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CRITICAL FEMINIST ANALYSIS: GENDER CONSTRUCTION, IMPACTS AND PERCEPTION OF THAI WOMEN

Thitaree Lapanaphan1, Suphisara Chinakkarapong2

Abstract

This research paper will illustrate female gender construction within Thai society, as how it is built through state agencies and how they represent women in public. Additional purpose of this paper is to raise awareness and promote ideas based on critical feminism in Thai society. There have been concerns of representation of women and its relation to the national identity and state’s construction of beauty that dictate women in their perception of being Thai women. It is relevant to contemporary social phenomenon, especially social discussion about roles and performance of women should take on in both public and private sphere. My analysis hence center on a process of gender construction where female gender is continuously served as images of the nation as well as portrayed importance of gender role regardless of real gender empowerment of women.

Key words: Women, Thailand, Gender Construction, Feminism, Gender Role, Representation

1. INTRODUCTION the discourse. You only see the Thai lady with smiley faces do the “wai” everywhere We all are familiar with the at tourist places. That kind of image “Amazing Thailand” but how many would becomes part of the “Amazing Thailand” actually know the real “Amazing Thailand? program. As much as Thai people concern so much Gender construction and Thai about their “faces”, Thailand encourage a female representation in Thailand are the cruciality of appearance and surfaces. main theme of this paper. They are the These surfaces are often gendered and process of the state and society itself, and transformed through representation and they are not static. These two processes practices focused on women as visual icons change over time in accordance with (Van Esterik, 2000). Van Esterik stated that governments’ policies and Thai culture that gendered performs such as contests and evolves throughout history. Following the state rituals fetishize national surfaces work of Penny Van Esterik, Materializing materialize the heart of Thainess, Thailand, I argue that gender construction improving international images and tourist and female representation are socially and application. Therefore, surfaces and the culturally created by the state for its own country’s images are extremely effective. purposes. We will look closely as to how The surfaces and images are taken for women perceive and understand the authentic without any critical analysis of concept of “Kulasatrii Thai” and what

1Thitaree Lapanaphan is currently studying Master of International and Administrative Policy at Hitotsubashi University, Japan. Her main interests include politics, history, international relations, and gender studies, E-mail: [email protected] 2Suphisara Chinakkarapong is currently pursuing Master of Education at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Her main interests include educational policy studies and leadership, sociology of curriculum, gender studies, and multiculturalism in education, E-mail: [email protected] Received: June 19, 2019; Revised: July 23, 2019; Accepted: July 26, 2019 27

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gender roles that woman adopt in which I assertion to speak from women’s believe it makes women remain inferior to experiences. According to Kushner (2003), men. Also, impacts on women by assuming critical feminist theory departed as “a such a mindset are to be studied to portray normative concern with the status of gender relations that artificially constructed women, and empirical focus on conditions by the state. that have produced domination in gender This paper illustrates how female relations.” 4 Critical feminist analysis is gender is built and discuss how these important not only to make girls’ and representations of female gender by states women’s perspectives visible, but also to have effects or impacts on Thai females. interpret information from the standpoint of The author uses critical feminist theory to their diverse experiences in order to explain in order to understand gender roles, influence policymaking in regards to gender relations and gender inequalities of women’s rights.5 Additionally, critical Thai society through the case study of feminist theory requires us to re-evaluate National Beauty Contests. our understanding of power, knowledge, and space of empowerment. It provides I. Theoretical Perspective of critical various ways to consider about disturbing feminist the principle, issue hegemonic understanding of oppression while also Critical feminist framework to some looking at other different ways and forms of extent overlaps and many times draw on resistance within each phenomenon as a other critical approaches. Critical theory way to think differently about social events concentrates on thoughts and ideas on how and transforming gender relations.6 injustice and subjugation shape people’s Another aspect of prime importance experiences and understanding of the that critical feminists are conscious of, and world.1 According to Martin (2002), both sensitive to, is the fact that women’s critical and feminist theory share common experiences can be different across time, interest in economic and social inequalities. culture, class, race, ethnicity and age. Moreover, they both move toward an Therefore, no experience can claim agenda in promoting change in society.2 ‘universal authentic status.’ 7 According to Although they share the common objective McKay (2004), critical feminist analysts of challenging existing distribution of accept that patriarchy privileges men, they power and resource, what differentiates also state that patriarchal societies may critical feminist theories from others differ in Euro-American, non-western and critical agendas is the consideration on other indigenous cultures, similarly, gender equality.3 A Critical feminist will circumstances of women living in different not only look at gender issues but also cultures will also vary. It is equally social inequity, and put the focal point on significant not to representing all women as initiating change. Its unique strength is the a group, either in the case of security needs,

1 Michael Quinn Patton, "Feminist, yes, But Is It Theoretical Triangulation,” Advance Nursing Evaluation?" New Directions for Evaluation 2002, Science 26, 1. (2003): 30-43. 96. (2002): 97-108. 5 Susan McKay, “Women, Human Security, and 2 Joanne Martin, Feminist theory and critical Peace Building: A Feminist Analysis,” Conflict and theory: unexplored synergies (Stanford, CA: Human Security: A Search for New Approaches of Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Peace-building. (2004): 152-175. 2002). 1. 6 Jennifer De Saxe, “Conceptualizing Critical 3 Deborah L Rhode, “Feminist Critical Theories,” Feminist Theory and Emancipatory Education,” Stanford Law Review 42, 3. (1990): 617-639. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies 10, 2. 4 Kaysi Eastlick Kushner, “Grounded theory, (2012): 184-199. Feminist theory, Critical theory: Toward 7 Rhode, “Feminist Critical Theories,” 625. 28

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or other fields. Women’s experiences and Van Esterik (1996) argues on the politics of worldview need to be understood with a beauty in Thailand, characteristic of reference of the context they live in. Hence, gentleness and virtue are interlaced with non-western women have criticized elegance and beauty to construct a model of Western Feminists’ perception as they ideal Thai femininity. The Thai state has speak on behalf of all women intentionally been involved in the preservation of this without considering different cultures or model and has been making use of it as part social condition. 8 of building the nation through many In this research paper, I will be projects since 1930s. 9 looking at how the way Thai state actually States, most of the time, involve constructs and portrays female gender with the emergence and construction of effect on women’s perception of gender. During the years from 1939-1944, themselves, in which, state seems to aims at gender ideology of female in the empowerment of Thai women. We will establishment of national identities was look at the process of gender construction conceptualized into the ideology of ‘Flower to prove that the Thai state does not of the Nation’ in the country. Thailand then empower but rather treats women more like was under military regime of Field Marshal sex objects through the case study of Phibunsongkhram. It is a booming period national beauty contest. If you look closely of Thai nation building with his policy to the structure of Thai society, women attempting to build a ‘new nation’ with an empowerment by state is still low compare ultimate goal of maintaining the country’s to other states of the West. Critical feminist independence throughout the threat of theory will explain many issues of power Western colonization.10 The issues of relation between men and women as well as women and the construction of ideal hegemonic culture that lies within Thai femininity was clearly one of the culture. government’s major obsessions in this the mission of building the Nation. The II. Gender and National Identity development of Thai beauty contest started since 1930s under the reign of If nations and national identities are Phibunsongkhram, the contest served to socially and culturally constructed, many further his nation-building and political agents of society, by all means, construct strategy and to provide a setting to display gender and sexual identity one way or the new Western fashions he wanted Thai another. Historically, there have been women to adopt in order to make Thailand issues of representations of women in become more modern.11 The motivation associate with Thailand’s leaders who behind the ideology of ‘Flower of the wanted to promote a civilized’ image of Nation’ was built upon the ideal of Thailand. Consequently, women’s femininity, which appealed in the sense of identities became the public representation nationalism and patriotism, in part through of Thai culture and are related to the the construction of gender identities and the concepts of national order symbolically. discipline of women’s appearances and

8 Cheryl McEwan, “Postcolonialism, feminism and 10 Paweena Subhimaros, . Flower of the nation: development: Intersections and dilemmas,” representations of women and national identities in Progress in Developmental Studies 1, 2. (2001): 93- modern Thailand. (Leeds: Center for 111. Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, University of 9 Penny Van Esterik, “The Politics of Beauty in Leeds, 2010), 2. Thailand,” in Beauty Queens on the Global Stage: 11 Penny Van Esterik, Materializing Thailand. Gender, Contests, and Power, ed. Colleen Ballerino (Oxford: Berg, 2000), 140. Cohen, Richard Wilk, and Beverly Stoeltje (New York; London: Routledge, 1996), 203. 29

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sexual behaviors12 which later came idea of known all over.14 The word “flower” has “Kulasatrii Thai”. In this period of always been related with women in nationalism booming, the notion of Thailand representing beauty, freshness masculinity mainly depended on an and grace. Hence, it was not so surprising aggressive and militaristic nationalism. that this concept was used to Therefore, the ideal of masculinity was metaphorically embody the images of Thai expressed in the symbol of “Fence of the women strongly in this period. At that time, Nation,” 13 meaning that men’s roles are all these ideas and promotions were military struggles to defend their homeland considered precious and influential for Thai and the sovereignty of the nation, while women. Regardless of what role women ideal feminine identities on Thai women should perform in the household, women were expressed behind the metaphor of were to be loved, precious and prestigious “Flower of the Nation” – a feminine in the images of state level. ideology is put forward as well as State representation of women idealization of masculinity with the same during Sukhothai and Ayutthaya is not so goal; to build the nation at this time. A distinct from women in later Thai nation or feminine ideal is pushed forward and during Chakkri dynasty. Historically, if we women became symbolically part of the traced back to those time of Sukhothai and flower that they are so dear to the people of Ayuttaya, we would find that representation the nation as well as foreigners. This of contemporary Thai women reflects process creates images that women should selected and invented historical and literary be kind and lady-like and support men who pasts. Van Esterik stated that what strikes are there to protect not only the families but visitors to Thailand from the first foreigners also the nation. Men must be strong like recording their impressions of the Kingdom “Chai chart taharn” ชายชาติทหาร implying “be in the seventeenth century to the diaries of strong like a soldier.” This is very current tourists is the visibility of Thai patriarchal giving male more prestigious women.15 There were observations done by positions while women were only seen as De La Loubere, who wrote of Ayutthaya, weak, non-aggressive and need to be “the wives of the people, managing all the protected. trade, do enjoy perfect liberty.”16 These One of the evidences of this observations and frequently told myths ideology is a song composed by Madam La- from Thai history highlight that “women in iad Phibunsongkram, Field Marshal Thai society are better off than in many Phibunsongkram’s wife, called “Ying Thai other societies.”17 Gender equality is a Jai Ngam” (หญิงไทยใจงาม) – meaning kind- valued part of the myth of the golden age of hearted Thai lady. The song indicates the Sukhothai. Historical overviews on Thai women stress that women and men were beauty of Thai ladies on the appearances 18 and emphasizes that holding additional legally equal in the Kingdom. “Nang virtue will make perfect ladies. Thai ladies Noppamat, asserted mate of King are the Thai nation’s darlings and the Ramkamhang, the warrior-king of prestige of the nation, which is already well thirteenth-century Sukhothai, is credited

12 Subhimaros, Flower of the Nation, 3. 17 Juree Vichit-Vadakan, "Women and the Family in 13 Subhimaros, Flower of the Nation, 3 Thailand in the Midst of Social Change," Law & 14 นาฏศิล ป์ โรงเรียนเมืองหลังสวน . เพลงหญิงไทยใจงาม , Society Review 28, 3. (1994): 515. https://sites.google.com/site/ajanthus/rawng- 18 Kornvipa Boonsue, “Gender Planning for matrthan/hying-thiy-ci-ngam (accessed June 3, Thailand’s Industrial Labour Force Development,” 2014) (Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology, 15 Van Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 43. 1998), 6. 16 Simon De Laubere, The Kingdom of Siam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969). 30

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with developing rituals such as Loy and women. It is overwhelmingly women, Kratong, which glorify women’s beauty or men who appropriate femaleness and desirability.” 19 Women seem only to through transgenderism who access the be equal in terms of social practices to a power of the past through mediumship.20 certain level but still not equal in many Images of powerful women from the past aspects. For example, the custom that has are internalized in proverbs about women’s been practicing for a long time is to enter ability to wield a sword as well as rock a the monkhood or to become and ordained cradle. However, they coexist with a more monks for sons; the sons are supposed to be commonly cited proverb: “Men are the ordained (บวช) to learn a profound Dhamma front legs of the elephant, women are the (a virtue code of morals) of the Buddha and hind legs of the elephant”, cited to this is considered as a highest compensation demonstrate Thai women’s subordinate favor for the parents implying that by doing position or the complementarily of men and so would make merit for parents and they women, depending on the feminist political will be heaven after life, while at the same views of the speaker. While there has times daughters will not get the same always been the promotion of heroines, opportunity to compensate for parents in such as the story of Queen Sri Suriyothai ritual ways. Women can only become nuns, who sacrificed herself to protect her in which the level of ritual power is husband and for the state, it is portrayed as different from being monks in terms of such an honorable action of the lady. power to enrich others to the ultimate point Through the lens of a critical feminist, of end. The women are regarded as inferior another message that could be understood to the men, and they do not have the same from this action is that, women have to do rights or position in society as men do. every possible thing to protect what she In the past, there were images of loves no matter what i.e. children, husband women as war captives, tribute wives or and the nation. The question arises as to concubines are the warriors: Queen what are the roles of women now? Warriors Srisuriyothai of Ayutthaya (1548-1569) just like those ‘fence of the nations’ or who fought against the Burmese; Khunying homemaker and kind mothers who shall be Muk and Jan (1785) who also fought nice, graceful as the description of ‘the against the Burmese; Khunying Mo who flower of the nation, or both? While women saved Nakhon Ratchasrima from the Lao are praised as performing both roles, but army. Feats of bravery by individual men can only be praised when they perform women stimulated the incorporation of masculine acts, not feminine acts. these stories of powerful, military dominant women into Thailand’s official historical III. Construction of female gender roles narrative. Hence, Thai history has been by the Thai state recognized heroines of Thai state for a very long time. Heroines from the past re- In contemporary Thailand, feminine emerge in the present through their beauty is both formal and informal export mediums, beyond their positions in time of images of Thailand to catch the attention and space. I’ve been growing up with these of tourists and investment and to produce a stories through both Thai history class in complimentary opinion of the country in middle schools, which are mainly state the perception of foreigners. However, its educational institution, cartoon books and negative side of this is often seen as a movies. Accorindg to Van Esterik (2000), sexualized national image. The way Thai as spirits, these historical figures can people perceive their national identity, most interfere in the lives of contemporary men of the times, associated with the way Thai

19 Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 44. 20 Van Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 44. 31

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state promote the country in an many foreigners come to Thailand for this international level. Sadly, Thailand has got purpose of entertaining. Thai state cannot an inevitable impression on the popular deny the fact that this industry has brought imagination of the West as home to a to the country a lot of capitals. This result widespread sex industry. This is an entirely directly to the women as women have distinct, yet, gender-related issues. As a always been the mascots of Thai tourism, consequence, beside a common apparently seen everywhere from the hotels representation of ‘the Land of Smiles’, to airports. The service type of jobs is Thailand has become another place called offered more to women rather than men. “the Brothel of Asia”.21 This is because Why women? It is essential to look at prostitutions have largely become migration discourse that inevitably must widespread in Thai society. This reputation focus on issues such as violence, poverty, seems to last since great numbers of tourists and other factors; and linked to travel to Thailand are willing to explore victimization of the migrants is often a focal these sexual enjoyments, which are point to the analysis. 24 Hemming and Piper explicitly publicized throughout the world (2004) argued that there are many i.e. Hollywood movie named the Hangover conditions that can explain the fact that 2 is a great example. It is remarkably sad women migrate are given little attention that this reputation adversely effects on the and the concept that women make decisions reputation of Thai women in general. While based on choices is ignored. They further prostitution seems to have impact on the suggest that there should be an image of Thai women harshly, not much investigation on whether women, trafficked has been mentioned about Thai men who or prostitute, are unable choose and thus also involve in this kind of activities and never able to exercise agency.25 This led to business. a further question rose whether or not sex It is inevitable for women to escape industry in Thailand is being protected, if from images in relation with sexual so, by whom, for what reasons and how. objectification. Gender stereotyping is still There is a concern with this issue by a common practice among Thai civilians the state and private sector of Thai society. and foreigners. This is due to the impacts In an attempt to abolish this image in the from the cold war period where sex industry popular perception of Thai women in the emerges as to bring wealth to the nation. 22 eyes of the world, Thai nationalist sector In the 1980, Thailand was advised by the including the Ministry of Culture and other World Bank to promote and improve national institutions has focused on tourism as a means of accumulating foreign promoting the image of the morally and exchanges.23 A lot of entertainment places sexually ‘good’ women. Most Thai would emerged numerously in Bangkok prefer that foreign visitors recall the demanding male tourists. Sex tourism beautiful, graceful, polite and neatly expanded in the 1970s in a form more dressed women as portrayed in the tourist blatant and diverse than anywhere else in industry promotion – women in Thai the world. Even today, we still see that traditional dress and do the Wai with smiley

21 The Curious Travel Bag, Thailand… Behind the Sociological Perspective. Draft 2004. Postcard: Development and Impacts of the Sex http://www.childtrafficking.com/Docs/piper_01_hu Industry in Thailand. man_asia_0708.pdf http://thecurioustravelbug.wordpress.com/thailand- 25 Laura Ma Agustín, “Forget Victimization: behind-the-postcard/ Granting agency to migrants”, Thematic Section, 22 Van Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 163. Society for International Development 46,3. 23 Van Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 179. (September 2003): 30 -36. 24 Judy Hemming and Nicola Piper, Trafficking and Human Security in Southeast Asia: A 32

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faces. This effort has not only been pushed there is the link between the representation toward tourist industry to re-create image of of women and the presentation of the Thai Thai women, it is put in a school curriculum nation state. This inevitably involves in and national education of the country to terms of social class where we would find direct how women should behave, dress issues on gender and social inequality. and express as well. This results in the Nationalism, politics and economics have continuous process to modernize Thailand been mostly male exclusivity because and tourism became a prominent factor that nationalism and national identity are often is necessary and considered as a profitable gender blind. Following Anderson’s avenue to bring in foreign currency, and Imagined Communities, he notes on the women became part of the plan.26 absence of women, “women citizens of Subhimaros, states “Thailand’s need for a nations were neither imagined nor invited clear international image derives from a to imagine themselves as part of horizontal strong cultural tendency to bring only the brotherhood.”28 The process of nation morally acceptable into the public building by Phibun provides evidences as domain.”27 She added that the Thai mass he promoted women as beauty media endorse these images and attempt to representation of the state, while men are produce a set of acceptable behavior of encouraged to be involved in the state ‘women’. I found this is partly genuine that affairs noticeably. Phibun’s nation building one hand mass media, through state agency strategy concentrates on developing emphasizes on image of a women, given ‘Thainess’ to strengthen the unity of the example of Thai soap opera where there are Thai nation. Women were received special always two types of women being attention to implement new Thai dress portrayed of what is good and what is bad code; those of Western style and participate and how they will end up facing different in Thai beauty contest. Thus, many of the paths at the end. This image of gender modernization in the construction of Thai representation will always come with a identity involved women, their dress, sense of national identity of what it is to be appearance and manner. Women in many “Thai women”. Pictures of the event ways were required to do such things in “Kularatrii Thai Project” organized by order to represent the greatness of Thai Ministry of Culture and Ministry of nation. It portrays apparently that these Tourism and Sports (figure 1 and 2), in gender representations commemorate which come in a pattern of beauty pageant women as symbols of Thainess (Van with a certain type of dresses i.e. traditional Esterik, 2000). While the celebration of Thai dress and manners i.e. smiley faces, women representing Thainess, majority of appropriately “wai”, walk, talk and calm. Thai women in the rural areas cannot afford There has been questioned where to do the same. The essence of Thainess the essence of Thainess comes from. The represented the western fashion can only be Prime minister Phibun version of offered by Thai elite women. More nationalism can explain very well that importantly, there is a relation between “Thainess” derives from state and process social class and Thai women of the nation building, in which representation. interestingly relates to the version of the Much of the idea of the proper Thai King Rama VI. To be specific on gender women is connected with those royal affairs, the Thainess in women is promoted persons discovering difference among by the state. Van Esterik addresses that social groups. According to Kamphibol,

26 Hemming and Piper, Trafficking and Human 28 Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities Security in Southeast Asia, 10. (London; New York: Verso, 1983), 50. 27 Subhimaros, Flower of the Nation, 6. 33

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Phibun’s policies were meant to upgrade men. Even though elite women seem to be Thai women to the status of women in the the groups portraying ‘woman image’ or Western countries by promoting their those as ‘flowers of nations’ on the education, guaranteeing their rights, setting surfaces, the power of women, particularly up women’s social groups and cultural in rural societies, places in their domestic clubs to manage charity events and welfare. role as the mother-nurturer.31 The role of 29 However, this does not apply to all mother is perceived to be ideal. Women’s classes of Thai women as to which Thailand dedication to nurturance is evident in the is still highly hierarchical. It is to preserve expression as of good woman who “wakes Sakdina status, as elite women would raise up earlier and goes to sleep later than common women’s appearance by holding men”.32 Many responsibilities are required these bazaars. We can see that women play for women once they become mothers in an important role in building the nation to which entails endless household duties of become civilized and create ‘modern’ women. Moreover, women in rural areas do national identity. Apart from women’s not only work in the house but also in the development in social aspects, these field besides their husbands. “The mother- policies reflected the action of gendered- nurturer role is also idealized in the female authoritarian as to Phibun was the main code of social and sexual conduct.” 33 The drive of the policy, not the women. By ideology of Thai traditional woman has requiring women do such things, it serves defined as a ‘Kulasatrii Thai’, with the the purpose of his legitimacy modernizing characteristics of proficient and Thailand, yet putting women to be victims sophisticated in household obligations, of arbitrary regulations. Women were not graceful, pleasant with modest manners and only promoted to transform physically but conservative in sexuality. Unfortunately, also mentally to being ‘Thai women.’ They the concept of Kulasatrii Thai has not been need to serve their husbands properly while discussed in the perspective of critical at the same times, men must give women feminist much. Interestingly, I found that control in the household.30 There is not the idea, besides deriving from construction much gender analysis in the Thai social of national identity by the state, idea of context, most of the time it is an influence gender relation and gender role of the Western critiques and feminism. emphasizing on women derive from Thus, appearance of women is continuously religious context. By practicing the role used to signify tradition and modernity of over and over again, it has become social state. norms for women to behave like one, namely, Kulasatrii Thai. Even most IV. The Ideal Thai Women contemporary women wholeheartedly endorse the Kulasatrii Thai impression There is no doubt in whether or not without resentment and question as it a sign Thailand is a male-dominated, patriarchal of honor and dignity. It has become a society, as political, economic and social cultural identity for Thai women that they leadership has always been in the hands of can be proud of.

29 N. Kamphibol, Policy about Thai Women in the 32 Kittiwut Jod Taywaditep, Eli Coleman, and Period of National Construction of Marshal P. Pacharin Dumronggittigule, “Thailand: Basic Phibunsongkram (1938-1944) (Bangkok: Sexological Premise,” The Continuum Complete Thammasat University, 1987) 67. International Encyclopedia of Sexuality. 30 Kamphibol, Policy about Thai Women…, 69. Kinseyinstitute, 2004, 31 Charles F. Keyes, “Mother or Mistress but Never http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/ccies/pdf/ccies- a Monk: Buddhist Notions of Female Gender in thailand.pdf. (Accessed June 18, 2014). Rural Thailand,” American Ethnologist 11,2. (May 33 Taywadititep, Coleman and Dumronggittigule, 2984): 223-241. Thailand: Basic Sexological Premise, 1023-1027. 34

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Thai society is extremely polarized and not to rape. When there is rape crime even in terms of gender. If a woman does occurs, which often makes Thai people not act according to one kind, she would be become emotional about, many ask whether perceived as another. Thai soap opera again or not women dress is too disclosed but emphasizes on the good women and the bad never ask ‘why’ men should rape at the first women, and at the end the good ones place. always win. Thai soap largely portrays the Last but not least, gender roles of good women as weak, kind, passive and men and women are constructed differently shall be preserved that at the end, this kind in private sphere. Women are expected to of women will win the man’s heart. On the belong to home, being a housewife and other hand, the evil one is portrayed as expected to do housework and even outside jealousy, dress appealing with fewer work in a contemporary Thai society. If clothes, does not simply behave according women fail to fulfill particular job as men to the idea of Kulasatrii thai. Therefore, this expected, women most likely to get message sent to audiences, which are condemned or feel shame of not being able mostly housewives and young women who to do. This kind of expectation and are free to watch after dinnertime. The condemnation often comes from men rather ideology of being Kulasatrii thai embedded women themselves. Given myself as in women’s mentality in which keep example, I learn how to behave like women inferior than men allow men to “Kulasatrii Thai” from my father rather control over women socially, politically than my mother. My father would tell me and economically. The only empowerment importance of daughter duties, to eat from this is only the power of the women to quietly, walk slowly and etc. On the other control within its household, yet decision- hand, men will be specially praised if they makings still centered around men within can perform some of housework on their most Thai families. own and not condemned if they cannot do Such ideology also restricts because they were not expected to do at the women’s freedom of expression, and first place. encourages inequality within gender roles. By enforcing a certain social expectation, V. Literature as representation of Thai through state policies, social norms derived femininity through course curriculum of from religious perspectives and Thai public education culture itself, that women must behave femininely, dress appropriately and According to Esterik, representation maintain their status to be perceived as of women in literature and theatre good beautiful lady limited women’s demonstrate obedient sacrifice, which has freedom of expression and most of the time become rooted in Thai female mentality: do women became victims of it. Women’s good things, maintain morality, and uphold morality is often concerned in terms of truth. This instructive literature label dress code. Women supposed so cover their expectations for women in Thai society, bodies and do not supposed to disclose too intensively in elite and middle-class much of their skins as to prevent from females. The expectations include that: getting raped by men. Thai society views women should remain virgin until dressing too sexy and disclosing too much marriage, serve their husband faithfully, of skin can arouse men’s sexual temper. keep the house clean, work longer and This extremely shows inequality of power harder and most importantly be good relations between men and women. Thai society often suppresses women in a way of teaching women how to dress while at the same time ignore to teach men to respect 35

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mothers of children.34 This mentality is fiction – articulated more socially quite similar in many other societies progressive ideas where women writers however; the level of sacrifice of Thai wrote more of ‘social equality and freedom’ women is emphasized highly. Examples of attempted to liberate women from literary discourse are lakhon chatri and ‘traditional framework.’37 Female figures lakhon chakchak wongwong (televised in classical Thai literature are heroines folktales), which are shown every weekend portraying ideal women for her courage and in the morning. It is portrayed as patriarchal noble activities, may be forced to acts control and glorified women’s subservience against their ideal nature. Yet, many are and dependence. Among Thai elites and written actively involved in complexities of women in the palace, they are taught how life and plot, sometimes as men’s equals. to crawl, crouch, stand and walk A good example of a woman from appropriately and to be good, prestigious, Thai literature named ‘Khun Chang, Khun polite and tidy woman. Hence, this Phaen’ was ‘Wan Thong’. She was a representation of women through literature popular heroine yet a prototype of the shapes Thai women mentality since they indecisive woman, powerless to determine are at young age, from generation to her fate and commanded by men. Her life generation. has become prototype that Thai women After the end of the Second World should not imitate due to the end of her life War, there are significant lessons taught is shameful and depressing regardless of through arts and literature included those of thinking whether or not she deserves such social justice and equality. It was seen as a death and reputation. Wan Thong’s new radical thought among common Thai elements of life include: “1) a woman’s people during the time. Critical literature consciousness of the misery she during the time emerged as radical dialogue experiences and feels at the natural and in writing of Jit Phumisak (1930-1966) and unavoidable result of being born female; many others.35 Jit Phumisak interpreted and 2) her desire to please everyone she Thai literature critically as a result of a loves, often to her own harm”38 Kepner “corrupt and oppressive autocratic ruling (2006) provided. By reading Khun Chang class”, particularly sexual oppression of Khun Phaen, critical feminists would find elite men. Jit was thinking ahead of his time that this particular literature is quite sexist offering new perspective moving away and represents many gender inequalities; from feudalistic idea and argued that obviously, from the part that Wanthong was classical Thai texts in schools were humiliated and put to death for the fact that outdated and lack of critical thinking.36 she had two husbands as bad samples that Classical Thai literature usually no women should be like her, while Khun represent elite (Puu dii) images of women Phaen, a great warrior who was charming that women characters are often strong and and justified to have many wives as much complex, unlike the characters in more as battles he had fought. Wanthong’s life contemporary fiction where women are story has been told through course of usually portrayed as helpless, vain and history and still visible in contemporary dumb. Harrison (1994) points out that films and television shows or soap operas. classical Thai literature – ‘literature for life’ This kind of literature has been molding

34 Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 46. Transformation of Values (Bangkok, Thammasat 35 Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 48. University Press, 1988). 135. 36 Rachel Harrison, A Drop of Glass and Other 38 Susan Fulop Kepner, The Lioness in Bloom: Stories; Sidaoru'ang (Bangkok, Duang Kamon, Modern Thai Fiction about Women (Berkeley, 2004). California: University of California Press, 1996). 37 Mattani Mojdara Rutnin, Modern Thai Literature: The Process of Modernization and the 36

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Thai women’s mentalities of what women occasion. The candidates were chosen for should be like and reinforce gender role of their natural beauty and the judges would females until present days. make sure that they are beautiful without These types of literature are not make up and had good skin. The winners only presented through media like TV were primarily from the families of the series only but also enforced to put in government officials, and were likely to school curriculum. Most of the readings marry government officers.40 During Sarit students are required to read every term are Thanarat regime, cleanliness and order (ความ penetrated with implication of gender roles เรียบร้อย) is the main theme of Thainess. He and expectation. This can be seen as a tool expressed through his own life style acting to keep men in power by keep enforcing with social properness.41 He adopted the women to remain passive as social norms. ‘lady-killer’ image enhanced his power and Intentionally or not, I believe this tool of conformed to a dominant model of Thai state is very effective and embed ideology masculinity as he was capable of acquiring of female gender proficiently from movie stars, beauty queens and even young kindergarten through high schools. students as mistresses. Beauty pageant was also booming during his period. VI. National Thai Beauty Contest: As mentioned earlier in the paper, Femininity to build the nation during the nation-building period, the beauty contest was meant to be a political Social phenomenon of Thai beauty strategy. During Prime Minister Phibun contest created by the Thai state diffuses Songkhram, national beauty contest was ideal beauty and objectifies females, which more of domestic affairs. Later on in 1964- have a big impact on gender roles and social 1972, it was getting down to business. The expectation on women, which conduce in urban contests have inspired contests in inequality within female gender themselves rural areas. Changes emerged in the pattern in a large scale. The purpose of gender where “Thepi Ngan Wat” (temple fair construction is varied, in this part, through angel) did not only wear Thai traditional national beauty contest and beauty pageant. dress but also imitated the more Western- In the early period, beauty contest oriented style of dress. In spite of the does not perform as a medium to promote expression about shifting the status of femininity of women nor support gender women, the government-supported beauty equality in any means. In Thailand, the contests exhibited women, most of the objective of the contest was to support the times, in shorts. However, during the war newly introduced model of democracy, to years of 1941-1947 the contest went absent build the nation and to increase the status of 39 and resumed again when Phibun became women. Ironically, while women are the prime minister for the second term in encouraged to be the nation’s images of 1948.42 civilized society through the contest, how The military government involved the contest would accomplish its objective in not only promoting National Beauty the latter was never made comprehensible. Contest claiming to uplift women status as In fact, the contest has become as a show the nation celebrated democracy, but also that provide entertainment at fair. this gendered discourse on militarization According to Esterik, the contest was relies on the distinct notions about expected to bring a joyful atmosphere to the masculinity.43 Besides having the queen

39 Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 139. 42 Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 140. 40 David K Wyatt, Thailand: A Short History (New 43 William A. Callahan, “The Ideology of Miss Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). 285. Thailand in National, Consumerist, and 41 Esterik, Materializing Thailand, 106. 37

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dressed in her military uniform beauty. It is a process between media and broadcasting in daily TV video, women audiences influencing the way women take action as girlfriends, wives and construct their images. While media creates mothers to support the boys in uniforms. the image and idea of ‘Miss Thailand’, the Women have more roles to play, and the massive audiences of Miss Thailand then state and business in Thailand have help constructing the media, especially the increased amounts of time and money to television and advertisement industry. shape identity of ‘Thai women’ to meet Therefore, the Miss Thailand or National their changing requirements.44 While the beauty contest performs as an ambassador official prototype of a Thai man is a soldier, – medium in creating Thai identity for a Thai woman’s prototype women. The gendered national identity is characteristically is the beauty queen, and not static. The beauty pageants over time naturally become a housewife or a shifted from being showcase for men to mother.45 The Thai military leaders such as being role models for women. The Miss Sarit Thanarat and later General Chavalit Thailand is perceived as the Thai beauty Yongchaiyudh took nationalistic logic ambassador to represent Thailand on the having a beauty queen wife to strengthen international stage. “Miss Siam is the his heroic soldier in parallel with Ferdinand representative of Thai women to show the Marcos and his beauty queen wife, Imelda, world that Siam has Miss Siam who is as who were national leaders of the beautiful as the beauty queens of other Philippines for two decades.46 From this countries”, declared the international point, we see that beauty contest does not aspects by the Interior Ministry office.47 only serve to truly uplift status of women, This can be portrayed that Miss Siam is an but it is treated as a mean for the Thai army element of the symbolic defense of the Thai leaders to uplift their images of heroes nation. creating Thai women identity to meet their On the surface, Thai women would own interest. However, Callahan (1998) look up and admire the miss Thailand who argues further that the institution of “Miss is not only beautiful, but also must be Thailand” does not simply confine women, educated, and somewhat talented. By but dynamically serve to establish a having media portraying appreciable roles positive image of the Thai women for both of the Miss Thailand, many young Thai at home and abroad. These beauty pageants girls have been growing up with desires to do not only arrange in the city of Bangkok, become one. Young Thai women are but also in local communities. The Thai encouraged to be Thai beauty queens as it National Beauty contest will be is an honor and prestigious role for women broadcasting on TV once every year. By to serve the nation. While men are still doing so, media has an effective role in largely encouraged to do more important constructing the ‘ideal Thai women’, that jobs such as soldiers, polices, doctors and we can often see how television viewers politicians. consume not just entertainments and The government and media products but a particular image and hence throughout history continuously support the choices for each individual viewer’s Beauty Contest. As we see today that it has national identity added Callahan (1998). become a huge industry involves important Moreover, this shows the role of military in sectors, specifically commercial television its hidden agenda measuring Thai female industry. Business industry through its

Transnational Space,” Alternatives: Global, Local, 46 Barney Oldfield, “Miss America and the 301st Political 23, 1. (1998): 1. Bomb Group,” Air Power History 37, 2. (1990): 44 Callahan, The Ideology of Miss Thailand …, 4. 41-44. 45 Saneepong Prombunson, A Farce in Three Acts 47 Callahan, The Ideology of Miss Thailand, 8. (Bangkok, Nation, 1994). 38

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marketing strategies has turned women into public sphere, taking more political duties the primary consumers, especially the Miss of government and business and it is not Thailand’s audiences between ages of difficult to observe that fact in Thai society. eighteen and mid-forties. By all means, the Additionally, the role of sex object is still Thai beauty pageant performs as a relevant to this National Beauty Pageant, television in which its audiences mainly considering power of the ideology of look for fashion tips along with imitating virginity in Thai society and the limitation the beauty queens’ characteristic. A part of prohibiting marriage and children for the men looking at women as of ‘meat markets’ contestants Callahan argued. It can be for flesh values, women simultaneously concluded that women are only encouraged join the show looking for the way to clothe to perform less sophisticated and their bodies.48 intellectual roles and involves more in Critical feminists would argue that materialistic and consumerist behaviors. on the beauty contest stage, women are This is a problematic path to empower Thai treated more of sex objects. It is very women. Even today, women often find gendered that women are served as themselves contradictory whether or not products promoting many products while she should pay attention to her roles in also showing their bodies for the pleasure private or in public more in order to achieve of men. The pageant contestants will be on greater control of their lives. It is crucial to the stage several times in order to show keep in mind that the beauty contest is an their bodies and the way they walk imported product, mainly from the United including their overall characters in which States that the Thai military government will be included in the total scores, judges adopted to propagandize modernization and included both men and women. civilization of the country.49 The quest of Additionally, by televising this Miss Siam what is ‘authentic Thai women’ still or Miss Thailand Universe is basically remained unanswered. publicly showing women’s bodies to We have looked at how the state reinforce a particular form of beauty for constructed female gender through beauty women who mainly consume this shows for pageants for several purposes, both fashion matters, while for men, is simply to negative and positive. Despite the fact that enjoy the showcase with women parading participating in beauty pageants can in swimsuits on stage legally without being empower women more economically, it criticized by the state that it is inappropriate consequently brings women more for Thai culture. confusion in what roles they should Although many would argue that perform both in public and private. The idea this kind of activities provide more of ‘beauty’, like nationalism is not a natural opportunities for women to gain greater process but socially constructed and control of their lives through this public reconstructed for various political, military, medium. But it still reflects the struggle in economic purposes. It seems that today, feminism between public and private there is this kind of activities for men to sphere. The Thai Beauty Contest evolves to participate as well, but the mainstream of become more international in many ways in beauty and national identity is strongly laid which often contradict with the Thai in the hands of women. The public and tradition. Customarily, women are limited government agencies seem to pay more to the private sphere of home and attention and concern more of women than emphasized to fulfill the biological duties men. This is a clear evidence of hegemonic of sex, mating and nurturing children. culture that men still have control over While men, on the other hand, present in women in the national level, due to the fact

48 Callahan, The Ideology of Miss Thailand, 3. 49 Callahan, The Ideology of Miss Thailand, 20. 39

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that there are more numbers of men in the women should take pride while not just wait ruling position in public and private sectors. to be praised from others.

2. CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY

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