Volunteering contracting various verbs. After a month of constant fl ow of tourists this hardly seems attracts a wide variety of people with an working with the secondary school students, practical. In Bangkok, the education system equally broad set of goals, there is no it became painfully obvious that their grasp is comparable to any major metropolitan city assurance for the host-school that their of the English language was little better than in the western world: busloads of uniformed appointed volunteer will be useful, and that of the students in the lower stages of students attend International Schools 72 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S (which often times use the International Thailand. Yoga studios, many of which are with western education seems to be Baccalaureate curriculum) where only owned and operated by westerners, cater to relatively balanced between Bangkok’s rigidly trained, hired, and paid teachers are in western and Thai people alike, as well as the International approach to education and charge of educating the students. In Island presence of more “laid-back” western music the loose approach of the island and more communities, such as Koh Samet and Koh such as reggae, as opposed to the thundering rural regions. This is indicative of Thailand’s Samui, a dramatically greater number of bass-lines of Dutch “House” music that position in the globalizing world; struggling school-aged children were seemingly not can be heard throughout Central Thailand. to develop a strong westernized generation enrolled in any sort of school; children Many of these observations about Thai and while desiring to maintain its cultural roots could constantly be seen selling goods on the western culture were made at the end of the by allowing indigenous people to continue beach or in touristy spots as well as helping volunteer project and outside of the school practicing their traditional way of life. their (assumed) parents with their food/ environment, and thus provided a different trinket stalls in market areas. Because the examination of these two cultures than was References 1Studebaker, J. (2013) USA Today. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 73 Does race matter in international beauty pageants? A quantitative analysis of Miss World B S Z R W , PD U B C Abstract: Most research on race and beauty pageants uses qualitative research methods and focuses on national beauty pageants. For this reason it is unclear whether there are broad patterns of racial inequalities in international beauty pageants. My study addresses this issue by using a quantitative approach to examine whether race affects success rates in international beauty pageants. This study examines countries that have competed in the Miss World pageant from 1951 to 2011 and examine each country’s probability of winning and being in the semi- fi nals. The analysis shows that race matters. White countries have a much higher chance of winning and being in the semi-fi nals than non-white nations. Furthermore, white nations have been over-represented as winners and semi-fi nalists while non-white nations have been under-represented in both those categories. The patterns of success for white nations and lack of success for non-white nations demonstrates that beauty is not neutral and that global beauty pageants can be seen as a refl ection of racial hierarchies and a reaffi rmation of the ideology of white beauty. Introduction Studying Race in Beauty Pageants than simple phenotypes, in beauty pageants Browsing through the headshots of the Although race is a socially constructed where the body is visually displayed, physical 2011 contestants on the websites of the Miss concept, the concept of race and racism appearance is a noticeable way of signifying World and the Miss Universe pageants, the persists3, and in order to study racial race.5 Moreover, the general public that view women’s beauty was indisputable. Each one inequalities, race needs to be operationalized. beauty pageants also understand race and was endowed with big, round eyes, straight There are many different ways to study race. racial (in)equality in terms of skin colour.6 hair, narrow nose, and an attractive smile. For this analysis, the categories “white” Furthermore, as previously mentioned, I then decided to visit the photo gallery of and “non-white” are used to study racial most of the pageant contestants possess Miss Universe 2011, the African winner Leila inequalities, and this categorization draws on Westernized facial features such as straight Lopes. I clicked through images of the photo Telles’ (2009) study that notes that the white hair, narrow nose and large eyes; thus skin album that featured her homecoming visit and non-white distinction is a conceptually colour remains one of the key ways to to Angola. In the photographs where her clear racial divide.4 The categories of white differentiate the women in the international body was juxtaposed with her countrymen, and non-white are applied to countries, pageants. what became apparent was that Ms. Lopes rather than to the bodies, of the Miss World As with all methodologies for studying was a shade or two lighter than the others. beauty pageant contestants themselves race, there are limitations to the one Ms. Lopes’ body and the bodies of the other because not all 61 years of images and employed in this analysis. Race is a complex contestants demonstrate that in order to be videos of these contestants were available. concept and the method used in this study selected to compete in international beauty However, information on the countries that cannot fully capture its nuances. pageants one must embody white phenotypic participated and succeeded in the 61 years of characteristics1 such as straight hair, light the Miss World pageant was readily available. National Pageants and Race skin tone and, a narrow nose.1 In order to categorize countries as white and Studies have shown that many non- It is important to analyze how beauty is non-white, I viewed the images and videos of white countries send representatives that defi ned and what kind of beauty is valorized pageant contestants that were available and look white to the global beauty pageants in forms of popular culture such as beauty coded the countries that have consistently in order to increase their chances of pageants. Popular culture shapes notions of sent women with Western phenotypes, such winning.2,7,8,9,10 King-O’Riain noted “both feminine beauty for women across the globe2, as white skin, to the competition as white. India and Venezuela have recently sent taller, and if white phenotypes are privileged and This includes all the European countries, more Western-looking women forward to valorized, this could affect the self-image Australia, Canada, and the United States. international pageants because they want of women who do not embody these While many of these countries that are coded a queen that will win on the global stage.”8 characteristics. For instance, the pressure as white have a portion of their population While King-O’Riain noted that there is a to subscribe to the ideal of white beauty that does not identify as white, the pageant practice where Western-looking women are could lead women to lighten their skin with contestants from these countries do not preferred, Runkle and Barnes’ studies show harmful chemicals and may also negatively refl ect this racial diversity. that the process of favouring Western- affect their self-concept.2 While the concept of race embodies more looking women is a very active process.7,10 74 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S Table 1: Studies on Beauty Pageants Author Methodology Pageant Studied Time Period Studied Lawson and Ross (2010) Quantitative analysis Miss Universe 1952-2008 Oza (2001) Ethnography Miss India 1996 Parameswaran (2004) Media analysis Miss India 1998-2000 Russel (2006) Media analysis Miss India 1996 Barnes (1994) Historical analysis & media analysis Miss Jamaica 1950s-1980s Callahan (1998) Historical analysis & media analysis Miss Thailand 1934-1990s Edmonson (2003) Historical analysis Pageants in the Caribbean 1999 Mattson and Pettersson (2007) Media analysis Miss Sweden 1949-1960 Runkle (2004) Ethnography Miss India 2003 Shissler (2004) Media analysis Miss Turkey 1929-1932 Wilk (1995) Ethnography Miss Belize 1990s King-O’Riain (2008) Literature review Multiple --- Banet-Weiser (1999) Ethnography Miss America --- Balogun (2012) Ethnography Miss Nigeria 2009-2010 Runkle’s ethnographic study on the contestants on the national stage, none of even with an increase in the proportion month-long training boot camp prior to the the studies addressed the issue of skin colour of women of colour named as queens.”8 Miss India pageant reveals the salience of and its implications for racial inequities in While King-O’Riain does not elaborate on skin colour in the lives of these beauty queen international beauty pageants. Research has what this means (how and in what way do aspirants. Each girl was on some type of shown that whiteness infl uences the success European beauty standards impact global medication to lighten her skin colour. Runkle rates in national pageants,8,15 but there is a pageants?), she does suggest that whiteness demonstrates that light skin is not only lack of research on whether whiteness also plays a role in global pageants. Banet-Weiser preferred, it is created. The dermatologist plays a signifi cant role in determining success also argues that “although non-European administering these skin treatments justifi ed on the global stage. nations and heritages are clearly supported the process by citing the benefi ts of light Although there is a lack of research on in terms of their presence on stage, the skin in beauty pageants – “we still lighten international pageants, studies on national structural and ideological basis of the their skin here because it gives the girls pageants, such as India, the United States, pageant remains fi rmly embedded in US and extra confi dence when they go abroad [to Jamaica, and Belize, provide evidence that Western European values and histories.”16 international pageants].”10 race plays a role in global pageants. Osuri Both King-O’Riain and Banet-Weiser Barnes’ study on Miss Jamaica reveals the points out that “dark-skinned winners are suggests that whiteness has an advantage preference for a light-skinned Miss Jamaica still fewer in comparison to light or white- in beauty pageants since the pageants are by demonstrating the active selection of skinned contestants.”15 King-O’Riain so steeped in white privilege. Non-white a white beauty queen. Although 90% of suggests that the “continued valorization women may embody white aesthetics, but Jamaicans identify as black, white women of ‘whiteness’ or ‘lightness’ and European they are still at a disadvantage compared to have been favoured as beauty queens. In beauty standards seem to be impacting the white women. These studies suggest that the 1980s, the Miss Jamaica contest was Miss World and Miss Universe pageants race plays an important role in international turned over to private sponsorship and the focus shifted to selecting beauty queens that would have the best chance of winning the international pageants and providing fi nancial rewards. It was during these years that white women were selected to win Miss Jamaica.7 In national pageants, there is a clear preference for whiteness or lightness. By continuously selecting white or light-skinned women as winners in national pageants, “white aesthetic standards do not appear more attractive – they become the norm.”11 International Pageants and Race Many studies on beauty pageants have focused on national pageants,7,11,13,14 and while some of these studies have shown that there is a favouring of lighter-skinned Figure 1: Countries with the highest success rate from each continent. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 75 S S Figure 2: Probability of winning for each country. Table 2: Miss World Winning Countries and Winning beauty pageants and they open up the space how women who do not embody these Probabilities for questions. Is there a privileging of white characteristics view themselves. Many have women over non-white women as winners turned to skin bleaching and cosmetic Country Probability of and semi-fi nalists in global beauty pageants? surgery to achieve this ideal, which poses Winning (%) How much does whiteness affect the winning health problems.2 Moreover, research has France*W 1.64 outcomes? What will this tell us about the shown that beauty is associated with privilege 18 Greece*W 1.69 type of feminine beauty that is produced, and resources. If Western aesthetics are valorized, and circulated on the global stage? what is considered beautiful, then those with Ireland*W 1.69 W these physical traits will have access to more Finland* 1.72 Why Study International Pageants? resources than those without. Israel*W 1.75 International beauty pageants are a form Brazil 1.92 of what Malkki calls the “family of nations,” Quantitative Approach Turkey*W 2.00 which “constitutes the differences between Most studies on beauty pageants are W national units in a way that is dehistoricizing, qualitative studies (Table 1). To date, only Gibraltar* 2.04 depoliticizing, and ultimately homogenizing one study19 has employed a quantitative Dominican Republic 2.27 of differences.”17 This homogenizing of method to studying beauty pageants. Puerto Rico 2.50 differences is found in the judging of the However, this study looks at the role of a Trinidad & Tobago 2.56 pageant. Each girl is assigned a score for nations’ market liberalism on the success Nigeria 3.13 each round and the scores are awarded based rates of the contestants and does not address W on the merits of each girl, which invokes issues regarding the racial inequities inherent Netherlands* 3.28 16 W an “idealized conception of equality.” in these beauty pageants. Germany* 3.39 By studying and critiquing the practice of The qualitative studies use methods Poland*W 3.45 privileging whiteness in these international of ethnography, historical analysis, and Australia*W 4.08 pageants, we can dismantle the “romance media analysis to understand and explore 17 Argentina 4.17 of internationalism” that frames these issues surrounding national pageants. While W spectacles and recognize the racial inequities qualitative studies contribute excellent Austria* 4.17 in global beauty pageants. knowledge to the body of literature on Bermuda 4.35 Miss World and Miss Universe are public beauty pageants, the qualitative studies on Sweden*W 4.92 spectacles and they beam images of smiling beauty pageants tend to be restricted by time USA*W 4.92 beauty queens around the globe. Images period. The fourth column in Table 1 shows Peru 5.00 of the contestants are easily accessed, that most of these studies often do not cover W downloaded, or purchased from the Internet. long time periods. A quantitative approach Iceland* 6.12 However, circulating along with these images can provide a way of looking at the long Jamaica 6.12 of smiling beauty queens is a particular history of the international beauty pageants Russia*W 10.00 message about feminine beauty – a message (61 years of Miss World and 60 years of UK*W 10.20 where whiteness is equated with beauty. The Miss Universe), giving us a clearer picture of India 11.11 mass media and forms of popular culture the patterns of inequities in these pageants. such as the Miss World and Miss Universe Qualitative studies have indicated there is a Venezuela 11.11 pageants shape notions of feminine beauty.2 general preference for light or white-skinned By continuously displaying images of light- women in international pageants, but have Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries skinned women on the global stage and by not elaborated on this trend. A quantitative privileging European aesthetics, international study can provide empirical evidence for this beauty pageants problematically entrench the trend and can show us exactly how often ideal of white beauty11 and reaffi rm existing white skin has been favoured over dark racial hierarchies. skin throughout the history of international The ideal of white beauty could affect beauty pageants. All the qualitative studies 76 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S have only considered the winners of beauty Turkey as European. After viewing photos and the United Kingdom have the highest pageants and have neglected the signifi cance of Israel’s contestants in the Miss World and success rate, while Zimbabwe has yet to win of the semi-fi nalists. A quantitative approach Miss Universe pageant, I also coded Israel the Miss World title. A black country like can examine beauty pageants through the as European. For a list of countries coded Zimbabwe has a much lower chance of being bodies of the winners and the bodies of the into continents see Appendix B. I also coded selected for the semi-fi nals and capturing the semi-fi nalists. the 81 countries as white countries and non- crown compared to white countries such as white countries. White countries include all the United States and the United Kingdom, Method the European countries and North American or brown countries like Venezuela and India. This study examines the countries that countries as well as Australia and New India and Venezuela have higher rates have succeeded in the Miss World pageant Zealand. Out of 81 competing countries, of winning than some white countries. from its inception in 1951 to a recently held 34 countries are white countries and 47 However, these countries’ rates of being in pageant in 2011. Data was gathered on the countries are non-white countries. White the semi-fi nals do not display their advantage competing nations, the winning countries, countries make up 42% of the competing over non-white countries. Since winning is and the semi-fi nalists through the Miss nations and non-white countries constitute a highly visible act, perhaps the crowning World website, pageant fan-sites, as well as 58% of the competing nations. For the of two non-white countries suggests that through viewing video clips of the pageant list of white and non-white countries see tokenism plays a role in international beauty uploaded by fans. In the analysis only the Appendix C. pageants. countries that competed at least 20 times For this analysis, I looked at each Many white countries have had the throughout the 61 years of the Miss World country’s probability of winning and opportunity of winning the Miss World pageant were considered. reaching the semi-fi nals. The probabilities contest, but a large proportion of non-white I used 81 competing countries in my of winning were calculated by dividing the countries have yet to win the Miss World analysis whose competing years range from number of times each country has won by competition (Figure 2). The graph also shows 20 to 61. They also vary tremendously in the number of times they competed in the that compared to white countries, a much the amount of successes in the pageant (0-6 Miss World contest. The probability of being larger proportion of non-white countries wins and 0-43 semi-fi nalists). For a list of the in the semi-fi nals was calculated by dividing have not been able to win the pageant. 81 countries see Appendix A. the number of times each country has been Tables 2 and 3 examine the information I coded the 81 countries into seven represented in the semi-fi nals by the number presented in Figure 2 in more detail. Table different continents – Europe, Africa, Asia, of times they competed in the Miss World 2 lists all the countries that have won the North America, Latin America, Caribbean contest. Miss World competition from its inception and Oceania. Latin America includes Central in 1951 to 2011. Throughout the 61 years America, South America, and Mexico. Central Data of the Miss World competition, 28 different America and Mexico are geographically Different continents have varying levels countries have successfully captured the Miss part of North America, but are culturally of success in the Miss World pageant (Figure World title. Out of these 28 countries, 17 of more similar to South America. I combined 1). Figure 1 provides us with the probability the winning countries are white (60.7%) and Central America, Mexico and South America of winning and of being in the semi-fi nals 11 of the countries are non-white (39.3%). to recognize the similar histories and for the most successful nation from each of This means that even though white countries cultural traditions between these areas. The the seven continents. Africa has been the make up 42% of the competing nations in Caribbean is geographically part of North least successful in both winning and being the Miss World competition, they constitute America, but some parts can be considered selected for the semi-fi nals, while Europe has 60.7% of the winning countries. White part of Latin America. I coded the Caribbean been one of the most successful continents. countries are over-represented as winners as a separate continent because of its distinct Zimbabwe has a much lower probability of the Miss World pageant, while non-white traditions and experiences with beauty (27.27%) of being in the semi-fi nals than UK countries are under-represented. pageants. Geographically, Turkey straddles (71.43%). While each country’s probability Table 3 lists the 53 countries that have both Asia and Europe. After viewing several of winning the Miss World title is quite low, yet to win the Miss World title. Out of these photos of Turkish contestants in the Miss certain countries have a higher probability 53 countries, 17 (32.1%) are white countries, World and Miss Universe pageant, I coded of winning than others. India, Venezuela, while 36 (67.9%) are non-white countries. Figure 3: Probability of being in semi-fi nals for each country. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 77 S S Table 3: Countries That Have Not Yet Won Miss Table 4: Top 30 Countries with Highest Probability Table 5: Bottom 30 Countries with Lowest World of Being Selected for Semi-Finals Probability of Being Selected for Semi-Finals Country Probability of Country Probability of Country Probability of Winning (%) being in Semi- being in Semi- Tanzania 0.00 fi nals (%) fi nals (%) French Polynesia 0.00 Netherlands*W 21.31 Latvia*W 0.00 W Croatia* 0.00 Guam 22.22 Hungary*W 0.00 W Latvia* 0.00 Poland*W 24.19 Luxembourg*W 0.00 Botswana 0.00 Croatia*W 25.00 El Salvador 0.00 Barbados 0.00 Hungary*W 0.00 Argentina 25.00 Guatemala 0.00 Zimbabwe 0.00 Trinidad & Tobago 25.64 Honduras 0.00 Bulgaria*W 0.00 Denmark*W 26.92 Cyprus*W 0.00 Ghana 0.00 Ireland*W 27.12 Gibraltar*W 2.04 US Virgin Islands 0.00 Zimbabwe 27.27 Malta*W 2.27 Swaziland 0.00 New Zealand*W 27.45 Singapore 2.56 W Luxembourg* 0.00 Mexico 27.66 Portugal*W 2.63 El Salvador 0.00 Colombia 28.89 Curacao 3.23 Kenya 0.00 Finland*W 29.31 Cayman Islands 3.23 Mauritius 0.00 Guam 0.00 Philippines 29.55 Swaziland 4.00 W W Yugoslavia*W 0.00 Spain* 30.44 Bulgaria* 4.35 Guatemala 0.00 Germany*W 30.51 Bahamas 4.65 Curacao 0.00 Puerto Rico 32.50 Botswana 4.76 Cayman Islands 0.00 Sweden*W 32.79 Tanzania 5.00 Panama 0.00 Russia*W 35.00 Paraguay 5.71 Honduras 0.00 Austria*W 35.42 Ecuador 6.25 Paraguay 0.00 Yugoslavia*W 37.04 Costa Rica 6.98 Chile 0.00 France*W 37.71 Hong Kong 7.32 Portugal*W 0.00 Uruguay 0.00 Brazil 38.46 Mauritius 7.41 W Singapore 0.00 Israel* 40.35 Chile 8.11 Bolivia 0.00 India 42.22 Belgium*W 8.62 Aruba 0.00 Jamaica 44.90 Bermuda 8.70 Hong Kong 0.00 Australia*W 46.94 Barbados 9.52 Thailand 0.00 Venezuela 55.56 Sri Lanka 9.52 Sri Lanka 0.00 USA*W 70.49 French Polynesia 10.00 Malaysia 0.00 UK*W 71.43 Bolivia 10.26 Switzerland*W 0.00 Bahamas 0.00 Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries Costa Rica 0.00 Malta*W 0.00 Lebanon 0.00 Although non-white countries form 58% have less than a 20% chance of being in of the competing nations, they constitute the semi-fi nals. The non-white country with Philippines 0.00 67.9% of the countries that have not been the highest probability of being in the semi- Colombia 0.00 able to succeed in winning the crown, thus fi nals (Venezuela 55.56%) has a much lower Spain*W 0.00 are under-represented. success rate when compared to the United Mexico 0.00 Success in beauty pageants can also be Kingdom’s 71.43% and USA’s 70.49%. Cyprus*W 0.00 measured by looking at the semi-fi nalists Compared to white nations, non-white Ecuador 0.00 in the pageants. Figure 3 presents the countries have a much lower probability of Norway*W 0.00 probabilities of white countries and non- moving forward into the semi-fi nal round. Korea 0.00 white countries being in the semi-fi nals. This is more clearly illustrated by considering New Zealand*W 0.00 The graph reveals that most white countries the average success rate for each group. The Denmark*W 0.00 have a fairly good chance of being selected average probability of being selected for the Canada*W 0.00 for the semi-fi nal round. The majority of semi-fi nals for white countries is 23.36%, Italy*W 0.00 white countries have a success rate of 20% while for non-white nations this probability to 35%. The probability of being in the decreases to 14.9%. Japan 0.00 W semi-fi nals for non-white countries, on the Tables 4 and 5 look at Figure 3 in more Belgium* 0.00 other hand, are spread across a wide range detail by examining the countries with the and the majority of non-white countries highest and lowest probabilities of being Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries 78 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S in the semi-fi nals. Table 4 looks at the 30 Western countries such as the United States 6Gore, A. (2012) “‘White as Snow’ Miss France Beauty countries with the highest probability of being and the United Kingdom have had the most Queen gets Caught in Racism Row and Catfi ght with Previous Winner.” Daily Mail. Daily Mail. http:// in the semi-fi nals. Out of these 30 countries, successes in the Miss World beauty pageant. www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2248200/White- 18 are white nations (60%) and 12 are non- Racial inequalities operate on two levels snow-Miss-France-beauty-queen-gets-caught-racism- white nations (40%). White countries make in these international pageants. Firstly, non- row-catfi ght-previous-winner.html/. (Accessed up 42% of the competing nations and yet white contestants selected to compete on 12/14/2012). 7Barnes, N.B. (1994) “Face of the Nation: Race, constitute 60% of the countries with a high the global stage embody Western aesthetic Nationalisms and Identities in Jamaican Beauty probability of successfully moving forward norms because they are lighter in skin colour Pageants.” The Massachusetts Review. 35.3. Pg 471-492. into the semi-fi nal round. White countries and have more Westernized features, such 8King-O’Riain, R.C. (2008) “Making the Perfect Queen: are over-represented as semi-fi nalists, while as straight hair, narrow nose, and large The Cultural Production of Identities in Beauty Pageants.” Sociology Compass. 2.1. Pg 74-83. non-white countries are under-represented. eyes, than women in their home countries. 9Leung, F., Lam,S. and Sze, S. (2001) “Cultural Table 5 considers the 30 countries with the Furthermore, once on the global stage, non- Expectations of Thinness in Chinese Women.” Eating lowest probability of being in the semi- white women have a much lower success Disorders. 9.4. Pg 339-350. fi nals. Out of these 30 countries, nine are rate in these global pageants compared 10Runkle, S. (2004) “Making “Miss India”: Constructing Gender, Power and the Nation.” South Asian Popular white countries (30%) and 21 are non-white to white women. The consistent patterns Culture. 2.2. Pg 145-159. countries (70%). Non-white countries make of success for white nations and lack of 11Kang, J.M. (1997) “Deconstructing the Ideology of up 58% of the competing nations and yet success for non-white nations demonstrates White Aesthetics.” Michigan Journal of Race & Law. 2. Pg represent 70% of the least likely countries to that beauty is not objective or neutral – it is 283-357. 12Callahan, W.A. (1998) “The Ideology of Miss Thailand move into the semi-fi nals. raced. Global beauty pageants like the Miss in National, Consumerist, and Transnational Spaces.” World competition refl ects racial hierarchies Alternatives: Global, Local, Political. 23.1. Pg 29-61. Conclusion and reaffi rms the ideology of white beauty. 13Parameswaran, R. (2004) “Global Queens, Studies have shown that skin colour Furthermore, this pattern also suggests that National Celebrities: Tales of Feminine Triumph in Post-Liberalization India.” Critical Studies in Media matters in national pageants, and lighter- the occasional success of non-white nations Communication. 21.4. Pg 346-370. skinned women are consistently preferred. is not due to a genuine valorization of non- 14Wilk, R. (1995) “The Local and the Global in the This preference for white aesthetics affects white beauty, but rather it is a way to display Political Economy of Beauty: From Miss Belize to Miss the types of contestants we see competing diversity while preserving the privilege of World.” Review of International Political Economy. 2.1. Pg 117-134. in the international pageants and it also lends whiteness that underlies these spectacles. 15Osuri, G. (2008) “Ash-coloured Whiteness: The evidence to racial inequities based on colour.2 Transfi guration of Aishwarya Rai.” South Asian Popular References Culture. 6.2. Pg 109-123. This paper extends the analysis of skin colour 1 and beauty pageants by considering whether Keith, V.M. (2009) “A Colorstruck World: Skin 16Banet-Weiser, S. (1999) The Most Beautiful Girl in the Tone, Achievement, and Self-Esteem among African World: Beauty Pageants and National Identity. University of race affects success rates of countries American Women.” In Shades of Difference: Why Skin California Press. competing in the international pageants. Color Matters. Glenn, E.N., ed(s). Stanford University 17Malkki, L. (1994) “Citizens of Humanity: Press. Pg 25-39. Internationalism and the Imagined Community of The analysis showed that race does 2 matter. Race affects the probability of being Glenn, E.N. (2008) “Yearning for Lightness: Nations.” Diaspora. 3.1. Pg 41-68. Transnational Circuits in the Marketing and 18Anderson, T.L., Grunert, C., Katz, A., and Lovascio, S. selected as a semi-fi nalist and of being Consumption of Skin Lighteners.” Gender & Society. (2010) “Aesthetic Capital: A Research Review on Beauty selected as Miss World. The data showed 22.3. Pg 281-302. Perks and Penalties.” Sociology Compass. 4.8. Pg 564-575. that white countries have a much higher 3Winant, H. (2006) “Race and Racism: Towards a Global 19Lawson, R. and Ross, J. (2010) “Economic Freedom Future.” Ethnic and Racial Studies. 29.5. Pg 986-1003. and Beauty Pageant Success in the World.” Journal de chance of winning and reaching the semi- 4 Telles, T. (2009) “The Social Consequences of Skin Economistes et des Etudes Humaines. 16.1. Pg 2. fi nals than non-white nations. White nations Color in Brazil.” In Shades of Difference: Why Skin Color have also been over-represented as winners Matters. Glenn, E.N., ed(s). Stanford University Press. Pg 9-24. and semi-fi nalists while non-white nations 5 have been under-represented. African Glenn, E.N. (2009) “The Signifi cance of Skin Color: Transnational Divergences and Convergences.” In (Appendices on next page) countries have the lowest success rate in Shades of Difference: Why Skin Color Matters. Glenn, E.N., winning and reaching the semi-fi nals while ed(s). Stanford University Press. Pg 7-8. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 79 S S Appendix A Table 1: Countries Used in Analysis Country Probability of Winning Probability of being in Semi- Total Wins Total Semi-fi nalists Number of Times Competed fi nals Tanzania 0 5 0 1 20 French Polynesia 0 10 0 2 20 Croatia 0 25 0 5 20 Russia 10 35 2 7 20 Latvia 0 0 0 0 21 Botswana 0 4.762 0 1 21 Barbados 0 9.524 0 2 21 Hungary 0 0 0 0 22 Zimbabwe 0 27.273 0 6 22 Bulgaria 0 4.348 0 1 23 Bermuda 4.3478 8.696 1 2 23 Ghana 0 12.5 0 3 24 US Virgin Islands 0 12.5 0 3 24 Swaziland 0 4 0 1 25 Luxembourg 0 0 0 0 26 El Salvador 0 0 0 0 26 Kenya 0 11.538 0 3 26 Mauritius 0 7.407 0 2 27 Guam 0 22.222 0 6 27 Yugoslavia 0 37.037 0 10 27 Poland 3.4483 24.138 1 7 29 Guatemala 0 0 0 0 31 Curacao 0 3.226 0 1 31 Cayman Islands 0 3.226 0 1 31 Nigeria 3.125 12.5 1 4 32 Panama 0 12.121 0 4 33 Honduras 0 0 0 0 34 Paraguay 0 5.714 0 2 35 Chile 0 8.108 0 3 37 Portugal 0 2.632 0 1 38 Uruguay 0 10.526 0 4 38 Singapore 0 2.564 0 1 39 Bolivia 0 10.256 0 4 39 Aruba 0 10.256 0 4 39 Trinidad & Tobago 2.5641 25.641 1 10 39 Peru 5 17.5 2 7 40 Puerto Rico 2.5 32.5 1 13 40 Hong Kong 0 7.317 0 3 41 Thailand 0 12.195 0 5 41 Sri Lanka 0 9.524 0 4 42 Malaysia 0 14.286 0 6 42 Switzerland 0 19.048 0 8 42 Bahamas 0 4.651 0 2 43 Costa Rica 0 6.977 0 3 43 Malta 0 2.273 0 1 44 Lebanon 0 11.364 0 5 44 Dominican Republic 2.2727 15.909 1 7 44 Philippines 0 29.545 0 13 44 Colombia 0 28.889 0 13 45 India 11.1111 42.222 5 19 45 Spain 0 30.435 0 14 46 Mexico 0 27.66 0 13 47 Cyprus 0 0 0 0 48 Ecuador 0 6.25 0 3 48 Argentina 4.1667 25 2 12 48 Austria 4.1667 35.417 2 17 48 Gibraltar 2.0408 2.041 1 1 49 Iceland 6.1224 14.286 3 7 49 Jamaica 6.1224 44.898 3 22 49 Australia 4.0816 46.939 2 23 49 UK 10.2041 71.429 5 35 49 Turkey 2 14 1 7 50 Norway 0 20 0 10 50 Korea 0 17.647 0 9 51 New Zealand 0 27.451 0 14 51 Denmark 0 26.923 0 14 52 Brazil 1.9231 38.462 1 20 52 Canada 0 20.755 0 11 53 Venezuela 11.1111 55.556 6 30 54 Italy 0 20 0 11 55 Japan 0 14.286 0 8 56 Israel 1.7544 40.351 1 23 57 Belgium 0 8.621 0 5 58 Finland 1.7241 29.31 1 17 58 Greece 1.6949 16.949 1 10 59 Ireland 1.6949 27.119 1 16 59 Germany 3.3898 30.508 2 18 59 Netherlands 3.2787 21.311 2 13 61 Sweden 4.918 32.787 3 20 61 France 1.6393 37.705 1 23 61 USA 4.918 70.492 3 43 61 80 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S Appendix B Table 3: Countries Coded According to Continent Europe Africa Asia North America Latin Americaa Caribbeanb Oceania Croatia Tanzania Singapore Canada El Salvador Barbados French Polynesia Russia Botswana Hong Kong USA Guatemala Bermuda Guam Latvia Zimbabwe Thailand Panama US Virgin Islands Australia Hungary Ghana Sri Lanka Honduras Curacao New Zealand Bulgaria Swaziland Malaysia Paraguay Cayman Islands Luxembourg Kenya Lebanon Chile Aruba Yugoslavia Mauritius Philippines Uruguay Trinidad & Tobago Poland Nigeria India Bolivia Puerto Rico Portugal Korea Peru Bahamas Switzerland Japan Costa Rica Dominican Re- Malta Colombia public Spain Mexico Jamaica Cyprus Ecuador Austria Argentina Gibraltar Brazil Iceland Venezuela UK Turkeyc Norway Denmark Italy Israeld Belgium Finland Greece Ireland Germany Netherlands Sweden France Notes: a Latin America includes Central America, South America and Mexico. Central America and Mexico are geographically part of North America, but is culturally more similar to South America. I combined Central America and South America to recognize the similar histories and cultural traditions between these two areas. b The Caribbean is geographically part of North America while some parts can be considered part of Latin America. I coded the Caribbean as a separate continent because of its unique and distinct traditions and experiences with beauty pageants. c Geographically Turkey straddles both Asia and Europe. After viewing several years of Turkish contestants in Miss World and Miss Universe I coded Turkey as European d After viewing photos of Israel’s contestants in the Miss World and Miss Universe pageant, I coded Israel as European Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 81 S S Appendix C Table 3: List of Countries Coded as White and Non-White White Countries Non-White Countries Croatia Tanzania Russia French Polynesia Latvia Botswana Hungary Barbados Bulgaria Zimbabwe Luxembourg Bermuda Yugoslavia Ghana Poland US Virgin Islands Portugal Swaziland Switzerland El Salvador Malta Kenya Spain Mauritius Cyprus Guam Austria Guatemala Gibraltar Curacao Iceland Cayman Islands Australia Nigeria UK Panama Turkey Honduras Norway Paraguay New Zealand Chile Denmark Uruguay Canada Singapore Italy Bolivia Israel Aruba Belgium Trinidad & Tobago Finland Peru Greece Puerto Rico Ireland Hong Kong Germany Thailand Netherlands Sri Lanka Sweden Malaysia France Bahamas USA Costa Rica Lebanon Dominican Republic Philippines Colombia India Mexico Ecuador Argentina Jamaica Korea Venezuela Brazil Japan 82 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV e Crippling E ects of Labeling on the Public School System B J M L F U U S F The constituents of our nation seem will only reach a certain level? Do we still used his personal experiences to highlight to expect the school system to solve all the train our students to adhere to the wants the problems with labeling students, whether nation’s problems concerning inequality; of future employers? Violas explains that it is direct or indirect. Rose explains the however, more often the policies of our as the system developed, the concern about misfortune he experienced as a child when school systems have perpetuated these “‘-higher learning-’” was that this form of he was accidently placed in a low track. The inequalities. How to ‘-save America-’ education was leaving workers unhappy and lower track he was placed in was referred to using our schools has been a polarizing bored. The school systems were not there as the vocational track. The shocking realities topic through the years. In current years, to educate future factory workers to be he reveals are those of incompetent teachers, No Child Left Behind has continued this unhappy with their jobs. Violas explains, “As less than desirable lesson plans, and violence tradition of polarization, casting doubts industrial tasks continued to subdivide into within the classroom. He also explains the in the minds of many citizens as to the increasingly minute and simple operations, myriad of students within the classroom future of our public education system. worker boredom and alienation became and their disillusionment with their future. By analyzing the theories of Paul Violas, more acute. Hence, the educational problem A heart-wrenching moment in Rose’s tale Mike Rose, and J.D Anderson, one sees the posed by most industrial laborers involved comes when a student declares a desire to negative repercussions of cultural and socio- personality adjustment, habit formation, just be average. Rose does not relate more economical prejudice present in our schools. and value conditioning.”3 This reform in the to the readers about his former classmate, One can also use their research to theorize schools undermined the earlier American the reader is left to infer that the student a better way of incorporating all students ideal of universal education for all. Violas succeeded in remaining unnoticed. Rose into the curriculum. Furthermore, through explains that “this justifi cation was found explains the diffi culty of being a student in the study of tracking; special education; and in the Substitution of “equal educational a lower track, “If you’re a working-class kid No Child Left Behind one can theorize the opportunity” for the older ideal of “equal in the vocational track, the options you’ll effects this kind of prejudice is having on education.”1 With the continuation of have to deal with this will be constrained in our public schools. arguments that the schools ought to ensure certain ways: you’re defi ned by your school Paul Violas, a researcher of the American students’ later success in life, the tradition as “slow”; you’re placed in a curriculum that education system, explains to his readers in of inequality in American schools was isn’t designed to liberate you but to occupy “Manual Training,” how the development cemented. you, or, if you’re lucky, train you, though of vocational education was co-opted by Violas’ critique of these early policies and the training is for work the society does not corporations to create a stronger work his understanding of the development of an esteem.”2 Rose was able to get out of the force. He theorizes that despite positive American mind-set towards class distinction, lower track but found it hard to move up progressive intentions during the beginning helps modern readers to analyze the current after years of being behind. Luckily for him, of the curriculum development for manual school system’s policies. Although most he managed to fi nd mentors that inspired training, the backers of these programs “‘-tracking-’” programs have been removed him to rise out of the negative situation were commonly industrialists who felt the from the public school systems, there are he had been placed in. Rose used these intellectual side of the curriculum was distinct levels of programs that separate experiences to criticize the education system cumbersome. The original idea behind students. Although one can claim that the use and recognized that too often the labels we manual training was to add to the classic of placement testing is fairer to students and are place on children cause them to fail. curriculum to create a better-rounded evaluates their ability on an individual basis, In Rose’s article “Our Schools Our student explaining that, “education it is hard to ignore the fact that different Children,” he analyzes the problems he should do more than train the mind or educational opportunities are still available encounters dealing with students at UCLA. the intellect.”1 Unfortunately, support to students based on their environment. Rose watches as students are labeled “at turned against this form of training when Regionally, students enrolled in suburban risk” and begin to subscribe to the social industrialists did not see direct gain from the schools are given more opportunities for expectations placed on them. As he observes new curriculum. Instead, this new form of club activities, mentorship programs, and an English class fi lled with “at risk” students, education began to take on a more strictly advanced placement classes; whereas in Rose notes the wide array of knowledge industrial track. In fact, students began being other regions, behavioral problems have these students possess, and a knowledge labeled based on what social expectations become a justifi cation for placement into brought out by a teacher that refuses to deemed suitable for them. If a student came special education classrooms. As a nation, we toss these children aside; however, many from a lower income or working class family, have learned to better disguise the inequality students are not fortunate enough to have that student was more likely to be placed in our schools; however, class inequality is teachers with this kind of sentiment. These in an industrial program devoid of classical still present. students walk into the classroom disengaged education. Violas’ use of history causes his The next researcher that brought because they expect to be passed over. Rose readers to refl ect on more modern tracking inequality to the forefront of the debate on explains that these students “know more systems. Do we still expect certain students education in America is Mike Rose. Rose than the tests reveal but haven’t been taught Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 2983 S S how to weave the knowledge into coherent more glaring inequalities between blacks and seem to be the key. Furthermore, as Violas patterns.”3 Rose reveals a very poignant whites in American schools, it is impossible refl ected, vocational education cannot help analysis of the problem in American schools. to ignore the effects of decades of injustice. students if it limits their opportunities. He explains that expectations of past In another work, Anderson takes note When the curriculum begins to label success are inaccurate, and that the diversity of cultural differences in America alongside students American students are left with the in our schools is a challenge that ought to the diffi culties these differences created in classrooms of Rose’s past. When we focus be embraced. Instead of looking to strict attempting to create a universal curriculum on labels we place students in tracks towards guidelines for success based on rigorous and history for America. Just as he exposed in failure; although we claim we are placing ideals of past academic standards, the his work on common schools, cultural history them on career tracks. nation ought to look at ways of channeling is a huge part of the American dynamic. Tracking is a placement program in use students’ knowledge into a more “coherent Not every immigrant or student has come in American public schools. A Dictionary pattern.” Unfortunately, the kind of “‘-back- from a background with opportunities. As of Sociology defi nes tracking as follows: “an to-basics-’” education Rose discusses as Anderson explains in his article, “Can Public organizational device used in some schools consistently fl awed stems from the exact Schools Save America?”, “The nation’s past by which students are divided into separate kind of logic used to justify the increasing is characterized by different and confl icting tracks according to supposed ability,” the entry amount of standardized testing used in American Dreams, not by surveys of what goes on to state, “Tracking is an extremely NCLB. Rose’s analysis of the problems in we want in the present.”5 In this article controversial practice and many believe that the public schools is still relevant today as we Anderson brings to light harsh realities it promotes inequalities, with students in continue to ignore the cry of the individual about American views on racial superiority lower tracks suffering from a less challenging mind. in former decades. He explains how this academic environment.”6 Although modern J.D Anderson gives his readers a thorough affected the current educational system educational practices have sought to do understanding of the inequalities present in and led to many issues of inequality within away with standard tracking programs, the development of a “‘-free-’” education the nation. He reminds his audiences that placement continues to be a factor in our system for emancipated slaves and their ignoring cultural differences is not healthy children’s education. In most states some ancestors. In his chapter, “Common Schools for the students themselves. Although using form of placement tests are administered in for Black Children, A Second Crusade,” the differences to decide how the students elementary school when a child is deemed Anderson refl ects on the hard work and will succeed is wrong, it is equally wrong to worthy of advanced placement. In turn, dedication of the black community as they ignore the different cultures these students students are also fl agged in elementary worked to create schools for their children. came from. Culture is a huge component of school for special education. Once placed His work reveals how the members of the who we are and how we perceive the world in one of these two programs the future of community put private funding and work around us, to pretend that every student is the student’s education is altered. For special into these schools. During the time period in fact created with a similar background education students, more opportunities are before the Great Depression, African would result in repression of the minority. available for teacher assistance, extra time on American communities endured double In addition, Anderson brings up the tests, and various other program incentives taxation in order to guarantee the running of economic inequality present in our current geared towards ensuring the student is able these new schools. At a certain point during school system and how that undermines to succeed in a general education classroom. the depression, “their fi nancial resources the success of many students: “Throughout However, the label of special education also had been drained thoroughly by the process American history professional educators and carries with it a lower rate of graduation and of double taxation.”4 Due to this, many of their political allies have looked to public a negative feeling of being “‘-at risk-’”. With these schools were unable to keep up with schools to create a homogeneous people the label of “‘-gifted-’” a student is given proper maintenance, causing outsiders to while maintaining schools that differed more challenging classroom activities and view African American communities as sharply along race, ethnic, and class lines”5 a label that promotes a positive self-image. neglectful. Anderson explains how these (Anderson 8). How can we as a nation teach As these students age and continue along kinds of sentiments caused a negative our children a universal set of values when the track the opportunities available begin to stereotype to develop that claimed African our schools fail to refl ect universal equality? differ dramatically. It is as though the school Americans did not value education. Similar Anderson highlights the extreme poverty gap system has taken two siblings and told one to the stereotyping of the classes that Violas in America. He explains that culture plays a that he is destined to succeed and the other and Rose note, Anderson reveals to readers huge part in the development of a people that he will always need help to make it. how these stigmas cause poor outcomes, and those years of economic repression Although the school system uses different and how these stereotypes are repeatedly cannot simply be ignored in policy. language to justify it, tracking is still apparent perpetuated by inequalities in the school All three of these researchers concluded in today’s schools and is a clear example of system. For instance, during a lecture in 2004, that the individual being labeled or lost the inequality in our nation. For instance, Anderson discusses that in the times prior is a large factor in children becoming inner city schools tend towards a much to World War 2, African American schools disillusioned with schools. One can draw a higher rate of special education students and did not extend to high school. He explains conclusion from studying these three that a a lower rate of available AP classes; while how this neglected fact reveals the injustice focus on the student’s culture and personal suburban schools reveal a higher rate of behind statistics showing low enrollment in goals can help the student to succeed. Similar gifted programs and a lower rate of special college for African Americans. With high to how Rose sees the problem, we need to education students. Furthermore, in many school as a requirement for college, and high fi nd a way, as a nation, of channeling the of these suburban schools the students most school not open to African Americans, how knowledge of students into applicable frequently given a special education label are is a student expected to enroll in college? sources. Unfortunately, as shown through students with African American or Hispanic Although we have remedied some of the Anderson, a homogenized system does not heritage.7 84 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV S S If special education is a new form of nation claims the promotion of education As our history reminds us our universal tracking, how do we as a nation support will help pull families out of poverty. Anyon education was a founding principle of our students with learning disabilities without and Green’s article, “No Child Left Behind nation. Mann explains: undermining their success? An answer to as an Anti-Poverty Measure,” uses statistical some of the problems surrounding the evidence to back-up that the education The Pilgrim Fathers amid all their special education programs comes from system cannot operate on its own as a means privations and dangers conceived Joel McNally in his article, “A Ghetto of preventing poverty. They explain that the magnifi cent idea, not only of a Within A Ghetto.” He brings to light the jobs available to graduating students universal, but of a free education for the overrepresentation of black students are often within poverty-wage rates and the whole people. To fi nd the time in special education programs and the that further education has failed to prove and the means to reduce this grand problems associated with it, “racial disparity fi nancially advantageous to many women conception to practice, they stinted makes it less likely that black students and minorities. They explain that the increase themselves, amid all their poverty, to receive high school diplomas, less likely they in standardized testing has directly benefi ted a still scantier pittance; amid all their will be employed after leaving school, and corporate America, “Schools that fail to raise toils, they imposed upon themselves more likely they will end up in the criminal test scores, for example, give way ultimately still more burdensome labors; and justice system.”7 McNally also reveals that to vouchers in the market model, but fi rst amid all their perils, they braved still an increase in African American student to a variety of expensive, pre-packaged greater dangers. 9 enrollment in special education is directly curricula, testing, and tutoring programs. correlated with the additional categories As a result, companies have already accrued Although this goal is a diffi cult one to of emotional/behavioral disturbance to billions of dollars of profi t.”8 Under NCLB, maintain, by focusing on the individual and the special education grouping. These if a school is labeled as failing students are the cultures in America today we may be categories allow teachers to place students allowed to transfer to a passing school. In able to elevate all students to a higher level who are disruptive in the classroom into fact, funding is actually removed from the of success and reach some of the idealistic special education. Frequently, clashes in school in order to provide this opportunity goals of our founders. cultural understanding play a part in a to families. However, in many inner city and teacher’s inability to control a student, not impoverished communities the constituents References 1Violas, Paul C. (1978.) “Manual Training, The Training the student’s tendency towards a disability. are unaware and unable to use these funds of the Urban Working Class.” The Training of the urban Although there are supposed to be checks to for opportunities for their students. Failing working class: a history of twentieth century American education. ensure students are not unjustly placed into schools need fi nancial support in order to Rand McNally. Pg 125-153. special education, continually, the schools move towards success, NCLB punishes these 2Rose, M. (1990) ”I Just Want to be Average.” Lives on the Boundary. Penguin Press. are too overwhelmed with referrals to schools by removing funding, but ends up 3Rose, M. (1990) “Our Schools Our Children” Lives on properly follow these procedures and special punishing the students. the Boundary. Penguin Press. education classrooms become overwhelmed If a person is looking to fi nd examples 4Anderson, J.D. (2005.) “Can Public Schools Save by “‘-trouble-’” students. McNally does not of inequalities in schools, our current America?” Culture, Race, Academic Achievement, and the American Dream, State of the Discourse. blame the teachers for this problem but educational policy of NCLB is a perfect Du Bois Review. refl ects on the fact that no other option is example. The reliance on standardized testing 5Anderson J.D. (1988) “Common Schools for Black available for them. He quotes Daniel Losen forces all students to prove their knowledge Children, The Second Crusade 1900-1935” The as saying, “Teachers can be trained to think in the same way; and yet, there is no way to Education of Blacks in the South 1860-1935. The University of North Carolina Press. about it and actually change their practices. create the same learning environment for 6Lawson, Tony. (2001) Dictionary of Sociology. The Bath You know, bias doesn’t necessarily make you every child. The added pressure this program Press. an evil person. It just makes you a member has placed on our already spread thin inner 7McNally, J. (2003) “A Ghetto Within a Ghetto: African- of society”7 McNally’s analysis of the special city schools sets many of these schools up American students are over-represented in special education programs.” Rethinking Schools 17.3 education program problems reveals a similar for failure. The fact is, these schools no 8Anyon, J. and Green, K. (2007) “No Child Left Behind conclusion to Violas, Rose, and Anderson: it longer have the time to invest in programs of as an Anti-Poverty Measure.” is the failure to understand the needs of the cultural education that could prevent teachers Teacher Education Quarterly 34.2. Pg 157-162. individual student and the culture they come from misunderstanding their students and 9Mann, H. (1846) “Tenth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education.” from that causes negative repercussions for placing them in special education. The only Massachusetts State Board of Education. the students in those neglected cultures. way that NCLB is succeeding in equaling the The name No Child Left Behind education opportunities nation-wide is by insinuates a commitment toward equality in lowering our schools chances for success. American public schools; however, in reality Researchers Violas, Rose, and Anderson the policy has failed to create equality in the allow readers a look into American education system. In fact, in many cases educational history as a window into NCLB has actually served to undermine understanding some of the current problems poverty stricken schools and provide in our educational system. Inequality due to justifi cation for further discrimination class and race has been a major proponent against the nation’s poor. Anyon and throughout our history and cannot be Greene argue that, “for more education to ignored. We cannot expect all students to lead to better jobs, there have to be jobs learn in the same way and we cannot force available.”8 They explain that NCLB has students into specifi c career tracks based been used to justify the prevention of job on our expectations of them. The key to creation programs in the country. That the success in American schools is opportunity. Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 85 Sovereignty and Underdevelopment in China: e 1842 Treaty of Nanjing and the Unequal Treaties B J R.W. D T U W O Abstract: China’s current position in global affairs as a fi erce international competitor and growing trade and military superpower has raised many concerns in the West about Chinese government agencies and corporations playing by a different set of rules and gaining an unfair advantage. It has not always been this way. In fact, Anglo-Chinese negotiations at Nanjing in 1842 to conclude the fi rst “Opium War” initiated a century of Western exploitation of China’s land and population. The Treaty of Nanjing set several precedents for 100 years of Unequal Treaties with numerous European (and American) powers, which effectively stripped away China’s sovereignty and forced its underdevelopment. While Chinese offi cials at the time were not fully aware of what the implications of the Treaty would be – due to unfair strategies used by their British counterparts – they did understand that their country was being wronged. As time went on, the devastating impacts became more apparent and Chinese authors and leaders began to resist. As Unequal Treaty discourse became ingrained in Chinese mentality, a sense of victimization and resentment developed against Western powers – to such an extent that such feelings may be residual today. Since its inception, the Middle Kingdom Unequal Treaties don insight as to their British East India Company’s monopoly towered above its neighbors, dominating respective effects on China’s sovereignty and on the China trade fl ooded the port at economically and militarily, conducting development. Chinese perspectives on the Canton with new merchants and traders relations strictly on Chinese terms. However, treaties’ implications both at the time of their from England; the resultant competition the arrival of Europeans to Asia posed a drafting and signing, as well as the evolving overwhelmed the rigid Cohong system, serious challenge to the long-established perception of the treaties’ consequences increasing tensions while augmenting the Tributary System. For several hundred years were especially revealing in regard to China’s infl ux of opium and dispersing its entry.5 the Qing Empire was able to limit Western (under)development and sovereignty in the Another strain on relations followed the infl uence to one port city at Canton, but by century after the Treaty of Nanjing. murder of a Chinese man by drunken the beginning of the nineteenth century the The Treaty of Nanjing brought peace, British sailors in Canton. Qing offi cials tables had started to turn.1 Less than one concluding the 1839-1842 Anglo-Chinese insisted that the sailors be tried in Chinese hundred years later, China had been stripped War; understanding the causes, events and courts, but the British claimed the right to of its sovereignty, national pride, and all-but results of this “Opium War” shed some prosecute their own nationals – both sides subjected under imperial power. Forced to light on the composition of the treaty and refused to yield, stimulating the pressures relinquish various concessions and rights to its impacts. From the Chinese point of view, of war.5 The breaking point came with the the Western powers, China fell painfully from forced and illegal importation of foreign dispatch of Lin Zexu, the “incorruptible the top of East Asian relations to the bottom opium was poisoning the population, and as offi cial,” to Canton to oversee foreign trade of the global system. The Unequal Treaties, of 1829, the balance of payments reversed in 1838.5 Commissioner Lin’s mission was most importantly the Treaty of Nanjing of and China’s silver surplus began to drain specifi cally concerned with controlling 1842, initiated an era of underdevelopment out of the country.2, 3, 4 The British, while foreign trade, yet he took the initiative to and quasi-imperialism in China, perpetuated appreciating the reversal of their trade defi cit, put down opium sales and consumption as by Western privilege-seeking, which denied that the war was fought for drug- well, widely viewed as disastrous for China’s manipulated and exploited a Chinese related purposes. Rather, Britain perceived fi nances.2 As such, Lin confi scated 20,283 government ignorant of the ramifi cations of the war as one fought for recognition of chests of opium from British storehouses what they were accepting. A brief history national equality with China, for free trade in March 1839, completely destroyed the of the events leading up to the drafting of and the abolition of the Cohong merchants’ contents and offered no reimbursement the Treaty of Nanjing, a summary of the monopoly on trade at Canton, and for the to foreign merchants.3 With that act, Lin terms of the treaty, and its precedential role application of “more civilized” British law banned British merchants from the port – considering several other Sino-Western over nationals living or trading in China.3 of Canton. They retreated to Macao, a treaties signed up to the Convention of With tensions on both sides peaking in the Portuguese possession at the time, where the Beijing, 1860 – provide an informative late-1830s, the smallest of incidents could British navy rendezvoused and began a series discussion of the treaty. Exploring in more have incited confl ict. of naval assaults. The British dominated the detail the most important provisions of Such sparks were neither few nor far war, due in large part to their superior military the Treaty of Nanjing and the subsequent between. The 1833-1834 abolition of the might and naval expertise; the Chinese were 86 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H forced to succumb to negotiations almost on trade.10 Additionally, the Treaty of new ports, while also establishing permanent immediately. Fighting and negotiations the Bogue reinforced Britain’s exclusive Western legations at Beijing. In addition, continued simultaneously, but no substantive access to the fi ve treaty ports opened by foreigners were granted permissions to results were produced until the British the Treaty of Nanjing. Legal extension of travel throughout China; inland tariff dues capture of Nanjing, the southern capital, in extraterritoriality to foreigners also originates were further decreased to 2.5% ad valorem; the summer of 1842.1, 2, 3,5 with this treaty. Paramount within the Treaty another large indemnity was demanded of On 29 August 1842, a Treaty of Perpetual of the Bogue was the most-favoured-nation the Qing government; and missionaries were Peace and Friendship, or the Treaty of clause (MFN), which effectively helped pry guaranteed free movement and the right to Nanjing, was concluded between Britain and the door to China ever-wider open.10 own property outside of the treaty ports. China at Nanjing. The Treaty was signed on The United States (US) practiced Moreover, the British claimed the Kowloon board HMS Cornwallis, by British negotiator “hitchhiking imperialism” in China, quickly Peninsula, opposite Hong Kong Island, as a Sir Henry Pottinger and Chinese High following the British precedent with an colonial possession, on which to base their Offi cials Ch’i-ying and I-li-poo, marking unequal treaty of its own.8 Caleb Cushing trade and military operations.5 the end of China’s relative inclusion as was sent to China to negotiate terms of a Each subsequent unequal treaty Britain used their victory in the Opium trade agreement with a Qing government effectively eroded the sovereignty of China, War as “leverage to pry it open”.7,8 Written eager to play the Western powers against reduced reciprocity, restricted its economic in English and only crudely translated each other. On 3 July 1844 the Treaty of autonomy, and forced the Qing to conduct into Chinese, the Treaty ended the Anglo- Wanghia was signed, largely regarding Sino-Western relations according to foreign Chinese hostilities with a peace between terms of trade and residence in the treaty terms.13 The most-favoured-nation clause, the two nations specifi ed in Article I, the ports opened by the British negotiations the opening of China, extraterritoriality, cession of Hong Kong Island to the British at Nanjing. It also built extensively on the settlement rights, and the equality of by Article III, payment for the destroyed foundations of extraterritoriality established communications provisions were especially opium as well as a twenty-one million dollar by the Treaty of the Bogue. As with the devastating to the traditional Chinese war indemnity to the order of the Queen as British treaties, communications were to be government and social structure. stated in Articles IV and VII. Also included on the basis of equality; unlike the British, Of all the articles and concessions in the terms of the treaty were Articles however, the Treaty of Wanghia offi cially granted in the Unequal Treaties, initiated at VIII and IX, which demanded all British banned American merchants from selling Nanjing, most-favoured-nation statuses had subjects and Chinese collaborators to be opium and from trading outside of the the most wide-ranging, detrimental effects released to the British authorities, Article V’s treaty ports. The China-USA agreement on China’s sovereignty. Captured in Article abolition of the Cohong system at Canton, also included a most-favoured-nation clause, VIII of the Treaty of the Bogue: and the opening of four additional ports at automatically granting the Americans any Ningpo, Shanghai, Fuzhou, and Amoy, to rights ceded by China to another nation.11 The Emperor of China having been British merchants for trade under fair and The French quickly followed suit later in July graciously pleased to grant, to all regular tariffs to be agreed upon by British 1844, signing the Treaty of Whompao with foreign Countries, whose Subjects, authorities (Articles II, V, and X respectively). China. The French treaty was very similar or Citizens, have hitherto traded at Collectively, these fi ve access ports became to the Anglo-American versions, further Canton the privilege of resorting for known as “treaty ports.” Finally, Article extending extraterritoriality and treaty port purposes of Trade to the other, four XI demanded that communication between concessions, while also granting privileges Ports of Fuchow, Amoy, Ningpo and China and Britain, regardless of the level to Roman Catholic missionaries to travel in Shanghai, on the same terms as the of the offi cial, take place on “footing of China and preach Christianity. By way of the English, it is further agreed, that should perfect equality.” Should all of the above most-favoured-nation clauses in the British the Emperor hereafter, from any demands receive compliance, Article XII and American treaties, missionary privileges cause whatever, be pleased to grant, promised the withdrawal of British troops were further extended to Protestant and additional privileges or immunities to and the formal ending of the war.9 The Baptist missions, as well as other Christian any of the subjects or Citizens of such treaty’s true signifi cance existed not in any creeds.12 Foreign Countries, the same privileges of its thirteen articles; rather it was the The 1856-1860 Anglo-French Arrow and immunities will be extended to precedential nature of the Treaty of Nanjing War against the Chinese was concluded and enjoyed by British Subjects.10 that marked the beginning of a century of offi cially at the Convention of Beijing, unequal, “gunpoint treaties”.3,8 Such treaties where the US, France, and Britain had Every subsequent treaty with a Western were not only unfair, but also unethical forced the Chinese to accept the Treaties power included some imitation of this – written and negotiated in English or of Tianjin, written in June 1858. By this clause, thereby fostering an automatic, other Western languages – creating a grave time, Belgium, Sweden, Norway, Prussia, unconscious cooperation between the West misunderstanding of the potential impacts Portugal, Italy, and Russia had signed similar to pry China open, and maintain equality of among Chinese negotiators. Unequal Treaties. The Tianjin treaties were opportunity in the China trade.12 Equality in The supplementary Treaty of the Bogue brought into force at the 1860 Convention China’s relations was not an imposition of between Britain and China followed the of Beijing and reaffi rmed the earlier treaties, the West, however, as the Tributary System Treaty of Nanjing just over a year later on 8 adding or abrogating provisions of the existed for millennia before the Opium October 1843. Signed by Pottinger for the previous agreements. The Treaties of Wars based on non-discrimination. What British and Ki Ying on behalf of the Qing Tianjin forced the opening of ten additional changed under the Western imposed the Emperor, the supplementary treaty extended ports, including four along the Yangtze River most-favoured-nation system was China’s and specifi ed tariff of export and import deep into inland China. Treaty rights and relative position in international relations – duties, as well as the general regulations concessions were extended to each of the from the top of its Tribute System, where Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 87 H all others were subordinate, to the bottom treaty ports was grossly unbalanced with the automatic extension of extraterritoriality of the global system, exploited by all who the underdevelopment of the rest of the and Western legal traditions and systems pleased.12 Though most-favoured-nation country – siphoning capital away from local of trade by most-favoured-nation clauses, status was originally sought for commercial markets and domestic fi rms into the treaty embodied an exploitative quasi-colonialism, equality among the Western powers, it ports signifi cantly hindered modernization rendering the Qing government powerless to eventually “embodied a limitless doctrine processes in China.4 control their own territories.1,4 of equality of opportunity capable of Extraterritoriality, defi ned as “the right Related to the settlement rights granted expansion in many directions,” effectively of jurisdiction by foreign consuls over their under concessions to the West, was the amplifying the perverse effects of the treaty nationals,” proved devastating to China’s permission of foreigners to learn Chinese, port concessions, extraterritoriality, and the position as a sovereign state in the global travel inland, and preach Christianity. All of like.12 system.5 Because of the Unequal Treaties, China was opened to proselytizing missions In addition to the MFN clauses, which China was hardly sovereign in its own and travel, producing signifi cant cultural stripped away Chinese sovereignty piece by territory, as Western citizens were protected disruption to match the economic disruption piece, the opening of China and the foreign while in China, yet the lack of reciprocity resultant from foreign commerce penetrating control over tariff rates and terms of trade gave China no such right to safeguard their the interior.5 Missionaries saw China as effectively “deprived China of control own nationals.8 Extraterritoriality was a long a vast, populous, and idolatrous territory, over its own economy”.8 With the Treaty process in the making for Europeans (and which provoked excitement among Christian of Nanjing, British merchants broke free Americans) in Asia; various events occurred sects seeking converts. The missionary from the confi nes of the Canton system, in the history of Sino-Western relations drive reinforced economic expansion, while which was wrought with corruption and the leading foreign powers in China to demand economic and legal expansion beginning restrictions of the Cohong traders. Chinese rights for their nationals to be tried under at Nanjing, supplemented religious rights offi cials granted access to trade and settle a consul and not in Chinese courts, which and privileges of Western missionaries.4 in Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningpo, and Shanghai were considered cruel, clandestine, and The impact of Christianity should not be in addition to Canton, mistakenly assuming repugnant.15,16 Jurisdiction over nationals in overestimated, as the number of converts this would dilute the foreign trade rather treaty ports also applied to those traveling remained quite low; however, the disruptive than intensify it. This ignorance of the through inland China once such movement effects of Catholic and Protestant missions, economic functioning of the free market was allowed; Chinese offi cials were often and foreign travel inland were readily world emerging in Europe also led the pressured by foreign governments to turn observable.17 Qing government to relinquish their tariff criminals of Western nationality over to For as long as Britain had been in autonomy.2,3,5 Tariffs were fi xed by British foreign consuls, or even to let Christian contact with China, and communications offi cial consent, only to be modifi ed with missionaries deal with Chinese citizens between offi cials were sent and received, approval from the Crown. By 1860 ten who had converted to Western religions.17 the degrading language used by Chinese additional ports were open to foreign trade, Essentially, China had been deprived of in reference to foreigners was not much and foreign consuls and trade offi cers were sovereign legal jurisdiction within its own appreciated.1 By the 1830s, as the tides fi rmly in control of the customs duties borders – any wrong move might lead to turned in Britain’s favour, they actively and tariffs levied on Western imports to Western intervention, more confl ict, or sought amelioration of the humiliating the treaty ports.1,4,5 Foreign merchants and further unequal treaties. treatment practiced by the Chinese.12 The their Chinese counterparts were able to As subsequent treaties were signed, term ‘I’ (barbarian), with which Chinese manipulate legal loopholes, ignoring China’s extraterritorial rights were extended offi cials referred to all foreigners, regardless sovereign rights, and on some occasions, from peoples to concessions granted as of status, was most despised. From evading taxes altogether.8 neighborhoods in which foreigners could Nanjing onwards, however, such derogatory It became diffi cult, if not impossible, live. Entire districts of the treaty ports terminology in the Qing vernacular was for China to protect nascent industries and fell under the jurisdiction of Western forcibly diluted and offi cially banished from young Chinese companies against foreign powers – such settlements became self- offi cial communications. The principle of trade, especially after the 1895 Treaty of governing, establishing independent diplomatic equality enshrined the worth of Shimonoseki with Japan, which expanded police forces, municipal governments, and Western standards of diplomacy, shattering foreign rights in treaty ports to include the administrations.6 The concessions forced remnants of the old Tributary system, which construction of manufacturing companies. by the foreign powers, especially by the saw China at its apex.8 Regrettably for By virtue of most-favoured-nation status, Treaties of Tianjin and beyond, provided China, equality was broadly interpreted by such a privilege was granted to all foreign Westerners rights to rent, and eventually the foreign powers to mean Sino-inferiority powers with that had signed an Unequal own, properties in treaty ports. They erected and dominance of Western methods, Treaty with China; foreign direct investment buildings and churches on leased territories, traditions, and norms. More unfortunate spiked, further endangering China’s domestic with little regard for Chinese concern with was the utter lack of understanding on manufacturing economy.4,8 Conversely, feng-shui.5 Protected by extraterritoriality, behalf of the Qing offi cials about exactly the stimulus provided by foreign direct foreign zones in the treaty ports became how Western diplomatic relations worked – investment and the Western trade created havens and places of refuge for foreign this led to further exploitation. Treaties were tremendous growth in the treaty ports, merchants, their Chinese counterparts, and most often written in Western languages and suggesting that China’s integration into their possessions – tax exemptions from converted crudely into Chinese – meanings the capitalist world market was not entirely their national governments and shelter from were regularly lost in translation, with the negative, and that its underdevelopment Chinese corporate and criminal laws made document in the Western language held as was only relative.4,14 While such arguments these regions very attractive. In reality, law. 5 The advantage in diplomatic relations have some validity, the development in concessions and settlements, combined with quickly swung from the Chinese imperial 88 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV H court, to parity, then to the governments of – was gradually more refuted, especially and everything they could have wanted the foreign powers who used such devious because the Chinese argued that no such laws onto the Chinese. Ultimately, The Treaty methods to manipulate Chinese negotiators existed between European nations.13 China’s of Nanjing set an important precedent of further transgressing China’s sovereignty and humiliation and inferiority was resented exploitation in East Asian international law, abetting its underdevelopment. more and more from the Convention of followed for nearly one hundred years as the The detrimental effects of the most- Beijing onwards. Hatred of the West was basis for diplomatic relations between Asia favoured-nation statuses, treaty ports augmented by the growing economic strains and the West. The Treaty of Nanjing set an and trade exploitation, extraterritoriality, of constantly paying indemnities and loans, important precedent in international law for settlement and inland travel rights, and without the tariff autonomy necessary foreign dealings with the Chinese Empire. Western-imposed standards of international to earn revenues. Although domestic Followed for nearly a century as the basis relations are clearly visible in hindsight as factors also had a major impact on the for diplomatic relations between Asia and they continued to build with each successive underdevelopment of China, “imperialist- the West, the Unequal Treaty model served treaty. Still, the original reception of the colonialist behavior of the West (including to exploit immense opportunities in China Treaty of Nanjing was that of relief. This Japan) was, on balance, inimical to Chinese by ripping away Chinese sovereignty and was best represented by Chang Hsi’s Fu-i- development”.4 ensuring underdevelopment in the Middle jih-chi (The Pacifi cation of the Barbarians), The weak Chinese economy and state was Kingdom. in which Chang, an advisor to I-li-poo, partially held together by self-strengthening References recalls the negotiations and signing of the reforms and a strong, centralized authority 1 Treaty. Chang’s diary reveals that while – which collapsed with the death of the Waley-Cohen, J. (1999) The Sextants of Beijing. W.W. 14 Norton & Co. Chinese offi cials were primarily concerned Empress Dowager in 1908. Imperial Qing 2Waley, A. (1958) The Opium War through Chinese Eyes. with appeasing the superior English navy, China destabilized and collapsed. From George Allen and Unwin Brothers Ltd. they also had minimal knowledge of foreign the ruins rose competing nationalist and 3Teng, S. (1944) Chang Hsi and the Treaty of Nanking, 1842 Chicago University Press. affairs and international law, exacerbating communist movements, both seeking to 4 3 Lippit, V.D. (1978) “The Development of the problems of their hasty submission. I exploit bupingding tiaoyue (Unequal Treaty) Underdevelopment in China.” Modern China 4.3 and Ch’i hardly looked at the terms of the rhetoric to reap emotional and political Symposium on China’s Economic History. treaty, instead rejoicing at the prospect of the support.13 First expressed by Sun-Yatsen, 5Borthwick, M. (2007) Pacifi c Century: The Emergence of the Modern Pacifi c Asia, 3rd edition. Westview Press British withdrawing – even if they did read a founding father of Republican China, in 6Bloch, K. (1939) “The Basic Confl ict over Foreign the proposed terms carefully, they had been 1924, he stated: “All Unequal Treaties … Concessions in China.” Far Eastern Survey. 8.10. given authority from the imperial court to foreign concessions, consular jurisdiction, 7Fairbank, J.K. (1940) “Chinese Diplomacy and the act as the circumstances required and make foreign management of customs service, Treaty of Nanking, 1842.” The Journal of Modern History. 12. Pg 1-30. whatever concessions necessary in the name and all foreign political rights on China’s 8 3,7 Herring, G.C. (2008) From Colony to Superpower: U.S. of peace. soil, are detrimental to China’s sovereignty. Foreign Relations since 1776. Oxford University Press. Moreover, the Qing did not fully They all ought to be abolished so as to leave 9UCLA Center for East Asia Studies. “Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking), 1842.” East Asia Studies Documents. understand the signifi cance of the Treaty of the way open for new treaties based on 10 Nanjing either intrinsically or as a precedent. the spirit of bilateral equality and mutual “The Treaty of the Bogue, 1843.” Bilateral Documents 18 – 19th Century. To them it was simply an extension of respect for sovereignty”. Unequal Treaty 11“The Treaty of Wanghia, 1844,” Bilateral Documents – concessions they had already made to the discourse in the early twentieth century 19th Century Kokland people of Central Asia to the followed three paths. The moral discourse 12Prichard, E.H. (1942) “The Origins of the Most- maritime frontier, as a way of diluting was used in attempts to persuade foreign Favoured-Nation and The Open Door Policies in 1 China.” The Far Eastern Quarterly. Western infl uence and pressure. The powers to recognize their unfairness 13Wang, D. (2003) “The Discourse of Unequal Treaties ramifi cations of such an important event and resultant injurious effects in China. in Modern China.” Pacifi c Affairs. 76.3. Pg. 401 were oversimplifi ed and underestimated Legalistic discourse also sought to reason 14Bergere, M.C. (1984) “On the Historical Origins of Chinese Underdevelopment.” Theory and Society. 13.3. Pg. both in the Qing imperial court, and with the West on the basis of the illegitimacy 327-337 by Chinese high offi cials charged with of the Unequal Treaties. Finally, rhetorical 15Swisher, E. (1951) “Extraterritoriality and the Wabash negotiating its terms. The Treaty of Nanjing discourse was aimed at generating a strong Case.” The American Journal of International Law. 45.3. Pg. 564-571 was seen as only a minor setback in the grand emotional response from ordinary Chinese 16 13 Wright, Q. (1943) “The End of Extraterritoriality in scheme of Chinese relations; Westerners citizens against Western imperialism. China.” The American Journal of International Law. 37.2. had been subdued, held to the shores of Through Unequal Treaty discourse, national Pg. 286-289. China’s great empire, and opium remained humiliation and China’ victimization at the 17Lee, J.T.H. (2000). “The Lord in Heaven versus Jesus illegal.5 Additionally, the treaty failed to ease hands of the West became integrated into Christ: Christian Sectarian Violence in Late-Nineteenth tensions in Canton and all self-respecting the Chinese-ness of the masses in the early- Century South China.” Positions: East Asia Culture 13 Critique 8.1. Pg.77-99. Chinese retained an “implacable hatred” of 1900s. 18Xiaoyi, Q. ed., (1989) Guofu quanji [The complete collection the British.2 The Treaty of Nanjing, 1842, represented of the founding father’s writings]. Vol 2. Jindai zhongguo It was only as subsequent treaties were the beginning of the century long system chubanshe. Pg. 138. signed, building from the legal foundation of unequal treaties in East Asian history. set by Nanjing that the Chinese began to The intentional vagueness in which it was realize the severity of their negative impact. written served to enable the West to extort By the 1870s it was increasingly common more and more rights away from the Qing, to fi nd demands for gongping (China’s contributing to the centuries-old dynasty’s treatment as an equal), ziding (autonomy), decline.13 In the process of events, the and zhoquan (sovereignty).13 E’wai quanli villainous intent of the West was apparent (extraterritoriality) – a term invented in 1883 – imposing, by force if necessary, anything Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 89 On Ice B N K C S U It was over 100 degrees out and Mickey Michael glances at his father’s face. The “We aren’t going to the movies what.” turned ten that day. He pouted like a little skin is relaxed off his skull where it used to “We aren’t going to the movies, sir?” brat because he thought I forgot, and maybe be hard and yellow with nicotine and rage. “No.” I did. We left the old folks home and there Those are mountains, Dad, Michael says. I told him to move, get out of the truck. in the sweltering parking lot I made him He pulls off the road to a gas station, the I hated this place. I hated this place because promise me. This was one of the few times last one on the edge to complete isolation. it wasn’t a nice place; I couldn’t afford a nice I bothered to look him in the eye, because He tells his father to wait and sucks in place. This place was run by ugly little women it was important. I knelt down and took his the Nevada heat on his way into the gas who wheeled old folks in front of windows head in my hands and pressed hard against station. Inside, everything is red plastic and and let them rot in the sunshine. They fed the his skull. fl uorescent lighting. At the slushie machine, old folks mush. Holidays warranted grocery “You listen to me,” I said, “You listening, he fi lls a cup with cherry slush. store pies. Every so often someone arranges Mickey?” Sugar and water, that’s all it is, Michael some Luau bingo and I went to one of those Mickey tried nodding, but he couldn’t thinks. Do you know what that does to teeth? and, Christ, no wonder those people weren’t move his head. Michael is a dentist. His closet is stiff getting better. Momma’d grown worse, “If I ever end up like gramma in there, with neutral colors and he drinks health though I didn’t tell Mickey because what did I want you to promise me something. You shakes and fl osses regularly. He tries to keep it matter? Kids don’t need to know that, kids promise me. You drive me out to the middle his mind and body from rotting; he trains for should just be kids and stay out of the way. of nowhere and you leave me there and you marathons and just last week he mastered The sweaty receptionist recognized me drive away. Got that?” drilling thin blocks of wood and turning and let us into the “community room.” The “You’re hurting me.” them into polished wood pens. In the coming walls were faggot pink and had drawings of “I said promise me, Mickey.” And I week, he will look for a new hobby to keep boats and beaches framed in corners. Mickey breathed my cigarette breath onto his face. him occupied. He doesn’t drink alcohol. He scrunched his face up and I knew he smelled “I promise.” doesn’t watch television. this place, a dry perfume dressed up so you I released him and I didn’t look him in The same kid from last time slouches don’t recognize it as urine. I made my way to the eye after that. behind the counter, thumbing through a the semi-circle of couches and rocking chairs It was a moment of weakness and I said, magazine about neon green crotch rockets. and Mickey followed, out of my direct sight. “Good boy.” Michael places the slushie on the counter Old folks in rocking chairs sat staring at a I saw him smile all big in the corner of and waits for the kid to ring it up. He wants TV – an endless parade of Lodge members my eye. to smack the kid, tell him to stop sucking and war veterans. The TV was still a black- down sodas and go jogging, go fi nd a real and-white set, for God’s sake. I knelt at the * job. Michael tells himself he’s a nice guy, he’s fungus yellow couch where Momma sat really a very nice guy. He pays for the slushie. alone, so fat and defl ated you’d swear she Thirty-fi ve years later, Michael drives his The cup beads with water when he leaves the was a failed cartoon. I pulled Mickey over father out to the desert for a second time. building. and pushed on his shoulder to make him His car is not like the beat-up truck his father In the car, he hands his father the slushie. kneel with me. used to have. He keeps the car clean and his His father looks happy. “Momma,” I said, “it’s me. This here’s feet don’t have to crush piles of cigarette your grandson, Momma. His name’s cartons when he takes a seat. The car blasts * Mickey.” I hit the back of his head. “Where’s cold air onto cold leather and he worries your manners?” about his father in the passenger seat, The day I made Mickey promise, I took “Nice to meet you, ma’am,” he said. smiling out at the passing orange horizon. Mickey to see his gramma at the old folks Momma looked at us, pleased as punch, and Michael half-expects his father to split apart home. I drove him there and the kid tucked I couldn’t help but think of the woman she somehow and leak drool and tar all over the into himself as if scared to touch anything. I used to be. Through the blue veins along her upholstery. didn’t think I could raise such a shrimp. But arms and folds in her neck, it got hard to He drags up old memories and tells his accidents happen and condoms split and it recognize her as the only good thing in my father about them. He tells his father about feels so good for a moment. Then you end life. It also got a whole lot easier in a shitty the divorce with Sarah and how he has felt up with a kid you don’t want and a woman sort of way. She used to make bowls of clumsy and disconnected since then. gone sour. tapioca and she sent me to my room when My daughters never call me since they went off to I slammed the truck into park near a low Papa came home with his fi sts tight. college, Michael says. But I think they call Sarah. building made of yellow stucco. “Well,” she said. She didn’t understand, His father points at the mountains and “You’re going to meet your gramma,” I and that isn’t the worst thing about this kind says, Well, it must’ve taken a lot of work to dig told Mickey. of old age. The worst is that I could see her those up. “We aren’t going to the movies?” frowning a little, like she knew something 90 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV L was wrong, like there was a stain on her shirt anymore. up at the balloon, watched it bob against the ceiling. she hadn’t noticed but everyone else had. I was so happy and proud, I got up to show you. “You spend time with your gramma,” I * You and Mom and your friends greeted me in the told Mickey. “You talk to her, okay?” living room with shouts, you were happy to see me, “Yes, sir.” A lady in purple scrubs came by to lead you were drunk. You picked me up and sat me on And then I stood up to go have a smoke Momma away and clean her. She told me to your lap and laughed smoke. You took your cigarette and I passed a husk draped in a bathrobe, stop yelling. and pressed it against the balloon and you and Mom muttering about Krauts and mud. I hoped “I’ll clean the couch,” I told her, clenching and everyone laughed and laughed. Remember? Mickey would hear; it would toughen him my teeth. “She’s my mother.” His father smiles uncertainly. Oh, he says, up. I smoked outside and frowned about The lady looked at me wearily. She was all well. Mickey’s mother. She left a month ago. She limbs and wispy black hairs. “Don’t bother. So Michael turns up the air conditioning said I drink too much, but she was just the We’ll just throw it out.” and tells his father again about the divorce, same as me. I told her to take the boy with “Let me,” I said. I gestured to Mickey how bad it had been. He and Sarah ended her, but she didn’t. Same as I would have to take one end of the couch. “She’s my up hating each other after the kids left for done. mother.” college and pulled away that last buffer I didn’t want to go back to Momma. It The lady shrugged and led Momma away between them. didn’t seem to matter what I said to her, and I watched them go before I took the We were too different, he tells his father, or the words made no difference and she other end of the couch. too similar. She told me I was stuck in the past and understood nothing anyways. Why bother? “We’ll take it through the front,” I told I told her it doesn’t work that way, the past sticks to But that kind of thinking got me guilty. I was Mickey. “Ready?” you, it changes as you change. When your neighbor a lot of crummy things, but I wasn’t the guy When he nodded, I counted down from called to tell me how you were and I hadn’t spoken who’d give up on his mother. I fi nished my three and we lifted the couch and it turned to you in fourteen years, I don’t know. Sarah wanted last cigarette and went back inside. out heavier than I thought. We gripped the you in a rest home. She told me to just let go. It was Mickey stood next to Momma like he’d bottom of the couch. Stray nails bit my sad, she said, but you weren’t worth the effort. I lifted been caught with a boner. “I don’t know palms and some genius managed to get my hand to hit her but our marriage ended before what to do, sir.” staple ends sticking out down there too. that, I guess. A new smell hit me and I looked Mickey trembled and struggled to keep his Michael drives in silence for a while. at Momma, poor Momma. She looked end steady but he kept his face straight and Well, his father says. He sips at his slushie. embarrassed too, her chin dipped down didn’t say anything. I didn’t tell him good job into her neck. She shit the couch and, boy, I because I wanted him strong. I let him walk * started yelling for someone to come get her forward while I walked backwards, glaring clean. I started cussing, just a string of words over my shoulder to see the way. I kicked open I threw down my end of the couch and that didn’t make sense after a while. The old the glass doors behind me and we wriggled grabbed at the armrest and pulled. folks watched me yell, their heads turning the couch through the doorway, getting close “God.” slow to watch me. Dull yellowed eyes. to the smell. And then we swayed out into I dragged the couch a couple of feet. the Nevada sun and Mickey was trembling And the couch tipped onto its back. * again, red as sin. I barked orders at him and “Damn.” we started a faster pace out here, around the I kicked the bottom of the couch and Michael drives his father out to the desert corner of the old folks home and in sight pounded my fi sts onto the wood paneling. for a third time and tells him: of the simmering parking lot where I would The nails and those staple ends stabbed my A long time ago, Eskimos would set their old make Mickey promise me. skin. folks out onto ice fl oes when times were hard and food Nearly fi fty feet away from the dumpsters, “Couch.” ran out. The old folks couldn’t contribute, so they Mickey dropped his end of the couch, I was the only one. The woman left, and were put on ice or thrown in the sea or starved or cracking wood against pavement. He gasped all that was left was me and the boy and some buried alive in the snow and in the cold. Sometimes, and jumped back and some piece tumbled godawful fear running its fi ngers down my an entire village would pack up and move while the off. ribs. I couldn’t do anything. I wasn’t supposed old folks slept. Just imagine waking up to that cold. The heat got me. The heat boiled my to have a kid. Momma wasn’t supposed to You’d look around and the people you love are gone brain. end up a brainless sack. I wasn’t supposed to and you can’t recognize anything, the world around end up like my old man. you is fl at and white and the only color you can fi nd * I couldn’t budge one little couch. I sat is in the turquoise roots at the edge of the sea. You’re on the pavement and stared at it. What little shaking and maybe it’s the age. The color of your Michael drives his father into the desert damage I did. skin goes brown to red until that fades too. You think for a fourth time and tells him: “Sir?” Mickey said. He hadn’t moved about the family that left you here. The day before, Do you remember when I was seven? You and from the spot where he dropped his end of had your daughters avoided your gaze? How much of Mom had a party and you sent me to bed early. But the couch. He was not so far away. a burden were you? You can’t think coherently, but I was excited and I couldn’t sleep because of my “Sir?” you feel these things, some part of you still does. You balloon. Mom brought me to the dentist earlier that I stared at the couch and I thought, lie on your back and stare at the sky before you sleep. day and I was scared they’d drill into my jaw. But I should get Mickey something for his You try to remember a time when you felt bigger. You the dentist was kind, he had big sideburns and a birthday. Doesn’t really matter what, I guess, turn onto your stomach and crush your face into the crooked nose. And then he gave me cherry toothpaste just something. Maybe, I thought, after this, snow and ice. Your teeth scream and your marrow and tied a balloon to my wrist. It was red with fat I’ll drive him over to a gas station and grab thickens and turns blue and you don’t feel anything white letters on it. Do you remember that? I stared him a slushie or something. I’ll get some Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 91 L cigarettes for me. I’m going to leave you here for a bit, Michael could wait two. “Dad?” says. For a bit, okay? Michael parks on the side of the road. He I needed a smoke. His father says, Well, okay. grips the steering wheel and tells himself one And Michael leads his father over to the more hour, I’ll wait here just one more hour. * rock his father likes most. Then he leaves He thinks about his daughters who don’t his father to sit in the sun and he returns to look away from the blue glow of their cell Michael drives his father out to the desert the car. He has performed this ritual several phones. Maybe he would call and see if they and takes a turn off the main road. Rocks times. Michael starts the car and drives away. would listen to him talk about the past. He make small chirps against the body of his The fi rst time, he couldn’t even do that. would ask about their lives. car and his father looks out the window at He had sat in the car for twenty minutes, One more hour, he tells himself. Then I’ll the rising dust. He pulls up to a hiking trail watching his father watch him. Then he got drive back to him. I’ll pull up to him and he’ll that isn’t used much anymore; there are rocks out and brought his father back. give me that puzzled smile, the one he uses here but nothing beautiful and no ancient The second time, he drove away but when he’s trying to fi gure out who I am. One petroglyphs for tourists to touch. He parks drove back in a matter of ten minutes. The more hour, and I’ll come back and pull right the car, unbuckles his father, and takes the third time, he forced himself to wait half up to him. I’ll get out and open the passenger slushie from him to fi t it in the cup holder. an hour before returning. He had spent that side door for him. I’ll tell him I’m his son He goes out toward the rocks and checks half-hour parked in the middle of nowhere, and I’ll look him in the eye and hold out the the sparse shade for snakes and scorpions. his head pressed against the steering wheel melted slushie he didn’t fi nish. Satisfi ed that there are none, he returns to and one foot tapping against the brake pedal. And my father will be the happiest he’s the car and helps his father out. He waited an hour last time and this time he ever been to see me. 92 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV An Epiphany from One Crazy Time when I Went to the Library for the Books B E S C S U Finals week of this past fall semester well; it only listed the poses in alphabetical in 1959 but on Amazon the top two results I went to the library. But this time it was order by their Sanskrit names and not the were 1995 and 1960 reprints. The third result different because for once it wasn’t in search English translations that I knew only slightly had absolutely nothing to do with what I was of a couch to sleep on between classes or better. looking for at all and so I thought, No other a “quiet” place to study, for almost the fi rst What the hell was the editor thinking? I editions? That’s probably not a good sign for getting time in my college career I actually went there thought. When was this published? my hands on an original… for the books. As I walked past crowded Like a super book nerd, I turned to the Or so I thought, buried on results page tables with kids furiously writing papers or front to check out the copyright page. two and a few scrolls down was a book with pulling their hair out over study questions, I I barely saw it. It was placed randomly: an almost identical cover to the 1960 reprint realized I was probably the only person who after title page and adjacent to the that appeared as the fi rst result. Only this wasn’t there for fi nals. introduction and not before the table of edition, to my extreme delight, wasn’t the I was actually there to prepare for after contents, odd—I know. It was the smallest royal blue as the fi rst reprint but a beautiful fi nals when I would have an entire month front and shortest bit of copyright jargon teal which matched nail-polish, my yoga mat off from school. As a senior on track to I’d ever seen. I considered that it may have and far too many other things that I own. graduate in May, I had decided that over actually been nothing but a stamp, perhaps I giddily clicked on it and rapidly break I needed to make the most of what to save money on printing… searched up and down the resulting page for would probably be the very last time in my How old was this? I thought as I closed the a publication date, but one didn’t just jump life that I would have an entire month of book and turned it over, spine up. out at me. I was forced to actually closely with almost zero obligations and decided I realized that it was bound rather similar read the words on the webpage to try to that “making the most of my time” meant to the way that the old CSU bound thesis fi gure it out instead of just scanning them reading a lot. books looked. It also had the same way-back- like I usually do to fi nd what I need from I ended up at the library to fi nd books when-CSU font spelling out the long version a website. After a bit I found that the line because I was in search of a solid yoga asana of the university’s name across the top of that started with “Publisher…” followed the book, one with a good balance of diagrams/ the spine. The authors name and title weren’t colon up with the words “Bell, 1st edition.” pictures as well as clear explanations and tips. even there at all, instead the decimal point And I sort of wanted to gasp a little bit, I was But I had a really diffi cult time deciphering which indicated its proper location when on holding the binding of a book which was less from the descriptions on the library’s website the shelves was typed across the bottom to than a decade and a half old and yet it was which book was exactly what I was looking indicate its proper location on the shelf. A fi lled with pages which were more than half for. So I decided to go old school and fi nally librarian came up with that, I thought. And then a century old. follow some advice my capstone professor I realized, probably after far too long, that I started to understand why there were gave me; fi nd the call number for a book this was not the original binding of this book two separate pages from which little “Due that you think you want (or at least close to and that it had to have been rebound by CSU Date” cards hung riddled with uneven what you want), then physically go fi nd it and at some point. stamped dates; one of them was adhered while you’re there investigate the books on A professors told me once that if you ever to signifi cantly whiter and newer paper, the shelf around it. found books in the library that were clearly presumably from the rebinding process. So that’s what I did. And it actually rebound like this book must have been, they I reminisced a little about the logistics of worked out really well! I landed on “The were some of the books that were saved from using card catalogues to keep track of books, Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga” by the devastating fl ood in 1997. The fl ooding a practice that was phased out for me in Swami Vishnudevananda, which from the of the basement of the CSU library was only middle school. The top of each card sternly plain binding and black and white pictures a small part of the destruction throughout cautioned me with the explicit words: seemed a little dated but the contents seemed the town of Fort Collins. “SUBJECT TO RECALL very promising. I checked it out, along with This book was one that was saved, I thought DUE DATE MAY CHANGE” a few other books as well and headed home. tenderly, probably too tenderly. Oh right, I thought, When a student or even a My epiphany didn’t really start though How old is it? Was it reprinted later? How professor went to write a paper about something they until I started actually reading it later. What many times and how long ago was the last? How didn’t simply pop keywords into the sleek, empty box got me thinking was how horrible the page could I fi nd out without the original binding? I on Google’s homepage and fi nd out in seconds what numbers were; sometimes picture pages thought all at once until I went to my default they needed to know with Ctrl+F. They couldn’t accounted for page numbers and sometimes answer, Internet! paste in every question from their study guide and they didn’t. Which was really frustrating for I found out from Google it had been immediately have a link to the answer. They had to me because I was trying to use the index to reprinted at least a few times and there go physically fi nd an obscure book that may or may look up certain pages the inconsistency in had also been some later summaries and not have the information they were searching for but numbering was making it extremely diffi cult. adaptations printed as well. they would have no choice but to search it through any Worse, the index was poorly formatted as Wiki told me it was originally published way just to see if it was there. So if someone checked Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 2993 S E out the book you needed for a couple or even a few weeks then they had to delay writing their paper for that long. I thought of the timeframe that I usually write my own papers in, how could they write a paper the night before it was due that way? Beyond that, I realized, They were forced to learn about a subject not just barely enough to stretch down fi ve to eight pages of paper like I do. They had to read through pages upon pages of a variety of published books and from all those of researched pages hope to fi nd the information they needed. After all of that research they probably had to actually cut all sorts of interesting and relevant researched information so as to get their assigned point across without exceeding the assigned number of pages. Somehow, thoughts about the editing fl aws in The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga had led me to an entirely unrelated epiphany. The internet provides instant access to an incredible number of resources, it makes it easy to fi nd exactly what you want without “wasting” a ton of your time, and if we’re not careful it can make us lazy. I thought about what it would take for me to write every one of my papers the next semester without using the internet at all, and I thought it seemed like an awful lot of hard work—and that perhaps I might learn something really valuable that way. 94 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV A Special anks... is publication would not have been possible without Colorado State University and the contributions of numerous advocates and bene- factors. e JUR sta would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Dr. Mark Brown and our faculty advisory board for continued support and devotion to the publication. Congratulations to our graduating seniors Pasha Lookian, Liz Strait, Irene Lui, Ryan Knodle, Sarah West, Kapila Pothu, and Victoria Burket. Morgan Library at Colorado State University Photo by: Jeffrey Dale Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV 2995