MARKET RESEARCH REPORT

WATER SECTOR IN VIETNAM: OVERVIEW, RECENT TRENDS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR COOPERATION

PART 3

WASTEWATER SECTOR IN VIETNAM

Prepared by: David Nguyen Daniel Nguyen Paul Smith An Nguyen

Vietnam, October 2017 Contents

1. OVERVIEW OF WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND TREATMENT...... 1 1.1. Wastewater collection ...... 1 1.2. Wastewater treatment ...... 7 2. THE POLLUTION ISSUES ...... 13 2.1. Municipal wastewater pollution ...... 13 2.2. Industrial wastewater pollution ...... 16 2.3. Craft village wastewater pollution ...... 20 2.4. Wastewater sludge pollution ...... 24 3. THE RECENT TRENDS ...... 28 3.1. The legal framework ...... 28 3.2. The technological aspect ...... 32 4. OPPORTUNITIES FOR COOPERATION ...... 37 4.1. Public investment...... 37 4.2. Private investment ...... 37 REFERENCES ...... 41 ABOUT THE AUTHORS ...... 43

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1. OVERVIEW OF WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND TREATMENT

1.1. Wastewater collection

In Vietnam, most of the urban areas in category IV or higher have combined sewerage and drainage systems (CSS), which collect both rainwater and wastewater via pipeline collection networks or drainage canals (Figure 1). The average drainage coverage in Vietnam is about 40–50 %, which is much lower than water supply service of over 70 %. The coverage rate ranges from 70% in large urban areas to only 10–20% in category IV and and only 1–2% in category V urban areas. drainage, and ―taking away‖ domestic wastewater to prevent flooding in the streets. Some newly developed urban areas introduce separate sewer and drainage systems (SSS), such as Buon Ma Thuot city (Figure 2); however, as most urban wastewater is untreated, thus both storm-water and domestic wastewater are finally discharged together into nearby water environments such as rivers, lakes and canals [1]. Table 1 shows the objectives for development of urban drainage and wastewater treatment [2]

Table 2: Objectives for development of urban drainage and wastewater treatment [2] Items 2015 2020 2025

40-50% in 60% in 70-80% in categories III categories III categories IV or or or higher urban higher urban higher urban areas areas areas Service 40% in 50% in coverage of categories IV, Wastewater categories V collection and V discharged urban areas treatment urban areas and system and craft villages craft villages Wastewater treatment plants at different

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levels of management are located in craft villages The whole wastewater is

treated Industrial and All industrial hospital wastewater parks have their

own discharge system Pipes, sewers, channels will Public toilets be are 20-30% upgraded to installed in treated prevent Other items categories IV wastewater pollution or will at higher urban be reused. concentrated areas residential areas

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Figure 1: To Lich River in Hanoi receives both wastewater and stormwater (Source: http://vovgiaothong.vn)

Figure 2: Constructing separate wastewater collection system in Buon Ma Thuat city (Source: https://tintaynguyen.com)

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In order to reduce pollution caused by discharging directly wastewater to combined system, septic tank is often used as the pre-treatment facility. However, there are a range of issues related to septic tank operation, which are [2]:

 Many households have latrine with septic tank but it is not connected to a common sewerage system due to the lack of sewerage network in small lanes. As a result, wastewater flows into open small channels or to surrounding areas or infiltrates into soil.

 Some households have flush latrine, flushing directly wastewater into the common sewerage system, bypassing septic tanks or other on-site treatment works

 In general, septic tanks usually have small volume while sludge removal is not carried out periodically. Many households have not conducted sludge removal from their septic tank for tens years. Wastewater; therefore, is discharged into a common sewerage sewer together with sludge from storage tanks, leading to a situation in which it is easy to get sediments in the sewer and there is a serious odor, especially in the dry seasons

 Activities of sucking, transporting and disposing sludge in septic tanks from households, institutions, enterprises and businesses, services etc. in urban areas have not been controlled (Figure 3). No city has well managed this activity. Private enterprises unpromptedly provide sludge sucking services and mostly dispose sludge into open land sites, channels, drainage sewer or directly into the rivers, lakes etc. close to sludge sucking place (to save transport cost) without being controlled in environmental pollution and disease transmission.

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Figure 3: Household septic tank cleaning by vacuum truck (Source: http://cafebiz.vn) Another issue caused by combined rainwater and wastewater collection system is that, the slope sewers are often designed with relative small and can be easily struck by garbage, resulting that they need cleaning very frequently. Not every sewers can be cleaned by vacuum truck, thus in dense populated area or very complex sewers, the works often clean the sewer system manually (Figure 4). The combined system also causes difficulties to the operation of wastewater pumping station, which plays the role of conveying wastewater from deep manholes to the wastewater treatment plant (Figure 5)

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Figure 4: Workers are cleaning sewers system manually (source: https://www.vietnambreakingnews.com)

Figure 5: Underground wastewater pump station at Bac Ninh City (source: authors)

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The key problem regarding wastewater collection system is the sync with wastewater treatment plant. New construction or renovation is often patchy and unplanned from the outset; further, this work has not been carried out in sync with the construction of wastewater treatment plants located along the network. Many sewage treatment plants have not realized their full capacity due to a lack of sewer networks. For example, North Thang Long-Van Tri WWTP was designed and constructed with a capacity of 42,000 m3/day but in reality the plant only operated at the capacity of 7,000 m3/day as the domestic wastewater from the surrounding residential areas have not yet been connected to the plant due to a reason that the sewer networks have not been fully covered in the area. Similar situations have been reported in Phu Ly WWTP in Ha Nam province and a WWTP in Vinh-Nghe An province [1]. The proportion of households connected to the urban drainage network in many places is still very low due to some reasons:

 Impact of urbanization:

 Quality of planning is low and incomprehensive; forecasting is still limited

 Lack of investment capital

 Many shortcomings in management

 Awareness of the community.

1.2. Wastewater treatment

Regarding wastewater treatment technologies at centralised treatment plants, the most common technologies are based on activated sludge (AS) process, such as aeration tanks or sequencing batch reactors (SBR); for example, North Thang Long WWTP, Yen So WWTP (Figure 6), Bai Chay WWTP, Quang Ninh WWTP. In addition, there are a number of wastewater treatment plants utilising low-cost and environmentally sound sanitation technologies, such as waste stabilisation ponds or constructed wetlands. Examples of these are the WWTPs in Ho Chi Minh City (Binh Hung Hoa WWTP (Figure 7), Da Nang and Buon Ma Thuat [1]. Some smaller WWTP use higher technologies such

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT as AAO in Kim Lien and Truc Bach WWTP (Figure 8) in Hanoi. Up to 2012, there are 18 WWTP operating in Vietnam (Table 2). Until 2015, number of urban centers which has wastewater treatment plants is still low (35 wastewater treatment plants with a total design capacity of approximately 850.000 m3/ day & night) [4], taking about 10% of total wastewater discharged[7]

Figure 6: Activated sludge tank (SBR technologies) at centralised Yen So WWTP in Hanoi (Source: authors)

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Figure 7: Waste stabilisation ponds in centralised Binh Hung Hoa WWTP in Ho Chi Minh City (Source: authors)

Figure 8: AAO wastewater treatment tank at pilot Truc Bach WWTP in Hanoi (Source: authors)

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Table 2: Summary of WWTP plants in Vietnam (up to 2012) [3] Capacity Start Sewer Treatment No Plant City up type processes year Design Operation

1 Kim Lien 2005 3,700 3,700 CSS AAO

2 Truc Bach 2005 2,500 2,500 CSS AAO Ha Noi North 3 2009 42,000 7,000 CSS AO Thang Long

4 Yen So 2012 200,000 120,000 CSS SBR

5 Binh Hung 2009 141,000 141,000 CSS CAS

Binh Hung 6 2008 30,000 30,000 CSS Aerated ponds Hoa Canh Doi HCM 7 (Phu My city 2007 10,000 10,000 SSS AAO Hung)

Nam Vien 8 (Phu My 2009 15,000 15,000 SSS AAO Hung) Anaerobic 9 Son Tra 2006 15,900 15,900 CSS pond with cover Anaerobic 10 Hoa Cuong 2006 36,418 36,418 CSS pond with cover Da Nang Anaerobic 11 Phu Loc 2006 36,430 36,430 CSS pond with cover Anaerobic Ngu Hanh 12 2006 11,629 11,629 CSS pond with Son cover

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13 Bai Chay 2007 3,500 3,500 CSS SBR Quang Ninh 14 Ha Khanh 2009 7,000 7,500 CSS SBR

15 Da Lat Da Lat 2006 7,400 6,000 SSS Trickling filter Buon Ma Buon Ma Stabilized 16 2006 8,125 5,700 SSS Thuot Thuot ponds Bac Oxidation 17 Bac Giang 2010 10,000 8,000 CSS Giang Ditch

Ninh Facultative 18 Phan Rang 2011 5,000 5,000 CSS Thuat ponds

Concerning on decentralised wastewater treatment technologies, basically, activated sludge based-treatment process and biological filtration are among the most commonly used. Recently, a new type of septic tank has been introduced, namely baffled septic tank, sometimes it has been used in combination with waste stabilisation pond or constructed wetland system. These technologies have been applied in a domestic wastewater treatment plant in Kieu Ky commune of Hanoi, WWTP at Thanh Hoa Pediatrics Hospital (Figure 9), WWTP in small towns in Vietnam such as Minh Duc in Hai Phong city, An Bai in Thai Binh and Cho Moi in Bac Can. Currently, there are no exact figures or data on the total number and capacity of decentralised wastewater treatment plants in Vietnam; however, it has been estimated that several thousand decentralised wastewater treatment plants, excluding septic tanks, have been constructed and installed across the country for the purpose of treating domestic wastewater from residential areas, hospitals, hotels and office buildings (Figure 10) [2].

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Figure 9: Decentralised WWTP at Thanh Hoa Pediatrics Hospital [5]

Figure 10: Decentralised WWTP by module [6]

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2. THE POLLUTION ISSUES

2.1. Municipal wastewater pollution

As mentioned above, on-site system such as septic tanks play a key role in wastewater treatment activities in Vietnam, especially in urban area (Figure 11). Septic tanks are in fact ―low-rate‖ anaerobic treatment units, and much evidence proves they are often of low performance and low efficiency, are under-maintained and cause groundwater pollution. Their actual BOD5 removal efficiency is only about 20–30%. The majority of household septic tanks in Vietnam are only used to treat black water, while greywater from bathrooms, kitchens, washing machines, for example, is not treated in septic tanks. This greywater has often been discharged directly to canals or sewer system, especially in big cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh. The survey results showed that grey water accounts for nearly 88% and 70% of the BOD load in domestic wastewater in Thailand and Japan, respectively [2].

Figure 11: Percentage of urban wastewater management (both collection and treatment) in Vietnam [7].

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Another issue is that septic tanks are usually constructed in areas where a combined drainage system was utilised, therefore actual BOD in wastewater prior to the wastewater treatment plant is normally much lower compared to the BOD in a separate sewerage system. According to a collaborative survey between the Ministry of Construction and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, the average influent BOD in water prior to wastewater treatment plants in Vietnam is around 49 mg/l. As a result, a low influent BOD concentration may interfere with microbial decomposition in the wastewater treatment plants. Further, no technical guidance or regulations on designing, operating and maintaining septic tanks exists [2].

As the result, water quality monitoring of major canals, lakes and rivers in Vietnam showed that concentrations of organic pollutants are 1.5 to 3 times, or even 10- 20 times higher than the permitted standard in some areas (Figure 12 and Figure 13). This situation has existed for many years, and has led to serious consequences for local populations and their immediate environment (Figure 14) [8]

Figure 12: Annual average BOD5 in major rivers in Vietnam in the 2005-2009 period [8]

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Figure 13: Annual average BOD5 in major rivers, lakes and canal inside cities in the 2005-2009 period [8] Hanoi can be understood as "the River City", due to the fact that the four sides of Hanoi are surrounded by large rivers such as To Lich river, Lu river, Set river, Kim Nguu river and Nhue river... However, at the moment, most of these rivers are contaminated. It is difficult for a "green capital" to be shaped when the lakes are shrinking and darkening because of garbage and other pollution sources. According to statistics by the Center for Environmental Research & Community in 2010, there are 120 lakes, ponds, and marshes in various sizes in six districts of Hanoi. Most of the lakes are polluted with organic substance. 71% of lakes in Hanoi possess biochemical factors that are beyond the permitted standard, in which 14% is full of organic chemical pollutants, 25% is under severe polluted condition and 32% shows sign of contamination (Figure 14]. The severe pollution situation in To Lich River has lasted many years and so far, which is still the unsolved problem of the authorities. To Lich River is where the rainfall and all sorts of untreated sewage of the city (domestic sewage, hospital sewage, industrial waste water...) and the dirty water from the river, Lu River flow to. Set river, which flows through Bach Khoa and Truong Dinh district also suffered the same situation as To Lich River. Over the years, the riverbed has gradually grown shallow, thick, dark and always evaporates stinky smell [9]

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Figure 14: Pollution in Thien Quang Lake, Hanoi (Source: http://hanoimoi.com.vn/) 2.2. Industrial wastewater pollution

Accumulating to September, 2016, the whole country possessed 324 Industrial Parks (IPs) (including: 44 foreign IPs and 280 domestic IPs) with the total area of natural land of 91.8 thousand ha; 16 Industrial Zones (EZs) with the entire area of land and water surface of approximately 815 thousand ha. Of which, 220 IPs have been already in operation with the total area of natural land of 59.6 thousand ha and 104 IPs in the process of compensation for site clearance and construction with the whole area of natural land of 29.7 thousand ha. The entire area of leased industrial land of IPs is 31.8 thousand ha, the occupancy rate of the total IPs comprises 50%; IPs which have been already in operation solely have the occupancy rate of 73%. The IPs have been established in line with both the national planning of IPs‘ development and the local planning of land usage and industrial development. In terms of the allocation of IPs, the

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Southeast region of Vietnam had the largest number of IPs of 109 (constituting 34% total IPs), accompanied by those of Red River Delta and the Southwest region of Vietnam with 83 IPs (comprising 26% total IPs) and 52 IPs (accounting for 16% total IPs) respectively. The total area of released land to implement investment projects in coastal EZs reached well over 30.000 ha, constituting 40% total area of land which is used for industrial manufacture, tourism and services in the coastal EZs [10].

Approximately 40 % of all industrial zones in Vietnam have no adequate wastewater systems. Where central wastewater infrastructures exist, significant shortcomings in their operation and management can be observed. Functioning and sustainable operation of the wastewater systems in industrial zones in Vietnam often is not ensured. The connection between the manufacturers with WWTP is also the problems as many of those do not have the pre-treatment facilities, causing the failure of central WWTP of IZ (example in Table 3). This means that wastewater from industrial zones in Vietnam continues to pollute significantly the surrounding water bodies which, in many cases, are used as drinking water resources. Besides polluting the environment, this also presents an immediate health risk to people [11].

Table 3: Factories and Common Treatment Plants in Ho Chi Minh City [12] Number of factories and Number of factories Number of factories wastewater treatment not connected to not connected to Name of requirements common WWTP common WWTP industrial Without estate Not With Without With pre- Required Total pre- required treatment treatment treatment treatment Le Minh 97 22 119 21 26 52 20 Xuan Tan Tao 65 15 80 12 8 46 14 Vinh Loc 25 17 42 15 27 0 0 Tay Bac 16 12 28 16 12 0 0 Cu Chi

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Tan Binh 36 13 49 30 19 0 0 Linh Trung 1 31 14 45 0 10 27 8 EPZ

Linh 8 4 12 0 4 8 0 Trung 2 Binh 5 9 14 5 9 0 0 Chieu

Tan Thoi 13 9 22 13 9 0 0 Hiep Tan Thuan 72 33 105 6 27 55 17 EPZ Total 368 148 516 118 151 188 59

In HCMC, ten industrial zones operate, including two for export processing. Binh Duong Province has seven industrial zones; Dong Nai has ten, with another nine to be established in the next ten years. Ba Ria-Vung Tau has only five operational zones. However, it has the highest amount of invested capital in the country and so looks set for a rapid expansion in the size and number of industrial estates it contains. Together, the sites in the areas surveyed comprised almost 50% of the industrial estates in the country. The researchers found that water pollution has become a serious issue for all the industrial estates in all four regions. Overall, they found that a lack of wastewater treatment (WWT) facilities in these estates (especially common WWT plants), together with inappropriate monitoring procedures, had led to large amounts of untreated wastewater being discharged into rivers. For example, none of the industrial zones in Ba Ria-Vung Tee had common WWT plants. Serious water pollution was observed in Dong Nai River (Dong Nai), Sai Gon River (HCMC), and Thi Vai River (Ba Ria -Vung Tau). he type of industries in the industrial zones had a significant impact on the effectiveness of pollution control measures. For example, pollution in the Le Minh Xuan industrial

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT zone is worse than in other industrial zones because Le Minh Xuan has several highly polluting industries [12].

Figure 15: Ba Bo Canal is heavily polluted by untreated wastewater from industrial zones in Binh Duong Province [13] The typical example is wastewater disposed by factories in Binh Duong Province‘s industrial zones (IZ) causing Ba Bo Canal pollution, according to a new report by the HCM City People‘s Committee. Thereby, wastewater from those IZs has been not drained into the centralised water treatment plant while discharged directly into the canal. HCM City and Binh Duong Province have invested VND1.3 billion (US$70,000) to improve the pollution of Ba Bo Canal for ten years. Its biological water treatment lake is designed with the capability of 20,000 m3 per day. But this technology is only suitable for treating domestic wastewater, not industrial waste. The analysis relied on water samples taken at the sewer of the centralised wastewater treatment plant (in Song Than 1

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT and Song Than 2 IZs) and at the end of the water discharge line showed vast differences. The concentration of pollutants at the end of the discharge line was nearly 26 to 43 times higher than the total suspended solids at the beginning of the line. Chemical oxygen demand at the end of the line was roughly nine to 12 times higher than at the beginning. The sample examined 18 monitoring parameters. Eight of these parameters exceeded the allowed limitations, indicating serious pollutants. In its report to Binh Duong Province, the HCM City People‘s Committee said that some factories in the provincial industrial zones had discharged wastewater directly into Ba Bo Canal through underground conduits, causing pollution (Figure 15). HCM City People‘s Committee asked Binh Duong Province to investigate the activity of direct discharge of untreated wastewater into the drainage line. The drainage line, which receives wastewater and then drains it into the Ba Bo Canal has a discharge flow of 14,000 m3 per day, accounting for 80 per cent of wastewater discharged to the canal [13].

2.3. Craft village wastewater pollution

The term ‗craft village‘ is widely used in Vietnam but there is no clear definition of this term. In the Vietnamese policy and research literature, a craft village is most often understood as a rural village where at least 50 per cent of households engage in off‐farm activities and at least 30 per cent of the village‘s income is derived from off‐farm activities. In terms of pollution, craft village can be classified according to products type as several categories such as : (1) food processing; (2) other agro‐product processing; (3) textiles and garments; (4) wood processing; (5) mechanical engineering; (6) construction materials; (7) construction; and (8) other handicrafts. Figure 16 shows composition of craft village according to the products types [14].

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Figure 16: Composition of craft village according to the products types [14] Although craft villages contribute significantly to the rural economy and rural employment, the growth of craft villages and their production capacity had been associated with severe environmental pollution and negative health impacts. It is reported that, 90 per cent of craft villages have levels of pollution beyond the permissible levels set by the national environmental protection law. Environmental conditions and environmental impacts in craft villages have some common characteristics. Firstly, pollution is typically concentrated in one rural area (a hamlet, village, or commune). Within this area, there may be numerous pollution sources (small enterprises) that directly affect the surroundings, including residential areas. The pollution therefore poses a direct risk to the entrepreneurs and nearby residents. Secondly, craft villages often pollute water courses, impacting on downstream areas, and ultimately the river sub‐basin and basin. The most significant pollution impacts are at the local level and immediately downstream. At the larger river basin scale, craft villages are responsible for a small portion of pollution in comparison with other sources of pollution. Thirdly, the impacts of craft‐village pollution are significant at the workplace level. Almost all pollution parameters at the workplace, including noise, light, toxicity, humidity, and temperature, exceed national standards. One study suggests that 95 percent of workers in craft villages are exposed to toxic airborne particles, 85.9 percent to heat, and 59.6 percent to toxic

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT chemicals. Because of the significant local impacts of craft village pollution, most research indicates that serious environmental pollution and degradation in the craft villages has significantly impacted the health, social and economic sustainability of craft communities (Figure 16) [14]. Table 4 summarise the characteristics of in craft village pollutants.

Figure 16: Wastewater from craft village causing environmental pollution (Source: http://phaply.net.vn)

Table 4: characteristics of in craft village wastewater pollutants [15] No Craft villages Wastewater pollutant 1 Food processing, husbandry and BOD5, COD, SS, TN, TP, Coliform slaughtering villages 2 Dyeing, weaving, and leather craft villages BOD5, COD, colour, TN, chemical, bleach, Cr (leather)

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3 Fine art (pottery, lacquer, fine art wood and BOD5, COD, SS, colour, oil rock) 4 Waste recycling (paper recycling, metal pH, BOD5, COD, SS, TN, TP, recycling, plastic recycling) color, oil, CN, metal

5 Construction material and rock mining SS, Si, Cr

Hanoi after expansion has 255 craft villages with 6 types of production (mostly concentrated in the former Ha Tay province). There are 59 weaving, dyeing and leather villages (23%), 43 food processing villages (16.9%), 135 fine art villages (53%) etc. Every day, wastewater without treatment has been discharged to water bodies causing pollution to Nhue and Day rivers[15]. Figure 17 shows some typical wastewater parameters of food processing, husbandry and slaughtering villages in Hanoi region.

Figure 17: BOD5, COD and SS in wastewater of food processing, husbandry and slaughtering villages [15]

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2.4. Wastewater sludge pollution

As mentioned above regarding the poor septage management in Vietnamese city, desludging service providers sometimes dispose of septage on vacant land, in drains, fish farms and waterways such as rivers, lakes, ponds and canals close to sludge-emptying areas to save on the transportation cost (Figure 18). In general, septage has not been utilised to make compost – in fact, less than 4% of generated septage is collected and treated properly, mostly in big cities such as Hanoi, Hai Phong, Da Nang, Ho Chi Minh City. Presently there are no national laws governing the collection and treatment of septage, and the national government has no mandate for septage management or policy guidance. Therefore, all desludging operators in urban areas are only required to obtain a business license before starting operations. As a result, local governments have no incentive to promote septage management, invest scarce resources in operating treatment facilities, or support such projects once ODA project funding dries up [1].

Figure 18: Direct discharge of septage into fish pond in the peri-urban area [1]

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Hanoi Sewerage and Drainage Ltd., Co. is responsible for the connection of septic tank that is where septic tank effluent goes to. On the other hand, withdrawal of sludge accumulated in septic tank (i.e., septage) belongs to the duty of Urban Environment Company (URENCO). When a household wants to desludge septic tank, they contact URENCO and pay money. Desludging is also conducted by private company. However, collected septage from private company is often illegally disposed at open water areas in the city. Table 5 compares desludging prices offered by URENCO (i.e., public company) and private company. The price (in 2005) offered by private company is higher than that offered by public company [16]

Table 5: Desludging price by private company and URENCO [16] Type of company Vacuum truck Desludging price Capacity (m3) Lower medium Higher medium

VND/trip VND/m3 VND/trip VND/m3

Private company 2.0 200,000 100,000 400,000 200,000

URENCO 4.0 180,000 90,000 300,000 75,000

In addition to septage, sludge from wastewater sewerage system also pose serious challenge to environmental protection. Sludge from urban wastewater drainage systems generated from:

 The city‘s wastewater drainage network, and

 Domestic waste wastewater treatment plant

Sludge from the wastewater drainage network of various levels (e.g., levels 2, 3 and 4) is generated as a result of dredging activities by Urban Drainage Limited Company (UDC) for network levels 2 and 3 (pipe diameter is 400 mm or more) and by Public Service Limited Company at districts—for network level 4. The drainage network of HCMC is divided into four levels with a total length of over 9800 km and 65,000 manholes with different types. According to the annual plan, the above mentioned

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT companies clean up the wastewater drainage network and dredge the manholes periodically with sludge volume estimated as 1200 - 1500 m3 /day or 450,000 - 700,000 m3 /year. In which, about 90% - 95% of the volume is collected in the dry season. This sludge consists mainly sand (70% - 90% dry weight) accumulated from wastewater and rainwater; however, this sludge also contains plastic, textile, cans, tins, etc. as municipal solid waste (Figure 19) because of low citizen‘s awareness. Amount of biodegradable organic matter in sludge is very low due to high solubility in wastewater as well as long stored time in sewage system (3 - 6 months or up to 12 months); therefore the sludge is drifted with wastewater flow in sewage system or is bio-decomposition. Sludge may contain hazardous wastes (such as heavy metals, oil and grease) depending on the location and dredging time; however, the concentration of these hazardous wastes is generally lower than the threshold of environmental standards [17]

Figure 19:Sludge from urban drainage system in Hanoi (Source: authors)

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As the highest population city in Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City has been seeking for the solutions to deal with signficant amount of sludge generated from various sources (Figure 20). Ho Chi Minh City is discharging about six types of sludge: 1) sludge from urban wastewater drainage systems; 2) sludge from industrial wastewater drainage system; 3) sludge from the canal dredging activities periodically; 4) sludge from septic tanks; 5) sludge from the water treatment station/plant; 6) sludge from the construction sites. Sludge‘s components are very different among types of sludge, sludge from the sewer network and canal dredging contain mainly sand and soil (70% - 90% dry weight), while the sludge from the wastewater/water treatment station/plant and from septic tanks contain mainly biodegradable organic substances (55% - 80% dry weight). The concentrations of all above-mentioned sludge (except sludge from the hazardous industrial wastewater treatment plant) are lower than toxic threshold. The volume of total sludge is about 3000 - 4000 m3 /day (5000 - 6000 tons/day), excepting the amount of sludge generated from the water treatment plant (which is collected and treated separately). Sludge from wastewater treatment plants and septic tanks is collected, transported and recycled to become organic fertilizer. The other types of sludge are collected, transported, and disposed at the ―unknown‖ locations, even though they have different values for use [17].

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Figure 20: Storage of sludge Ho Chi Minh City sludge treatment plant [18]

3. THE RECENT TRENDS

3.1. The legal framework

Urban sanitation in Vietnam is guided by a number of ministries and agencies, including the Ministry of Construction (MoC), Ministry of Health (MoH), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) and Ministry of Science and Technologies (MoST) (Table 6). For example, MoC is responsible for development planning, introducing technologies, issuing regulations and construction standards for these activities. Meanwhile, water source and water source protection are the responsibility of MoNRE. Water quality and standards for drinking water and domestic water are managed by MoH. Further, many water supply and sanitation projects were implemented with support from donors, international organizations, local communities or private sector.

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However, overall responsibility for the sector falls under MoC, although work is now increasingly being decentralised to the provincial public service providers at the municipal level [1]

Table 6: Stakeholders involved in wastewater and sanitation sector [1] Ministries Functions Ministry of Construction (MoC) Line Ministry of urban water supply, sanitation and drainage Ministry of Natural Resources and Manages water sources, water use, pollution and Environment (MoNRE) hydrology Ministry of Health (MoH) Controls drinking water and sanitation quality Ministry of Science and Manages standardization and technology in water Technology (MoST) and sanitation Ministry of Planning Investment Allocates state budget. Approve investment project (MPI) (all projects need approval) Ministry of Finance (MoF) Distributes state funds to sectors and projects, sets annual sector goals and regulates accounting

Local Provincial People‘s Manages local water supply and sanitation Committee

Up to 2013, there are a range of framework to govern the wastewater pollution in Vietnam, which are:

 Law on Environmental Protection promulgated November 29 2005, effective July 2006

 Decree No. 88/2007/ND-CP of 28 May 2007 on Urban and Industrial-Park Water Drainage, which provides for water drainage activities in urban centers and industrial parks, economic zones, export processing zones and hi-tech parks and sets out rights and obligations of organizations, individuals and households involved in water drainage activities. This Decree will be expired from January 1st 2015, and replaced by new Decree No. 80/2014/ND-CP dated August 06th 2014 on Drainage and Wastewater Treatment.

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 Circular No.09/2009/TT-BXD on 21/05/2009 of Ministry of Construction on provisions implementing the content of Prime Minister‘s De c re e No. 8 8 / 2 0 07/ND- CP dated 28/05/2007 on Urban Drainage and Industrial Areas

 Decision 1930/QD-TTg on 20/11/2009 of Prime Minister approving Orientations for sewerage and drainage development in urban centers and industrial zones up to 2025 and a vision for 2050. This is one of the main points and objectives set out in the direction of systems related to collection and treatment of urban wastewater. Accordingly, by 2025, service coverage of storm-water drainage systems is to be expanded to 100% in urban centers of category IV or higher; sewerage systems shall be constructed in urban centers of category IV or higher; 70–80% of domestic wastewater shall be collected, conveyed and treated in accordance with the effluent standards; in urban centers of category V and craft villages, 50% of wastewater shall be treated in accordance with effluent standards; in craft villages, decentralised WWTP shall be constructed for treatment of wastewater in accordance with effluent standards; 20–30% of treated wastewater shall be recycled for watering plants, cleaning roads and for other purposes in urban centers and industrial parks.

 Decision No.16/2008/QD-BTNMT on 31/12/2008 of MONRE on national technical regulations covering surface water quality, underground water quality, coastal water, wastewater, pesticide residues in soil.

 Decree No. 25/2013/ND-CP dated 03/29/2013 on environmental protection charges for wastewater. This Decree replaces Decree No. 67/2003/ND-CP dated 13/06/2003, No. 04/2007/ND-CP and 26/2010/ND-CP [1]

The relationship between legal framework and policy are shown in Figure 20.

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Figure 20: Structure of legal framework in Wastewater sector in Vietnam [20]

Because revenue from the wastewater fee is still too low and does not cover construction and O&M costs for wastewater operations, actual operational costs are generally subsidised by city or provincial budgets. Consequently, the private sector in Vietnam found it an unattractive investment, unlike in the water sector. In addition, private sector investment is often left out of city sanitation planning owing to the lack of regulatory regimes, policies and incentive systems to attract investments from the private sector [1]. Therefore, the most important recent change in wastewater sector in Vietnam is the approval of Degree No. 80/2014/ND-CP on August 06th, 2014 by Prime Minister on the drainage and wastewater treatment. The key points are

 ―The principle of determining sewerage service charge: fully accounting for actual costs incurred in the course of performing sewerage duties and wastewater treatment

 Encouraging the participation of both public and private sectors‖

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After that, the two Circulars promulgated by the MoC, which guide the Decree implementation, i.e. Circular No. 02/2015/TT-BXD (dated 2 April 2015 guiding the methodology on pricing wastewater services) and the Circular No. 04/2005/TT-BXD (dated 3 April, 2015 guiding the implementation of some articles of the Decree 80). All these documents have come into effect. Those important legal documents have introduced modern principles, concepts and important regulations in the wastewater sector such as regulations on the wastewater service price, operation and management of contracts, the connection of households to the wastewater system, preferential investment policies, provincial regulations, reuse of stormwater and treated wastewater, sludge management, and decentralized wastewater treatment. The leadership of wastewater management companies added that the Decree 80 and its two Circulars will help to gradually bridge the financial gap between income raised by the wastewater charge and the costs for operation and maintenance of wastewater infrastructure. In Soc Trang for example, the income from wastewater charge collected from the users currently covers only 35% of the total operation and maintenance costs, including the depreciation of mechanical and electronic equipment [21].

3.2. The technological aspect

In terms of general technological aspect, in Vietnam now there are 14 technology needs to deal with wastewater treatment issues, which are: [22]

1. Appropriate wastewater treatment technology dealing with low C/N ratio in the incoming wastewater flow

2. Appropriate technology for treatment of sludge generated from combined sewerage and drainage system

3. Adequate faecal sludge treatment technology

4. Removal of organic matters from surface water

5. Equipment to control incoming wastewater flow features for Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs)

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6. Technology for decentralized wastewater treatment with small footprint reactor and shallow reaction zone

7. Technology for flow rate and concentration equalization allowing stable incoming wastewater features at wastewater treatment plants

8. Technology to improve treatment performance of existing biological CETPs receiving non-degradable substances in incoming flows

9. Technology (knowhow) for quick start-up of biologically based wastewater treatment plant

10. Energy efficient technology for sludge dewatering from water treatment plants

11. Pre-treatment of organic fractions of municipal waste, industrial waste and agro- waste before anaerobic digester for biogas recovery

12. Technology for treatment of digested sludge after anaerobic digester for resource recovery

13. Technology for treatment of pig farm wastewater rich of organics and nitrogen (ammonium)

14. Technology to enhance nitrification, or removal of ammonium, in wastewater treatment systems applying natural treatment processes

For household wastewater treatment and small-scale plant (such as building, hospital, resorts, small village), there is the trend of using advanced septic tanks called BASTAF (Figure 21) to replace the traditional septic tank. It is basically the combination of anaerobic baffled reactors and anaerobic filters. Figure 22 shows BASTAF application in Viem Xa village, Bac Ninh province. For aeration process, those plant often use biological carrier, Membrane Biological Reactor (MBR) or Moving Bed Biological Reactor (MBBR), Figure 23 and 24, respectively, to increase the MLSS of the treatment tank. MBR technology has been applied in Park Hyatt Hotel WWTP, Vietnam by HydroScience [23]. For large centralised wastewater treatment plant, the advanced

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT disinfection technologies by mature ponds and UV lamp have been applied to replace the traditional chlorine. Mature ponds can be seen at both urban plant (such as Bai Chay WWTP - Figure 25) and industrial plant (such as Ninh Binh Industrial WWTP - Figure 26) where the place is available. Instead, UV lamp is used in limited-area land such as Yen So WWTP.

Figure 21: Advanced septic tank named BASTAF (source: https://vinacee.com)

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Figure 23: MBR wastewater treatment technology (source: http://moitruongperso.com)

Figure 24: MBBR wastewater treatment (Source: http://lamela.vn)

Figure 22: BASTAF at Viem Xa village, Bac Ninh Province (Source: author)

.

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Figure 25: Mature ponds for disinfection at Bai Chay WWTP - Quang Ninh Province (source: author)

Figure 26: Mature ponds for disinfection at Ninh Binh Industrial Zone WWTP - Ninh Binh Province (source: author)

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4. OPPORTUNITIES FOR COOPERATION

4.1. Public investment

As can be recognised that wastewater pollution is very serious issue in Vietnam, so that there are plenty of project invested by public budget. The capital investment in a wastewater plant project are mainly from international financiers like the World Bank (WB) and Asia Development Bank (ADB). For example, in March 12, 2015 in HCM city, The State Bank of Vietnam and the World Bank today signed agreements for a total of US$450 million in loans and credits to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam to further improve Ho Chi Minh City‘s environment and sanitation. The funding, which goes to the Second Ho Chi Minh City Environmental Sanitation Project, will improve the environment by treating wastewater, strengthen institutional capacity to manage sanitation and wastewater services, and increase public awareness on the benefits of improved sanitation practices. The project includes a wastewater treatment plant that will treat wastewater collected in the Nhieu Loc-Thi Nghe basin and from parts of District 2 of the city. The plant will treat untreated wastewater that is currently being discharged to the Saigon River. Through the project, sewer networks and house connections to the network will be installed in parts of District 2. The project will also provide technical assistance to improve sanitation and wastewater management practices in the city [24].

4.2. Private investment

Regarding urban wastewater, in two biggest cities Hanoi and HCM city, the governments are calling for private investment in wastewater treatment projects in a bid to protect the environment for sustainable development. In Hanoi from 2016 – 2020, these projects are in Thanh Thuy commune, Thanh Oai district; Van Canh commune in Hoai Duc district; Ha Dong district; and Son Tay town. As the city‘s key tasks in 2017 will include environmental protection, the municipal Department of Natural Resources and Environment will set up teams to coordinate with relevant agencies and localities in promptly dealing with arising problems in pollution control and environmental violations.The agency will call for resources in addressing environmental issues at local

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT industrial parks and zones, urban zones and trade villages, including building wastewater treatment stations in 50 seriously polluting trade villages, using the wastewater treatment Duong Lieu – Cau Nga model in Hoai Duc district. It will accelerate the implementation of environmental projects, particularly the waste and wastewater treatment projects in Son Dong and Van Canh communes, Hoai Duc district; Thanh Thuy commune in Thanh Oai district; and a concentrated waste treatment in Dong Ke hamlet, Tran Phu commune, Chuong My district [25]

In HCM city, as state and local budgets are limited, the city calls for private investment in wastewater treatment. The investment capital for the concentrated wastewater treatment plants in the districts of Binh Thuy, Thot Not, O Mon and Cai Rang has not been arranged and investors have not been found. The other non-concentrated projects in residential quarters and craft villages in the city are in the same situation [z] The city is calling for private entities to invest billions of U.S. dollars in environment- related projects, especially waste treatment, by 2020. To reduce environmental pollution, Ho Chi Minh City will implement 54 projects totaling nearly 64.2 trillion Vietnamese dong (nearly 2.9 billion U.S. dollars) from now to 2020, the municipal authorities said Monday. Most of the money, nearly 51.3 trillion Vietnamese dong (2.3 billion U.S. dollars), expected to come from public-private partnership, official development assistance and other sources, will be poured into collecting and treating wastewater and dredging canals in the city [26].

The another example in HCM city is Tan Hoa-Lo Gom canal basin wastewater treatment project. The HCMC Department of Planning and Investment is currently reviewing and preparing regulations for environmental projects to be carried out under the PPP format. So far, a number of investors have suggested plans to develop wastewater treatment facilities in the city. For instance, a consortium of UE Newater (Vietnam) Ltd. under Singapore‘s group UEL and DPD Investment and Construction Co. Ltd. is seeking approval to build West Saigon plant with a daily capacity of 150,000 cubic meters and at a cost of some US$80 million. The plant is designed to treat

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT household wastewater in the Tham Luong-Ben Cat-Nuoc Len canal basin in districts Tan Phu, Binh Tan and 12. A consortium of SFC Vietnam Investment Development for Environment Corporation and Phu Xuan Construction and Trading Company Limited has proposed building Suoi Nhum wastewater treatment plant in Thu Duc District with a daily capacity of 65,000 cubic meters and valued at nearly VND 523 billion to treat wastewater in Xuan Truong, Suoi Nhum, Suoi Cai and Go Cat springs. According to the HCMC Steering Center for Urban Flood Control, the city has two operational wastewater treatment facilities, Binh Hung and Binh Hung Hoa, with daily capacities of 141,000 cubic meters and 30,000 cubic meters respectively. However, the city discharges some two million cubic meters of wastewater a day [27]

Totally, HCM city is calling for investment in 12 wastewater treatment plants to treat three million cubic metres of wastewater per day in the city. The Department of Planning and Investment is preparing regulations for environmental projects, which will be carried out under a public private partnership (PPP). A number of investors have offered suggestions on plans to develop wastewater treatment facilities. In 2015, the consortium of Phu Dien Construction Trading and Investment JSC and SFC Viet Nam Investment Development for Environment Corp. invested nearly VND1.9 trillion (US$84.9 million) to build the Tham Luong-Ben Cat wastewater treatment plant in District 12, under the Build-Transfer (BT) mode. Also in 2015, the Trung Nam Construction and Investment JSC proposed building the North Sài Gòn plant under a public-private partnership with an estimated investment of hundreds of millions of US dollars [28]

Regarding in industrial wastewater, in Vietnam, there is a growing demand for sufficient treatment of industrial wastewater, especially in the southern parts of the country. The Vietnamese provinces with potential industrial parks include the likes of Binh Duong, Long An, Tay Ninh and Dong Nai. Even though the government of Vietnam released the new environment protection law in 2014, followed by further implementing regulations, there are still major shortcomings in the local wastewater

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AUSTRALIAN WATER ASSOCIATION – MARKET RESEARCH REPORT treatment. The general awareness of the importance of water management is high in Vietnam, but there seems to be a lack of competitive solutions that satisfy properly the demand concerning wastewater treatment across the Vietnamese industries. From business viewpoint, the context provides a potential market for advanced and competitive technology providers to discover and generate business in Vietnam [29]

The Vietnamese government has spent a lot of resources to establish and improve the current situation with urban wastewater treatment. The annual budget for the enhancing activities has varied between USD 230 and USD 280 million. According to the World Bank's estimates, the average annual growth rate of the wastewater-related spending has been 20 percent. However, there are still many insufficiencies in the local wastewater treatment, such as unaffordable operation costs.

Additionally, more transparent legal frameworks as well as additional incentive policies are needed to attract foreign investments for wastewater treatment projects in Vietnam. The contributions of international funding agencies, in particular the World Bank, still play a very important role in financing of the urban wastewater treatment projects. Meanwhile, international commitments under the trade agreements like the TPP also push Vietnam towards upgrading the local infrastructure.

In the near future, the demand for industrial wastewater treatment has a potential to focus on several areas, including:

 Building of modern and eco-friendlier wastewater treatment plants for industrial parks.

 Replacing the use of chlorine with bio-solutions in treatment processes.

 Further processing of sludge to energy.

 Building modern labs and monitoring facilities.

 Improving competencies for human resources [29]

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REFERENCES [1]http://www.wepa-db.net/pdf/1403policy_brief/PolicyBrief_2013_5.pdf. [2]http://www.wpro.who.int/vietnam/topics/water_sanitation/watsan_sector_report_vietn am_2011.pdf. [3]http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/5- Waste%20water%20management%20and%20sanitation%20practices%20in%20Viet%20 Nam.pdf. [4]http://wepa-db.net/3rd/en/meeting/20160728/PDF/S2_Vietnam_MOC.pdf. [5]http://www.ctic.org.vn [6]http://www.moitruongvietbac.com [7] http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/000442464_20140217100758 [8]http://wepa- db.net/activities/2014/20141127/pdf/1_3_water%20enivornmental%20management%20p olicy%20in%20Vietnam.pdf. [9]http://vea.gov.vn/en/EnvirStatus/StateOfEnvironmentNews/Pages/Saving-rivers-and- lakes-of-Hanoi-%E2%80%93-responsibility-of-all-individuals!.aspx [10]http://khucongnghiep.com.vn/en/research/tabid/129/articleType/ArticleView/articleId /1798/Default.aspx [11]https://www.fona.de/mediathek/pdf/Project_Sheets_of_International_Projects.pdf [12]http://php.diw.go.th/idas/facesheet/44.pdf [13]http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/environment/186093/industrial-wastewater-to- blame-for-ba-bo-canal-pollution.html [14]https://crawford.anu.edu.au/rmap/pdf/_docs/water_pollution_craft/dang_et_al_2010. pdf [15]http://cem.gov.vn/Portals/0/DULIEU/bao%20cao/SoE_2008_Eng.pdf [16]https://repository.kulib.kyoto- u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/192229/1/dtikk00124.pdf [17]https://file.scirp.org/pdf/JEP_2013120910450518.pdf [18]http://plo.vn/do-thi/moi-truong/nguy-co-o-nhiem-tu-hon-27000-tan-bun-729603.html [19]https://binhdinh.eregulations.org/media/80_2014_ND-CP_248127.pdf [20]http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Session%202.3_Slide_E_Vietnam%27s%2 0delegation.pdf. [21] https://www.vietnambreakingnews.com/2015/06/giz-supports-vietnams-wastewater- management/ [22http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/mdocs/en/wipo_ip_mnl_15/wipo_ip_mnl_15_t12.p df. [23]http://www.hydroscience-group.com/ [24]http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/03/12/vietnam-world-bank- signs-us450-million-to-finance-better-living-conditions-for-ho-chi-minh-city [25]http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/175459/hanoi-calls-for-investment-in- wastewater-treatment-projects.html [26]http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-11/21/c_135846949.htm

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[27]http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/environment/127247/hcm-city-seeks-investors-for- wastewater-treatment-plant.html [28]http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/environment/176777/hcm-city-wastewater- treatment-lags.html [29]https://www.marketopportunities.fi/industrial-wastewater-treatment-in-vietnam- provides-opportunities-for-finnish-companies

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

David Nguyen Lecturer Faculty of Environment Thuy Loi University 175 Tay Son Street, Ha Noi, Vietnam Email: [email protected]

Daniel Nguyen Lecturer Faculty of Water Resources Engineering Thuy Loi University 175 Tay Son Street, Ha Noi, Vietnam Email: [email protected]

Paul Smith International Manager Advocacy and Industry Department Australian Water Association ‗ PO Box 222, St Leonards NSW 1590 Email: [email protected]

An Nguyen International Coordinator Advocacy and Industry Department Australian Water Association ‗ PO Box 222, St Leonards NSW 1590 Email: [email protected]

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