Godina / Year IV Broj / Issue 8 Decembar / December 2017 Bijelo Polje, Crna Gora (Montenegro) ISSN 2336-9981 COBISS.CG-ID 250729

Media and Communication / Mediji i komunikacije Međunarodni naučni časopis za medije, komunikacije, novinarstvo i odnose s javnošću

Media and Communication / Mediji i komunikacije International scientific journal of media, communication, journalism and public relations

Godina / Year IV Broj / Issue 8 Decembar / December 2017 Bijelo Polje, Crna Gora (Montenegro)

ISSN 2336-9981 COBISS.CG-ID 25072912 Izdavač / Publisher Grafokarton MN - Bijelo Polje

Za izdavača / For publisher

Redakcija / Redaction dr Andrijana Rabrenović Uređivački odbor čine: / The editorial board are: dr Sonja Tomović Šundić (Crna Gora/Montenegro); dr Veselin Kljajić (Srbija/Serbia); dr Gordana Vilović (Hrvatska/Croatia); dr Zoran Jevtović (Srbija/Serbia); dr Rade Veljanovski (Srbija/ Serbia); dr Vujo Vukmirica (Srbija/Serbia); dr Dubravka Valić-Nedeljković (Srbija/Serbia); dr Damir Kukić (Bosna i Hercegovina/Bosnia and Herzegovina); dr Dejan Donev (Makedonija/ Macedonia); dr Suzana Žilič Fišer (Slovenija/Slovenia); dr Željko Kaluđerović (Srbija/Serbia); dr Dragan Klarić (Crna Gora/Montenegro); mr Dragić Rabrenović (Crna Gora/Montenegro). Savjetodavni odbor: / Advisory board: dr Rowland Lorimer (Canada/Kanada); dr Paolo Mancini (Italy/Italija); dr Joseph Turow (USA/SAD); dr Giovanni Gozzini (Italy/Italija); dr Richard Rooke (United Kingdom/UK); dr Jim Aulich (United Kingdom/UK); dr Gabriella Velics Kevin Sites (China/Kina); dr Daniel C. Hallin (USA/SAD); dr Martin Allonso (Spain/Španija), dr Maria João Cunha (Portugal/Portugal); dr Zvezdan Vukanović(Hungary/Mađarska); (UAE/UAE), dr Judith dr Purkarthofer (Norway/Norveška); dr Urszula Doliwa (Poland/Poljska), dr Guy Starkey (United Kingdom/ UK), dr Nikos S. Panagiotou Glavni urednik/ Editor in Chief dr Andrijana Rabrenović (Greece/Grčka). Lektura i korektura / Proofreading & Corrections

Lektura za engleski jezik / Proofreading for English mr Dragić Rabrenović

Profesori engleskog jezika i književnosti / Professors of English Language and Literature AjanPriprema Mucević za štampui MA Maja / PrepressVojinović

Štampa / Print GrafokartonMarko Tvrdišić MN - Bijelo Polje Tiraž / Circulation 300

Članci objavljeni u časopisu se od osmog broja indeksiraju u bazi Articles published in journal from eight issue are indexed in EBSCO Communication Source

Radovi se recenziraju sa dvije anonimne recenzije / Papers are reviewed by two anonymous reviews. ČasopisElektronsko izlazi izdanje dva puta je godišnjedostupno / naThe sajtu Journal www.media-com.me. is published two times / Online a year. edition is available at www. media-com.me.

Communication/Mediji i komunikacije je upisan u evidenciju medija pod rednim brojem 738. Rješenjem Ministarstva kulture Crne Gore br. 05-209/2 od 6.2.2014. godine časopis Media and and Communications/Mediji i komunikacije is listed in the media registry under number 738. By decision2 of the Ministry of Culture of Montenegro no. 05-209/2 from 2.6.2014. the Journal of Media Međunarodni naučni časopis za medije, komunikacije, novinarstvo i odnose s javnošću International scientific journal of media, communication, journalism and public relations

Sadržaj / Table of Contents

7 Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of rights Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava

25 Juan Luis López-Aranguren A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International Communication of the Japanese Political and Economic Actors

Glokalizam - zasnovan na pristupu međunarodnog komuniciranja 43 Ekmeljapanskih Gecer političkih i ekonomskih aktera Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th July Coup Attempt in Turkey

65 KristynaGrađansko Vyslouzilova novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog udara 15. jula u Turskoj Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What are the Barriers?

83 SigneOpavdanost Ivask javnihmedijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su prepreke? Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists consider leaving the field Novinari pod stresom štampanih, digitalnih i konvergiranih redakcija razmišljaju o napuštanju terena

101 Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists Izveštavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih novinara

125 Tena Malinić, Gordana Lesinger, Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta - Struke i praktičara za odnose s javnošću Crisis of Communication Image and Identity - of the Profession and Practice of Public Relations

5 143 Branislava Kragović Uloga novih medija u zamrznutom konfliktu i pridobijanje javne pažnje

155 MirelaThe Role Karahasanović, of New Media in Amela a Frozen Delić Conflict and Gaining Public Attention Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni i Hercegovini Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia and Herzegovina

175 Prikaz knjige/Book review Mediji i javni interes - zbornik radova 6. regionalne konferencije ‘’Vjerodostojnost medija’’

Urednice: Viktorija Car, Marijana Matović, Lejla Turčilo 179 PrikazPrikaz: Tanjaknjige/Book Grmuša review Gospodari medija

Autor: Marčelo Foa 183 UputstvoPrikaz: Dragić autorima Rabrenović Instructions for authors

6 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, Associate Professor

Information Sciences Department, Education and Humanities Division, UDK 316.72(72) 1

UniversityMSc Citlalli of Sánchez Monterrey, Hernández, Monterrey, General Nuevo CoordinatorLeón, Mexico 2

A Favor de lo Mejor (Partnership for Best, A.C), Mexico City, Mexico Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of rights

Abstract: of Audience’s Culture, and partly presents the data obtained through surveys. One of the objectivesThis was research to identify made which in Monterrey,contents Monterrey Mexico, introduces audiences theconsider concept as

Culture is the result of the discussion regarding the need for people to recognize theirgood andrights bad and examples demand of them, some asof thewell audience’s as to assume rights. their The role concept as critical of Audience’s and informed audience so they may actively participate along with institutions and media in the improvement of content quality. Results show that Monterrey audiences do Originalni naučni rad / Original scientific article identify programs and public figures that are aligned with their rights according to the Law, but also have a very clear view on which of them discriminate, are violent (verballyKey words:and physically), Audiences, or Audience’ssexist. rights, Audience Culture, Monterrey, Mexico

1 [email protected] 2 [email protected] 7 dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, vanredni profesor

Odsjek za informacione nauke, Odeljenje za obrazovanje i humanističke nauke, Univeryitetmr Citlali Monterej, Sančez Monterej, Hernandez, Novi generalni Leon, Meksiko koordinator Asocijacija Partnerstvo za najbolje, Meksiko siti, Meksiko

Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava

Apstrakt: -

Ovo istraživanje sprovedeno u Montereju, Meksiko, uvodi koncep primjerimaciju kulture publikenekih prava i djelimično publike. prikazuje Koncept podatkekulture dobijenepublike je kroz rezultat ankete. rasprave Jedan od o ciljeva bio je da se utvrdi koje sadržaje publika Montereja smatra dobrim i lošim - potrebi da građani prepoznaju i zahtijevaju svoja prava, kao i da preuzmu ulogu kritične i informisane publike tako da mogu aktivno učestvovati zajedno sa insti tucijama i medijima u poboljšanju kvaliteta sadržaja. Rezultati pokazuju da publika u Montereju identifikuje programe i javne ličnosti koje su usklađeni sa njihovim pravima u skladu sa Zakonom, ali takođe imaju vrlo jasan stav o tome koji od njih su diskriminišući,Ključne riječi: nasilni publika, (verbalno prava publike, i fizički) kultura ili seksistički. publike, Monterej, Meksiko

8 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ...

Introduction

- at home,Monterrey and over and 50% its metropolitan had paid services. area is aIn population addition, 70.1%in Mexico of the that households has an im listenedportant audienceto the radio. to be This studied city is due in the to secondthe fact statethat bywith 2015, the mostover 97%Internet had penetra a TV set- tion inThough Mexico protection (65.3%), totherefore the rights it canof the be audiencesargued that is thementioned people inin thisarticle region 6 of arethe very often exposed to the media (INEGI, 2015). - - ingMexican Act) that Political an entire Constitution, chapter wasit is notdedicated until 2014 to audiences’ with the Leyrights, Federal to the de rights Telecomu of the audiencesnicaciones with y Radiodifusión disabilities and (LFTR, the audiences’The Federal advocacy. Telecommunications Though accepting and Broadcast the guidelines has been a controversial issue during 2017 in the Senate (2017), the debate has allowed discussion on the need to generate strategies so that the contents of the media are more in tune with the audiences’ interests than with those of its sponsors. In view of the need to carry out a diagnosis on the perceptions of the audiences from this region in connection with the contents of the local media, as well as their uses in their everyday life, the research project called “Cultura de Audiencias Re- giomontanas” (Culture of Regiomontana3 Audiences) was conducted. The present survey, which correspond precisely with “the Audiences’ Rights”, and its objective ispaper to describe sets out the the evaluation results obtained that the in Regiomontano one of the five societysections has that made make in uprespect the full to the media contents they consider as positive and negative from the perspective of the audiences’ rights. - of diversityThree fractions and plurality of LFTR of ideas article and 256 opinions were taken that as strengthen basis for this the section:democratic (II) Relife ofceiving society; programming (III) That news that informationincludes different be clearly genres differentiated that account from for the the expression opinion of orientation,those who present marital it; status (VIII) or All any forms other of discriminationform that attempts based against on ethnic human or national dignity andorigin, whose gender, objective age, disabilities, is to undermine social orthe health rights condition, and liberties religion, of the opinions, people, amongsexual others, are forbidden in the rendering of broadcasting services. The results show that the Regiomontano public recognizes local shows as identify certain contents that do not protect some social groups as audiences. This good examples of the exercise of the above-mentioned rights, although they also programsknowledge that about support what and the urgepublic the identifies audience as to programs be active inthat a critical comply sense, or not so with that the audiences’Audiences’ rights Culture is the– a firstconcept step put to bet forth on theby the implementation authors – begins of media to permeate literacy among the Regiomontano society.

3 Regiomontana or regiomontano, is the gentilic for the people who are originally from Monterrey. 9 dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, mr Citlali Sančez Hernandez Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava

Theoretical framework

Media Education is a tool that allows empowering the audiences. Authors like Potter (2016) have continued the efforts set out by referents of media literacy such as Buckingham, indicating on the agenda of this movement the need to develop abil-

However, Mihailidis (2014) proposes another level of action by urging practices by ities in individuals to be able to exercise critical thinking before the media contents.- tion. To him, it is not only important to know the strategies of the information and entertainmentthe users that promote industries, diversification but also the of fact ideas, that as audiences well as social should and getcivic involved participa in these routines by means of the responsible consumption and dialog with the media. of audiences’ rights, it is necessary for society to start considering its role as media In view of the recent modifications to the Mexican legislation on the subject consumers and prosumers. The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States,- in its Article 6 Fraction IV mentions the establishment of the audiences’ rights and- its protection mechanisms, along with what is specified in this article about free aboutdom of the expression audiences’ and rights, the right and theto information. corresponding It is guidelines in The Federal that indicateTelecommuni media literacycations andas the Broadcasting way for the Act public, (LFTR) the -viewer, passed the in 2014 radio - listener where a and section the user is included of digital media to be aware of the importance that media contents have in their decision-making processes. In view of the decision of the House of Representatives to propose a counterre- clearly identifying elements that distinguish publicity from information, as well as theform fact that that eliminates the media several themselves of the can rights select proposed their own in the ombudsman new LFTR (AMEDI, - among 2017; them rights so that it is possible to demand the defense of the people’s interests as op- posedVillamil, to 2017)that of - the it is media important sponsors. to have the audiences know the possibility of these Masterman (1993) mentions several arguments in favor of media education, which can be also used as arguments to strengthen the diffusion of the audiences’

The high rate of media consumption and their saturation in contemporary so- rights: theciety; dizzying the children’s increase and of national teenagers’ and vulnerability international in pressure the context to privatize of an ever information, growing whichmedia consumption;challenges independent (…) the influence voices ofand the different media on visions; our democratic the conviction processes; that (…)the

With these arguments, Herrera (2008) confers the media contents the rele- vancemedia thatdo not audiences only reflect have reality, always but had, also createbut had a specificnot been reality considered (1993, 16-17).until recent years. For the audiences to manage to acknowledge themselves as such, to know their rights and demand them making use of the instruments that institutions put at their disposal, it is necessary to start by media education.

10 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ... way a society has acknowledged the importance of the media, but above all, its role as anThe active, case engaged of media audience literacy regardingin South Korea the improvement is one of the clearest of the contents. examples of the Today, education on the media in Korea is marked by different initiatives and promoters, ranging from government organizations to media industry, including civil society associations and voluntary educator groups. The Act of Diffusion, re- viewedCitizen in 2000, mobilization has provided by the the media legal begins basis forwith media the political education circumstances to protect TVof 1980,viewers’ when rights South (Jeong Korea et al, was 2009, under 95). an authoritarian regime that controlled the - scription fee to the public media, and in 1986 they launched the “Movement against thepress subscription and freedom fee of to expression. KBS”, and for The three South years Korean they societywere supported opposed bypaying the major a sub-

2009).ity of the citizens. Over time, the movement’s cause became the TV audiences, and the activistsWith the started end of to the work military for increasing regime in thethe audiences’late 1980’s, awareness there was (Jeong noteworthy et al., improvement in terms of freedom of press and more spaces and options for the public were opened. The movement had worked out for in primary schools, the

This audiences’ empowering process in South Korea has enabled the society to be- cometeachers involved took thedirectly initiative with tomedia teach contents media educationand at the insame extracurricular time it has caused activities. the government to become interested in the quality of the media and the education of

- those who consume them (Jeong et al., 2009). In Mexico, the audiences’ rights are recognized officially in Article 6 of the Con thestitution, audiences’ and they rights, are butenunciated also establishes specifically the in rights The Federalof disabled Telecommunications audiences in its and Broadcasting Act, which came into force in 2014. Chapter IV addresses not only- budsman is obligatory, another tool that supports society in its work for helping second section, and the third section declares that the figure of the audiences’ om For the present research, the section on the audiences’ rights has its basis on and contributing to improve media contents (LFTR, 2014). - opinionsfractions thatof article strengthen 256 of the the democratic LFTR: (II) Receivinglife of society; programming (III) That news that includesinformation dif ferent genres that account for the expression of diversity and plurality of ideas and discrimination based on ethnic or national origin, gender, age, disabilities, social or be clearly differentiated from the opinion of those who present it; (VIII) All forms of form that attempts against human dignity and whose objective is to undermine the health condition, religion, opinions, sexual orientation, marital status or any other The right concerning receiving diverse, plural programming was set out from rights and liberties of the people, among others (LFTR, 2014). - the following statements: programming should promote educational, cultural and civic formation; programs should allow me to express my opinion about them; pro11 dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, mr Citlali Sančez Hernandez Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava gramming should include indigenous communities in their contents. Both the posi- the audience considers as educational, informative and entertainment contents, or else,tive and programs the negative that do examples not favor presented diversity by of theopinions respondents presenting allow a unilateralus to know vision what

As to the right regarding the fact that news information should be differentiat- edof thefrom Mexican the anchor’s society opinions, (LFTR, 2014). the following statement was formulated “Programs should provide objective, truthful information”. Even though the public may have a clear distinction between a news show and an entertainment program, it is also the audiences’ rights that announcers or newsreaders on news shows be clear when they provide their opinions and they should stress that they are personal opinions, not part of the objective facts. The importance of this right is relevant in the formation of opinions and election criteria, not only at electoral times, but also for civic participation (LFTR, 2014). and theLastly, young; discrimination programs should as a prohibitive have mechanisms act for any to reasonfacilitate or accesscircumstance to contents was bypresented people withfrom disabilities.the following The statements: struggle against programming discrimination should protect is one of the the children issues that concerns the most in terms of media contents, because the normalization of bullying at school or work, classism and negative attitudes towards the traditional

2014). Mexican culture, are present in shows targeting children and youngsters (LFTR, media literacy, which results in critical thinking, whose potential as a tool will de- The knowledge the audiences have about their rights is the first step towards That is the foundation of Audiences’ Culture, which is proposed in this paper as apend theoretical on the Mexican concept society’sin which recognizingsociety assumes itself being as an criticalactive, participativebefore media audience. contents audiences’in their everyday and the life, audiences’ knowing ombudsman’sand exerting their rights; rights appropriation before the institutions of the rights and to bethe critical media. beforeThe Audiences’ what they Culture see and starts listen from to; diffusionfour principles: of the audiences’knowledge rights about and the before the institutions that surveil them and the media. the mechanismsThe objective for of their the presentdefense; paper and the is to active describe exercise the Regiomontanoof the audiences’ society’s rights perception regarding the media contents they consider as positive and negative from the perspective of the audiences’ rights.

Methodology

In October 2015, a total 471 surveys were conducted in public areas of Mon- terrey, with the purpose of obtaining a diverse sample in terms of age, socioeconomic levels, inhabitants from different municipalities, and interests. The survey

12 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ... was designed jointly by the two institutions and a group of people was trained to conduct the survey on busy days (mainly on the weekend). The questionnaire was made up of different categories, such as consumption - cerning this article is entitled “Audiences’ Rights”. of TV,This radio section’s and local dynamics newspaper, consisted audiences’ in naming profile, different among rights, others. and The asking one con the of each of these rights. Interestingly, the pollsters indicated that this section seemed controversialrespondent to to mention them because at least many a good respondents example and had a bada hard example time answering. from the media That is why, despite the fact that 471 surveys were conducted, the results show numbers that are considerably lower in the answers analyzed. Even though it is not the core of this work, the number of respondents that watch certain programs is also mentioned. However, only data about the local programming are provided, therefore in cases in which a national or international con-

- ysistent oron figure the software is mentioned SPSS. asIn a the good case or badof this example, section, these which data as are indicated not mentioned. earlier was handledAfter the in field the work,form ofall open the questionnaires questions, a frequencies were encoded run towas carry carried out theout, anal and then the answers that were repeated more than three times were reported. The tables presented in the results section will show only the three most frequently mentioned examples in each statement. Analysis of the results

- mentsOn were the setbasis out of in fractions connection II, III with and these VIII ofrights. LFTR article 256 (2014) regarding the audiences’ rights, explained in the theoretical section of this work, six state-

To explain the perception of the right concerning receiving diverse, plural pro opiniongramming, about the them;following programming statements should were presented: include indigenous programming communities should promote in their contents.educational, cultural and civic formation, programs should allow me to express my Regarding “programming should promote educational, cultural and civic forma- of Alvarado), the Discovery Channel (in several of its versions), and Cambios (Chang- tion,” the good examples mentioned more often were Reportajes de Alvarado (Reports-

Abiertoes). Some (Open others Workshop) mentioned whose in this content answer deals was withCanal local 28 better artists known and creators, as TVNL, pro financed by the Government of the State of Nuevo León, that is, a public channel; Taller rose of Guadalupe), produced by Televisa and broadcast at a national level. ducedThe by caseMultimedios; of Reportajes the History de Alvarado, Channel; which and wasthe show one of La the Rosa most de frequentlyGuadalupe men (The- tioned as good examples, is a show whose content is touristic in character, and13 it dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, mr Citlali Sančez Hernandez Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava is to show the region’s cultural diversity. 20.2% of the respondents watch this show regularly,visits mainly and Nuevo another León 20.2% destinations. said that they It is had produced watched by it Televisa, at least once and inits their objective lives. The program Cambios is produced by Multimedios, and it is hosted by Archi- tect Benavides, who is a Regiomontano icon. He is also the newsreader on the evening news show Telediario, the one with the highest rating in the state, belonging to the same conglomerate Multimedios. The purpose of this show is to discuss respondents indicate that they watch it regularly, while 14.2 mentioned that they havedifferent seen general it once. public-interest issues through a panel of experts. 12.1% of the

Regarding the second most mentioned example, it is a US brand that was named in different versions: Discovery Channel, Discovery Kids and Discovery Home and Health. Table 1 below shows the frequenciesTable 1 .of said examples: civic formation” Good examples of “Programming should promote educational, cultural and Frequency Reportajes de Alvarado 31 Discovery 19 Cambios 10

Source: Authors Ernesto Chavana’s character, then the program Acábatelo (Finish it), and the host As to the bad examples indicated in this section, the first place was taken by Chavana is also a Regiomontano television icon; he hosts and produces the entireLaura Bozzoevening in slotthe thirdon Multimedios. place. At the moment this research was being con- 4 (The Soccer Nights) on Monday and Tuesday, he had a variety show on Wednesday, Premios Fama (Fame Awards, a ducted, he participated on Las Noches del Fútbol5 It is important to mention that by the end of this result report, the answers con- singing contest) on Thursday, and Volumen 4 (Volume 4, a revue show) on Friday. were compiled in the frequencies shown. Despite his popularity, he is criticized for cerning “Chavana”, “Las Noches de Fútbol”, “Fama/Premios Fama”, and “Volumen 4” The show Acábatelo, also by Multimedios, is hosted by Mario Bezares. The con- producing banal, sexist and discriminatory contents. tent is similar to that of a revue show, but it does not have a well-defined structure 4since 19.1% it of mixes the respondents the talk showwatch itstyle regularly, with unlike contests, 23.4% dance who have presentations, seen it only once. and comedy 5 This show is watched regularly by 8.7% of the respondents, unlike 10.6% who have seen it only once. 14 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ... physical and verbal violence with the intention of making humor “for all the family”. 18.3%sketches. of theIt is respondents also criticized see for it itsregularly, sexist contents, while 28.9 the only use watch of double it occasionally. entendre and

And finally, Laura Bozzo is a Peruvian hostess who became popular due to her- show Laura en América (Laura in America), produced by Telemundo. Since 2009 hasshe hashad hadover shows the course in Mexico, of time first with through her shows, TV Azteca as well and asthen public in 2011, confrontations with Tele visa. The criticism towards this public figure concerns several legal scandals she with other renown Latin American hosts. Table 2 shows the frequencies with which these three examples were cited. Table 2. formation” Bad examples of “Programming should promote educational, cultural and civic Frequency Chavana 105 Acábatelo 23 Laura Bozzo 19

The following statement concerningSource: Authors the right to diversity and plurality was clarify that most respondents associated this statement with the possibility of con- tacting“programs them should by using allow the me telephone to express or othermy opinion digital aboutmedia. them”. It is important to by Telediario6 and Cambios, both by Multimedios. Others responded with less fre- quencyThe mentioning most often hostsmentioned Architect good Benavides, examples Carmenwere the Aristegui, newscast and genre, Chavana; followed or 7 (Soccer else shows such as Pasión Futbolera (Soccer Passion) and Fútbol al día - siderToday). that Two the important stories are cases inspired to highlight in true areevents the aboutshows their Mujer, public. Casos de la Vida Real (Woman,It is alsoReal noteworthy Life Stories) that and this La Rosa section de Guadalupe,included answers since some about participants radio program con-

- miliarming, 8which did not happen in other items. Some of the examples are: El Show del contentsCepyBoy, thatEl Diva are Show,not proper La Pijama for all Morning kinds of Show, publics Los and Manríquez the fact that and they Fernanda are aired Fa at hours. Many that areof these not appropriate; shows are constantly and yet, the criticized participants for their believe sex andthat languagethey can

6 Seen regularly by 42.9% of the respondents and watched once by 37.4%.

8 The Show del Cepyboy is listened to by 15.1% of the respondents on a regular basis, El Diva Show by 7 Pasión Futbolera is watched by 14.2% of the respondents regularly, while Futbol al día by 17.2%.

8.9%, La Pijama Morning Show by 7.6%, and Los Manríquez by 5.9%. 15 dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, mr Citlali Sančez Hernandez Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava

work as good examples due to their accessibility to calls from the audiences. Table 3 shows the frequencies of what is explainedTable 3. above: them” Good examples of “Programs should allow me to express my opinion about Frequency “Noticias” (News) 19 Telediario 15 Cambios 14

Source: Authors - timediosSome in examples general. Althoughconsidered the as shows bad inmentioned this aspect have by livethe audiencesrespondents and (Table free- 4)of-charge were hosts access Chavana for the and general Laura public, Bozzo, as as well well as as active the show social Acábatelo networks and for Mul the audiences, it is possible that the people’s opinion reflects their feelings towards the content’s quality rather than the issueTable of freedom 4. of expression or the right to reply. them” Bad examples of “Programs should allow me to express my opinion about Frequency Chavana 14 Acábatelo 9 Laura en América 9 Multimedios 9

Source: Authors - gramming was “Programming should include the indigenous communities in their The third statement, which identifies the right to diversity and plurality of pro contents”. The first place of the good examples (Table 5), with a frequency that was presentsignificantly in the greater state and than the the neighboring second one, regions, was the and show therefore, Reportajes inclusion de Alvarado, of differ- whichent social due groups to the ofnature the population. of its contents implies exposure to the cultural diversity News shows in general appear with less frequency, the brand Discovery, the - public channel TVNL; as well as channel 11 (public television), National Geograph 16 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ...

9 and public ads (INE10 and Government). ic, La Rosa de Guadalupe Table 5. in their contents” Good examples of “Programming should include the indigenous communities Frequency Reportajes de Alvarado 42 “Noticias” 8 Discovery 7 TVNL (Canal 28) 7

Once again, Ernesto Chavana, Source: Multimedios Authors in general, and Acábatelo appear as it is common to include humorous characters that parody indigenous communities onbad Multimedios examples (Table entertainment 6). As in the shows. case of Ethnic the discrimination discrimination against is a constant disabled in people, media there were no shows that include the indigenous communities. contents in Nuevo León. In addition to this, many wrote answers that indicated that Table 6. their contents” Bad examples of “Programming should include the indigenous communities in Frecuencia Multimedios 10 Chavana 15 Acábatelo 6

As to the second right presented,Source: that Authors news information should be differentiated from the newscasters’ opinion, the statement formulated was “Programs should provide objective, truthful information”, which was thought of in connection with the news shows Telediario and Info7, and the genre “News”. Hostess Carmen Ariste- gui,the news.the news The showthree Milenio,good examples and host (Table Architect 7) that Benavides were more were often indicated mentioned with were less frequency. Regarding the programming that is not related with the news, channels such as Discovery, History Channel were mentioned as well as shows such as Cam-

is in line with the catholic morale. 109 La INE Rosa is thede Guadalupeacronym for is Institutoa fiction show Nacional whose Electoral, episodes National narrate Electoral social issues. Institute. The moral of its stories 17 dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, mr Citlali Sančez Hernandez Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava

The news show Telediario belongs to the Multimedios group and it has a morn- bios, Reportajes de Alvarado, or Cocinando con Gerónimo (Cooking with Gerónimo). - ninging, an one afternoon by Architect and Benavides. an evening This version. time theThe answers morning concerning version is “Telediario”hosted by Josué and “ArchitectBecerra and Benavides” Claudia Ovalle, were notthe afternooncombined onebecause by María this hostJulia doesLafuente, not appear and the on eve all the editions. In general, the news (in any of its versions) is watched regularly by 42.9% of the respondents.

Azteca channel, Azteca Noreste. It is watched regularly by 37.6% of the respondents. Finally,The news regarding shows Info7the generalized is hosted byanswer Luis Paduaabout “Newsand broadcast shows”, itby has the to local do with TV answers they showed some incredulity regarding television, especially Multimedi- os,the they audiences’ believe expectations that news shows in respect in general of what provide the news truthful, shows objective say. Though information. in other Table 7 below shows the frequencies.

Table 7.

Good examples of “Programs should provide Frequencyobjective, truthful information” Telediario 36 “Noticieros” (News 27 shows) Info7 18

Source: Authors often mentioned, although less frequently so. However, it is noteworthy that in this sectionParadoxically, other types bad of shows examples are indicated(Table 8) morerepeat often Telediario than news among shows the threein general, most 11; or else such as hostess Laura Bozzo, Chavana, and less often Poncho de Nigris Multimediosshows such as in Acábatelogeneral. and Vivalavi (a revue show by Multimedios, which has sectionsIt is withinteresting experts to on observe child psychology, that the respondents couple’s therapy, when answeringworking out, with etc.); these or provide truthful, objective information. bad examples (Table 8), have the expectations that entertainment shows must also

particular,11 Poncho Poncho De Nigris participated is a public on figure the second that is season popular of thedue reality to the showfact that Big Brother,he is the and brother then heof wastwo anfamous actor soccer on Televisa players: telenovelas. Antonio Heand has Aldo hosted De Nigris. several Both programs played for for Multimedios, the Monterrey and Soccer at the momentClub. In of the study, he was hosting “Poncho en Domingo”. 7.9% of the respondents watched this show on a regular basis, while 15.5% claimed to have seen it at least once. 18 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ...

Table 8.

Bad examples of “Programs should provideFrequency objective, truthful information” Laura Bozzo 23 Telediario 20 Chavana 22

Source: Authors the basis of any reasons or circumstances was set out from the following state- Lastly, fraction VIII that addresses the prohibition of acts of discrimination on have mechanisms to facilitate access to contents by disabled people. ments:Regarding programming the statement should protect “Programming the children should and protectthe young; the programschildren and should the young”, the results referring to the good examples (Table 9) highlighted the genre “Cartoons” in general, although specific examples are mentioned such as Dora the musicExplorer, show PeppaPig, for kids), Sponge and Sesame Bob; orStreet; else orprograms the brand targeting Disney. the children such as Chabelo, El Chavo del 8 (often known as “The Lad”), Bely and Beto (a Regiomontano The show “En familia con Chabelo” (In family with Chabelo) was hosted by Xavier Chabelo is a children’s icon on Mexican television due to his long trajectory.- tests, games, songs and dances. López Rodríguez since 1967 on Televisa at a national level. Its contents include con

SpanishDora to the her Explorer audiences. is a US cartoon character produced by Nickelodeon, she is a girl of Mexican descent. She is considered to be educational because she teaches Table 9.

Good examples of “Programming should protect the Frequencychildren and the young” “Caricaturas” 31 Chabelo 22 Dora la Exploradora 13

Source: Authors - tioned, along with the telenovela genre in general, and the contents by Multimedios. Among the bad examples (Table 10) once again the show Acábatelo is men - Other examples indicated less often are Ernesto Chavana, Laura Bozzo, Poncho de Nigris, La Rosa de Guadalupe; or else contents that are specifically for adult audi ences such as Playboy, Jersey Shore or Acapulco Shore and Platanito Show. In this 19 dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, mr Citlali Sančez Hernandez Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava sense, it is evident that it necessary to educate the audiences in terms of the iden- produce programming only for children. tification of the programming rating system, because the media are not obliged to Table 10.

Bad examples of “Programming should protectFrequency the children and the young” Acábatelo 42 “Novelas” 26 Multimedios 13

Source: Authors should have mechanisms to facilitate access to contents by disabled people”. In The next statement regarding discrimination in the contents is: “Programs respondents were able to remember the efforts made by the news show hosted by particular, the answers of good examples (Table 11) showed an upturn in which language translator who is present during the program. Almost one fourth of the Lolita Ayala, aired in the Televisa afternoon time slot. On this show, there is a sign Something interesting to mention is the fact that respondents also mentioned programsrespondents that recognized have characters it as a good portraying example. disabled people, such as US series Dr. House and Glee.

Table 11. contents by disabled people” Good examples of “Programs should have mechanisms to facilitate access to Frequency Lolita Ayala 109 “Noticieros” 21 Teletón (Telethon) 10

Source: Authors Multimedios in general were mentioned, as well as the news in general; in addition to entertainmentAmong the bad shows examples such as in Poncho this section de Nigris, (Table Acábatelo 12) Chavana, and the Telediario telenovelas and in general. It is common for Multimedios entertainment shows to have on their cast elderly or disabled people that are often the target of the hosts’ mockery. A show prior to Poncho de Nigris was canceled due to the degree of verbal and physical violence elderly people were subjected to.

20 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ...

Table 12. contents by disabled people” Bad examples of “Programs should have mechanisms to facilitate access to Frequency Chavana 13 Telediario 10 Multimedios 9

In general, it is possible to observeSource: that Authors there is a tendency among the respondents to recognize what some shows programs, channels or hosts are doing right, rather than indicate what they are doing wrong and that is evident through the there is a predilection for accusing certain programs, regardless of whether it is partnumbers of their and objectives the frequencies. or their As genre to the to bad comply examples or not indicated, with the regulation. it is also clear In Nue that- well known among the audience as poor-quality content, one that is discriminatory, vo León, the case of the entertainment programming produced by Multimedios is hosts at the cast and even the public present. The audience admits that, in local sexist and where it is common to witness physical and verbal violence by the main are disregarded. programming, Multimedios is a clear example of the fact that the audiences’ rights

Discussion

As part of the guidelines initially proposed for the section on the audiences’ rights included in the LFTR (2014), a chapter on media literacy was considered. It onis essential the part forof the the audiencesauthors of so this that study they to are discuss capable the ofredefinition recognizing of thethis rights academic and wrongsmovement, of each in the program. sense that It is the crucial current for thecontext public requires, to know firstly, the objectives critical thinking of each genre so that their criticism is adequate enough to demand from the genres what corresponds to each. This way criticism will be understood as a valid judgment and not simply as a way of satanizing the programs in all the aspects. Taking this study as the basis, it would seem as if the audiences, once they have a negative perception and therefore, they are “absolutely bad” in their opinion. aboutThe a program, objective figure of media or channel, literacy have is not a hardonly timeto orient finding the a audiences good quality in thein them process of discerning “good” from “bad” contents, but also to have each and every viewer, listener, net surfer, or gamer act in a responsible manner in terms of their media consumption and in terms of what other people around them are consuming, in

21 dr Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, mr Citlali Sančez Hernandez Kultura publike Montereja i njihovo priznavanje prava a way so that they are capable of establishing a dialog in connection with these

Howcontents: do I approachhow can I to explain subject to of my gender children stereotypes the contents that aboutappear drug on the traffic telenovelas apology present in some series? Am I aware of the violence present on some videogames? that myAs mentionedteenage sisters at the are beginning, watching? media What isliteracy the general is one balance of the toolsof the that quality allow of the contents I watch all the time? know that they have rights, that there are mechanisms to defend them and that they audiences’ empowerment: the public needs to assume themselves as audiences, to- tablished by the law. In addition, they should also know the objectives of each type ofhave program, the possibility as well asof thedemanding hours for that each the age media and typecomply of audiences. with the expectations es as a result,Secondly, this it implies is imperative accessibility to redefine to many the sources concept of information of active audiences, or dialog sincewith theNuevo programming León is the secondthey have state at withtheir the disposal. greatest In Internet addition penetration to being audiences, in Mexico they and are also users and that allows them to confer the media a democratic character, and therefore it is recommended that a responsible use of them be taught.

Regiomontano people are capable of recognizing what program, host or audiovisual This study has proved, despite the difficulties expressed by the pollsters, that in a responsible manner, and on the contrary which present situations of discrimi- content is inclusive, law-abiding, informative and exercises freedom of expression nation on the basis of gender, sexual orientation or physical appearance, verbal or physicalAs mentioned violence, and above, even it sexism, is essential in a context for Media where Education the audiences’ to also rights focus areon notthe diffusionknown and of newits rights, legislation so that existing the audiences in Mexico feel has empowered not been diffused to demand enough. its compliance for the welfare of society. The concept of Audiences’ Culture, put forth by the authors, intends to become a tool that supports this empowerment, the defense of the rights and the promotion of an informed, critical society that works hand in hand with the institutions and the media. the synergy between the academia and the civil organizations that represent the viewer,In additionlistener, netto being surfers a theoretical and gamers proposal, as citizens. audiences’ This paper culture is also is a an reflection invitation of for both, the academic sector and the NGO’s, to work jointly because only by listening to the audiences will we be able to know their needs and concerns, which areas communication. of opportunity for new research are for the continual development of the field of

22 PhD Beatriz Elena Inzunza Acedo, MSc Citlalli Sánchez Hernández Monterrey’s Audience Culture and their acknowledgement of ...

References

• AMEDI. (2017). Diputados pretenden contrarreforma y suprimir derechos de

- trarreforma-y-suprimir-derechos-de-las-audiencias/las audiencias. Asociación Mexicana de Derecho a la Información. Retrieved • April 30, 2017 from: http://www.amedi.org.mx/diputados-pretenden-con

pdfConstitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. (2016). Retrieved April • Herrera,30, 2017 S. from:(2008). http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/1_240217. El defensor de la audiencia como instrumento para la edu-

• cación en medios. Comunicar, 15(30), 125-130. INEGI. (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía), (2015). Sociedad de- información. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. Retrieved April • 30, 2017 from: http://www3.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/temas/default.aspx ?s=est&c=19007 85-95.Jeong, H., Ahn, J., Kim, K., Jeon, G., Cho, Y. & Kim, Y. (2009). Historia, política • y prácticas de la educación en medios en Corea del Sur. Comunicar, 16 (32),- - LFTR. (Ley Federal de Telecomunicaciones y Radiodifusión), (2014). Re • trieved April 30, 2017 from: http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codi Dego=5352323&fecha=14/07/2014 la Torre. • Masterman, L. (1993). La enseñanza de los medios de comunicación. Madrid:-

• Mihailidis, P. (2014). Media Literacy and the Emerging Citizen. New York: Pe- tions.ter Lang Publishing. • Potter, J. (2016). Introduction to Media Literacy. (4th Ed.) USA: SAGE Publica - Villamil, J. (2017). Ley Televisa Döring atenta contra derechos de audiencias,- cias-alertan-14-ongalertan 14 ONG. Proceso. Retrieved April 30, 2017 from: http://www.pro ceso.com.mx/484169/ley-televisa-doring-atenta-contra-derechos-audien

PhD Juan Luis López-Aranguren, Associate Professor

Faculty of Law, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain1 UDK 316.774:005.44(520)

A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International Communication of the Japanese Political and Economic Actors2

Abstract: International communication plays an increasingly fundamental role in the projection of Japan in the globalized world. Companies, governments, and associations of Japanese civil society face the challenge of projecting their identity into an increasingly complex and interrelated public sphere. In a 21st century dominated by the information society paradigm as a global phenomenon, this public sphere of discussion and debate is, also, global. Therefore, Japanese political and economic actors face the need to adapt their communication to this new inter- - lenge in glocalism, the paradigm that merges global and local dimensions to provide anational more holistic communicative view of the dimension. current globalized Japan can world. find a possibleThis terminology, solution tooriginally this chal a Japanese marketing communication concept, dochakuka, has spread outover other disciplines of the social sciences providing useful tools to understand and study the glocalism to study and reinterpret the international communication of the Japanese politicalconfluence and of economiclocal identities actors and are global analyzed dynamics. as a tool In this to increasearticle, the the possibilities competitive of- ness, international visibility and global projection of Japan. Originalni naučni rad / Original scientific article

Key words: Japan, Globalization, Glocalism, Communication, International Communication

1 [email protected] 2 This research was funded by the Japan Foundation Japanese Studies Fellowship Program for the FY 2016/2017 as a part of the Postdoctoral Research Project “Communication, Democracy and Poli- cy-Making in Japan: A Study on the Role of the International Communication in Japanese Social Cohe- sion and in the Government’s Social Endorsement”. 25 dr Huan Luiz Lopez-Aranguren, vanredni profesor Pravni fakultet, Univerzitet u Saragosi, Saragosa, Španija

Glokalizam - zasnovan na pristupu međunarodnog komuniciranja japanskih političkih i ekonomskih aktera3

Apstrakt: - - Međunarodno komuniciranje ima sve bitniju ulogu u projekciji Japa povezanojna u globalizovanom javnoj sferi. svijetu. U 21. Kompanije, vijeku, u komevlade idominira udruženja paradigma japanskog informacionogcivilnog društ va suočavaju se sa izazovom projektovanja identiteta u sve složenijoj i međusobno- - društva kao globalnog fenomena, javna sfera diskusije i debate je takođe global na. Zbog toga se japanski politički i ekonomski akteri suočavaju sa potrebom pri- lagođavanja komunikacije novoj međunarodnoj komunikativnoj dimenziji. Japan- može naći moguće rješenje ovog izazova u glokalizmu, paradigmi koja spaja global- je,ne dochakukai lokalne dimenzije kako bi pružila sveobuhvatniji pogled na trenutni globalizo vani svijet. Ova terminologija, prvobitni japanski marketinški koncept komunikaci , proširio se na druge discipline društvenih nauka pružajuci korisna sredstva za razumijevanje i proučavanje sjedinjavanja lokalnih identiteta i globalne- dinamike. U ovom članku su analizirane mogucnosti glokalizma za proučavanje -i balnereinterpretaciju projekcije međunarodneJapana. komunikacije japanskih političkih i ekonomskih ak tera kao instrumenta za povecanje konkurentnosti, međunarodne vidljivosti i glo Ključne riječi: Japan, globalizacija, glokalizam, komunikacije, međunarodno komuniciranje

- 3 Ovo istraživanje je finansirano od strane Japanske Fondacija Japanski studijski program stipendija za FY 2016/2017 u sklopu postdoktorskog istraživačkog projekta “Komunikacija, demokratija i poli tika u Japanu: Studija o ulozi međunarodne komunikacije u japanskoj socijalnoj koheziji i u vladinoj 26socijalnoj podršci “. PhD Juan Luis López-Aranguren A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International ...

Introduction

Japan is deeply involved in the globalization trend by increasing its global operations, its integration with intra-regional international trade in East Asia and the number and variety of offshoring activities (Tomiura, 2012). In light of this picture, the search for an effective communicative approach to society by different Japa- nese political and economic actors that participate in the international communication process is facing some challenges. This suggests there is a need for a new paradigm under which this dimension could be effectively articulated. One of the most important factors that cause this new situation is the increase in complexity of modern societies around the globe due to the emerging global communicative dimension where the regional cultural frameworks are becoming transnational. These two phenomena are turning the social ecosystem of these societies into multicultural environments with growing diversity in their ethnic social groups, religions, cultural backgrounds, languages and socialization patterns. The companies that struggle to offer products and services in a growing competitive environment have to face this complexity, especially in their communication strategies. This is a situation in which the Japanese companies are not an exception. The possibilities of the study of the connections between the cultural/com- literature that has been produced on this topic. In this sense, there have been previ- ousmunicative studies dimensionabout how theand cultural the political differences and economic have an fieldimportant can be impact seen in on the Japan’s large social dynamics and, therefore, affects the political and economic dimension, for example with the study of the generational and cultural differences about the marriage institution (Sakamoto, Kitamura, 2007), its regional differences (Kitamura, Miyazaki, 2011) and its manifestation among immigrant population (Kawaguchi, Lee, 2017). It has also been studied the projection of the economic dimension to

Diplomacy in Asia (Kitamura, 2016), as well as the development patterns of Asian Nationalismother political, from social a cultural and communicative point of view fieldsin the like times the of Olympic the emerging Games Japanese Cultural economy in the 20th century (Itagaki, 1966). The Japanese political and economic actors that develop a fundamental role the audience to whom they are aiming their communicative campaigns, products, andin the services. communication In order to field keep are the having effectiveness to deal of with this theinformative increasing dimension, complexity these in actors have to adapt their message to the social, cultural and anthropological conditions of the receivers, as well as their products and services to the new market that - ic landscape could be the paradigm of glocalism or glocalization, which analyzes theis emerging. emerging The society paradigm that is that created best definesfrom the this combination new political, of thesocial global and andeconom local - cept, then it will identify how Japanese communication has had to adapt to the new dimensions. This article will first describe the Japanese origin of the glocalist con international changing social environment and, finally, will offer a proposal on how27 dr Huan Luiz Lopez-Aranguren Glokalizam - zasnovan na pristupu međunarodnog ... its adaptive process. Japanese international communication can benefit from this glocalist paradigm in

The Japanese Origins of the Glocalism

The international and cross-cultural aspect in the glocal conception of commu- published in the Western economic and sociological scholarly circles of Harvard in thenication late 1980s appears by Japanese even as its strategic origins marketing were being research discovered. scholars. The These concept researchers was first developed the glocal concept from the Japanese farming term dochakuka (土着化) techniques that had been adapted to suit the local conditions (Iwabuchi, 2002). The glocalthat means concept literally was then “indigenization”. employed in academic It was first situations employed and to Roland describe Robertson the farming pop- ularized the term (Kumar Sharma, 2008). The term has evolved and has been adapted to multiple dimensions, both as a consequence and as a factor promoting the interdisciplinary social research. Some scholars have used this concept as a theoretical framework to analyze and understand the migration phenomena between different cultural backgrounds, as well as the cultural exchanges between different regional groups (Giulianotti, Robert- son, 2006). It has also been employed in the communicative dimension to analyze the effectiveness of advertising campaigns in cross-cultural environments (Kumar of females in China, analyzing the simultaneous manifestation of gender issues, cross-culturalDash, Patnaik, perceptionsSuar, 2016). andPreviously, national this identity field had projections focused onin thethe communicativerepresentation dimension (Hung, Li, Belk, 2007). They found a channelization of the communicative dichotomy between the traditional-modern conceptualization of women in a West-East axis. In this regard, some scholars concluded that Western forms of femininity are spread out in the urban social environments mainly through the communication in the form of foreign brands and foreign magazines. In this described phenomenon, these Western forms of femininity distinguished broadly accepted by Chinese women. Nevertheless, the explicit displays of sexuality areas self-sufficiency, rejected and, instead, independence, softer and urban more sophisticationtraditional representations and feminine of strength the women are are more accepted, like those based in the collective morality, highlighting chastity, hard-work, determination, and softness. These authors pointed out that this new combination of values is not totally belonging to the Western consumerist culture, nor to the traditional Chinese representation of women. Instead, this communicative phenomenon is breaking the link between globalization and modernity by adopting the idea that a modern Chinese woman can keep its Chineseness, instead of having to adopt a pure Western role. It is also pointed out that the construction of the ideal self among Chinese women projects the traditional Chinese love/hate relationship with foreign trends, due to the historical past of China in respect to

28 PhD Juan Luis López-Aranguren A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International ... foreign political actors and the current public debate on the different possibilities - bility of the glocalist paradigm has even allow edit to be applied to the study of the for modernizing China (Hung, Li, Belk, 2007: 1048-1049). In this sense, the flexi Knondker pointed out that the local and global dimensions are ultimately interpen- cultural conflict that growing multiculturalism can lead to. Robertson himself with- etrating and complementing each other, even though in some specific circumstanc es may enter into conflict (Robertson, Knondker, 1999). The International Communication of the Japanese Political and Economic Actors

The study of the international communication dimension has played an important role in understanding different aspects of Japan’s current role in the globalized world, like the construction of a regional security sphere in Asia (López-Aran- guren, 2016), the enhancement of freedom of expression (López-Aranguren, 2017a) and the collaboration with other nations in pursuing a collective response against security challenges (López-Aranguren, 2017b). The study of the international communication of Japanese political and economic actors can also lead to some insights about the Japanese role in the world. Perhaps the most practical approach to this phenomenon is by identifying the different dimensions in which communication participates within the political and economic innovation processes. As it has been pointed out, there are four main types of innovation: product innovation, process innovation, business innovation and social innovation (Xu, Nash, 2013). This taxonomic approach to the innovative phenomenon opens the door to glocalism applied as a practical concept that can increase the competitiveness of a political or eco- challenge about how to adapt a product or service to the different cultural and social backgroundsnomic actor. In of the a global product or regionalinnovation market. field, Onefor example, of the examples companies in which should glocalism face the is manifested in this product innovative dimension is through the phenomenon of an emerging economy before being adopted by a mature economy (Govindarajan, Ramamurti,reverse innovation, 2011). whereThis shows a new that process, a glocal technique interpretation or concept of theis firstly adaptation adopted and in innovation in the global economy is not limited to a critical exportation from elitist centers of innovation to the rest of the world, but also includes the experimentation of new ideas, methods and processes in environments that have traditionally been excluded from the innovation phenomena, such is the case of developing countries. In this connection, reverse innovation is the process that allows innovation to - tries, usually after a communication campaign. Reverse innovation cases are still infrequent,be adopted butfirst it in shows emerging the potentialeconomies of beforea different arriving application to fully ofdeveloped the principles coun that are described in the application of the glocal paradigm to the innovative dimension: the conjugation of the local and the global dimensions in order to offer a

29 dr Huan Luiz Lopez-Aranguren Glokalizam - zasnovan na pristupu međunarodnog ... more adaptive product, behavior or service. Interesting theoretical questions arise from this phenomenon, like the innovative forces that produce this process, the global strategy that adopts it and the adaptation to different countries and to their cultural diversity (Govindarajan, Ramamurti, 2011: 191). It has also been pointed out that acceleration of the emerging economies’ growth and the increasing inter- connection and communication of the world economy are fostering innovation in -

Ramamurti,the poor countries 2011: 202).and, afterTherefore, this first the step, paradigm this impulse of glocalism is spreading can help out pioneer to oth- inger countries companies of tosimilar adapt economic their outcomes profile to and the even background to rich countries and environment (Govindarajan, of rich countries, especially regarding the communicative dimension. Relevant to this, the success of fair trade can offer interesting insights into how a product developed and produced in developing countries can be attractive for developed countries’ markets through traditional communication (Witkowski, 2005) or employing social networks (Polynczuk-Alenius, Pantti, 2016). As some researchers have pointed out, the fair-trade movement is a growing movement in Japan (Ikegami, Uyama, 2006) that is slowly increasing in textiles and crafts (Ikegami, 2014) and is strongly connected to the communicative dimension (Ikegami, 2004). Other researchers have highlighted the close relationship between the fair-trade movement and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in big companies, a situation that can shape the future development of fair trade in Japan (Terasaki, Nagasawa, 2012). A subsequent type of innovation where communication can be found is process and services employing improved methods that can be implemented in engineering andinnovation, methodology a concept (Xu, thatNash, can 2013). be defined The already as the described production phenomenon and supply of of reverse goods betweeninnovation businesses can be included of varying here cultural as a trend backgrounds that benefits and greatly how they from work the togetherglocalist inparadigm. coordination. Furthermore, This issue fields is very of study important have appeared for global that brands analyze that the have differences development teams in, for example, Asia, Europe and Latin America, and have to make them work together as one; sharing the same objectives, methods, and business culture. This is a concern that has been largely studied in management literature from the Cold War era (Hanson, Pavitt, 1987) but has entered the cross-cultural dimension through the increase of globalization (Breznitz, Murphree, 2011). In the innovation process, communication and creativity play a fundamental role in a company as they create inspired solutions to challenges that affect their customers. The difference regarding how cultures perceive creativity and how they channelize it can be managed through employing the glocalist paradigm as a meth- odological approach, due to the important differences between cultures and traditions. Some research found, for example, that creativity in the innovation process is generally performed in a collective manner among Japanese and other Eastern teams, while the Western teams adopt a more individualistic approach (Lau, Hui, Ng, 2004).

30 PhD Juan Luis López-Aranguren A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International ...

In the third type of innovation closely linked to communication, business inno- international environment without losing their local identity. This offers great ad- vation, glocalism can offer flexibility as different business models are adapted to an cultural backgrounds such as joint ventures, business mergers, acquisitions or ag- glutinationvantages to ofprofessional regional divisions. situations For that example, are sometimes Starbucks conflictive offers an interestingdue to different case of glocalization because its business communicative dimension is able to reach a wide market by offering different experiences depending on the local identity of their customers, but without losing their identity as a global brand (Thompson, Arsel, 2004). Some scholars have also pointed out the importance of the cultural that foreign CEOs have in the management teams (Abe, Iwasaki, 2010). dynamicsHere, inthe the importance managerial of dimension communication of the cancompanies, be easily specifically understood. in Thethe effectcom- municative dimension allows a global brand to acquire features that can be perceived positively by a regional market like Japan, while at the same time allowing it to maintain an international identity. Thus, enabling a company to adapt to different regional markets with different cultural frameworks. This is the case with Mc- Donald’s that has traditionally adapted its menus (Kannan, 2014) to the different cultural characteristics of the markets where it operates (Pomposo, 2014). Being key strategies to its global success (Zanoni, 2012), especially in Asia (Zhou, Zhang, 2012).able to Inadapt this products sense, it tohas suit been the pointed consumer out tastes that, hason a been world identified scale, multinational as one of its corporations have the resources to allow expansion process to adapt to local needs. Therefore, this glocal strategy -a concept also formulated in the motto “think globally, act locally”- keeps the economies of scale while, at the same time, allowing for religions, habits and local cultures to participate in shaping the product offered services, but also to the communicative dimension of multinational brands in Pub- lic(Tanahashi, Relations 2009: and Corporate 59). This adaptiveSocial Responsibility flexibility is not(CSR). only McDonald’s limited to Japan,products for and example, has greatly improved its public image in Japan by launching an educational food program in coordination with different Japanese public schools, a project that has resulted in a consistent increase in sales since 2005 in the Japanese market (Takano, 2013). Finally, a fourth category in which this phenomenon of communication and in- itnovation can be mergingconsidered can asbe theidentified highest is formsocial of innovation. innovation This (Xu, concept Nash, 2013:can be 114). defined In thisas that category, which involvesthe communicative processes and dimension changes playsthat have a fundamental an influence role on societynot only and in company strategies but also in the ability of society and individuals to communicate between themselves. An educated society with the capacity to communicate and with access to technology will be able to reach higher social innovation, which ultimately will result in better products and services, more company competitiveness and better quality of life.

31 dr Huan Luiz Lopez-Aranguren Glokalizam - zasnovan na pristupu međunarodnog ...

The social and cultural environment in which Japanese business communication is developed plays a fundamental role. For example, there can be found a strong emphasizes in the history and characteristics of Japanese society to explain the success and rapid improvement of Japanese innovation, commercial communication three main social factors: First of all, the Japanese got over the defeat in the Second Worldand production War and gotquality rid offrom the the defeated 1950s nation to 1970sthrough complex. This which lead it tocan a bestrong identified effort made by Japanese managers in learning foreign techniques and processes in order to modernize their companies and organizations. In the second place, the lack of natural resources in Japan has created in the Japanese mind the rooted custom of getting access to foreign resources has pushed Japan to produce high-quality prod- uctstaking to care earn of foreign the resources currencies and thatnot wasting can be usedthem. to Thirdly acquire and those finally, resources this need from for abroad (Xu, 2014: 98). The evolution of political and economic actors is, therefore, closely linked to extent by the communicative dimension. The impact of international communication,the social a vector conditions where a that domestic define society a society, can andparticipate this society in the is global shaped discussion to a larger as this case, Japanese society. This international communication can be as diverse as foreigncommunicative movies oractors, series, plays information a fundamental in the role media in the about configuration other countries, of society, digital in participation in global social networks or global products and services launched simultaneously worldwide, such as Apple products, helping to create a common cultural framework.

A Glocalism - Based Approach to the Study of the International Communication of the Japanese Political and Economic Actors

Now, the question that arises is “how can glocalism be operationally applied to this Japanese communication scheme?”. The answer to this issue requires one to consider glocalism, not as a monolithic concept, but a process that evolves with time, actors and environment. On this subject, some scholars have proposed a three-dimensional application of the glocalist paradigm to the study of social sciences: a vertical axis representing the top-down and bottom-up dynamics of the hi- erarchy between the global and local dimension; a horizontal axis representing the cross-cultural transmission of information, ideas and concepts between regions, time and chronological evolution of this scheme. In this sense, it has been stated thatactors, the sectors vertical, and horizontal, organizations and temporal and, finally, axis aare third interconnected dimension representing and intersected, the therefore projecting the theorization, equivalency, and translation dimensions. In this scheme, horizontal transference and sharing of models, ideas and processes are linked to the vertical dimension. In doing so, the adoption and adaptation in the

32 PhD Juan Luis López-Aranguren A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International ... previously understand the equivalency processes across these entities. The result ofcross-region, this is that cross-field,theorization cross-sector usually occurs and atcross-organization the macro level like scenarios global requiresor interna to- tional bi-lateral enculturation processes among two different cultures, nations or regions (Drori, Höllerer, Walgenbach, 2014: 10). This operational scheme opens the door to a practical and fully functional application of this glocalist paradigm to the study of communication as a key con- axis. In the vertical axis, related to the top-down and bottom-up dynamics between thefigurator global of and Japanese local spheres, innovation communication in the vertical acts axis, as horizontala fundamental axis, vector.and temporal Global the market are adapted to local dimensions making this phenomenon a top-down dynamic.cultural trends In the that same define way, localhow andmanifestations what type of can products spread andout andservices become succeed global, in making this a bottom-up process. In terms of the top-down dynamic, the example of the previously cited adap- - scription. Regarding the bottom-up process, the manga and anime sector which is onetation of ofthe McDonald’s most known to manifestationsthe cultural singularities of Japanese of culturethe Japanese in the marketworld can fits be the used de as an example. In fact, the global success of Japanese manga and anime has led to the consideration of this as a vector of Public Diplomacy for Japan (Lam, 2007). This process is not only limited to the economic dimension but also affects social changes and political movements (Arudou, 2014). Also, the Japanese public opinion towards the import liberation shows a strong correlation with the professional sector (Tomiura, Ito, Mukunoki, Wakasugi, 2016). This fact can show adoption patterns to the globalized environment in the innovative strategies implemented. Numerous pacifistIn theand horizontalanti-nuclear axis, Japanese the sharing groups of have cultural employed frameworks the active is alsocommunication articulated throughin pursuing the acommunicative pacifist political dimension. agenda in In Japan an overlapping (Román Marugán, dynamic 2013). with the vertical axis, cultural manifestations born in one region can be exported to another region that adopts it for itself but with its own characteristics. Continuing with the example of the Japanese manga (Johnson-Woods, 2010) and anime industry, cultural analysts have found new breeding grounds for this communicative manifestation in different regions of the world who have adopted this type of Japanese culture as a channel of expression of its own identity (Wong, 2006).Moreover, older examples of enculturation in the gastronomy market include the adoption of tea, curry, and other Indian dishes by the British population after the colonization of Asia by the Brit- ish Empire. This has evolved to now consider the British tea a national symbol, despite its foreign origin. Similarly, the Spanish potato omelet is a worldwide known Spanish dish, despite potatoes coming originally from America after its discovery by Spain at the end of the 15th century. Therefore, gastronomy (and, by extension, the successful cultural incardination of foreign dishes) can lead to a great impact in the touristic revenues that a region or a country can obtain (Kivela, Crotts, 2006).

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Finally, the temporal evolution axis is the chronological point of view, transforming this static scheme into a dynamic process that evolves with time. In this dimension, the cultural frameworks change constantly, reinterpreting past symbols, narratives and cultural manifestations in a new way that could be related to its original form or, on the contrary, could be totally different. For example, the retro trend in sectors like music, fashion or even very innovative sectors like electronics. This cultural trend tries to evoke the features, appearances, and designs of old items, offering surprising additional value for the consumers in their user experience. Among the Japanese companies that participate in this phenomenon, is Nintendo that launched the NES Classic Edition console in 2016, a near-perfect mimic of its leading product that launched 30 years before, in the 80s. The worldwide success of the original console allowed Nintendo to penetrate the niche of old-school gamers that grew up with the original NES, offering a product with almost obsolete technology (as there obviously has been large technological advancements in the 30 years since its initial launch) but that fully connects with the emotions and nostalgia of millions of customers around the world. The new re-launch has been a great success, even causing a shortage in the stock of consoles in different national markets (Rubin, 2016). This example perfectly illustrates the glocalist phenomena in its three dimensions: Nintendo launched a console on the Japanese market that connected to the needs of their customers. Soon after, this console spread around the world with global success, transforming a Japanese domestic cultural manifestation global by entering the houses of millions of children worldwide in the 80s and being part of their personal experience (bottom-up on the vertical axis, from local to global). Additionally, each national and regional market develop its own cultural interpretation of the iconic key products that Nintendo created for its console line, such as Super Mario Bros., Zelda, Donkey Kong, Star Fox, and so on, making them evolve with the subsequent iterations of its line of products (like Super Nintendo, Ninten- do 64, Game Cube, Nintendo Wii, etc.). This allowed the creation of new development studios, merchandising companies and cartoon studios in different countries that participated in the globalization of these characters from their own regional points of view (Sheffs, 2011), a phenomenon that represents the horizontal axis. Finally, the consolidation of these products, characters and cultural symbols in the collective imaginary of millions of children around the worldnowgrown up led to the launch of this new console by the Kyoto-based company, decades after its begin- by the fact that in the closing ceremony of the 2016 Olympic Games of Rio de Janei- ro,ning, the showing Japanese the Prime temporal Minister axis. Shinzo The global Abe emergedimpact of from this processa pipe disguised can be confirmed as Mario be celebrated in Tokyo (Palazzo, 2016). This governmental act embracing a global popto receive symbol the shows Olympic the importance flag in preparation of the cultural for the framework 2020 Olympic and the Games international that will communication for the Japanese Public Diplomacy or Soft Power (Easton, 2016).

34 PhD Juan Luis López-Aranguren A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International ... of the Japanese political and economic actors in order to reach a better communi- cationIn and light more of these competitive findings, processes. some suggestions can be done on the improvement

a) Bilingual-based versions of the public communication incorporation of English to the Japanese business (Hilton, 1992). Even if the main marketFrom of the a long Japanese time companyago, the empiric is held in research Japan, the has decision shown ingreat complementing benefits in the its public communication (marketing, customer support, public relations, etc.) with an English-based version of its messages can offer great competitive advantages. Some scholars and CEOs have pointed out the importance of adopting English as the new business language in order to increase the Japanese competitiveness (Hiroshi, 2016). Some Japanese companies have started this path: Honda has announced that beEnglish to incorporate will be the English official versions corporate of languagethe corporate’s for 2020 communication (The Japan Times, easily 2015). accessi If- ble.there With is a logistica growing difficult multicultural in reaching society this optimistic(with a high goal, presence one first of positive Westerners step andcan Asian customers living and consuming in Japan) the capacity to connect directly with them can suppose a high added value to the company’s products and services. Thus, in doing so, it can imply to overcome others competitors in the market and that foreign suppliers and corporate customers get more easily connected to these companies,become the thereforereference resulting brand for in such better customer’s business profile.opportunities. Additionally, it can imply

b) Strong commitment to online communication

In the same way that the previous improvement, the adoption of a digitalized version of the corporate communication can imply a strong improvement in its competitiveness. This phenomenon is not only limited to the Japanese companies but also the Japanese political parties (Tkach-Kawasaki, 2003). It has been pointed out that the international market competition can improve the innovation process in the Japanese companies (Okada, 2005). Also, some scholars have highlighted that Information and Communication Technology could be the key to solve Japan’s Productivity Slowdown Problem (Nishimura, Shirai, 2003). In addition, there are important intergenerational differences in the consumption patterns that require new approaches in order to connect with the new consumers (Makoto, 2001). Due to this Japanese market scheme, the facilitation of accessible digital information on the company’s products, services and processes will open the door to connecting with customers in Japan and abroad. In Japan, there is still an obsolete pre-eminence of the fax as a way of corporate communication, a tool that was abandoned in the rest of the world since the 80s and 90s. Thus, adopting a full online-based corporate communication, the Japanese companies can increase its competitiveness, and, therefore, its growing and expansion possibilities.

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c) Decentralization process of internal communication

Another improvement that a Japanese company can do is by creating a system that allows the employees to share their thoughts and suggestions in a constructive way to improve the company. This decentralization of the internal communication to develop the possibilities of the Japanese company in a globalized world. It can also(properly provide collected a constructive later in an use efficient for the system) management can provide of the great multicultural value and insightsdimen- there have been detected different intergenerational skills transmission between blacksion of and the white organizations, workers (Okumura, creating more Usui, strong 2016), and as wellefficient as labor actors. and For market example, consequences caused by migration movements (Ishikawa, 1996) and different learning process between female and male workers (Kawaguchi, 2006). A decentralized communication process can get the most of these differences resulting in a stronger organization overcoming the difficulties and resistances of management (Lahera Sánchez,d) Platforms 2013). of informal social communication

The communication dimension of a Japanese company shouldn’t be limited to the orthodox examples that are typically used to project its identity (advertise- ments, traditional public relations activities, etc.). A Japanese company can reach an emotional connection with their customers by opening spaces to a more informal communication, like employee’s blogs, YouTube channels, podcasts and public activities to strengthen the links with their local communities (sports days, spon- soring kid’s activities, charity activities, etc.). By doing so, a Japanese company can break the limitations of the sometimes too tight and strict Japanese communication patterns and gain an important competitive advantage. Additionally, a strong social-oriented corporate policy of investment has been described as an underex- ploited sector that could revitalize the Japan Economy (Nishimura, Saito, 2003). Creating a more social communicative dimension in the Japanese companies could enhance and strengthen this process.

Conclusions

The glocalist paradigm can offer interesting possibilities of application in the study of challenges that Japanese international communication has to face in the globalized environment. In this sense, glocalism can help Japanese political and economic actors to better adapt to this multicultural complex environment and have more success in their communication processes in the four taxonomic categories previously described: product innovation, process innovation, business innovation - and36 social innovation. This benefit can be identified in two main ways: the commu PhD Juan Luis López-Aranguren A Glocalism - Based Approach to the International ... nicative adaptation of Japanese local identities to global dynamics (for example, and adapting a global brand to the Japanese local cultural frameworks (adapting globallaunching products a product or services with specific to the features singularities that willof domestic allow it to markets). reach global This success) cultural complexity that Japanese companies, political parties, associations and other social that promote the exchange of ideas, symbols, debates, customs and the cultural adoption.actors have Therefore, to face is, the in fact,analysis a reflex of the of thecommunicative international dimension communication plays patternsa fundamental role in this glocalism-based proposal in order for Japanese political and economic actors to react early to social changes and better adapt their products, services, and innovative processes to this culturally and asocial changeable global environment full of risks, but also of opportunities. From a glocalist perspective, a Japanese company can perform and implement different communication strategies to enhance its connection with their customers, their growing capacities, their internationalization possibilities and their sustain- ability. The incorporation of an English-based version of its corporate communication for the public will increase the number of potential customers not only in Japan but also abroad, as well as will open the possibilities of collaboration with other companies, joint ventures, and international agreements. The adoption of a strong commitment to online communication will facilitate the access to the company information to a great number of potential customers, as well as increasing its global expansion. The adoption of a decentralized process of internal communication will also provide many ideas, suggestions, and feedback from the employees. Additionally, it will help to the creation of a safe environment for dealing with the multicultural dimension of the Japanese companies and will facilitate its transformation into a constructive force. Finally, the creation of platforms for informal open communication will strengthen the emotional connection of the Japanese political and economic actors with their customers and with the rest of the social community. All these activities will result in stronger and more adaptive Japanese companies to the complex globalized world through international communication.

37 dr Huan Luiz Lopez-Aranguren Glokalizam - zasnovan na pristupu međunarodnog ...

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42 PhD Ekmel Gecer, Assistant Professor

Department of Journalism, Faculty of Communication, Sakarya University, UDK 070:321.7(560) Sakarya, Republic of Turkey

Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th July Coup Attempt in Turkey

Abstract: Turkey on the 15th July 2016 faced another coup attempt. Although the country’s vulnerable democracy has long suffered from several coup d’etats (1960, 1971, 1980, 1997), this was quite different. The 15th July coup was luckily left as an attempt and since it has been widely hashtagged: #Notocoup. Along with the resistance of Turkey’s citizens against the military tanks and arms, the second reason that made it stay as an attempt coup was the increasing use of social media platforms, especially twitter. Within this context, the news stories produced and shared by citizen journalists helped the resistance to spread across the country and provide a global reaction against the military intervention. In this context, the increasing usage of social media in Turkey, their crucial role in resist-

ing an oppression and organising social movements need to be systematically ana- Pregledni rad / Research review article lysed. Therefore, my paper, based on the usage of social media courses at the night of the coup and analysing these new media channels through a wider literature of citizen journalism, mostly in a theoretic way, aims to (a) demonstrate the role of social media courses especially twitter, in a democratic movement in Turkey, (b) how they changed the nature of news production, (c) how social media caused to question freedom of expression/the press and (d) gave new insights on issues regarding sociology of news and Turkish democratisation.

Key Words: Democracy, social media, Turkey, militarism, citizen journalism

43 dr Ekmel Gecer, docent Odsjek za novinarstvo, Fakultet za komunikacije, Univerzitet Sakarija, Sakarija, Republika Turska

Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog udara 15. jula u Turskoj

Apstrakt -

: Turska se 15. jula 2016. godine suočila sa drugim pokušajem držav- nog udara. Iako je ranjiva demokratija dugo patila zbog više državnih udara (1960, 1971, 1980, 1997), ovo je bilo sasvim drugačije. Udar od 15. jula je ostao samo po kušaj i od tada je naširoko identifikovan pod temom: #Notocoup (#Neudaru). Uz otpor građana Turske protiv vojnih tenkova i oružja, drugi razlog zbog koga je ostao kao pokušaj državnog udara bio je sve veća upotreba platformi društvenih reakcijumedija, posebno protiv vojne Twittera. intervencije. U tom kontekstu, Iz tog razloga novinske je potrebno priče koje sistematski su proizveli analizirati i dijelili građani novinari doprinijeli su da se otpor proširi zemljom i da obezbijedi globalnu sve veću upotrebu društvenih medija u Turskoj, njihovu ključnu ulogu u otporu ugnjetavanju i u organizovanju društvenih pokreta. - Stoga ovaj rad, na osnovu upotrebe društvenih medija u noći državnog udara i analize novih medijskih kanala kroz širu literaturu građanskog novinarstva, uglav nom kroz teoriju, ima za cilj: (a) da pokaže ulogu društvenih medija (b) kako su promijenili prirodu proizvodnje vijesti, (c) kako su društveni mediji prouzrokovali preispitivanje slobodne izražavanja / štampe i (d) dali nove uvide o pitanjima koja se odnoseKjučne na riječidruštvenu: Demokratija, ulogu vijesti društveni i demokratizaciju mediji, Turska, Turske. militarizam, građansko novinarstvo

44 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th...

Introduction: New Media old Rules?

Many studies on social media begin by telling us that the new media courses

- pationmostly inchanged decision-making our ways of processes communication, (Wolfsfeld, and 2011; also influenced Lusike, Wambui, our relations 2016). Durwith- ingpolitics. the election People got time closer political to political parties affiliations want their and followers enhanced to closelytheir ways interact of partici with social media for a better and healthier participation. They see these new ways of communications as the best paths for political propaganda, in current times especially, within democratically developing countries the social media might be subject to harsh critiques and censorship where and when needed. This dilemma makes the new media tools to be under the pressure of traditional oppression, although the founding dynamics of social media such as dissemination of information, easy accession of different sources, instant sharing and fact-checking themselves oppose the old rules of governance.

(Warren, Pearse, 2008). Social media channels, on one hand, made people increase theirIn force modern on politics, democracies, on the theother citizens hand, arethey the enhanced most influential the responsibilities power on politics of the politicians and shortened the time in responding the people’s questions and re- quests. The old times in which the politicians used to talk, and the voter was only able to listen has already past, and this has been replaced by a new form of politics that is based on interactive communication. Beyond any doubt, the main items for this change are the new media networks led by social media (Bigo, 2012: 280). Therefore, the communication is in a more active way, enabling the politicians to contact masses in an easier and quicker period and providing the feedback, making social media a powerful channel of politics and election campaigns. Citizens can politicians, criticise or endorse them through new media technologies (Lees-Marsh- ment,express 2014: what 209). they think about specific political applications, communicate with the Do all of these new possibilities really make societies more democratic? How about the debates that the internet technologies made us more controllable and created a new form of society called “surveillance society”? During election times the elite power may leave us on our own in which we say what we think, and they communicate with the voters more frequently to convince them; but what about the other times? Do the politicians really misuse the internet technologies, our social media accounts such as twitter, Instagram, Facebook and Snapchat, to control us when needed? Internet does not make us have more freedom of expression and does not give us voice but makes it easier to control civilisations and direct them in the desired path? Is it easier to see the examples regarding the terms such as manufacturing consent, perception management, propaganda and agenda setting, and will these practices show us the reality about the new media and democracy relation?

45 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog...

It is widely known that the term “surveillance” has been one of the main tools of the authorities and that it has a long history of enforcement. However, after the industrial revolution and the recent technological developments, mainly the mod- -

Someern times, thinkers bureaucratic in this regard, organisations stress on of the nation-states term on diverse being occasionsin the first and place, they sur all highlightveillance howhas increased surveillance its isinfluence strengthening socio-political their power. life (Barnard-Wills, Karl Marx; states 2016: that sur40).- veillance is the other name of governance and has been developed by the capitalist managers to control the proletariat (Staples, 2000: 19). Inspired by Russian leader Stalin, George Orwell in his famous 1984 book uses another wide-used term big brother and highlights the totalitarian society in which even the citizen’s opinions are being controlled (Orwell, 1949). Foucault takes this in a similar way and tells that modern society has been a disciplinary one and using Bentham’s panopticon jail metaphor explains how the authorities observe and control the people from the watch-towers (Elden, 2017). and investigating the communicative behaviours of one or more people. New media seemsFoucault; to open while and ease defining the wayssurveillance, to conduct states this that investigation it is about systematicas they shortened control the duration of information gathering and analysing it through data mining (All- mer, 2012: 130). But, how about the claims regarding the freedoms provided by the internet? As aforementioned, it has created the possibilities to access information with no limitation and political pressure. People through internet courses can force local trouble. Therefore, it is claimed that internet sourced information will emerge morethe governments, democratic andquestion free societies them and (Tong, find Zuo,international 2015). support when they are in It is likely to discuss the problems of internet freedoms in countries having totalitarian tendencies. However as seen in the Turkish case, on one hand, while the current government is accused of censoring internet and press freedoms, on the other hand, the political authorities seek asylum in internet technologies/social media courses when they feel under threat of “state powers” such as the army or bureaucratic communities who claim to own the future of the country (Brennan, Herzog, 2014). How could we explain this dilemma? If freedom of expression and new media technologies help both people and politicians with having their voice heard and gaining support, why is it that the political or state powers in the Turk- ish context, still need to cut the networks and prevent information transmission political approach as legitimate even in a national security context? For sure, before givingfrom one insights part to on another the developing once they ways escape of citizen the danger? journalism Is it possible and democracy to define rela this- tionship, the e-forms of military interventions should be handled as the changing forms of media usage within the context of media, politics and power debates.

46 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th...

Turkish Democratisation and Military Coups up until the Social Media Times

Before tackling the debates regarding the e-forms of Turkish democracy, it would be better to give a short background of what the local democracy faced until the recent coup attempt. With no doubt focusing on the today’s democracy without - tary interventions and the other resisting powers to the democratic development in allacknowledging terms. Hence, the this past section would will make give it a morevery shortdifficult history to understand of uncompleted both the Turkish mili democratisation before analysing the new terms and conditions in the country. democratisation with the proclamation of the republic in Turkish land. The democ- ratisationContrary of Turkey to mostly can referred,be extended it is notto the accurate Turkish to Ottomancommence Empire the first time steps when of the authorities declared ‘Gulhane/Istanbul Statement’ in 1839 which targeted to both learn from Western civilisation and industrialisation, and to join the European states systems through transferring the constitutional amendments including parliament and democratic elections to structure equality and human rights (Agoston and Masters, 2009) although this was also criticized as being a ‘weak imitation’ of Westernisation in the last decades of the Ottoman Empire (Tas, 2002: 89; Unver, 2013: 201). Of course, the establishment of the republic accelerated the democratic developments despite the single party period (1919-1949) lasted longer than expected within non-democratic applications and this process did not allow Westernised political view to be implemented as planned and parliamentary system was delayed (Kamali, 2012: 246). This is also related to the powerful ‘nation-state’ and ‘centrist government’ ideology which could give insights to today’s military interventions in politics. Those who altered the system into republic were the army members which caused the opinion that the army personnel have right to step in the Turkish politics as they did this before in the best way (Mardin, 2012: 37). In this regard, it possible to relate the transition to a multi-party system in - thoritative implantation of the single party in which the political participation by the1949 people to two was main so weak reasons. and The the firstsecond is the is the political desire dead-end to catch causedthe developments by the au in the European countries after the Second World War (Arsel, 2005). Therefore, the transformation of Turkish constitution connection to Italian, French and Swiss constitutions during the 1950s and Turkey’s subsequent membership application to the European Community in 1959 were the most powerful democratisation and Europeanisation steps of this passé (Baslevent et al, 2004; Szyliowicz, 1966: 282). Nonetheless, the Democrat Party (which came to power in 1950 after secur- ing 52% of the votes) the government was just governing the country as the single-party period and they were also applying pressure on the media and opposition (Hursoy, 2012: 53). Immediately after, the military authority who introduced themselves as the founder power of the Turkish state emerged, staged a coup, forced

47 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog... the democrat party to step down and executed of the Democratic Party leader PM Adnan Menderes and other two MPs in 1961 (Kibaroglu, Kibaroglu, 2009). Turkey as the last one staged on the 15th July 2016 but remained as an attempt by a strong oppositionafter this first of the coup peoples d’etat instarted Turkey. to Hence,face the the same military problem coups almost in 1960, in every 1971, decade 1980, 1998 (Aksoy, 2009: 482) and the e-memorandum by the Turkish army in 2007 (Hale and Ozbudun, 2010) highlight the problematic democratisation process in the country (Mavioglu, 2006: 19; Mohapatra, 2011: 152). which was won by Turgut Ozal as leader of the Motherland Party. During the time of hisAfter government the 1980 (1983-1989) military coup, the the ban first on usingdemocratic the Kurdish election language was held in dailyin 1983, life was lifted and economic development and transmission of the market economy was started (Sokhey and Yildirim, 2012). However, the 1990s that are described as the country’s ‘lost decade’ was a period of political and social crises. This chaotic

(Badcock et al, 2003) continued with the closure of the religious Welfare Party in 1997decade by started the constitution with the jailing court becauseof five Kurdish of its being politicians alleged including ‘focus point Leyla of anti-secu Zana and- lar opinion’ after the so-called ‘post-modern’ military coup (Kilicaslan, 2015: 164). Turkey’s membership application to the European Community in 1959 entered a different phase in 1987 under the rule of PM Turgut Ozal and when Tur- key joined the ‘customs union’ in 1996 (Mohapatra, 2011: 157). The conditions, accession, which is about human rights, market economy and democratic politics. Thewhich most the EUimportant wanted thingTurkey to to be fulfil, said were about the this ‘Copenhagen Copenhagen Criteria’ Criteria as aand rule the to EU accession process is that they were forcing the politics and Turkish state to focus on democratic government. The EU subsequently elevated Turkey to conditional ‘candidate statuses at the Helsinki Summit in 1999 (Müftüler-Baç, 2016: 97). In December 2004, EU started membership negotiations with Turkey, which - al successes of the AKP government (Negrine, et al, 2008). Since then, to accom- modatewas met thewith requirements great joy in the of countryEU membership, and regarded Turkey as one has of tried the firstto regulate internation new legislation (Dervis et al, 2004). The regulations related to freedoms of expression and organisation, minority rights and political party legislations provided Turkish government to commence negotiations with the EU. Ever since then the ‘progress reports’ prepared by EU authorities has been a democratic checkpoint for the country and been a power-push to improve democracy in Turkey. The regulations to access EU have been called as ‘harmonisation package’ by the Turkish government and nine of these packages have been prepared so far. These legal regulations are mostly related to constitutional change such as lifting the death sentence (third harmonization package), allowing Turkish state TV and radio channels and other private media organisations to broadcast in other languages (sixth), and closing state security courts that caused human rights violations (seventh) (Faucompret, Konings, 2008).

48 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th...

Despite the efforts of the current Justice and Development Party (AKP) government, the long waiting time to join the EU seems to have made both people and the government hopeless in completing the road (Mohapatra, 2011: 159). Espe- cially after the economic crisis, the government on different occasions criticised the weakness of the EU and stated that Turkey would not wait too long to receive membership (Martin, 2015: 53). Accordingly, the increasing government support and decreasing EU hope made the government turn its face towards other unions such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (Gencer et al, 2017), suppress the opposition, and jail the ‘criticising’ journalists (Bakis, Karakoç, 2015). Nevertheless, better to state that, Turkey has passed through a series of democratisation processes in socio-political, administrative and economic areas with pressures on press freedoms and other liberties (Brennan, Herzog, 2014), the man- ifestthe influence sign of this of change internal has and been external the visibility dynamics. of these Despite critiques the critiques both in the regarding media and in the public sphere. Although all governmental parties pledged to solve the democratisation problems in the country since Turkey passed into a multi-party system in 1950, because of political, social and economic traditions and organisa- tional interests (such not decreasing the election threshold after seeing the high - en, Kubicek, 2016). level of votes received) they have not fulfilled their democratisation promises (Eris

E-Forms of Political Interventions: The April 2007 Memorandum

Military interventions in Turkey (1960, 1971, 1980, 1997), except the recent 15th July 2017 one, took place very early in the mornings like 03:00 am or 05:00 am. The reason for this is that, early interventions attempt to stage the coup with not many problems and make people wake up to the new system all in a sudden. The e-coup attempt, on the 27th April 2007, in the country was also in these very early - nologies in military interventions were clearly visible. When Turkish people saw the newshours. on But air, it onwas news quite web-sites different orthan in theothers papers, and theindicating first signals that the of new Turkish media general tech surprised as it was weird to see the army acting in this way (Yilmaz, 2017: 83). staff putAlthough a memorandum this was anon e-coupthe official attempt, web-site the of declaration the military signed office, theyby the were head quite of the general was almost stressing the same points: The forthcoming presidency elections (2007) was against the secular structure of Turkey and the candidate ap- pointed by the Turkish Parliament was himself (Abdullah Gul, former prime min- ister1and foreign minister of Turkey2) the threat for Turkish laicism as he was a member of an alleged Islam-rooted party (AKP), his wife was wearing a headscarf

1 Between 2000 and 2003. 2 Between 2003 and 2007. 49 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog...

(Atasoy, 2009: 5) which of all were legitimate reasons for the army to warn the governmentand that she andwould intervene be the first-everthe politics first . lady of Turkish Republic wearing a hijab Just as the previous coups, the process before the “early bird memorandum” was also quite chaotic. Ahmet Necded Sezer, the president at that time, whose pe-

Tayyip Erdogan and the president to be Abdullah Gul due to their alleged Islamist riod of office was about to finish already had problems with the Prime Minister- ceptions with their wives wearing a headscarf which was supposed to be the threat tobackgrounds the laic Turkish (Turner, Republic. 2008: 1239). On the Many other times, hand, they the triedarmy tomembers attend the were official not reat- withtending or thewithout official a partner.receptions The organised governmental by the members PM office married since there to headscarved were ladies ladieswearing was hijab. receiving Sezer; the in “without” this context one; used while to the issue other two used kinds to have official “with” invitations: one. The PM’s wife Emine Erdogan at that was already wearing a headscarf and the presi- be accepted (Yavuz, 2009: 239; Hale, Ozbudun, 2010). dential nominee’s wife with hijab to be the first lady of Turkish republic could not

Screenshot 1: The e-memorandum on official website of Turkish Army in 20073

3 https://www.sabah.com.tr/gundem/2016/04/27/27-nisan-bildirisinin-9-yildonumu, Access Date: 23.09.2017. 50 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th...

The opposition politicians applied constitutional court to restraining the government from selecting the president from the parliament. The court very quickly passed the verdict stating that the Parliament could only elect the president only by 2/3 majority. On the very early hours of that night, the general staff of army published an unsigned notice in the military web-site. The announcement was indicat- steps to protect Turkish secularism. - sageing that at thethe declaration:laicism was underThe army threat did and not that want the to officials see Abdullah should Gul take as all a necessarypresident and theyinstructed the constitutionalIt courtwas not to preventso difficult his toelection. read the Otherwise, hidden mes the military would go their own way, the coup (Caliskan, Waldman, 2017). However, unlike the previous ones, the AKP (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi- Jus- tice and Development Party) government stood up against the military intervention into the politics. They unequivocally condemned the e-memorandum and clearly stated that this was against the Turkish democracy. The army was not expecting this democratic opposition but this governmental stance, in the long run, helped against the army. The army, due to this clear stand against, could not go further anddemocracy along with to institutionalise the support of or other at least political noted parties as the firstMr Gul governmental was elected opposition as a president. Furthermore, AKP government decided to go for an early election. On 22nd July 2007, the governmental party, having 47% of the votes, gained a landslide vic- tory which was also considered as the Turkish people’s support for the government against the military interventions and delayed (but not fully stopped) the next coup attempt until 15th July 2016, usual decade break (Eralp, 2014: 328).

The 15th July Attempt: Re-Understanding the Freedom of Press

Turkish people, on the 15th July 2016 evening, saw the news on TV channels and shared unique media contents through social media (Yayla, 2017: 23). Social signs were as there was a terror attack threat in Istanbul and thus the soldiers were takingmedia coursesthe security particularly measurements twitter was(Gok, the 2016). first channelBut why to were check the the soldiers news. Thethere? first It was Police’s responsibility to provide security in cities. People were whispering at their timelines: No, times of coups have already passed, this should be something else (Duran, Altun, 2016). Those who were supporting the government were stating that the government in Turkey demolished all possibilities of the coups through legal arrangements and thus it is impossible to stage a coup in Turkey. Some others opposed by saying that the Justice and Development Party (AKP) could not break

4 radio stating it was not a coup thebut tutelagean attempt but of focused a small ongroup their in ownthe army benefits and tothat staying the situation in the power was largely for a longer under term.control In (Mis, the meantime, 2017: 147). it was PM Binali Yıldırım on

- glomerate. 4 The news channel,since 1999, part of Doğuş Media Group (DoğuşYayınGrubu), a Turkish media con 51 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog...

Screenshot 2: PM Binali Yıldırım told people that the government will pressure the coup through a phone interview on NTV5

Soon after, social media users saw the tweet of the Turkish President who called people to take streets and stand against the military tanks. Was he inviting the people to protect the democracy through the social media courses which, once, he was slamming and even ordering to be censored?

Screenshot 3: The tweet by the President Recep Tayyip Erdogan in which he invited people to take the streets against the coup attempt.6

Yet the backlash was not the same for all. Following his tweet some other followers and those who were aware of the president’s approach towards the traditional and new media courses criticized him again through social media indicating his previous approaches, although some were not within the “respectful criticism” borders as suggested in the tweet below:

5 http://www.ntv.com.tr/turkiye/basbakan-binali-yildirimdan-aciklama,exrsbB_N1UaGVVvOEOj- noA, Access Date: 12.05.2017. 6 https://twitter.com/RT_Erdogan/status/754067631905312768, Access Date: 15.05.2017. 52 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th...

Screenshot 4: Some answers to the Erdogan’s invitation through twitter.7

When people saw the anchorwoman on Turkish Radio and Television Corpo- ration (TRT)8 reading the coup declaration, it was not a claim but real: the country was facing another military coup. However, the one reading the announcement was the later images, it was clear that a commander wanted to read the announcement, butnot theyan army then member changed for their the mind first andtime, decided but a woman a civil person (Tijen Karakas)should read from the TRT. mem In- orandum. The question about the public broadcasting issue in Turkey raises here: while the public broadcasting channel used to be accused of being on the side of the power and governments, would it be possible to say “no” if the military staff forced you to read the coup announcement?

Photo 1: TRT (Turkish Radio Television Corporation) Anchor Forced to read the Coup Declaration9

7 https://twitter.com/RT_Erdogan/status/754067631905312768. Some words clearly insulting the Turkish President has been deleted. Access Date: 16.05.2017. 8 TRT, founded in 1964, is the public broadcasting channel formed of many radio, television and multi-media channels. 9 http://www.guncel724.com/gundem-haberleri/darbe-bildirisini-okuyan-trt-spikeri-gozaltina-alin- di-iddiasi-5135.html. Access Date: 16.10.2017. 53 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog...

Soldiers on their way to the coup wanted to block some mainstream news channels such as CNNTURK. Turkish people later that night watched the CNN- TURK’s occupation live as the program hosts succeeded in keeping a “secret” camera working at the right time a group of armed and uniformed soldiers stepped into the studio. The head of the newsroom, for a while, resisted soldiers. Soon after, audience heard a group of Turkish people were chanting “Allahu Akbar” while trying to enter the CNNTURK’s headquarter. The ironic point here was that, this complex, was attacked by a group of government supporters, for allying alleged “foreign powers” saying the same words: Allahu Akbar. But it was the same people who came to counterattack the soldiers as a democratic behaviour.

Photo 2: Head of CNN TURK, Erdogan AKTAŞ, trying to stop the soldiers who raided the channel headquarter to block the broadcast.10

Not only the aforementioned news channels but almost all of the media organisations including newspapers, radios, and news websites of all ideologies showed a notable solidarity against the coup attempt. Because the media outlets at that night, refusing the military pressure, conveyed all stories in detail, diversities acted together. The news organisations on the other hand; functioning as a bridge between the society and the executive, legislative and judicial powers triggered the social movement that stopped the coup. In addition, media outlets, particularly the new media courses, on the 15th July were not able to be misused in a manipulative manner and unlike McLuhan’s (1964) media and society theory mostly stood with the social truth and became an important tool for social mobilisation (McLuhan, 1964).

10 https://www.cnnturk.com/tv-cnn-turk/ozel-programlar/15-temmuz-demokrasi-direnisi/15-temmuz-demokrasi-direnisi-ozel-yayini, Access Date: 11.06.2017. 54 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th...

News Production and Social Media: How to Save Democracy in Chaotic Times? only the news-accessing ways of the people but also transformed the function of the politics,Without economy a shadow and of the a doubt, working the styles new ofmedia the military technologies powers. did Hence, not influence the new forms of the coup d’états are different from the traditional coups in many aspects. In the traditional coup practices, the army used to get out with military tanks to threaten the political power, in the very early hours of the morning while people groups used to stop and people were waking up to the junta most likely along with manywere asleep.daily restrictions On the spur and ofthe the state moment, of emergency. all chaotic However, fights on between the night ideological of the 15th July 2016 through new media technologies the army could not take the streets as easy as it was before. Although the army also used the new media technologies such as WhatsApp groups to get organised faster and to complete the mission, which used social media courses and soon took the streets to obstruct the military tanks andcould to be protest defined the as coup “private despite talks” casualties but not and “social”, fatalities. (Gunday, 2016) Turkish people

Photo 3: The WhatsApp group created by the army members involved the coup with name “YurttaSulh” (Peace at home) on the 15th July night11.

Therefore, the new issue for the coups and the ways for standing against them was the usage of new media technologies, both in the form of being updated through

11 http://www.aljazeera.com.tr/al-jazeera-ozel/darbecilerin-whatsapp-konusmalari, Access Date: 18.07.2016. 55 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog... the news items and the possibilities of free organisation to start a social movement to protest an anti-democracy attempt. In this context, it was easier to control the - ever, although some groups of the soldiers during the primary coup hours tried to flowseize ofthe information mainstream in newsprevious channels coups to such stop as the 1960, news 71 dissemination,and the 1980 ones.they knewHow that they could not censor the new media outlets that easily as people already had widely used social media accounts such as YouTube, twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat etc.

Screenshot 5: The official twitter account of Turkish Presidency states that Erdo- gan will also be among the people after repeating the call to get the streets12.

Most likely the most important and visible sign of social media usage and its

TURK’s news-anchor Hande Firat through FaceTime using a smart phone. He invit- edinfluence people on to canalisingget on the people streets was to protestthe president’s the coup Erdogan’s during his connection televised withFaceTime CNN- speech. This FaceTime-speech has the ability to show us that, the new media technologies including smartphones and the social media applications are at the very centre of the civil resistance which moved forward after the president’s call.

12 http://www.sozcu.com.tr/2016/teknoloji/vatandaslar-darbeye-karsi-sosyal-medyada-harekete-gec- ti-1318780/ Access Date: 18.07.2017. 56 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th...

Photo 4: President Erdogan talking to CNNTURK anchor through FaceTime13

Here it is necessary to note that people did not get out to streets after the President’s Erdogan phone call broadcasted but rather they had already started to gather in town squares, in front of Bosporus Bridge14 and at the airports just after they saw the news on social media accounts regarding the coup attempt.

Screenshot 6: Twitter user ask for what was happening as the war-crafts low-fly- ing in Ankara and the soldiers closed the bridge in Istanbul15.

Although the initial social media activities seemed to be slowed, people later - instantly shared their contents with the hashtags such as #Darebeyehayır (Noto 18.05.2017. 1413 Bosporus https://tr.sputniknews.com/turkiye/201611161025842823-hande-firat-dehset/, Bridge after the coup attempt named as 15th July Martyr’s Bridgein tribute Access to those Date: killed by the junta at that night. 15 https://onedio.com/haber/tum-gelismeler-ile-bir-darbe-girisimi-ve-turkiye-nin-en-uzun-gece- si-721457, Access Date: 18.08.2017. 57 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog... hashtags allowed global users to see what was happening in the country and rapid- lycoup), these #Demokrasiand internet contents #MilletçeMeydanlardayız turned into an online solidarity (at town (Wong, halls as 2016). a nation). These As a study conducted by Aljazeera News suggests, the numbers of tweets at that night increased dramatically and the upsurge kept on the next day, the 16th July. The number of tweets increased by 223% and between 15th and 17th, July people tweeted 34 million 818 thousand 329 times although it was only almost 6 million before the 14th used at that night, it is also necessary to highlight the role of WhatsApp, YouTube and Periscope. FaceTimeJuly (Kılıç, was 2016). also Onone the of theother main hand, source although of video-calls mostly twitterand people was

While talking about the citizen journalism, the journalism literature do not tell muchinformed of how each to other call thethrough journalism WhatsApp practices (Yıldızalp, conducted 2016). by the professional journalists on the social media courses. Should we not include the professional journalists’ news production efforts through social media in citizen journalism context or should we separately handle them? Indeed, both citizen journalists’ news stories and professional ones’ directly go to people through social media accounts without editing or cross-checking. In other respects, especially in the sensitive times the journalists do not wait for an editorial check and share the information with the followers instantly as they know that the followers want them to have updated information. Therefore, the name for the professional journalists performing citizen journalism may be called as “professional-citizen journalism”. On that note, the professional journalists’ news stories also shared at social media courses during that night and the followers retweeted those hundreds of times (Insight Turkey, 2016). All these practices tell us that the rules of news production are radically changing the internet technologies. The dissemination of information is easier and faster. and they can do their own news stories. Through the smart technologies they can behaveOrdinary just people like thehave journalists: an easier way they of can access take to photos, the information edit their from text, theshoot first videos hand and share it after a quick check. Therefore, the citizen journalists may sometimes behave faster than the traditional media and even be approached as news sources. However, the traditional news outlets may re-create their own stories once they have the information from the citizen journalists and they simply may keep gate keeping in support of their ideologies or cultural, political and economic priorities. As the 15th the societies in many ways: speed up their organisation and motivate them to re- fuse to what they July do case not agree.suggests, In addition, internet andthe easy-accessthe social media and content courses production influenced othermakes way social around. media Here, more it attractive is clear that and the this presence helps their of social influence media to technologies rise. People helpedeven under the Turkish difficult society circumstances to courageously can use socialstand mediaagainst and the changemilitary the intervention issues the and the AKP government to keep the power for a longer time. However, the question here is: what if the internet was blocked as done on other sensitive times that

58 PhD Ekmel Gecer Citizen Journalism and Democracy: The 15th... seem to be “against” the government? Would the Turkish people be able to protect democracy against military intervention?

Conclusion: No more Coups after Citizen Journalism?

Media outlets in Turkey, almost in all socio-political and economic movements

2016). Although the media and politics history in the country does not talk about theor crisis role ofhad the an media enormous in a positiveinfluence manner, both at becausestarting ofand their concluding stance with (Sayin, the Toros, powers at chaotic times, the 15th July case seems to be quite different. Possibly, also through the role of the Turkish community who has much suffered from the coups and aftermath effects and the powerful stance of the government against the military interventions, the media this time, almost as a whole, stood against the coup as the democracy was already seemed to be quite fragile. The stance of the mainstream media at the coup night merged with the fast effect of new media technologies that provided a wider social support and the coup attempt could be stopped. But will there be an end for the coups in Turkey or democracy inch along? An internet access with no censure saved Turkish democracy this time as it was the government under threat. Nevertheless, will this always be possible in a country where social media accounts are withheld so frequently, the internet is slowed in sensitive times, investigative journalism suffers from socioeconomic and political pressures, freedom of expression is under pressure and the opposition is that weak? While talking about the new media technologies and their involvement in socio-political issues, the concept of citizen journalism seems to be the most visible one in the literature. The rise of citizen journalism is mostly mentioned along with the social movements such as Arab Spring, Brazil Protests, Occupy Wall Street in the US and Gezi Park Protests in Turkey (Adria, Mao, 2016). The increasing online news production and information dissemination seems to have changed the military interventions in underdeveloped countries, political campaigns, economic manipulations and the genre of civil participation into politics. While it was enough to control the mass communication tools in previous coups, the new technologies production which is being shared instantly. Nevertheless, the alternative ways of newsmade andit more media difficult access for does the powers not mean to control that the the path flow to of democracy information is and more content open nowadays. The powers also created their methods of using new media technologies to protect their hegemony which is more understandable within the context of surveillance, the perception management literature or the agenda-setting theory of McCombs and Shaw and Chomsky’s manufacturing consent. Citizen journalism or the increasing rate of internet usage may not allow more democratisation but increase the control of authorities (surveillance). The new communication technologies are not used only by the people to actively participate in politics and to make it more democratic but the governments, democratic or dic-

59 dr Ekmel Gecer Građansko novinarstvo i demokratija: Pokušaj državnog... tator, may use it for different purposes which may conclude with more control on the people and violating their privacy. Therefore, the discussion regarding if new media technologies and particularly the social media accounts give more room to the freedoms or to control the social media movements seem to take quite longer. Still, in the 15th July coup context, it is possible to state that, at least for the night and early morning hours of the coup, the heroic stance of Turkish people and their social media usage did not only shade a light on Turkish democratisation problems but may also inspire the developing democracies and the people under pressure of authoritarian regimes.

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• Yavuz, M. H. (2009). Secularism and Muslim Democracy in Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Yayla, A. (2017). July 15: The Glorious Resistance of Turkish Democracy. In: July 15 Coup Attempt in Turkey Context, Causes and Consequences. Ankara: Seta, pp. 19-65. • Twitter was the most accessed course on the 15th July. Available at: http://aa.com.tr/tr/15-temmuz-darbe-girisimi/15-temmuz- Yıldızalp,da-en-cok-twitter-uzerinden-haberlesildi/645988 M. (2016). Accessed 27 December 2016. • Yilmaz, G. (2017). Minority Rights in Turkey: A Battlefield for Europeanization. London: Routledge.

MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova, PhD Candidate

Faculty of Social Sciences, Charles University in Prague, Prague, UDK 316.774”20” Czech Republic1

Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What are the Barriers?

Abstract: It has been described as a general trend that public service media (PSM) lose their political power and support. Based on the research of the latest academic articles questioning the legitimacy of PSM in the 21st century, three arguments seem to lie at the core. Firstly, it is argued that new digital media may cause the declining need for PSM while contributing to the increased accessibility of information, diversity or audience participation. Secondly, commercial model of the supply and demand is perceived as possibly serving better the audience needs

- metrical.when reflecting It is the its goal preferences. of this article Last butto analyze not the theleast, common the PSM denominator relationship towardsof those arguments,its public is the discussed audience’s in general role in PSMas it management.is often described It is argued as insufficient that it is necessary or asym to engage in a dialogue with the audience to gain its support and trust and that the audience should be involved in all the phases of public service delivering, particularly in evaluation. As a pilot study following this hypothesis, quantitative online research was conducted on a sample of 1050 respondents in the Czech Republic Originalni naučni rad / Original scientific article to examine their perception of the local PSM representative, Czech Television (CT). Eleven statements were formulated to cover the key aspects of the CT services (overall perception, content, credibility or distinctiveness) and the evaluation was proved to be weakest in the area of audience’s feeling of being important to the mediumKey orwords: able to Public influence Service its Media, content Legitimacy, in any way. Audience, Engagement, New Media

1 [email protected] 65 mr Kristina Visluzilova, doktorand

Fakultet društvenih nauka, Karlov univerzitet u Pragu, Prag, Republika Češka Opavdanost javnih medijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su prepreke?

Apstrakt: Tvrdnja da javni medijski servisi (Public Service Media - PSM) gube izgledasvoju političku da su u moćosnovi i tripodršku argumenta. se name Prvo,će kao tvrdi opšti se datrend. novi Na digitalni osnovu mediji istraživanja mogu najnovijih akademskih članaka koji dovode u pitanje legitimitet PSM u 21. vijeku,- - prouzrokovati sve manju potrebu za PSM, dok doprinose povećanju pristupa in formacijama, različitosti ili učešću publike. Drugo, smatra se da komercijalni mo del ponude i potražnje može bolje da posluži potrebama publike kada odražava svoje preferencije. Na kraju, ali ne i najmanje važno, odnos PSM-a prema javnosti uopšte govoreći, često se opisuje kao nedovoljan ili asimetričan. Cilj ovog rada je da analizira zajednički imenitelj tih argumenata, ulogu publike u upravljanju PSM- om. Smatra se da je neophodno uključiti dijalog sa publikom kako bi stekli podršku i povjerenje, kao i da publika treba da bude uključena u sve faze pružanja javnih usluga, naročito u evaluaciji. Kao pilot studija koja prati ovu hipotezu, sprovedeno je kvantitativno onlajn istraživanje na uzorku od 1050 ispitanika u Češkoj, kako bi- ispitali njihovu percepciju domaćeg javnog medijskog servisa, Češke televizije (CT). Jedanaest tvrdnji je formulisano tako da se obrade ključni aspekti usluga Češke te levizije (ukupna percepcija, sadržaj, vjerodostojnost ili posebnost), a evaluacija je potvrdila da je najslabija u području osjećaja publike da su važni medijima ili da moguKljučne uticati na riječi: sadržaj javni u svakom medijski slučaju. servisi, opravdanost, publika, angažman, novi mediji

66 MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What ...

1. Introduction

Many authors (McChesney, 2015: 41-42; DeCillia, McCurdy, 201: 548-552; Paulino, Guazina, Oliveira, 2016: 80; Reid, 2014: 31; Tremblay, 2016: 191) agree on the fact that PSM globally lose their political power and support. Such a lack of support may lead and often leads to decreased public funding, especially in the countries where PSM are not funded by the license fee but by the subsidies approved by of channels or other services or the number of employees. Political authorities, es- peciallythe government. those in Necessarypower, often budget accuse cuts PSM then of maybias andlead evento reductions openly talk in theabout number their privatization while many others show complete disinterest in the public service function of PSM. In its almost 100 years of existence in Europe, there has always been a lively discussion surrounding public service media. All kinds of stakeholders have partici- education versus entertaining programmes (Jebril, Albæk, de Vreese 2013; McKee, 2005;pated discussingvan Zoonen, topics 2005), related relationship to editorial between autonomy public versus service government and commercial influence, media (Jakubowicz, 2010; Lowe, 2009, McCauley et al. 2015); or popular versus elitist- tors,targeting rooted of thoseboth in media the national (Nolan, 2008),history to and mention in the experiencejust a few. with what has been These characteristics are influenced by economic, political, and cultural fac the communist era in Eastern and Central Europe which made the experience with PSMlabeled more as publiclimited service in this regionbroadcasting when compared in the past. to One the Westernof the influencing Europe. The factors public is perception of PSM in the post-communist countries is then with a higher probabil- moreity influenced than twenty by the years conviction to convince that the PSM society are politicized of its relevance and by in the the perception 21st century, of thewere state they as succesfull of a hostile in doingforce. so?Nevertheless, even in those countries, PSM have had

2. Current Situation and Debates on PSM

As Burri (2016: 11) describes, PSM are often described as institutions of a past and some authors see it as a paradox that they are still standing fairly strongly with a relatively strong audience numbers and public funding. There are many debates - formed. But it is important to point out that those discussions are by no means new. on theIn justificationthe beginning, of PSM,public whether radio and it shouldpublic televisionbe abolished were or thehow only it should providers be re of the radio and television channels which Europeans used every day and there was no need to convince the public of its role and purpose. That has changed due to the private, commercial media emerging the market. Europeans taking the remit of public broadcasting for granted discovered that radio and television can be provid-

67 mr Kristina Visluzilova Opavdanost javnih medijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su ... ed also by purely commercial subjects and this commercial broadcasting was even

It is argued, that the role of PSM as guardians of the public sphere as well as theirpreferred independence by some people and quality (Nissen, of the 2006: content 5). is increasingly undermined by private and new media platforms and related fragmentation of the public and competition for revenues (Brevini, 2013: 4). Undoubtedly, PSM have been consistently facing questions about how they serve the public or if its public funding is legitimate. Based on the research of various arguments questioning the legitimacy of PSM in the 21st century, the following three interdependent arguments seem to be at the core:

1. Digital media cause the declining need for PSM 2. Commercial model (free market) can better serve the audience needs 3.

2.1. FirstPSM Argument: have an insufficient New Media (asymmetrical) Cause Declining relationship Need with for publicPSM

From the beginning of its evolvement, the internet has been described by many scholars (van Dijck, 2012, Rheingold, 2000) as a welcome opportunity to re- store the original idea of the public sphere as described by Habermas (1989). Those authors have once again used the Habermas’s concept as a desirable model when evaluating and describing the role of the internet and new media which were, more than ever, expected to be platforms providing access to a public arena where the public can engage in dialogues. It is argued that internet can provide such a public arena corresponding to the Habermas idea of the public sphere since the communication there is ongoing with- isout then any possibleintermediaries mostly oras significant a result of access the technological barriers and potential in this sense, enabling is creating the inter the- alwaysactive exchange aspired animated and plurality “marketplace of voices ofand ideas” ideas. (Lessig, The exchange 2006: 245). that This is according functioning to many the move back to the unregulated exchange of public opinion comparable to the eighteenth-century coffee houses where the discussions were supposed to be independent of central authority or any market forces. Referring to Habermas, Rheingold (2000) particularly uses the terms “electronic coffee houses” or “digital salons”. This presumption of the internet being a platform that offers an unregulated exchange of voices and opinions untouched by any state or market forces has prevailed for quite some time, despite arousing an impassioned criticism. Even though new media offer a great diversity of sources and content, it is argued it does not necessarily bring greater exposure to diversity, nor higher engagement in any public discussions which would bring the desired functioning public sphere. The essential arguments express the concerns about audience’s competencies to evaluate the provided information. At the same time, it is argued that the huge amount of information leads the public to choose what sources to follow, which raises questions about possible me-

68 MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What ...

casediators of anyor filters other thatmedia are types. required. Moreover, talking about those filters, we get to the possible involvement of commercial or political influence again, as well as in the

2.1.1 Greater Accessibility versus Greater Diversity

- mation. However, one of the arguments stands, the accessibility on its own is not enoughNew to media advance have the undoubtedly quality and diversitycontributed of information. to increased Moreover, accessibility it would of infor be rather presumptuous to understand traditional media as some useless intermediaries. As Gaetan Tremblay (2016: 197) put it: It takes the time to search out pertinent information, the competencies re- sum, while the work of mediators may change in the new digital context, its stra- quired to evaluate it, and the requisite knowledge to understand its significance. In new context. tegic value has not diminished. To the contrary, it finds itself reinforced within this exposure to diversity may remain low or even diminish, since it may be the case that theAs Napoliaudience (2011: has access251) argues to the diversitythat in an of environment sources or content of so much that theychoice, either the need or want. Moreover, it is not related to any marketplace imbalances, it is just the question of the taste and preferences. In other words, not only the content has to be accessible, it must be relevant.

2.1.2. Market Imperatives and Editorial Choices

Despite the reduced barriers to produce content appealing to niche segments of the audience, the critical voices remind that the new media platforms still compete for the audience attention. As the new technologies make it possible to track the popularity of individual pieces of news, information or entertainment, the editorial decisions of those media platforms may be affected and favor topics that are appealing to the mainstream audience (Miel, Farris 2008: 33). Consequently, those who are appealing to the mainstream audience (typically bigger national or even global media corporations) are those who frequently (1) invest in the utilization of their channels and platforms to be appealing even more. (2) Merge horizontally as well as vertically to make the production costs lower and strengthen their market position. (3) Provide the audience with a content that is produced professionally. Moreover, as Hindman (2009) argues, as a rule, it is produced by white and educated men. As skeptical voices (Pariser, 2011) highlight, this is the point when the diversity may be lost and the public sphere may be endangered by balkanization and fragmentation. Some authors (Artz, 2002: 32-33) go even further and describe how the

69 mr Kristina Visluzilova Opavdanost javnih medijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su ... total deregulation of media (privatization and commercialization) causes commodi- makes the public discussion disappear. José van Dijck (2012) argues that the inter- netfication is a byof theno chancecommunication a space of and a political leads to orthe economic elimination neutrality of the public while sphereexpressing and concerns about social media platforms usage of data-derived knowledge. Particular- ly, van Dijck (2012: 172) perceives internet platforms as “neither warrant a recali- bration of an ideal public sphere, nor a dismissal of a “polluted” corporate sphere“. - ization, Cyberspace, and the Politics of Convergence” agrees on that while referring to theVincent fact that Mosco the internet in his conference does not change speech the in 2001,public “Brand and its Newaccess World? to communi Global- cation so much as it changes communication and makes it just one more commod- ity to be sold. Mosco further notes that the public here consists of atomized parts which are kept far from the decision-making process which is left to private and as a cause of the depoliticization of the public, restricting it from the participation ingovernment the democratic representatives. process (Mosco, He perceives 2002). this commodification of communication Great access to various sources and information is also perceived as a possible onlydanger concern of false that information is expressed or strongerregarding tendency the internet to follow divergence only sources and freedom. confirming The the current opinion. This creation of so-called information filter bubbles is not the is already a case of China, Russia, or Iran, to name a few. Evgeny Morozov (2011), Belarusinformation researcher may be focusing also fairly on easilythe social influenced and political by government implications censorship, of the new which technologies, argues that especially social media among the new media platforms are vulnerable to monitoring and state censorship. He suggests that under authoritar- citizens or supress opposition. In this sense, Mozorov does not see any difference betweenian regimes, the internet easilyand any loses other its technologybenefits and of it the might past be since even every used technology to control has both positive and negative impacts. Also, Cammaerts (2008: 363-371) describes censorship as one of the main per- ils to the online freedom of speech and notes that it may be imposed not only by states but also by organizations or industries. According to him, it may occur in the form of filtering but also intimidation by states or individual employers to name a few. 2.1.3. Limits of the New Media

Since it started to evolve, the internet has been celebrated by many as a boon to diversity and democratizing freedom, values that are traditionally understood as critical for the functioning public sphere. Internet enthusiasts saw it as a platform - whereuntouched even by niche neither interests commercial can be met. nor political influences, a platform where any body can easily produce and receive information with no significant barriers and 70 MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What ...

As Hoynes (2016: 69-70) points out, all the utopian beliefs surrounding the relationship between media and public sphere now center almost exclusively on the internet, “(i)n much the same way that public television was in the 1960s, new digital media are now heralded as potential sites for enhancing our communication environment by providing opportunities for citizens to participate in public life”. On the other hand, after analyzing the topic more deeply, many concerns arose regarding such a democratizing function of the internet. To name the most frequent: (1) the diversity of accessible information does not necessarily bring the di- anyversity kind of of exposure intermediaries; since the audience still need some competencies to find and examine(2) thethe (global)information media properly corporations which followseems theto be economic extremely imperative difficult withoutand offer the content that is appealing to the mainstream audience, possibly ignoring the niche groups’ interests, the content is then largely produced by political and cultural elites or those who have more resources, while doing so, the corporations com- modify the information and keep the public far from the decision-making process; (3) the public sphere can hardly exist exclusively online, it is supposed to be a place bringing isolated opinions together and encourage a rational-based discus- its fragmentization and overwhelming plurality; sion which(4) the is internet a premise and that especially the internet social is media seemingly might unable be an to easy fulfill, target mostly of censor due to- ship by states or organizations. It is apparent that the internet can both support the social inclusion, strengthening the public sphere in its traditional meaning, and the social exclusion, which is endangering it. It can both address people as citizens and as consumers. It can both serve as a platform for a public forum in which all are equally invited to take part and cause the decline of interest in public affairs or even sense of belonging to a political community.

2.2. Second Argument: Commercial Model Serving the Audience Needs Better

We can basically distinguish three main broadcasting models that were generally developed already in the early years of radio broadcasting. The commercial model, the state model, and public-service model. The differences between those models could be illustratively examined while answering the main questions about - rolethe broadcasting in this regard? as What they were purpose expressed should by broadcasting UNESCO (2001: serve”. 9): “Who should be re sponsibleFundamentally, for broadcasting? the commercial How should model it be highlights financed? the What idea should that anbe theindividual State’s should be free to publish anything he or she likes because such a free expression of good can be served the best by private broadcasters since they give the audience thoughts is the best way to find the truth. And there is a conviction that the public 71 mr Kristina Visluzilova Opavdanost javnih medijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su ... what it wants. In other words, it is a market principle of supply and demand leading the media sector to its balance. The rhetoric of the commercial subjects is that consumers have a great deal - tract the widest possible audience and they attract the widest possible audience by offeringof control a contentover the that programming the audience because wants. the Moreover, commercial since subjects the audience profit is if listening they at or watching, it is assumed that it is satisfied with the content so the public interest ensureis satisfied the toosatisfaction (McCauley of individualet al. 2015: and 21). social needs the best and the involvement of publicIt is argued,sector is that unnecessary the market, or law even of unwelcome. supply and demand,These thoughts and profit could motive be clus can- tered under the economic ideas of neoliberalism and as Karol Jakubowicz (2010: 200) points when taken to its extreme, they could be a recipe for the elimination of PSM. Already in 1998, Blumler (1998) correlatively described that changes in developed societies involving individualization but also privatization or anti-authoritari-

PSManism media may furtherthrough reinforce the lenses the of impatience the commercial with the model, PSM ittrying is only to redefineas a tool itsto corrole- in representing, and perhaps also defining the public interest. If there is a place for by commercial subjects (for instance addressing niche groups of the audience). The market-failurerect possible market argument failures further such implies as bring that content PSM should that is notnot besufficiently involved incovered areas such as sports or entertainment since those are genres of a popular appeal which are fully covered by the commercial sector. PSM should solely focus on services for which there are no commercial alternatives. Opposite to that as Robert McChesney (2015: 38-39) describes, historically the public service broadcasting was a full-service broadcasting with not only education and public affairs but also entertainment aimed at the entire population. As he put it “not just the boring educational stuff, not just journalism and public affairs, but entertainment, the whole works”. Also, as John Reith’s famous triangle is a need to satisfy both paternalistic imperatives and popular tastes. definingIn the the dual remit system, of PSM private “inform, and educate public media and entertain” are framed clearly as equal recognizes, players. Howthere- - ing the public interest by following the popular taste, commercial media report to ever, their purposes are essentially different. Besides the essential premise of fulfill advertising revenue coming from corporations or entrepreneurs whose interests their owners or investors mainly in terms of their profit and they are dependent on some public goods that cannot be delivered by the free market, or at least cannot be deliveredmay influence well enoughthe content. so it isOn necessary the other to hand, create PSM public stand institutions on the idea to that do so there such are as museums, libraries or parks. Whereas the goal of commercial players is to make a - uals and social groups to participate more fully and equitably” (Raboy, 1996: 13). profit, the goal of PSM is to “enhance the quality of public life, empowering individ 72 MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What ...

Even though the goal of PSM might seem idealistic, it is the goal that from the essence of the matter determines the functioning of PSM as it is expressed in both legal and self-regulation documents which are the basis for the long-term strategy criteria used to the evaluation of PSM activities and the evaluation is the core of legitimacyof PSM. At argumentationthe same time, in values front ofbased the stakeholders, on this goal fundamentallymost importantly influence public andthe political authorities. To sum up, commerical media (as well as new media platforms) are often perceived as a cause of declining need for PSM it the 21st century and according to Burri (2016: 25-27), there are three basic approaches to the PSM role in the future. 1. PSM are perceived to exist only to correct market failures. The public ser- - cial players (such as sports or entertainment) are excluded. Some also ar- guevice PSMremit are is notvery supposed limited since to engage the areas with sufficiently the new media. covered by commer 2. It is argued that the new digital technologies correct many of the previous market failures which makes the PSM even less needed. On the other hand, as we saw in the previous chapter, the new media can and do create new market failures which should be addressed. This according to Burri (2016) supports the opinion that PSM should be permitted to engage with new media. However, doing so, PSM should follow very precise restrictions

leads to a system based on “a strict evidence-based assessment of public (described in the “Legal Definition” chapter). In its extreme version, this

3. service needs and closely supervises performance and fulfillment of public topurposes Burri (2016: on the 25-27) basis ofis theverifiable one reinventing qualitative PSM criteria”. to narrow much broader marketLast and failures desirable and approach bring socially to the desirable future development service. This approachof PSM according endors- es an active engagement of PSM in new digital media. Admitting it is an idealized concept, PSM in this sense should be institutions sustaining the public sphere, creating critical social values that cannot be simply left to market forces.

2.3. Third Argument: Unsufficient Relationship with the Public

It is believed that PSM should provide the audience with a service that is associated with a number of high-quality standards. At the same time, it is evident that PSM lack an active public support. PSM institutions are supposed to be free of the political or corporate power, but as Scannel (1989: 163-164) pointed out, PSM are from the beginning based on an unequal and asymmetrical relationship between the audience and broadcasters. He argues that even though PSM are supposedly based on fundamentally democratic values, the real power is actually in the hands of the representatives (culture elites), not those whom they should represent. This

73 mr Kristina Visluzilova Opavdanost javnih medijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su ... of the PSM foundation, which is no longer relevant in today’s society with a much highersetting levelwas, ofaccording education to and him, democratization. legitimated by the social stratification at the time Jakubowicz (2010: 202) suggests that the shortcomings in the relationship be- that (preferably western) society has gone through and which affected the public’s tween PSM and the public became even more significant due to the societal change- damental transformation of the PSM relation with the public. approach towards institutions. This change needs to be reflected and lead to a fun PSM, the public is disenfranchised from the process of establishing the PSM media agendaHind and (2012: the population 155) agrees is rarely on this aware point of noting the editorial that despite processes. the idealsHe argues defining that “(m)ost of us depend on institutions that we do not understand in our attempts to understand the world”. Jakubowicz (2010) argues that PSM are criticized for its very basic “supreme guiding principle in the affairs of humankind”, for its belief that we should reveal the truth which can further improve the state of the political and social sphere and thus create a better society. In other words, that there is a group of people who are superior in a way to know better what is good for the public. means of the discussion will strenghten the whole society and the public should have Reidaccess (2014: to this 37) agenda-setting argues that increasedprocess. Moore public and influence Khagram on (2004) the content explicitly and point out that it is the support of audiences and positive public buy-in what legiti- mizes PSM. And the relationship is mutual, as the legitimacy and trust are believed to be what encourages compliance and active participation between citizens and public institutions, and also underpins the raising of public money that is necessary for the provision of the PSM services. The important aspect is that such an inter- areas of consensus and difference, it also develops necessary trust. Simply as it is, theaction future brings of PSM not “willonly beunderstanding determined inof thosethe public moments needs when or identification media users decideof the whether to turn to PSM” (Jakubowicz, 2010: 227). In this sense, PSM are perceived to have the responsibility to both shape the public needs and be responsive to what public wants or values. Such a process necessarily involves the provision of relevant information about the public. Moreover, it is argued, that in order to ensure that PSM services are responsive to citizens’ needs, the engagement of the public is necessary during all the phases of public service delivering: design, planning, provision and evaluation (Coyle, Woolard n.d.: 10).

3. Pilot Audience Research in the Czech Republic

The audience relationship towards PSM was measured in a pilot quantita- the representative of PSM in the Czech Republic was chosen the Czech Television tive online research on a representative sample of Czech population (N=1050). As-

(Česká74 televize). The research was conducted online through a panel of respon MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What ... dents (Populace.cz), particularly those who claimed that they personally watch the Czech Television at least sometimes were evaluating its services. The aim of the pilot quantitative research was to measure the audience perception of different aspects of services provided by the representative of PSM in the Czech Republic and analyse which of the atributes discussed also above on the theoretical level score the best or worst. The results of the analysis should indicate what are the strenghts or weaknesses of the Czech Television as it is perceived by its audience. All the respondents were asked to evaluate if they agree or disagree with statements describing their satisfaction with different aspects of the Czech Television services. This evaluation was based on four-point scale (strongly agree, agree, dis- of “I don’t know, not relevant”. Those statements were based both on the literature reviewagree, stronfly and current disagree), debates giving regarding the respondents the legitimacy a possibility of PSM andto choose also partially the option inspired by the BBC Purpose Remit Survey (ICM 2016) which is conducted on behalf of the BBC Trust on a representative sample of UK adults since 2008. The statements were formulated to cover the most important aspects of PSM purpose, or in other words, drivers of the PSM legitimacy as they are discussed above including the relevance of the PSM in the context of new and commerical me- towards the Czech Television, perception of its content and its quality, form and distinctivenessdia and its relationship in comparison to the toaudience. other broadcasters. They briefly It cover also focusthe overall on the relationship Czech Tele- vision’s online content and importantly, on the perception of its openess or possible engagementQ1: I would in a missdialogue. the Czech The statements Television wereif it wasn’t particularly there. defined as following: Q2: The Czech Television has a lot to offer me. Q3. I trust information which I get from the Czech Television. Q4. The Czech Television makes higher quality programmes compared to other broadcasters. Q5. The Czech Television makes programmes or online content that no other broadcaster would make. Q6: The Czech Television provides quality content also on the internet. Q7. During the last month, I have learned new things from programmes or online content on the Czech Television. Q8: The Czech Television makes news and current affairs issues interesting to me. Q9: I perceive the Czech Television as an organization which is friendly and open. Q10. I feel the Czech Television takes care about my opinion and I might be

Q11. The Czech Television coverage has often got me talking about them with somebodyable to influence else. its broadcasting.

75 mr Kristina Visluzilova Opavdanost javnih medijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su ...

Figure 1. claimed they watch the Czech Television at least sometimes, % of people who said they strongly agree Perception or agree of(TOP2BOX) the Czech with Television the following services, statements N=991, are those shown. who

Figure 2. claimed they watch the Czech Television at least sometimes, % of people who said they strongly agree Perception or agree of (Top2Box) the Czech and Television strongly services,agree (TopBox) N=991, with those the who following statements are shown.

strongly strongly Statement agree + agree in agree in % % The Czech Television makes news and current affairs issues 66,8 17,0 interesting to me. The Czech Television has a lot to offer me. 66,3 15,9

I trust information which I get from the Czech Television. 63,5 12,8 I perceive the Czech Television as an organization which is 61,7 13,1 friendly and open.

76 MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What ...

During the last month, I have learned new things from 58,3 13,8 programmes or online content on the Czech Television. I would miss the Czech Television if it wasn’t there. 57,1 21,3 The Czech Television provides quality content also on the 52,0 13,1 internet. The Czech Television makes programmes or online content 42,5 8,8 that no other broadcaster would make. The Czech Television makes higher quality programmes 42,1 10,6 compared to other broadcasters. The Czech Television coverage has often got me talking 38,5 8,1 about them with somebody else. I feel the Czech Television takes care about my opinion and I 26,9 5,5 might be able to influence its broadcasting.

It is obivious that the aspect of feeling that the Czech Television takes care about audience member opinion scores the worst. Particularly, 27% of respondents said they strongly agree or agree with the statement. Only 6% of respondents claimed they agree strongly. Regarding the distinctiveness which is perceived as an important charasteristic of the PSM services, the number of people who strongly agree with the statements that the Czech Television offers higher quality content compared to other broadcasters and that it makes programmes that no other broadcasters would make is rather low comapred to the rest of the statements (42%, 43% respectively). On the other hand, the Czech Television is highly evaluated regarding its ability to present the news and current affairs in a way which is interesting for the audience (67% strongly agree or agree). It also scores very well in the perception of the audience that it has a lot to offer to them (66%). This indicates that the PSM supe- riority discussed in the literature review is seemingly not perceived to be included in the content or the way it is presented. It is undoubtadly desirable to put these pilot research results in a broader context, further comparison is planned in terms of different socio-demographic segments and perception of commercial broadcasters or new media platforms which would help to define the strenghts, weaknesses and key drivers of the PSM support. Conclusion

The role of audience was analysed and described as the key attribute in arguments related to the legitimacy of PSM. The audience support, involvement and - rounding the PSM role in the 21st century, including the discussions about new me- participationdia technologies were and defined commercial as the media common stressing denominator the law of supplylatest discussions and demand. sur

77 mr Kristina Visluzilova Opavdanost javnih medijskih servisa u 21. vijeku: Koje su ...

The pilot quantitative research conducted in the Czech Republic proved that the perception of the PSM as of an organization taking care of its audience and mak- from all the testes statements which included the PSM content, discinctiveness, relevance,ing its members online services feel they or might credibility. be able to influence its content is rather low, lowest Even though PSM has come a long way since its described paternalistic begin- nings, the asymmetrical relationship between PSM and its audience seems to be still a challenge. It is argued, there is a need to rethink the relationship between PSM and its audience and that the PSM should recognize the role of the audience as an active partner and connect with it to make the public service truly public. PSM institutions in many countries already understand they must re-concep- the eyes of the public and the engagement in a dialogue with the public seem to play thetualize key the role way in this in which process. they fulfill their mission and rediscover their legitimacy in Both commercial broadcasters and new digital technologies are often described as a threat to PSM. On the other hand, particularly new technologies may - gies offer not only new delivery mechanisms or platforms to distribute the content butoffer also many new opportunities, ways of social especially interaction regarding and dialogue. public participation.It can play a bridge-building New technolo role in the relationship of PSM and its audience. The interaction with audience brings not only understanding of the public may also develop necessary trust. The concept of public value does not imply that needs and expectatons or identification of the areas of consensus and difference, it shaping of the public opinion in line with the normative values PSM are supposed the PSM should solely reflect popular taste and preferences, it necessarily includes - erativeto deliver. engagement But the PSM with can public. only refine what public wants if they know what it wants in theFollowing first place. these And presumptions,it can only find it out is clearwhat thatthe public even though wants throughthere are the import delib- - sary has to be here for the public and the aspect of “what public wants” cannot be completelyant normative neglected. values thatThis PSM very definitely basic idea should of PSM deliver, serving the the public public service quite clearlyneces stands as an argument for more intensive discussion with the public. Discussion make it more supportive. that would both help to define the public service itself and engage to public and

78 MSc Kristyna Vyslouzilova Legitimacy of Public Service Media in the 21st Century: What ...

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MSc Signe Ivask, junior research fellow, PhD candidate

Institute of Social Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tartu, UDK 070(474.2) Tartu, Estonia1

Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists consider leaving the field2

Abstract:

The aim of this study was to find out how many Estonian journalists- mentfrom print,offers. online Having and fewer converged professional newsrooms journalists are considering with a sense leaving of ethics, the high field jour and- how satisfied they are with resources and demands the work and working environ- ity of news, which could lead to spreading misinformation and biased information. nalistic standards and skills in the field could lead to a severe decrease in the qual - Three main research questions were proposed: firstly, how many journalists intend hesitatorsto leave the cope field withor are job hesitant resources about and staying; demands. secondly, A survey how manywas carried leavers out and from hes Juneitators to report August suffering 2016 and from 181 severe journalists stress outand of burnout; 428 provided thirdly, theirhow doresponse. leavers Theand results showed that 37% of the sample (n=66) are either hesitant about continu- group (n=24) that formed out of the two groups (leavers and hesitators) was wom- ening of working the age in 18 the – 37 field with or experiencehave already less intentions than ten ofyears. leaving It could the field. be said The 38% biggest out Originalni naučni rad / Original scientific article of the female respondents in the overall sample of the same age (18 – 37 years) and - demandsexperience than group hesitators, (<10 years) who are show either more hesitant indecisive or intend or positive to leave attitude the field. towards Anoth resourceser key finding and demands,was that leavers except forshow salary. more dissatisfaction towards resources and

Key words journalism, career, resources, demands, stress

the1 [email protected] European Regional Development Fund. 2 This publication was supported by the University of Tartu ASTRA Project PER ASPERA, financed by 83 mr Signe Ivask,

Tartu, Estonija viši naučni saradnik, doktorand Institut društvenih nauka, Fakultet društvenih nauka, Univerzitet Tartu,

Novinari pod stresom u štampanim, digitalnim i konvergentnim redakcijama razmišljaju o napuštanju terena3

Apstrakt: -

Cilj ove studije je da se utvrdi koliko estonskih novinara iz štam- panih, onlajn i konvergentnih redakcija razmatra napuštanje profesije i koliko su zadovoljni sa resursima i zahtjevima koje im nameće posao i radno okruženje. Ne dostatak profesionalnih novinara sa osjecajem etike, visokih novinarskih standarda i vještina na terenu, može dovesti do ozbiljnog smanjenja kvaliteta vijesti, što bi moglo dovesti do širenja dezinformacija i pristrasnih informacija. Predložena su tri glavna pitanja istraživanja: prvo, koliko novinara namjerava da napusti profesiju ili da se dvoume da ostanu; drugo, koliko onih koji odlaze ili se dvoume prijavljuju stres i preopterećenost poslom; trece, kako se suočavaju sa resursima i zahtjevima posla. Istraživanje je sprovedeno u periodu od juna do avgusta 2016. godine, a od 428 novinara odgovorilo je njih 181. Rezultati su pokazali da 37% ispitanika (n = 66) se dvoumi ili već ima namjeru da napusti profesiju. Najveća grupa (n = 24) koja je formirana iz ove dvije grupe (osobe koje odlaze i koje se dvoume) bile su žene starosti od 18 do 37 godina sa iskustvom manjim od deset godina rada. Moglo bi se reći da je 38% ispitanica od ukupnog uzorka iste starosti (18 - 37 godina) i radnog iskustava (<10 godina) ili neodlučno ili namjerava da napusti profesiju. Još jedan ključni zaključak je bio da oni koji odlaze pokazuju više nezadovoljstva resursima i zahtjevima od onih koji se dvoume, koji iskazuju veću neodlučanost ili pozitivan odnosKljučne prema riječi:resursima novinarstvo, i zahtjevima karijera, posla, resursi, osim kod zahtjevi, zarade. stres

3 Ovo istraživanje je podržano projektom Univerziteta Tartu ‘’ASTRA Project PER ASPERA’ finansir 84anog od strane Evropskog fonda za regionalni razvoj. MSc Signe Ivask Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists...

Introduction

Many journalists circulate from one newsroom to another in Estonia and lots- of well-known experienced journalists have decided to leave the field as a whole.- Some of the reasons why they left the field were that they did not cope with the in creased workload, they felt overwhelmed by multitasking and the decreased qual ity of their work brought more stress and dissatisfaction than they could handle (Olgo, Harro-Loit, 2017; Külaots, Ivask 2015). havingDissatisfaction gradually fewer with journalists work could with lead thejournalists sense of to ethics doubting and career high journalistic choice and in some cases even leaving the field (Reinardy, 2011). This in turn could lead to - ingstandards and verifying working the in potentialthe field (Jung of news and or Kim, a source 2012). lies For heavily the post-truth on having society the expe that- battles with alternative facts and fake news, it would be a tremendous loss. Evaluat between being biased and adjudicating (Pingree et al., 2014). rience in the field (Tylor, 2014; Reich, 2011). Experience helps to make distinctions

The struggling economic conditions of media industry have had influence on manythe size technological of the staff developmentsin newsrooms inand newsrooms therefore haveon the lead routines to newspaper of journalists journal as- well (Ekdale et al., 2015; Paulussen, 2011; Chisholm, 2010). During the last decade-

ists producing content for different platforms (and even mediums), so their work load has increased (Ternes et al., 2017). And this has already happened in Estonia: according to Harro-Loit and Lauk (2016) Estonian journalists have a high degree of autonomy, but feel the increasing time pressure and workload: the time to produce- an article has decreased, yet working hours have increased. - er journalistsJob satisfaction (average among of 37.8 Estonian years) journalists (Abel, 2007). increases Sexual, with ethnic/racial age; the less discrim satisfied are older journalists (average of 43.7 years) and more satisfied were young discrimination was a problem cited among women. According to the study (Abel, ination and the lack of autonomy at work were cited as “not real concerns”. Sex-

2007:14) the main issues in Estonian journalism were “salary, dependence on tech nology and the stress level”. Theoretical framework Demands and resources

The Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model includes both negative and posi-

tive aspects of work that could either motivate the worker (resources) or on the- contrary manifest strain (demands) (Bakker, Demerouti, 2007). Job demands could lead to workaholism and burnout, job resources to self-efficacy and work engage ment (Guglielmi et al., 2012); job resources have the ability to buffer some of the job demands (Bakker et al., 2005). 85 mr Signe Ivask Novinari pod stresom u štampanim, digitalnim i ...

Demands are “physical, psychological, social or organizational aspects of the- job that require sustained physical and/or psychological (cognitive and emotional) effort or skills and are therefore associated with certain physiological and/or psychological costs” (Bakker, Demerouti, 2007:312). Some of the demands are work pressure, emotional demands, and role ambiguity (Bakker, Demerouti, 2007). De mandsResources are the kindon the of othercharacteristics hand are thataspects put thata stress are thoughtmentally to and/or have motivating physically on an employee (Halbesleben, Buckley, 2004). resources also help to achieve goals, reduce physiological and psychological loss thatabilities is caused to help by the demands employee (Xanthopoulou to be more efficient et al., 2007).at work Resources and more couldengaged. lead The to high self-efficacy, self-esteem, motivation and optimism (Xanthopoulou et al. 2007, Viotti et al., 2017). After achieving goals, resources have decreased and they take pay,time career to be recovered opportunities, (Halbesleben, job security), Buckley, the interpersonal2004). and social relations (e.g. “Job resources may be located at the level of the organization at large (e.g. supervisor and co-worker’s support, team climate), the organization of work (e.g. role clarity, participation in decision making), and at the level of the task (e.g. skill variety,Suffering task identity, under taska lot significance,of stress without autonomy, resource performance to recover feedback)” can cause (Bakker,psycho- Demerouti 2007:312-313). being considered as a state, which characteristics are a constant feeling of fatigue, logical issues that can lead to burnout (Halbesleben and Buckley, 2004). Burnout is - not understanding the necessity of work and being cynical and ineffective at work (Maslach et al., 2001). Employees who experience burnout do not find opportu nities for personal development and growth at the workplace (Maslach, Jackson, 1981:107). Stress & coping

- sasters,Journalists catastrophes need andto have violence, a quick suffer sense from of stressswitching that isoff caused from one by battling activity with and news to other (Backholm, Björkqvist, 2012), battle with ethics when covering di - moral dilemmas (Browne et al., 2012; Weidmann et al., 2008, Weidmann, Papsdorf, 2010). Journalists feel technological pressure (Mackay, 2012) and social responsi bility (Ternes et al., 2017). In addition, there is a lack of coping strategies that could help the journalist in the long term (Monteiro et al., 2016). Deadline is an inevitable part of the work of a journalist and this kind of time- pressure might lead occasionally to stress (Tyrkkoe, Karlqvist, 2015). Time pressure could be perceived as having insufficient time to complete tasks (Southerton, Tomlin son, 2005). And during these kinds of situations journalists might lack experience and might86 need help from the organization to cope with stress (Konow Lund, Olsson, 2016). MSc Signe Ivask Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists...

a smallCook newspaper. et al. (1993) In addition, say that theythe mostearn lessendangered than their group older of colleagues journalists (Cush carry- the characteristics of being young, less experienced, multitasking and working in clear signs of leaving journalism (Reinardy, 2011). ion, 2007).In an earlier Young studyjournalists Reinardy are remarkably (2009b) found more that unsatisfied a high percentage with work of and 27-year- show old and younger women intend to leave journalism. It was not clear in the study

- outwhat were caused strong, higher yet, levels they still of burnout had the amongintention female to leave respondents: journalism the (ibid). relationship betweenAnother job satisfaction issue is that and if perceiveda young journalist organizational feels thesupport job is in not diminishing for him or burn the newsrooms is not suitable, he has the chance to move away from the newsroom

or leave the field as a whole. This is actually considered one of the reasons, why so oldermany journalistsyoung journalists have a withgood little understanding experience whatleave beingthe field a journalist – they find means, the job what not being suitable for them (Cook et al., 1993). On the other hand, more experienced

kind Changing of stressors an occupation and resources might the seem occupation intimidating has and for howolder to experienced cope with themjour- (Cook, Banks, 1993; Ivask et al., 2017).

nalists, because they might not cope with re-training for other occupations; they occupationsmight feel insecure, that are because being chosen they have over been journalism working are in journalism jobs in academia for a long (Lahav, time and therefore have a certain set of skills (Davidson & Meyers, 2016). Some of the other side of the line in PR or communication might be unacceptable for some of 2008) or in PR and communication field (Davidson, Meyers, 2016), yet being on the

the journalists (Külaots, Ivask, 2015). as theyThe used waves to be of (Reinardy,layoff have 2013). left its The mark multimedia on the newsroom opportunities staff: of journalists the web have are less trusting than ever; their morale and job satisfaction are not as high anymore

produced extra stress for journalists who write for a daily newspaper: they have to multitask, this in turn could make journalists feel that they do not produce quality content and this kind of dissatisfaction could in time lead to burnout (ibid). The lack Journalistsof organizational accept supportmore responsibilities has influence andon journalists demands inas thewell, newsroom, who become but dissatisfied and have intentions of leaving the field (Reinardy, 2009a).

the most dissatisfied workers in the newsroom are desk personnel. Journalists might use the new technology in their advantage and would be able to finish the notwork even before read the and deadline, edit some but ofthe the highest news pressureor stories falls sent on to editors, them, becausewho are theythe last do notones have to work the time on journalists’ (ibid). stories and news (Ternes et al., 2017). Editors might -

In the era of multitasking and producing content for different platforms, news rooms prefer journalists with these kinds of skills (Davidson, Meyers, 2016). Young87 mr Signe Ivask Novinari pod stresom u štampanim, digitalnim i ...

- cause this is how they gather experience and have hope for increase of income in thejournalists future. mightOlder beand dissatisfied experienced with journalists the salary, tend but toare be more more willing expensive to work, for thebe newsrooms, because of their salary (Cushion, 2007).

Context of Estonia

Estonia is a country in northeastern Europe, with a population of approximate- ly 1.3 million people. Estonia regained independence in 1991 after the collapse of Soviet Union. In 2016 Estonia had 109 different newspapers (Statistics Estonia, 2017a). In 2016

there were 747 media workers (e.g. journalists, editors, designers, Estonianphotographers newspapers etc.), who are workednot members for 36 of newspapers the association. that were the members of the Estonian Newspaper Association (Estonian Newspaper Association, 2017). All of-

It must be taken into account, that there is a lack of up-to-date overall statis tics in Estonia of working journalists and staff turnover.In 2016 Lauk and Harro-Loit carried out a study for World of Journalism and in the country report they stated: “Estonia is among the 19 countries (out of 66 surveyed countries) where majority of journalists are women. Of the 274 interviewed journalists, 160 were women, making employeefor a proportion in national of 58.4 dailies percent was of 1082 the overall euros, sample”in regional (Harro-Loit, papers 811, Lauk in 2016:1).free papers Estonian Newspaper Association stated that in 2016 the average salary of an monthly gross income in Estonia in 2016 averaged 1146 euros (Statistics Estonia, 2017b).1051. This This statistics statistics included does not everyone differentiate who worked female in and a newspaper male income. newsroom.The The overall

Statistics Estonia, 2017c). statistics of Estonia show a gap between male and female workers’ salaries, female workers get 20,9% less salary than men ( 1.Taking literature and Estonian context into account three research questions were2. proposed: How many leavers and hesitators report suffering from severe stress and How many journalists are considering leaving the field or are hesitant? 3. burnout? How do leavers and hesitators cope with job resources and demands? Method and sample

- Questions about leaving the field, feeling burned out, severe stress, demand- and resource aspects that affect journalistic work were asked in the question naire. The questionnaire was put together using questions from Utrecht Work En gagement Scale (UWES), Health and Safety Executive (HSE) stress questionnaire, Maslach88 Burnout Inventory (MBI) and Psychosocial risks scale. MSc Signe Ivask Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists...

The questionnaire was created in English and Estonian simultaneously. During the process of creating the questionnaire, some modifications were made to ensure usage of locally appropriate terminology. Socio-demographic questions were added- to the questionnaire. A self-administered questionnaire with open-ended socio-demographic questions and Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) was sent out. The information about the journalists was gathered from newspapers’ and on editors-in-chiefline outlets’ online were pages left andout, abecause database their was job created characteristics by taking areinto different account allfrom of the working newspaper journalists and/or reporters. All of the supervisors and- rooms in the sample. reporters’Altogether and editors’ 428 e-mails making were the sent sample out. too The heterogeneous. invitation to participate There were in the26 news study

the second one on the 24th July 2016. There were 181 respondents, providing the responsewas sent outrate onof 42%.the 14th June 2016, the first reminder on the 6th July 2016 and Among respondents were newspaper journalists (n=89), journalists from converged newsrooms (online, newspaper, TV, radio) (n=79) and online journalists (n=12) (one respondent did not provide an answer).

Age (years) Female (n=115) Male (n=66) 18-27 31 16 28-37 37 11 38-47 22 21 48-57 19 13 58-67 6 5 Total (N=181) 115 66

Table 1.

Age groups of respondents (N=181). -

Out of 181 respondents 115 were female and 66 male. There were 61 respon thandents 20 with years 5 or of less experience. years of experience, Among female 44 with respondents 6–10 years most of experience,of the respondents 19 with (n=37)11–15 yearsbelonged of experience, to the age 15 group with of 16–20 28–37 years years of old,experience among andmale 42 respondents with more most of the respondents (n=21) were 38 – 47 years old (Table 1).

89 mr Signe Ivask Novinari pod stresom u štampanim, digitalnim i ...

Findings

RQ1: How many journalists are considering leaving the field or are hesitant?

There were 35 people out of 181 respondents, who expressed intentions of yearleaving old the women field –with 26 women13 women and having nine men. less Amongstthan 10 years those, of who experience, have reported one hav to- have intentions of leaving the field, the biggest group (n=14) consisted of 18 – 37 In the overall sample were 63 female respondents of the age group 18 – 37 withing 11 less to 15than years. ten years of experience, 21% percent of these respondents have in-

- ertentions than 38 of yearsleaving of the age, field. with one having 6 to 10 years of experience and the other Among male respondents, the biggest age group among leavers (n=5) was old more than 20 years of experience). four Inhaving the overall more samplethan 16 were years 39 of male experience respondents in the older field than (including 38 with two more having than six years of experience, comparing to those, who want to leave the field (n=5) – it makes up 13%. - 17 leavers out of 35 were from print media newsrooms (out of 89 print media respondents – 19%), 15 from converged (out of 79 converged newsroom respon Hesitatingdents – 19%) about and leaving 3 from or online staying newsrooms (out of 12 online journalists – 25%).

- groupThere formed were and 31 it people, consisted who of did 11 not women, know who whether were or 18 not – 37they years would of agebe stay and hading in less the than field; 10 among years thoseof experience. were 17 femaleIn the overalland 14 sample,male respondents. there were One 63 femalebigger respondents that were 18 – 37 years old with less than 10 years of experience, in comparison, 18% are hesitant about staying. Among male hesitators, the biggest group out of 14 consisted of nine men, whoseIn agethe wasoverall between sample 28 were – 47 years19 male (five respondents having less ofthan the 10 age years group of experienceof 28 – 47, soand 47% four of having male 11respondents – 15 years). with the same age are hesitant. To be more precise, then in the overall sample were 13 male respondents of the age group 28 – 47 with experience less than ten years, comparing to the hesitators group with the same experience (n=5), then 38% are hesitant about staying or leaving the field; there were 8 male18 respondents hesitators out of of the 31 same were age,from yet, print with media 11 to newsrooms 15 years of (out experience of 89 print and media they respondentsmake up 50% – of20%), the group 11 from (n=4). converged (out of 79 converged newsroom respondents – 14%) and 2 from online newsrooms (out of 12 online journalists – 17%).

90 MSc Signe Ivask Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists...

Leavers and hesitators

- There were 66 male and 115 female respondents in the overall sample and among those people were altogether 23 male (35%) and 43 female (37%) hesi tators and leavers. These results go together with Reinardy’s research that more experiencefemale journalists among aremale intending leavers andto leave hesitators. the field (2009b). TheIt was biggest quite groupdifficult that to formed differentiate consisted some of substantial24 (13 leavers groups and 11of agehesitators) and/or women of the age of 18 – 37 with experience less than 10 years. Comparing the results to the overall sample of women of 18–37-year-olds with less than 10 years of experience (n=63), it could be said, that 38% of the sample has intentions of leaving

the field or is hesitant. fromAltogether online newsrooms 35 leavers (out and of hesitators12 respondents were –from 42%). print media newsrooms (out of 89 respondents – 39%), 26 from converged (out of 79 respondents – 33%), 5 RQ2: How many leavers and hesitators report suffering from severe stress and burnout? -

Additional questions were asked from the respondents about stress, resourc es and demands of the work and the workplace. This could offer some insight or reasons why they are hesitant about staying or why they intend to leave the field. It was remarkable that 27 leavers out of 35 (77%) admitted feeling severe stress while working, five were undecided (altogether 32 respondents – 91%). There were 17 hesitators out of 31 (55%), who admitted feeling highly stressed undecidedwhile working (altogether and 11 were23 respondents undecided (altogether– 66%). Among 28 respondents those, who felt– 90%). burned out, 17 people out of 35 leavers (49%) admitted feeling burned out and 6 were than 10 years of experience. were 12 women and 5 men. Nine women out of 12 were 18–37 years old with less

Comparing (n=12) to the whole group of women, who intend to leave the field (n=26), then 46% of them feel burned out. Comparing male respondents (n=5) to the group who intend leaving the field, then 56% report feeling burned out. RQ3:Four hesitatorsHow do leavers felt burned and hesitators out (13%), cope 15 werewith jobundecided resources (altogether and demands? 19 – 61%). -

According to JD-R, workload is a demand that could turn into a stressor without resources to cope with it (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007).There were 15 leavers (43%) who admitted that the workload was exhausting to them, and 14 were un decided (altogether 29 leavers – 82%). 12 of the hesitators felt the workload to be exhausting (39%), 6 were undecided (altogether 18 hesitators – 58%). Finding a meaning in one’s job is connected to job engagement and it also expresses dedication (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003). Among leavers (n=35), seven91 mr Signe Ivask Novinari pod stresom u štampanim, digitalnim i ...

undecidedpeople did (16%)not find others a meaning found in a meaningtheir job in(20%) their andjob. nine were undecided (26%) (altogetherIt is emotionally 16 respondents demanding – 46%). to communicateThere were five with hesitators sources out that of are 31 frustratedwho were withor have aggressive gone through or unpleasant something sources unpleasant, often but(23%), a journalist out of whom needs all to weretalk to female them anyways, it is an inseparable part of their work. Eight leavers had to communicate respondents. Comparing these results to 26 women, who intend to leave the field, hadit makes to communicate up 33%. There with were aggressive 12 respondents or unpleasant among sources leavers, often,who were 10 were undecided unde- – 7 women and 5 men (altogether 20 respondents – 57%). Seven hesitators (23%) communicate with aggressive or violent sources, four were women and three men. cided (altogether 17 respondents – 55%). Among the seven hesitators, who had to that theyCoaching, do not getting receive feedback help from or help a supervisor from a supervisor when in isneed a resource (17%), for 12 an were employee unde- (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007).Six leavers – five female and one male respondent – said who admitted that they do not receive help from their supervisor when in need (two mencided and (altogether one woman) 18 respondents and six were – undecided51%). Among (altogether hesitators 9 respondents were three people – 29%). (10%)

Social support is beneficial for creating a positive working environment- dents(Schaufeli – 97%). and 30 Bakker, of the 2004).29 hesitators of assessed the leavers (1 did assessed not answer) their their relationships relationships with withcolleagues colleagues to be goodvery good(97%). (83%), 5 were undecided (14%) (altogether 34 respon

Re-reading and checking the news seems to be a remarkable work, because- during a day many of the journalists produce different kinds of news for different platforms. This could mean the wish to improve and develop the skills as a journalist, which indicates job commitment, a resource (Demerouti et al., 2001; Schaufeli- ticles.and Bakker, But by 2004; revisiting Xanthopoulou their published et al., 2007). news, Thisthey couldcould also induce indicate additional high self-ef stress ficacy of journalists, who might see a chance of self-growth in rereading the ar - for themselves, because it is something that takes additional time from a day. This arecould 9 undecidedindicate of notamong letting both go leavers of the work and hesitators as well. 23 (altogether leavers (66%) 32 leaversand 19 hesita– 91% andtors 28(61%) hesitators revisit – their 90%). published materials to check up on or reread them. There

Salary is considered as one of the resources (Bakker &Demerouti, 2007:312- 313). It was remarkable, that more hesitators (n=19, 61%) were dissatisfied with the imbalance between the workload and salary than leavers (n=14, 40%). There were 6 undecided among leavers and 5 among hesitators (altogether 20 leavers – 57% and 24 hesitators – 77%).

92 MSc Signe Ivask Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists...

Discussion Leavers and hesitators

groups of age and experience among male leavers and hesitators because of the small While analyzing the data, it was quite a challenge to differentiate any substantial

ofsize the of agethe sample.18 – 37 The with respondents less than ten in theyears sample of experience had very heterogeneous (n=24). But it indicators.should be Yet, it could be said that a remarkable group formed out of female journalists - taken into account that there are estimably more women working as journalists in Estonia than men (Harro-Loit, Lauk, 2016). Nevertheless, these results go to journalistsgether with showed Reinardy’s higher research levels (2009b),of burnout which and expressed indicated thatintentions many youngof leaving female the journalists had intentions of leaving the field. In 2011 Reinardy found that younger

groupsfield as withwell. Burnoutexperience, was because not measured of the smallin this amount survey. of men who participated in the survey.Among However, male respondents it could be itsaid was that very men difficult of the ageto differentiate group 28 – 47 any years certain formed age

werea bigger 13 respondentsmale group among in the overallhesitators sample (n=9). of Amongthe same them age weregroup five with men less with than less 10 than 10 years of experience. Taking age and experience into account, then there-

years of experience and 38% of them intend to leave the field. Again, taking into ac count the small size of the sample, then 4 men out of 8 with the experience 11 – 15- years intend to leave the field (50%). It was remarkable that in many cases hesitators had a large number of “undecided” answers, which actually reflects on the mentality of the “hesitators”. Being indecisive whether or not a journalist wants to stay in the field might be an indica- mitment.tor of feeling There uncertain was a generous about the amount field or ofthe male job (Reinardy,respondents 2009a; that were2009b). hesitant They aboutcould bestaying considered – 14 out as ofpotential 66 men leavers who participated of the field, in because the survey of their (21%). weak job com -

One aspect that has to be taken into account is the size of Estonian journalis tic scene, which is quite small. It was difficult to find homogenous groups in this research. Bearing this in mind, it could be said that 35 people leaving the field and 31 being hesitant (altogether 66 respondents, which makes 37% out of 181) is an influential result in Estonian context. Comparing to the overall sample of both male realand intentionsfemale respondents, than men (14%).then 43 women out of 115 (38%) and 23 men out of 66 (35%) have these kinds of intentions or doubts, but more women (23%) are having

During the first half of the year 2017 five journalists left one of the biggest- daily in Estonia and this kind of a change was even published in a daily. As stated notbefore, represent there is all a oflack the of journalists overall statistics in Estonia of journalists and it is not and differentiated. turnover in Estonia, Es tonian Newspaper Association has overall statistics about their members, but does 93 mr Signe Ivask Novinari pod stresom u štampanim, digitalnim i ... young journalists on the other hand do not gather in-depth experience from one Many experienced journalists leave the field or are let go by the newsroom; newsroom, because they tend to change the newsrooms or positions quite often, which again leads them to having new tasks. This kind of circulation could affect negatively their practice of basic skills like interviewing, newsgathering and writing. Increased workload and stress commitment may lay in the fact that journalism is a stressful occupation. It consists of Some of the reasons why journalists consider leaving the field or doubt career - covering ethically difficult issues or catastrophes, trying to cope with technology and feeling social responsibility (Backholm, Björkqvist, 2012; Browne et. al, 2012; Weid- mann et al., 2008; Weidmann, Papsdorf, 2010; Mackay, 2012; Ternes et al., 2017). - Reasons why journalists have had intentions of leaving the field have been con nected to industry issues and job satisfaction; there have been worries with jour nalisticBurnout standards and stressdiminishing seemed for to profitbe a problem (Reinardy, of journalists,2009a). Journalists who intend have to noted leave that the workload has increased, as has time pressure (Harro-Loit, Lauk, 2016). the field, especially among male respondents: five leavers out of nine reported to feel wereburned undecided out (56%). and It these did not respondents pose a remarkable could be potentially problem to on those, the verge who of did burning not know, out. whether or not they would be staying the field, although there were 15 people who-

Feeling severe stress while working and reporting feeling burned out is dan gerous for journalists’ career commitment, because the main solution is leaving the- position, newsroom or the field as a whole (Cook et. al, 1993; Reinardy 2011). - Due to the convergence in newsrooms, journalists are facing additional work load and deadlines. This means having to adjust to multiskilling, multitasking, pro timeducing pressure more materials that could for lead newspapers to feeling negativewith less stress. staff and being efficient at work. Re-reading the published work, that most of the respondents do, could produce behindThis leaving research or hesitatingdid not give could a definite be individual answer to and why touch people on feel other severe aspects stress that or why they are intending to leave the field or are hesitant about staying. The reasons journalismwere not asked to be in suitable this survey. for them. For example, there might be people who have found fundamental issues in the job that they cannot accept and therefore they do not find

94 MSc Signe Ivask Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists...

Demands and resources

Results showed that hesitators were more satisfied with the working condi tions and more of them could find meaning in their job than those who intend to leave the field. All in all leavers show more negative attitude towards work than- visitinghesitators. already The two published groups news. showed similar results comparing couple of statements: communication with aggressive and unpleasant sources; exhausting workload; re from hesitators than leavers. Hesitators reported that there is an imbalance be- The balance between salary and workload received more negative attitude-

tween salary and workload; this could indicate that this is a more important re- persource Association to this group average of people, salary whoin dailies want into 2016receive were a higher 1082 reward euros and for theirin regional work. newspapersSalaries 811 in Estonian euros. The journalism salaries differ differ inside a lot. of According the newsrooms to Estonian as well. Newspa One of the problems in Estonia is the gap of 20,9% between male and female salaries (Sta- tistics Estonia 2017c). This could explain the dissatisfaction of female respondents with salary. It could be that the salary of the leavers is satisfying to them already, but they are not happy with the new arrangements in the newsroom. Also they were more critical about the meaning of the job they were doing than hesitators. -

Good relationship with colleagues and supervisors is a resource (Bakker, De- merouti, 2007: 312-313). The results showed, that hesitators had more positive (Reinardy,results on 2009b).this matter, although both groups showed quite high satisfaction espe cially in relationships with colleagues, which does not conflict with earlier research-

male.More Six newsrooms leavers reported had supervising supervisor editors, not helping who served them whenas a direct in need supervisor than hesi to thetators. reporters Out of 26and newsrooms who obeyed 20 to had the editors-in-chief: editor-in-chief –five three of them of them were were female, female 15 and three men. As there were nine people, who reported not to receive help from the supervisor when in need, and six out of them were women, then perhaps female

male supervisor or editor-in-chief. journalists feel discomfort when having to discuss work or home problems with a

Conclusion

The aim of this study was to find out how many print journalists intend leaving the field or are hesitating about staying. Additionally, questions about coping with- spondentsthe resources were and hesitant. demands So ofaltogether the job were 66 respondents asked from theout leaversof 181 (37%) and hesitators. are either There were 35 people who reported intending to leave the field and 31 re 95 mr Signe Ivask Novinari pod stresom u štampanim, digitalnim i ...

intentionshesitant or (23%) intend comparing to leave. To to be men more (14%). precise: 43 women out of 115 (38%) and 23 men out of 66 (35%) have these kinds of intentions, but more women are having Yet, it could be said that from hesitators and leavers a bigger homogeneous group formed out of female journalists of the age 18 – 37 with less than ten years of experience (n=24). Comparing to the overall sample, then 38% out of the same age and experience group are either hesitant or intend to leave the field. 27 leavers out of 35 (77%) admitted feeling severe stress while working, five- erswere (49%) undecided. admitted There feeling were burned 17 hesitators out and out 6 were of 31 undecided. (55%), who Four admitted of the hesitafeeling- severely stressed while working and 11 were undecided. 17 people out of 35 leav totors be felt more burned indecisive out (13%), or positive. 15 were The undecided. two groups showed similar results comparing Leavers show more negative attitude towards work than hesitators, who tend- - couple of statements: communication with aggressive and unpleasant sources, ex hausting workload, revisiting already published news. However, there were state andments, supervisor where the helping answers when differed one is inremarkably. need received For moreexample negative the balance responses between from leaverssalary and than workload hesitators. received more negative attitude from hesitators than leavers media journalists. Bigger sample could help to bring forward clearer correlations Future research should include all of the working journalists not only print and profiles and is more inclusive.

96 MSc Signe Ivask Stressed out print, digital and converged newsroom journalists...

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14(2): pp.121-141.

PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso, lecturer

Department of Mass Communication, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, UDK 070:342.7(669) Nigeria1

Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

Abstract: The study examines Nigerian Journalists reportage of human rights issues in Nigeria, during a democratic dispensation. This was partly due to the fact that during a military era case of human rights abuses appear to be rampant, but the assumption is that in a democracy this will reduce because of the adherence of democratic governance to the rule of law. It is against this backdrop that this study examined: the knowledge of human rights by Journalists in Nigeria, the sources of human rights reports, the major human rights issues reported and the challenges in the reportage of human rights issues in Nigeria. The study uses survey to pur- indicate that Journalists in Nigeria are knowledgeable about human rights issues, thatposely while sample reporting Journalists human from rights four issues selected they newspapers focused on inissues Nigeria. such The as thefindings right to life, right to the dignity of the human persons, right to personal liberty, right to a fair hearing, right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, the right to free- Pregledni rad / Research review article dom of expression. While the Non-Governmental Organization, Security agencies, as sources of human rights reports. The study concludes that journalist in Nigeria reportsHuman Rightshuman Watch, rights Amnestyadequately, International with issues and of cover victims abuses of abuse by securitywere identified agents, extra-judicial killings, rape, assault on Journalists and unlawful detention domi- nating most of the reports. The paper recommends that security agencies, use the rules of engagement while dealing with the public to reduce cases, assault, illegal detentions and extra-judicial killings.

Key words: Journalists, Human Rights, Reporting, issues, abuse, Nigeria

1 [email protected] 101 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso, Odsjek za masovne komunikacije, Univerzitet Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigerija predavač

Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih novinara

Apstrakt:

Studija istražuje izvještavanje novinara o pitanjima ljudskih prava u Nigeriji, tokom perioda demokratizacije. Ovo je dijelom zbog činjenice da su se tokom vojne ere slučajevi zloupotrebe ljudskih prava pojavljivali u velikoj mjeri,- stoga je pretpostavka da će u demokratiji toga biti manje zbog poštovanja vladavine prava od strane demokratske uprave. Pored ovakve pozadine istražujemo: pozna- vanje ljudskih prava od strane novinara u Nigeriji, izvore izvještavanja o ljudskim pravima,Nalazi ukazuju glavna na pitanja to da sui izazove novinari u uizvještavanju Nigeriji upoznati o pitanjima sa pitanjima ljudskih ljudskih prava prava, u Ni geriji. Ovim istraživanjem su obuhvaćeni novinari iz četiri nigerijska dnevna lista. a da su pri izvještavanju o ljudskim pravima fokusirani na pitanja kao što su pravo na život, pravo na dostojanstvo, pravo na slobodu, pravo na pravično suđenje, pravo- na slobodu misli, savjesti i vjeroispovjesti, pravo na slobodu izražavanja. Dok su- nevladine organizacije, agencije za bezbjednost, Hjuman rajts voč (HRW), Amne- sti internešnal (AI) i žrtve zlostavljanja, identifikovani kao izvori izvještaja o ljud skim pravima. Zaključak istraživanja je da novinari u Nigeriji izvještavaju o ljud skim pravima adekvatno, istražujući zloupotrebe od strane agenata za bezbjednost, ubistava bez suđenja, silovanja, napada na novinare i nezakonitih privođenja koji van-sudskihdominiraju ve ubistavacinom izvještaja. smanjio. U članku se preporučuje da agencije za bezbjednost poštuju pravila u javnom angažmanu kako bi se broj slučajeva napada, privođenja i Ključne riječi: novinari, ljudska prava, izvještavanje, problemi, zloupotreba, Nigerija

102 PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

Introduction

Media play important roles in facilitating the protection of human rights. They expose human rights violations and offer an arena for different voices to be heard in public discourse. Not without reason, the media have been called the fourth estate of the realm, an essential addition to the roles of the executive, the legislature and brave journalists continue to work, often underground, to expose the truth about the judiciary. White, (2011:383-390). Despite the dangers and restrictions, many- tive of ownership highlight issues that tend to promote human rights of citizens. humanThe rights adherence abuses. of Pate Nigeria (2011:157-169) to the United noted Nations that declaration the Nigerian on press, human irrespec rights led to the setting up of the National Human Rights Commission established by the the United Nations, which enjoins all member states to establish Human Rights In- stitutionsNational Human for the promotionRights Commission and protection Act, 1995. of human That is rights. in line The with commission the resolution serves of as a mechanism to enhance the enjoyment of human rights. Its establishment aims at creating an enabling environment for extra-judicial recognition, promotion and enforcement of human rights, treaty obligations, and providing a forum for public enlightenment and dialogue on human rights issues thereby limiting controversy and confrontation. The core mandate of the commission is to deal with all matters relating to the protection of human rights as guaranteed by the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, African Charter, the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international treaties on human rights to which Nigeria is a party. The commitment of Nigeria 2to human rights, obligations informed the prom- ulgation of an Act to enable effect to be given in the Federal Republic of Nigeria to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights made in Banjul on the 19th day of January, 1981 and for purposes connected therewith. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 as amended in 2011 made provision for fundamental rights in chapter IV (that is from Sections 33 to 46). It is important to note that the earlier Constitutions (i.e. 1963 and 1979) made similar provisions. The fundamental rights provided by the 1999 Constitution, as amended in 2011 made provisions for: (i) right to life, (ii) right to dignity of human person, (iii) right to personal liberty, (iv) right to fair hearing, (v) right to private- and family life, (iv) right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, (vii) right to freedom of expression and the press, (viii) right to peaceful assembly and association, (ix) right to freedom of movement, (x) right to freedom from discrimination, (xi) right to acquire and own immovable property anywhere in Nigeria, (xii) com pulsoryThe acquisition above enumerated of property, rights (xiii) of Restriction Nigerians andseem derogation to appear from on fundamentalpapers only. Whilerights, their(xiv) specialinherent jurisdiction existences of are High not Court in doubt, and legal their aid respect, (Ezeagu, compliance 2014). and

2 See Cap N46 LFN 2004 Vol. II. Which came into effect on 27th September, 1995. 103 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ... adherence by the persons and authorities has been an issue that continues to attract the attention of the media, this is perhaps responsible for the spate of reports about cases of abuse in the media over the years. How safe are the lives of Nigerians when kidnappers have assumed much power that abducting people for economic and political reasons has become a daily tradition? Do we still have right to life they choose, thereby killing thousands of innocent citizens in the name of religion when a dreaded religious sect- (Boko Haram) bomb and shoot at random wherever

Minister(Ezeagu, 2014).of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja unilaterally demolishes people’s housesEzeagu recklessly also questions either as thea way right of toamassing exist and his own own property wealth orin Nigeria,satisfying when his croany- nies? Is the Government still protecting our lives and property when our security agencies have, through their actions, shown that they know little or nothing about security? He asked? that theEzeagu’s, concept position of human could rights possibly is now explain widely why recognized there are in still several cases parts of human of the world,rights abuseand human in a democracy rights violations as pointed are reported out by Nickel, by journalists. (2007), Ramos et al, (2000) The media have been shown to play a dual role as a promoter of human rights in view of their coverage of human rights abuses, and, as an abuser of human rights as shown in the Rwandan genocide. Should the media, then stay put in the promotion of human rights in view of the power they wield, or, should they stay out of human rights because of their occasional violations of human rights? But it seems the positive role of the media far outweighs any violations which might have marred their role. This creates another avenue for debate on media and human rights. However, media are not expected to aid or perpetrate human rights abuses; though they may be forceful, conscripted by ruling regimes. The BBC in a documentary on child labour in Ghana and Ivory Coast shows that the media will continue to be important in human rights promotion because they are needed to enthrone and nurture democracy which in turn is needed to guarantee respect for human rights. The media, in addition, create awareness of human rights and human rights abuses to help individuals whose rights have been violated to seek redress. Media play an enormously important role in the protection of human rights. They expose human rights violations and offer an arena for different voices to be heard in public discourse. Not without reason, the media have been called the fourth estate of the realm, an essential addition to the roles of the - nalists have expanded reportage of human rights issues into new areas, many hu- manexecutive, rights theissues legislature are under-reported. and the judiciary Issues (White, that are 2011:383-390). less visible or slow Though processes, Jour that despite the dangers and restrictions, many brave journalists continue to work, oftenare rarely underground, covered. International to expose the Council truth abouton Human human Rights rights Policy, abuses. (2002:16) The press noted in Nigeria has also exposed human rights abuses by the various military rulers. Pate,

104 PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

- light issues tend to promote human rights of citizens. However, there is the need to (2011:157-169)go beyond this observation observes that to empiricallythe Nigerian examine press, irrespective the reporting of ownershipof human rights high by Journalists in Nigeria. Media it must be argued seemed to have led the crusade for the protection of human rights under the military by criticizing some decrees enacted by such powers,governments. including Worthy the powerof mention to detain here peopleis the infamous for six months Decree without No. 2 and trial. Decree No. 4 of 1984The Nigerian which gave media the have government taken part of inGeneral various Mohammadu struggles for Buhari the observance, sweeping promotion and protection of human rights from the colonial times through the self-determination,postcolonial period, individual and arguably liberties, more duringcultural the rights reign and of theidentities military in fromwhich 1983 the to 1999. The struggle for independence was a struggle for the political right to- sion between the military and civil society groups, including the raids on the media, servedmedia played the media a significant well in terms historical of having role (Mu’azu,newsworthy 2010). materials Mu’azu fornotes their that audience. the ten That had an important impact on the struggle for the observance and promotion of human rights in Nigeria. However, with the exit of General Abacha and the subsequent takeover of government by General Abdulsalami Abubakar ran a short transition that culminat- ed in the handover of government to the civilian administration of Chief Olusegun situationObasanjo duringin 1999. his However, tenure does before not seemOlusegun to present Obasanjo any becamecheering a news. civilian Ogundamisi President in 1999, he was Military Head of State between 1976 and 1979. The human rights- tary Head of State was not impressive. Some of the abuses he committed includes: the setting(2013) upobserves of the notorious that the human secret detentionrights situation centre duringon the islandhis administration of Ita-Oko, the as killing mili of the home and business premises of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti, the late iconic Nigerian of Nigerian university students in cold blood in 1978 and the invasion and razing However, on the 14th - geria’smusician president who was announced an ardent critic a seven of the person military commission government called Ogundamisi, the Human (2013). Rights of June 1999 General Olusegun Obasanjo the then, Ni Chukwudifu Oputa to investigate human rights abuses dating back to the military Violations Investigation Commission (HRVIC, the Oputa Panel) headed by Justice- tigate human rights issues of previous years. coup ofThe January decision 15, to 1966 set tillup Maythe commission 28, 1999 This followed became a necessary public outcry in other over to human inves report indicated that they were arbitrary detentions, torture, summary executions, censorshiprights violations and perhapsby successive most regimes fundamentally, in Nigeria. denial The Humanof the rightRights of Watch, the Nigerian (1998) people to choose their own government continued under General Sani Abacha’s military government. A programme of transition to civilian rule announced on Oc-

105 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ...

- tober 1, 1995, and due to culminate in the transfer of power to an elected federal government on October 1, 1998, remained in place, but state governorship and as- semblyical parties elections declared were that postponed General byAbacha several was months their preferred . Local government candidate electionsfor pres- heldident; in possible March were alternative neither candidates free nor fair. withdrew Two of thefollowing five officially intimidation registered or arrest, polit and a public campaign for Abacha to succeed himself was sponsored by a number

The setting up of the Oputa panel by Obasanjo according to the Human Rights of nominally independent groups Human Rights Watch, (1998). and perhaps create room for reconciliation to heal the wounds that characterized theWatch administration report of 1998 of Generaloffered theAbacha. platform There to wasinvestigate optimism the that human the humanrights abuses rights situation could be better under Obasanjo. But that was not the case as subsequent events indicated. The invasion of Zaki Biam and Odi that led to the death of so many people raise some question over the sincerity of the administration to improve the human rights situation. Human rights issues are commonly reported by the media, especially the press in Nigeria. The attention of the press on human rights was meant to expose mainly, but not exclusively, abuses by government and individuals. The Nigerian press participated in the struggle for human rights since the period of colonial rule. Howev- er, during military rule, the press participated in the campaign for the observance of the rule of law, human rights and return to democratic rule. human rights issues. In the military era, it was combative approach, in the form of two journalisticSince the return practices: to civilian adversarial rule in May, and 1999,advocacy the press or campaigning has continued journalism. to report The character of the coverage, the issues and approach may differ under civilian rule. It is germane to examine the issues, of human rights reported by the press in relation to the quest for sustenance of democracy and upholding the rule of law. It is against this background that this study will examine the reportage of human rightsObjectives issues by Nigerian of the Paper Journalists during the democratic era from 1999 to date. I examined the knowledge of human rights issues by Nigerian Journalists II to examine their source of reports on human rights issues III determine the major human rights issues reported by the journalists IV the challenges in the coverage of human rights issues in Nigeria

Research Questions I What is the knowledge of human rights issues by the Journalists in Nigeria? II What are their sources of information on human rights issues in Nigeria? III What are the major human rights issues covered by Journalists in Nigeria? IV What are the challenges encountered by Journalists in the coverage of human rights issues in Nigeria?

106 PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

Literature Review Press/ Media Reports on Human Rights Issues

Media reports of human rights violations can inform the public on an issue previously unknown or denied, rallying public opinion and creating outrage to the sensational stories of blood and gore in a shameful competition for ratings, against the government. Even if news media can rightly be criticized for pandering thethey latter are still category bringing of publicstudies, attention in part tobecause human media rights abusescoverage Apodaca, has been (2007:147- found to correlate164) Analyses weakly of withhuman different rights discoursescountries’ actual in the levelsmedia of have respect invariably for human fallen rights into information on human rights practices. But precisely because this correlation is weak,Hafner-Burton the factors (2008). that shape As such, media newspapers coverage of are human not necessarily rights have ainterested valid source schol of- - courses in the New York Times, Time magazine, and the CBS Evening News between ars. One early study, by Ovsiovitch (1993:671-698), examined human rights dis Most of the time, the topic of human rights, when it is covered in the main- stream1978 and press, 1987. is He limited concluded to the that issues “there of thewas detained-disappeared very little coverage of humanand politically rights”. executed; articles rarely discuss the much higher number of torture victims and

A similar study in Chile, a society that is slowly recovering from the censor- survivors who number in the hundreds of thousands (Sorensen, 2011:442-447). most mainstream newspapers in Chile do a poor job of covering stories associated withship the and Pinochet self-censorship regime and of theits legacy Pinochet of human dictatorship rights violations. (1973–1990) Comprehensive shows that coverage could only be found in the alternative press. More recently, Gordon and - inent daily newspaper, Ha’aretz Berkovitch (2007) described the rise of human rights discourse in Israel’s preem Intifada , between 1983 and 1996. They argued that the moreglobal about idiom human of human rights rights violations was activated by government in Israel by than the they Palestinian do with uprising other forms (the of human) in rights 1987. violation The scenario by others. in Nigeria seems to be the fact that the media write The analysis of human rights coverage in the media, by Ramos, Ron, and multivariate regression models, these researchers systematically analyzed human rightsThoms reporting (2007), is in also two the weeklies: most comprehensive The Economist andand sophisticatedNewsweek. They to date. concluded Using repression, population size, and linkages to nongovernmental organizations serve tothat increase a variety coverage, of country-level while democracy factors influence and battle media deaths coverage tend to of reduce human it. rights: Other factors, such as the amount of US civilian and military aid received by a country, had no appreciable effect on reporting. -

Ovsiovitch (1993: 671-698) acknowledged that democracy can produce ar tificially inflated levels of negative reporting when he suggested, albeit somewhat107 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ... the impression that human rights conditions are better there than in South Korea, hyperbolically, that “the limited news from North Korea, a ‘closed’ society, gives New York Times (NYT), anTime ‘open’ magazine, society and which the CBSreceives Evening more News coverage” One early study by (Ovsiovitch, 1993:671-698), examined human rights discourses in the New York Times between 1978 and 1987. He concluded humanthat “there rights was had very increased little coverage since Ovsiovitch’sof human rights”. study Caliendo, but continued Gibney, to and argue Payne’s that (1999) analysis of the in 1985 and 1995 found that attention to mentioning human rights actually declined over the ten-year period of their study. coverageAttention was “seriouslyto human lacking”.rights has Indeed, increased they dramaticallyfound that the in bothnumber the ofNYT stories and WP) throughout the observation period, as indicated in both newspapers, the number of articles referencing human rights doubled between Washington Post ( NYT - WP 1980 and 2000. In 1980, the published 1,182 articles that contained the key wordsMedia “human coverage rights”, of comparedhuman rights with violations 738 articles has inthe the ability . Byto prevent2000, the violations number byof articlesexposing had them. increased This analysis to 2,216 is andcorroborated 1,728, respectively by McCorquodale (Cole, 2010). and Fairbrother, - ernments to hide their activities, including acts which violate human rights, from who noted that “the globalized communication system reduces the ability of gov has the ability to prevent violations by exposing them. This analysis is corroborated public scrutiny” (McCorquodale, 1999). Media coverage of human rights violations system reduces the ability of governments to hide their activities, including acts by McCorquodale and Fairbrother, who believe that “the globalized communication- ly, local media can perform the same functions of moulding domestic opinion as the which violate human rights, from public scrutiny” (McCorquodale, 1999). Certain- aboutglobal humannews agencies, rights, and such in asthe Cable event News of failure Network of the (CNN) media or to the do British Global Broadcast media can ing Corporation (BBC’) news division. The media provide most of the information publicize human rights violations in order to shame the perpetrators into changing be used by human rights activists and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to The relationship between the press and the state has relatively improved their behaviours (Cmiel 2004, in Apodaca 2007). human rights abuses, Nigerian journalists are still subjected to intimidation, har- assment,since 1999 brutalization at the level and of allowing arbitrary them arrest access and detention. to information Media on houses alleged and cases media of products are still subject to arbitrary closure and seizure by state. In other words, the state still utilizes arbitrary actions and extra-legal measures that were adopted by erstwhile military regimes in attempts to cow the press and suppress the dissemination of diverse views and information in the media. The difference between the state’s utilisation of these actions under the current civil democracy and the military decrees were promulgated to arrest and detain without recourse to past military regimes is only a matter of degree Ogbondah, (2011) While under 108 PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists the court of law, during the current civilian dispensation, permission of courts are sought and obtain before journalists are detained for longer periods. In spite of Ogbondah’s position, the press in Nigeria is still exposed to cases of human rights abuses as victims perpetuated by the security agencies and government. Peter Ta- - governmentkirambudde, claimsExecutive to respect Director human of human rights Rights and uphold Watch’s the Africa freedom Division, of the aspress. cit Ated thein Ogbondah,( same time, 2011)journalists made are the arrested same contention and intimidated when he for said; publishing “The Nigerian stories critical of the government. A similar argument was made in an International Press Institute report that said, although the government sometimes claims that press freedom has improved in Nigeria, journalists covering demonstrations are often targeted by police. 3

Sources of Information on Human Rights in Nigeria

What are the sources of information on human rights issues in Nigeria First, - - formationthe media weare receivegenerators about and human sources rights of information.violations over Under the world.such rubrics In addition as ‘for to justeign’ processing or ‘international’ information, news, thereporters media gather,are political process and and moral present agents: most deciding of the in to highlight Social a particularmedia also story, expands taking access clear to editorial evidence positions, of human calling rights abusesfor ‘something beyond to be done’ (White, 2002). that offered by the mainstream media and nongovernment organizations (NGOs),- lyand shrouded penetrates by oppressive veils of secrecy governments thrown orup geographical by repressive boundaries. regimes (Daniel, Anyone 2011). in the vicinity“Technology of an hasevent allowed with audacity us to see and into a many camera parts can of document the world brutality that were and previous spread it on the Internet. And the proliferation of camera phones means this information often can be disseminated instantaneously.New Moreover, York Times social reported media that amplifies written theac- messagecounts, photos, of its users videos, (Kessler, and other 2010). information from demonstrators in Syria were beingIn relayed late April around 2001, the for worldexample, via thesocial media by a small, dedicated group of roughly twenty Syrian exiles scattered across the globe. The work of this relatively tiny team of activists helped ensure that the world was kept aware, in real time, of the Syrian government’s attacks on unarmed and generally nonviolent protest- ers (Osborne, 2011). Given that today’s media is largely driven by the need to tell stories that ‘‘sell,’’ which are relatively simple, graphically compelling, and easily photographable, stories about human rights violations in countries where conflict cannot be reduced to a simple narrative, and where first hand personal stories and 3 See http://www.freemedia.at/wpfi/Africa/nigeria.htm. 109 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ... photographs cannot be acquired due to political instability and insecurity, have little chance of being told by the media. Consequently, today’s media suffers from a receive the overwhelming attention of the media, while the human rights violations andhuman injustices rights repetition taking place compulsion: in other parts a few of parts the world of the goworld, undocumented conflicts, and and peoples unex- plored. Consequently, the media facilitates, often inadvertently and unconscious- ly, the efforts of governments engaged in human rights abuses to deny and cover

- up their actions, and shield them from public knowledge and scrutiny (Schimmel, NGO’s2009), andchallenge the social state media. censorship and perhaps help democratic movements (Sre berny, 2000). The sources of information here appear to be the conventional media

The major human rights issues reported by Journalists and to respond to the most topical and controversial issues overpower any priority Heinze and Freedman (2010) noted that “pressure to attract reader interest, with human rights coverage by the media is the prioritization of civil and political that might be placed on comprehensive human rights coverage”. Another problem fromrights the over combative economic, style social to and communicating cultural rights, for which development are hardly and reported reporting (ICHRP, for good2002). governance. Since democratic The Nigerian rule in media1999, thedo aslant lot of of editorials the media and in Nigeria analysis has on changed government actions and inactions, report cases of human rights abuses and electoral fraud ill-equippedamongst others to deal (Oluwabukola, with human 2009:993). rights issues. The style of common news reporting emphasisesBut Hamelink the sensational (2001) has and an focuses entirely on different the sound view, bite; the whereas media humanare generally rights reporting needs background, context and in-depth analysis. News tends to be about short-lived events and not about long-term processes. However, often human rights violations are long term structural processes that tend to go unreported. - tions in which media not only failed in educating and reporting about human rights, He said further that across the world we find shocking illustrations of situa - but are themselves among the perpetrators of human rights violations. In 1994, in playedjust a few an months,essential some role in500,000 the massacre to one millionby repeatedly Tutsi’s werebroadcasting killed by messages Hutu’s. Ra in whichdio, Television Tutsi’s were Mille slandered Collines (RTML) and ridiculed (Hutu extremistand depicted radio as and despicable. television The station) Hutu - themilitia Tutsi’s was deservedinformed toby be RTML eliminated where Tutsi’sand this – whoended were up referredin a horrifying to as “cockroach bloodbath. es” – were hiding, so they could be murdered. The Hutu’s were made to believe that

While White (2002) notes that The scale of rights-based reporting on core human rights110 issues like torture, extra-judicial killings, child rights, people trafficking and PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists asylum seekers, racism and intolerance — and editorial voices counseling peace in the face of warmongering politicians testify to the fact that the patient is alive, if not kicking as vigorously as many of us would like.

Challenges of human rights by Journalists

Originators of news are less able to dictate the content of news reports they mayinspire. be Similarly,hard to discern corporate and interestsare not subject may influence to argument. policies In regarding Canada, for distribution instance, of politically sensitive news (such as information on human rights). These interests- where five companies control most major newspapers and television stations, jour nalists have complained about corporate interference in their work (in particular inthe Nigeria, policy of accountability, mandating editorials), compliance arguing and preventionthat such policies of impunity constrain must journalism be given priority.(DeNeen, The 2002, pervasiveness in White, 2002). of impunity For the promotionhas become and a challenge protection for of the human promotion rights and protection of the rights to human dignity, safety and security. In Northern Ni- geria today, at the beginning of every new week, there is news of renewed crisis either from the endless Jos crisis or the explosions of the faceless Boko Haram sect. People are daily losing their right to life. The high tolerance for violence in Nigeria

Another challenge with open-source intelligence is that it increases the level is the reason for this. Tide Newspaper (2012). incriminating video, the bystander in a photo, or the person who tweeted her geo- location.of risk faced In some by citizens situations, who thegather tools the used information in human firsthand–the rights reporting up loader in a digital of an age can also be helpful to an authoritarian regime (Rajvanshi, 2016). Theoretical Framework

The study will adopt the Agenda Setting Theory. Agenda-setting theory sees the media as instruments used to influence public opinion by “setting the agenda in public discourse”. The4 theory states that when issues are covered by the media as often as possible, the public would take them to be important (Wanta 1997, cited in Wallinger, 2010). The theory was derived from the work of Walter Lippman in 1922, who argued that “the public responds not to actual events in the environment but to the pictures in our heads” Littlejohn and Foss, (2008:293), that the “news media construct our discoveredview of the thatworld” various Coleman campaign et al, (2009:147).themes which Later, were McCombs emphasized and byShaw the (1972) media conducted a study which gave validity to the idea which Lippman described. They

4 Available at: http://www.articleworld.org/index.php/Agenda_setting_theory (accessed 5/9/10)111 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ...

had a relationship with how “undecided voters” judge how important the campaign themes were. Media personnel then “shape political reality” Brown and Deegan, prominence(1998:25). “Agenda-setting in the media’s pictureis a theory also about becomes the transfer prominent of salience in the audience’s from the mass pic- media’s pictures of the world to those in our heads”, such that whatever is given as the media choose and sift certain elements of news, which makes the audience ofture the McCombs media think and alongGhanem, a certain (2006:67). pattern. Public Hence opinion the media’s is “shaped choice and of influenced” topics and how the topics are presented are elements of the theory (Fourie, 2001). The news gatekeepersThe importance such as reporters, of news items writers in aand newspaper editors (Sanchez, could be 2002) known are by responsible the partic- ularfor determining position they what occupy, counts where as news the (Dainton,important Zelly, ones 2011). are used as headlines, written in bold characters and placed on the front page of the paper. In the broadcast - ries judged [by editors or news directors] to be of somewhat lesser importance or media, important stories are reported first, and in detail before others, thus “sto newsworthiness occupy the back pages, or the last part of the broadcast” (DeFleur,- 2010). As a theory of mass communication, it has stood the test of time, and proved to be Thedeep Agenda-setting and wide; Coleman is the etcreation al, (2009) of public this is awareness because many and concernstudies have of salient con issuesfirmed by its the validity news Shehata, media. Two (2010) basis Uscinki, assumptions (2009). underlie most research on agen- thoseda-setting: issues (1) as the more press important and the than media other do not issues. reflect One reality; of the theymost filter critical and aspects shape ofit; (2)the mediaconcept concentration of an agenda-setting on a few issuesrole of and mass subjects communication leads the publicis the timeto perceive frame for this phenomenon. In addition, different media have different agenda-setting potential. Agenda-setting theory seems quite appropriate to help us understand peoplethe pervasive what to role think, of the but media it is stunningly (for example successful on political in telling communication its readers systems). what to Cohen, (1963) stated: “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling Although the media are said to set the agenda for the public, it is believed that think about”. - the reverse could be the case, in the sense that sometimes, “the public’s agenda oc casionally influences the media’s issue agenda” (Uscinki, 2009). Uscinki argues that- as a result of this, two “competing frameworks‟ compete among researchers: the agenda-setting framework, “in which the news agenda influence the public agen da”, andIn reporting the audience news driven stories, framework, journalists in will which consider the audience the relevance agenda of influences the news the news media”. story and how appealing the news is to the audience who often prefer “exciting, spectacular events [like] violence, conflict, scandal or disaster” (Graber, 1980 in Uscinki,112 2009). If the news stories are reported based on their relevance to the PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

- audience, it then means that the audience will exert influence on the media agenda. Uscinki argues that the interest of the public to issues such as “environmental- cleanups”nent people will such make as the reporters president to report of a country, environment-oriented whose comment stories.on national For Straubagenda couldhaar et be al, picked (2010) by media the media agenda and could used also as benews influenced stories orby somethe actions interest of groupspromi capable of setting the agenda through their stand on an issue Littlejohn and Foss, (2008) concur and argue that when the media have relationships with the elite, the influence of the elite will affect the media agenda. Besides, the “dormant ideology- often reflects in the public agenda”. Two methods are suggested by agenda setting theory. These include content analysis and survey which refer specifically to inter view of audience (McQuail, Windahl, 1993). Method

The study used the survey method for data collection. All journalists working in four selected Nigerian newspaper organization: The Punch, The Guardian, Dai- ly Trust and This Day newspaper organization constitute the population for this study. These journalists were chosen because they work with newspaper organizations that seem to have wider coverage and nationwide circulation more than the other newspapers. The number of journalists working in the four selected newspaper organizations as obtained by this researcher from the personnel department of The Punch The Guardian 122, Daily Trust 120, and This day - the various newspaper organizations in 2017 were as follows: 102, - 120 Journalists. Thus, the total popula tion was 464 journalists. In the survey, 20% of journalists working in the four se thelected survey media was organizations concerned withwere journalists sampled. The working 20% population within the ofhuman 464 is rights therefore and related92. Purposive beats. This sampling study techniqueonly sampled was Nigerian adopted newspapersfor the survey. Journalists This was reporting because human rights issues.

Description of Data Gathering Instrument (Survey)

The instrument for data collection of survey for this study was the questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to Nigerian Newspaper Journalists in Nigeria was structured and self-administered. The questionnaire consists of both demographic and non-demographic response questions. In order to facilitate easy faster coding, the questionnaire consists of open-ended and some few closed-ended responses. - - The questionnaire called ‘Nigerian Journalists Coverage of Human Rights Is sues Questionnaire (NJCHRIQ) contained a total of thirty seven (37) questions 113di Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ... vided into two sections: Section A is about demographic variable has four questions include knowledge and reporting of human rights issues, challenges of the reporting human(4), while rights section issues, B has importance thirty three of reporting (33) questions human on rights the research issues the variables, sources whichof human rights reports, and issues of human rights that feature in the four newspapers.

Method of Data Collection (survey)

Since, the survey respondents were fairly literate, the research instrument was a questionnaire. The administration of the questionnaire was carried out by two research assistants who were engaged to assist in administering and retrieving the questionnaire.

Description of Survey Research Instrument

the opinion,The Print knowledge Journalists of print Perception journalists of Human on reporting Rights human Questionnaire rights issues. (PJPHRQ) The was the instrument of data collection. The purpose of the survey was to find out that the questionnaire bears questions and other types of items developed to elicit informationquestionnaire suitable is a veritable for analysis. data collection instrument. Babbie (2001) confirms

Data Presentation and Analysis

92 questionnaires were administered on journalists in the four selected news paper organizations out of which 66 questionnaires were returned and found usable. The rest had to be left out because they were not properly filled with some questions left unanswered.Table The 1: Distributionanalysis will of therefore Respondents be based (Journalists) on only 66 by questionnaires.Gender Journalists Total Male Female 14 5 19 13 3 16 10 4 14 15 2 17 52 (78.78% ) 14(21.2%) 66(100%)

Field Work 2015 The table above indicates that for the 66 journalists that were sampled from the four papers, 52 (78.7%) were male, while the remaining 14 (21.2%) were female.

114 PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

Table 2: Age Distribution of Respondents Age Variables Total 18 – 30 yrs 31 – 40 yrs 41-50 yrs 50 & Above 9 6 3 1 19 5 8 2 1 16 3 5 1 5 14 4 6 5 2 17 21(31.8%) 25(37.87%) 11(16.66%) 9(13.63%) 66 (100%)

Field Work 2015 The age distribution of respondents indicates that 25 (37.8%) are between the ages of 31-40, while 21 (31.8%) are between the ages of 18-30 years, 11 (16.66%), 9 (13.6%) 50 yearsTable and 3: above. Distribution of Respondents by Experience

Experience Variables Journalists Less than 5-10 Above Total Affiliation 11-15 yrs 16-20Yrs 21-25yrs 5 yrs yrs 25 Daily Trust 8 5 4 2 0 0 19 This Day 5 2 5 1 2 2 16 The Guardian 4 3 3 3 2 2 14 The Punch 3 3 4 2 3 2 17 Total 19 (28.7%) 13 16 (24.2%) 8 (12.1%) 7 (10.6%) 6 (9.0%) 66 (100%)

Field Work 2015 On experience, the distribution indicates that 19 (28.7%) have worked less than 5 years. 16 (24.2%) have worked between 11-15 years, 13 (19.69%) have worked 5-10 years, 8 (12.1%), 7 (10.60%) have worked since 21-25 years. The remainingTable 6 (9.0%) 4: Distribution have worked of Respondentsfor above 25 byyears. Educational Attainment Media Affiliation Education Variables of The Bachelor Total Sch. Cert. Diploma Postgraduate Journalist Degree Daily Trust 0 3 10 6 19 Thisday 0 2 7 7 16 The Guardian 0 1 6 6 14 The Punch 0 2 9 6 17 Total 0 8 (12.12%) 32 (48.48%) 25(37.87%) 66 (100%)

- Field Work 2015 On the level of education, the findings indicate that 32 (48.4%) have a first de gree, 25 (37.8%) have a postgraduate degree, only 8 (12.1%) are diploma holders.115 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ...

This therefore indicates that journalists that work with the selected media organizations are educated and can therefore cover human rights issues without hassles

Table 5: Respondents’ Knowledge of Human Rights Issues Media Knowledge Variables Affiliation of Adequate Moderate Inadequate Total No knowledge Journalist knowledge knowledge knowledge Daily Trust 7 6 6 0 19 This day 8 6 2 0 16 The Guardian 6 5 3 0 14 The Punch 10 5 1 1 17 Total 31(46.9%) 22(18.5%) 12(33.3.%) 1(1.5%) 66(100%)

- Field work 2014 On respondents knowledge, the findings show that 31 (46.96%) have ade studyquate measuredknowledge the of knowledgehuman rights in three issues, categories: 22 (33.3%) adequate have moderate knowledge knowledge, where re- spondentswhile 12 (18.1%) report theyhave know inadequate a lot about knowledge, human 1rights (1.5%) issues, have moderate no knowledge. knowledge The means a limited knowledge of human rights issues, while inadequate knowledge that the majority of the respondents have knowledge about human rights issues. Thusmeans the little failure knowledge or the inability on human to give rights adequate issues. coverageThe implication about human of the rightsfindings can is- not be attributed to lack of knowledge, but perhaps to the relative novelty of human rights as a news topic.

Sources of reports on Human Rights

Sources of Information on Human Rights Total

Media Affiliation of Journalist Security Agencies NGOs of Victims human rights abuse National Human Rights Commission Government

Daily Trust 7 6 6 0 19 This day 8 6 2 0 16 The 6 5 3 0 14 Guardian The Punch 10 5 1 17 Total 31(47.6%) 22(33.8%) 12(18.4%) (0%) 65(100%)

116 PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

TheField sources work 2015 of human rights reports indicates that the major source of information available to journalists are the Non-Governmental Organisation who often times monitor the observance of human rights by government, individuals and security agencies, and serve as whistle blowers when such violations occur and bring them to the fore, the victims are also sources of information because they are contacted by the Journalists to elicit information when these abuses occur, the journalist also indicated that the National Human Rights Commission who monitor human rights situation in Nigeria serve as source of information on human rights abuses in the country, another source mentioned by them are the security agents.

Table 6: Journalists Views on Impact of Coverage of Human Rights on People’s Rights Impact of Coverage Respondents It creates awareness for citizens 12 (18.4%) and victims of abuse It makes people aware of their 7 (10.7%) rights Draw attention to them and cause public conversation to be imposed 6 (9.2%) on them It creates awareness for citizens 8 (12.3%) and victims of abuse Compels the authorities to act 6 (9.2%) It forces government to review 6 (9.2%) policies concerning citizen’s rights Very high impact as it draws public attention to the issue and 8 (12.3%) intervention by relevant agencies Sometimes creates awareness that leads to direct help for the 7 (10.7%) victims Sometimes creates awareness 5 (7.5%) that leads to direct help for victims Total 65 (100%)

Findings from the table above indicate that, the journalists are of the view that the coverage has several implications for protecting people’s rights. The importance on the impact of the reports on people’s rights indicated by the journalists’

- tion.includes: These to include: create awareness the fact that for it citizenshas great and impact, victims it createsof abuse awareness 13 (19.6%), to be make im- people aware of their rights 7 (10.6%), it makes people aware of their rights, atten 117 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ... posed on them; thereby creating awareness for citizens and victims of abuse which invariably compel the authorities to act. The journalists are of the view that it has, apart from the fact that it raises awareness about human rights issues among the citizens. It also encourages the government to review policies concerning citizen’s rights and serve to encourage people to enforce their rights and help others seek redress for victim’s abuse. educate the public to be conscious of their basic rights. The journalists also noted that itThe encourages findings indicate the Human that Rightsjournalists Commission in their reportsto investigate exposed cases cases of ofabuse. abuse, A case in point is the killings of 11 people accused of being insurgents in an abandoned building in Apo, Abuja by the security agents comprising the combined team of the Directorate of the State Security Services and the Army. The report in the media, especially the print media forced the commission to investigate the said killings.

Journalists views on major issues reported by the selected Nigerian Newspapers

Major Issues reported by Journalists Total Media Affiliation of Journalist Media Abuses by security agents Death, rape, unlawful imprisonment Inhuman treatment Extortion Oputa Panel Sitting Physical Assault Extra-Judicial killings Total Inhuman treatment Police brutality Security Agencies Daily 5 3 1 2 2 2 3 19 19 Trust

This day 5 2 2 2 1 2 0 16 16

The 6 3 2 2 1 2 0 14 14 Guardian The 8 2 3 2 1 1 1 17 17 Punch 4 (6%) 16 10 8 8 5 7 7 66 Total 66 (24%) (15.1%) (12.1%) (12.1%) (7.5%) (10.6%) (10.6%) (100%) (100%)

Field work 2015 - - rity agents;The respondents torture that identified sometimes major results human in death, rights rape issues and reported unlawful by detention; the news brutality.papers. The major issues of human rights identified by them are: abuse by secu

118 PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

Human Rights issues in Nigeria

- dom Theof movement, respondents freedom identified of the the press key humanand expression, rights issues right that to legal featured representa during- tionthe successive from the Nigerian regimes state, in Nigeria. illegal detentionThey identified without the: trial right and to extra-judicial a fair hearing, killings free

Human Rights Issues reported by the journalists in the four selected newspapers

The issues reported by the selected newspapers includes: the right to life, right to dignity of the human persons, right to personal liberty, right to fair hearing, right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, right to freedom of expression, right to peaceful assembly, right to freedom of movement, right to freedom from discrimination, right to acquire and owned property anywhere in Nigeria, right to free legal representation from the Nigerian state, right to free and basic education and right to private and family life. However of all these rights the one that feature prominently in the various reports by these journalists appear to be those that bother on the rights to life, personal liberty, freedom from discrimination, religion and dignity of the human person.

Challenges of Human Rights Reportage

Media Affiliation of Journalist Threats and intimidation Arrest and detention by security agencies Refusal by the victims of speak abuse to to journalists Killing of Journalists investigating cases of abuse Total Daily Trust 5 5 4 4 19 Thisday 8 6 2 0 16 The Guardian 6 5 3 0 14 The Punch 10 5 1 0 17 Total 31(47.6%) 22 (33.8%) 12 (18.4%) (0%) 65 (100%)

On the challenges of human rights reportage, the journalists mentioned: threats and intimidation, arrest and detention, refusal by the victim’s abuse to speak up, killing of journalist’s investigating cases of human rights abuse. This is informed by the cases of journalists who were detained and killed as a result of similar cases of their reports on human rights violations. The likes of late Dele Giwa and Bagauda

119 Dr Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Izvještavanje o pitanjima ljudskih prava od strane nigerijskih ...

Kaltho killed during the administrations of Ibrahim Babangida a military President and General Abacha also a military leader easily comes to mind.

Conclusion

The study wishes to conclude that the journalists were more knowledgeable about human rights issues which explain the attention they pay to the reportage of human rights issues, and that in reporting, they report on major human rights issues as abuse of human rights by security agents, extra-judicial killings, assaults on journalists, rape and unlawful detention, These cases appear to prevalent during killingsthe administrations by security agencies, of General political Olusegun assassinations; Obasanjo, (1999-2003), invasion of Odi Umaru and Zaki YarAdua Biam prevailed.(2003-2005) and Goodluck Jonathan (2005-2015); where cases of extra-judicial That in reporting human rights the journalists often rely on sources of reports that include: the Non-Governmental Organizations, the security agencies, victims of human rights abuse, individuals who serve as whistle blowers and the National Human Rights Commission that monitors human rights abuses in Nigeria. That the journalists reported incidents of the violations of human rights which include: extra-judicial killings and abuse by security agencies, illegal detentions, which has implication on the action of government, the fallout of these reports informed the decision to establish the Oputa Panel to review cases of human rights

That the major issues reported by the Journalists in Nigeria includes: the right toviolations life which during led the the pack military with era more from stories, 1966 closely to 1999. followed by the right to dignity of the human persons, the right to a fair hearing, right to freedom from discrimination and the right to Freedom of thought conscience and Religion. This is because during the period of study the activities of the ethnic militia groups such as the -

Oodua’a People’s Congress (OPC), Egbesu, Movement for the Emancipation of Ni killingsger Delta by (MEND), Boko Haram military and invasions the military of Odi during and Zakiits counter Biam, political insurgency assassinations, operations inextra-judicial Borno and Adamawa. killings by Worthy security of agencies, mention ethno-religiousis the Baga massacre conflict, by the the seriesmilitary of see Vanguard Newspapers where insurgents killed several people and dump their corpses in wells and buried5 them in mass graves. Sharia implementation April 24 2013, by and some the northern killings in led Damasak, to series Bama of crisis that resulted in several deaths. 6

5 see http://ends.ng/4333-bama-residents-killed-since-boko-haram-occupation-this-september/ GwozaPunch see The Newspapers News Nigeria March 5 2015. http://thenewsnigeria.com.ng/2015/03/boko-haram- massacres-68-villagers-build-up-forces-in-gwoza/ 1206 see June 6 2016. PhD Nuhu Diraso Gapsiso Reporting Human Rights issues by Nigerian Journalists

That the challenges of reporting insurgency by Journalists includes: arrest and detention, intimidation by security agencies, refusal of victims to speak with journalists, and the killing of journalists engaged in investigative reports on human rights abuses.

Recommendation need for security agencies to use the rules of engagement while dealing with the publicThe to followingreduce cases recommendation assault, illegal isdetentions hereby made and asextra-judicial a fall out of killings.the finding: The

Reference

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Tena Malinić

drOdjel Gordana za kulturologiju, Lesinger Sveučilište Josipa Jurja Strossmayera, Osijek, UDK 659.44 Republika Hrvatska 2 drOdjel Ivan za Tantakulturologiju,, Sveučilište Josipa Jurja Strossmayera, Osijek, Republika Hrvatska 3 vanredni profesor Veleučilište VERN, Zagreb, Republika Hrvatska Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta Struke i praktičara za odnose s javnošću

Apstrakt: - U ovom radu, bavit ćemo se imidžem i identitetom struke i praktičara- za odnose s javnošću. U radu se nastojalo bazirati na imidžu odnosa s javnošću, odno sno na percpeciji kakvu javnost ima o njima. S obzirom da joj mnogi teoretičari i prak Stručni rad / Professional article tičari pripisuju negativne konotacije, bilo je za očekivati kako će i javnost imati ista- ili bar slična stajališa – što je ujedno i istraživačko pitanje kojim se prožima kroz rad. U kratkim crtama opisat će se porijeklo odnosa s javnošću, odnosno njihov povijesni razvoj. Nadalje problematika definiranja odnosa s javnošću zbog čega dolazi i do problema identiteta praktičara. Nadalje se bavimo praktičarima odnosa s jav nošću, njihovim ulogama, reputaciji, te budućim predviđanjima njihove profesije. Najvažniji dio rada je definiranje pojma imidža, te načina na koji se on kreira, nakon čega slijedi analiza imidža struke odnosa s javnošću, te mišljenja i percepcije istoga.- S tim u svezi dotaknut ćemo se i etičkih pitanja i dilema odnosa s javnošću što će dalje biti analizirano kroz tri aspekta: uvjeravanje, propaganda i spin. Slijedom teo- rijskog okvira, na samom kraju, prikazat ćemo rezultate analize istraživanja imidža struke odnosa s javnošću te će se pokušati dati odgovor jesu li sami praktičari u kri- zi kod komuniciranja vlastitog identiteta. Kako bismo ustanovili percepciju i sliku kakvu javnost (ispitanici) imaju o imidžu odnosa s javnošću, koristit će se deskrip tivna onlajn ankete. Koliko su u odnosima s javnošću prisutne manipulacije i ima li struka problem s etikom, neka su od pitanja na koja tražimo odgovor kroz ovaj rad. Jednako tako, zanima nas koje bi vještine trebali imati dobri praktičari i koliko povjerenja uživaju od strane javnosti. S tim u svezi iznijet ćemo mišljenja ispitanika o budućem razvoju struke i koja rješenja vide za što uspješniju budućnost struke odnosaKljučne s javnošću. riječi: kriza, odnosi s javnošću, imidž, identitet, praktičari, struka

1 [email protected] 2 [email protected] 3 [email protected] 125 Tena Malinić

PhDDepartment Gordana of LesingerCultural Studies, University of Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Osijek, Republic of Croatia

PhDDepartment Ivan Tanta of Cultural, Studies, University of Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Osijek, Republic of Croatia Associated Proffesor VERN’ University of Applied Sciences, Zagreb, Republic of Croatia Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession and Practice of Public Relations

Abstract

: This problem a crisis of image and identity is the issue that is further investigated. We will deal with image and identity of the profession and practitioners- of public relations. The paper sought to build on the image of public relations, or the perception that the public has about them. Given that many theorists and practi tioners attributed negative connotations, it was to be expected that the public would have the same or at least similar stance - which is also a research question pervading the workload. In briefly would be described the origins of public relations. Furthermore, the- problem of defining public relations as a possible reason why there is a problem of identity of practitioners. Work will continue to engage practitioners of public rela tions, their roles, reputation and the future predictions of their profession. The most important part of the work is to define the notion of the image and the way in which it creates, followed by analysis of the image of the profession of public relations as well as the opinions and perceptions of the same. Following the framework of theory, in the end, we will show the results of analyzes of the image of the public relations profession and we will try to answer whether the practitioners themselves are in crisis of communicating their own identity. In order to investigate the perception and the image that the public (participants) have on the image of the relationship with the public, will be used descriptive method and online survey. To what extent are in public relations present manipulation and whether the profession has a problem- with ethics - these are some of the questions that we seek the answer. Also, we are interested in skills that should have good practitioners and how much confidence en joyed by the public. In this regard, we would show the opinion of respondents on the future development of the profession and which solutions they see for the successful futureKeywords of the publiccrisis relations communication, profession. public relations, image, identity, practitioners, profession : 126 Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

1. Porijeklo odnosa s javnošću: definicije i povijesni razvoj

public relations, odnosi s javnošću „Sintagma “odnosi s javnošću” je ekvivalent engleskom pojmu skraćeno PR“ (Milas, 2012:54). Izraz osmislio je Bernays (Edvard Bernajs) početkom dvadesetih godina prošlog stoljeća u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama kada je preimenovao pomalo pejorativan izraz propaganda u odnose s javnošću (Bernays, 2013, viii). „Profesionalni odnosi s javnošću bili su profesija u razvoju gotovo cijelo 20. stoljeće“ (Cottle, 2008: 30). „Prvi tečaj odnosa s javnošću započeo je na odjelu za novinarstvo na Sveučilištu New York, na odjelima za ekonomiju, knjigovodstvo i financije, koje je podučavao Edward Bernays“ (Theaker, 2007: 87). „Prva agencija za odnose s javnošću u svijetu utemeljena je daleke 1900. u Bostonu, u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama“ (Skoko, 2006:157). „Djelovanje na području odnosa s javnošću dobiva svoj osobiti legitimitet te- privlači pozornost političkih marketera osobito nakon međunarodne konferencije PR organizacija u Mexico City-ju 1978. godine - od kada datira tzv. Meksička de klaracija“ (Osredečki, 1995: 18). U njoj piše: „Praksa odnosa s javnošću je umijeće- i društvena znanost koja analizira kretanja, predviđa njihove posljedice, savjetuje vodeće ljude organizacije i provodi planirane programe djelovanja koji služe podjednako interesima organizacije i javnim interesima“. Danas su odnosi s javnošću globalno zanimanje i s obzirom na geografski pro stor, primjenjuju se na različite načine. „Međutim, njihovi pisani povijesni prikazi- odražavaju prevlast Sjedinjenih Država na akademskom polju odnosa s javnošću i smještaju njihovo porijeklo upravo u Sjedinjene Države, prije nego u bilo koju dru gu zemlju“ (Tench, Yeomans, 2009: 2). Odnosi s javnošću koriste se u različitim stručnim područjima. U svakom od tih- područja, osobe koje se bave OSJ razvile su različite vještine i sposobnosti. Možda je upravo to razlog nepostojanja univerzalno prihvaćene definicije OSJ. Različiti auto ri različito definiraju termin odnosi s javnošću (odnosno public relations). „Mnogo je definicija odnosa s javnošću. Najčešće se u tim definicijama spominju inačice kao što su uspostavljanje i održavanje odnosa između organizacije i njezinih javnosti,- međusobno razumijevanje, upravljanje imidžem, izgradnja povjerenja, stvaranje povoljnog okružja za poslovanje i sl.“ (Hajoš, Skoko, 2009: 9). „S obzirom na to ko liko je teško definirati odnose s javnošću, nije ni čudo što je njihova povijest puna nejasnoća“ (Theaker, 2007: 20). Odnosi s javnošću disciplina su društvenih znanosti koja se brzo razvija. „Za- njihovo daljnje sazrijevanje kao profesije i akademske discipline važan je razvoj teoretskog znanja koje razdvaja odnose s javnošću od drugih profesija i drugih akademskih disciplina“ (Tomić, 2013: 27). Proučavajući literaturu za ovu temu, autori rada spoznali su kako velika veći- na autora utvrđuje znatne nedostatke u oblikovanju teorije odnosa s javnošću. „Pri procjeni stanja i kritici oblikovanja teorije u društvenim znanostima, koji se odno se na analizu masovnog komuniciranja, zaključeno je da se teorija još umnogome127 Tena Malinić, dr Gordana Lesinger, dr Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta...

nalazi u stadiju definicije, odnosno opisa i klasifikacije i da nije sposobna ispuniti svoju istinsku zadaću - dati empirijski zasnovano objašnjenje društvenih fenomena i procesa“ (Kunczik, 2006: 29). 2. Identitet odnosa s javnošću

Odnosi s javnošću pojavili su se u drugoj polovici 20. stoljeća pa su s obzirom- na to, relativno nova pojava. Kad je riječ o njihovom identitetu, javlja se problem koji kreće od samog izraza „odnosi s javnošću“. „Taj pojam doživljava se kao anglo- američki pojam i nije ga lako prevesti u druge jezike“ (Tench, Yeomans, 2009: 709). U Europi se često rabi izraz „upravljanje komunikacijom“. Uloge i svrhe OSJ pred stavljaju daljnje područje rasprave. Naime, odnosi s javnošću koriste se u različitim- stručnim područjima. U svakom od tih područja, osobe koje se bave OSJ razvile su različite vještine i sposobnosti. Taj pluralitet onemogućio je jedinstveno prihvaće nu odnosno univerzalnu definiciju OSJ. - „Uz svijest o problemu nepostojanja identiteta odnosa s javnošću, porast broja kvalifikacija u odnosima s javnošću značit će da će teoretičari nastaviti s nastojanji ma da definiraju ovo polje, dok će profesionalna udruženja nastaviti težiti ka cilju priznavanja profesije“ (Tench, Yeomans, 2009: 710). Odnosi s javnošću od svojih su početaka poprilično promijenili svoju ulogu, te raspon aktivnosti. U prošlosti su bili usmjereni uglavnom na odnose s medijima ili na razumijevanje javnog mišljenja. „Moderni odnosi s javnošću su upućeni na razvijanje odnosa sa svim društvenim i poslovnim skupinama, odnosno javnostima o kojima izravno ili neizravno ovisi- uspjeh našeg djelovanja“ (Skoko, 2006: 84). Alison Theaker (Alison Tiker) u „Priručniku za odnose s javnošću“ navodi mi- šljenje Jona Aaronsa (Džona Aronsa): „Ljudi koji rade u odnosima s javnošću pate od krize identiteta od kad znam za sebe. U određenom smislu nije važno kako zo vemo vlastitu industriju. Važno je da nastavimo poboljšavati iskustva koja drugi o njoj imaju...“ (Theaker, 2007: 380). 3. Imidž

image -

„Kao što sama riječ govori, imidž ( - slika, op.prev.) je odraz. U ovom slu čaju to je odraz organizacije u očima i glavama njezinih javnosti (Tench, Yeomans,- 2009: 270). Vlastita osobnost ili osobnost neke organizacije može biti predstavljena jav nosti u različitim javnim prilikama i prigodama. Na taj se način izgrađuje pozitivna, odnosno negativna slika u javnosti. „Image ili slika koju imamo o sebi najčešće se- ne podudara s onom koju o nama ima naša okolina“ (Osredečki, 1995: 81). Javnost u većini slučajeva nije pravedna, odnosno može precijeniti ili podcijeniti neke oso bine128 i sposobnosti određenog subjekta. Većina subjekata u javnosti svoj imidž gradi Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

- svjesno i namjerno, iako na njega utječu i nesvjesni, odnosno nenamjerni postupci. „Način ponašanja i vidljiviisto oblici djelovanja su ono što najviše određuje sliku osob- nosti - iako unutarnja ličnost ne mora bezuvjetno biti u suglasju s tom vidljivom -i poznatom slikom“ ( : 82). „Netko nastoji graditi svoj istoimage svojim načinom odi jevanja, drugi svojim neuobičajenim ponašanjem, treći svojim znanstvenim djelo- vanjem, a netko izražavanjem svog prirodnog talenta“ ( : 81). „Image / slika o nečem ili nekom ujedno izražava naše stajalište premda pred metu našeg istointeresa. Mi u svoj način gledanja ne unosimo emocije, već oblikovana- stajališa u svezi s osobom, tvrtkom, proizvodom i ostalom na način kako to nama odgovara“ ( : 82). Za imidž nekog subjekta važan je moralni aspekt njegova djelovanja te opća aktivnost. - Ivan Tanta (2007:14) definira imidž ili sliku pomoću jednadžbe: „Identitet + Ko munikacija = Imidž. U toj jednadžbi identitet je ono što jesmo, dakle činjenica, komunikacija ili odnos jest način na koji se organizacija ili pojedinac odnose prema istookolini“. Nadalje, on piše kako: „Neartikulirana poruka i stihijskoOdnosi komuniciranje s javnošću sprečavaju iz gradnju kvalitetne slike (imidža) organizacije i generiraju negativan imidž“ ( : 15).- Kunczik (Miahael Kunčik) (2006: 20) u knjizi piše: „Imidži su realnosti svoje vrste koji mogu biti shvaćeni kao sustavi manje-više čvrsto poveza nih predrasuda, pri čemu se pod predrasudom podrazumijeva stajalište koje stvara dispoziciju, povoljnu ili nepovoljnu, neke skupine (odnosno društvenog sustava) ili njezinih članova da misle, osjećaju, da ih povoljno ili nepovoljno spoznaju i da djeluju za ili protiv njih“. 3.1 Imidž odnosa s javnošću

Imidž odnosa s javnošću kao struke od samog je početka bio problematičan. Bernays je već u „Kristaliziranju javnog mnijenja“ raspravljao i dokazivao „funkciju posebnog branitelja“: „Savjetnik za odnose s javnošću je branitelj nekog stajališta pred javnošću“ (Kunczik, 2006: 17). U namjeri da poboljša imidž odnosa s javnošću i da ih obrani od stalnih napada, on 1929. godine istoobjavljuje izvještaj pod naslovom „Savjetnik za odnose s javnošću - definicija“. U njemu je obrazloženo: „On je u biti poseban branitelj pred sudom javnog mnijenja“ ( ). Bernays je još 1991. u jednom interjvuuisto za New York Times izjavio: „Odnosi s javnošću danas su grozni. Svaki glupan, svaki bezveznjak, svaki idiot danas se može nazvati praktičarom odnosa s javnošću“ ( ). U knjizii „Odnosi s javnošću - blefsikon“, Saunders i Rae (Basil Saunders &- Alexander C. Rae) (1996: 7) pišu kako su odnosi s javnošću savršeno područje za blefera jer nitko točno ne zna što osoba zadužena za njih po čitav dan radi. „Najljep še je to što u odnosima s javnošću svi od vas očekuju da blefirate. Znaju da blefirate. Vi im i kažete da blefirate. A ipak i dalje blefirate“. Public Relations and Ameri- John Alfred Ralph Pimlott (Džon Alfred Ralf Pimlot) još je jedan teoretičar koji je pokušao objasniti imidž odnosa s javnošću. „U knjizi 129 Tena Malinić, dr Gordana Lesinger, dr Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta... can Democracy -

(Odnosi s javnošću i američka demokracija) objašnjava da praktiča ri odnosa s javnošću svoj loš glas sami pripisuju nekompetenciji i nepoštenju male manjine u vlastitim redovima (Kunczik, 2006: 17-18). Kunczik pak, smatra, kako je to netočna tvrdnja, jer su prema njemu, za loš ugled odnosa s javnošću odgovorni- upravo vodeći praktičari za odnose s javnošću. Alison Theaker (2007:379) navodi mišljenje Paula Vousdena: „Odnosi s javno spinšću imaju doctoring problem sa svojim imidžem koji je, ironično, potakla upravo ona publika na koju naša industrija ima navodni utjecaj: mediji. Muljanje odnosa s javnošću ili prizivaju slike neiskrenih pokušaja manipulacije medijima kako bi se iskrivila ili sakrila istina...“ - Sve ove negativne predodžbe o odnosima s javnošću, Kunczik (2006:19) pobija kada kaže: „Odnosi s javnošću su profesija koja se bavi čvrstim činjenicama. Bez ob zira na gledište brojnih autora, glavna djelatnost odnosa s javnošću jest njegovanje- imidža“. „Često čujemo - od onih koji ne poznaju prirodu funkcioniranja odnosa s jav- nošću - poštapalicu kako su odnosi s javnošću „prodavanje magle“. Kao argument navode činjenicu da PR stručnjaci i agencije obično puno savjetuju, pričaju, izrađu ju strategije i planove, komuniciraju s medijima i javnostima ali... kakve koristi od- toga ima tvrtka koja sve to skupo plaća“ (Skoko, 2006: 119). „Laici u odnosima s javnošću - u svojemu svojstvu roditelja, građanina, potro šača, vozača na cesti, birača, pacijenta itd. - izriču mišljenja o odnosima s javnošću“ (Ruler i dr., 2010: 44). Oni imaju neka iskustva s odnosima s javnošću i na temelju tih iskustava daju svoju ocjenu, odnosno vrednuju ih izravno - „vlastitim očima i ušima“. „Laici opisuju istoodnose s javnošću i o njima raspravljaju pomoću metafora,- primjera i anegdota, crpeći iz iskustava iz prve ruke, osobnih osjećaja, simpatija, antipatija i sličnoga“ ( : 45). Često odnose s javnošću miješaju s pojmovima poput oglašavanja, novinarstva i propagande. - „Većina ljudi ima razrađen skup asocijacija o odnosima s javnošću,isto te ih vred nuje kao nešto dobro, ne tako dobro ili kao nešto loše. Mnogi iz ovog ili onoga ra zloga degradiraju odnose s javnošću i smatraju ih neetičnima“ ( ). „Nestručnjaci svoja subjektivna stajalištaisto često smještaju u tajanstvenu hijerarhiju, stavljajući novinarstvo na vrh, a odnose s javnošću na dno. Novinari su dobri momci, a ljudi iz odnosa s javnošću loši“ ( : 45-46). 4. Etika i odnosi s javnošću

„Naravno da mediji sebe opisuju kao duboko vjerne i objektivne, ali koja pro pagandna institucija ne bi to isto radila? Ozbiljna osoba bi se pitala da li je to istina. Odgovor je da to nije istina - daleko je od istine“ (Chomsky, 2002: 55). „Etička pitanja i dileme svojstvena su odnosima s javnošću, a zadaća im je osigurati da praktičari odnosa s javnošću djeluju u skladu s etikom što je osnova profesionalnosti130 i kredibiliteta na terenu“ (Parson, 2004: 2). „Ako je etika znanost Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

o moralu, a moral je shvaćanje o pojmovima dobra i zla, tada bi etika u odnosima s javnošću bila: kako se postaviti i kojim sredstvima se koristiti prema dobrom ili lošem javnom mišljenju, a da se istovremeno ta javnost ne podcjenjuje, ne vrijeđa ili ne omalovažava“ (Tanta, Lesinger, 2014: 543). Pitanje etičnosti nešto je što oduvijek „proganja“ struku odnosa s javnošću. Od samih početaka, odnosi s javnošću i nisu bili pretjerano etični. „Odgovornost za to snosi dio tadašnjih američkih novinara, koji su za „šaku dolara“ u novinama počeli- objavljivati hvalospjeve o pojedinim tvrtkama i pojedincima“ (Skoko, 2006: 131). S vremenom su takvi angažmani postajali sve unosniji pa su se počele otvarati tzv. „pre ss agenture“ koje su svoje usluge nudile medijima i tržištu. „Neetičnost se sastojala u tome što čitatelji nisu znali koji je novinski članak djelo press agenta, a koji novinara,isto odnosno koji krije objektivnost, a koji ušminkanu stvarnost, za razliku od oglasa koji je uvijek svojom pojavom odavao dojam plaćenog prostora radi samohvale“ ( ). - Kao što smo napomenuli, suvremene teorijske rasprave razlikuju se od onih s početaka razvoja odnosa s javnošću. U novijim raspravama sučeljavaju se dvije po- zicije. „Na jednoj se strani argumentira da su odnosi s javnošću umijeće uvjeravanja, budući da ih vodi motivacija da se kontrolira javnost, odnosno da se pridobije pri stanak ili potpora javnosti. Na drugoj se strani argumentira da su odnosi s javnošću etički besprijekorno ponašanje, vođeno nastojanjem za obostranim razumijevanjem,- jer odnosi s javnošću teže upravljati sukobima na osnovi konsenzusa,isto pri čemu se praktičar za odnose s javnošću smatra nekom vrstom posrednika koji djeluje neovisno o pojedinačnim interesima i „objektivno“ prenosi informacije“ ( : 78). - Slijedom navedenog autori rada procjenjuju kako danas prevladava ona stra na koja argumentira kako su odnosi s javnošću moć uvjeravanja. Povezani su s nee tičnim radnjama poput laganja, spina, pa čak i špijunaže. „Mnogi kritičari navode- kako etika u odnosima s javnošću ne može biti praksa jer oni sami po sebi iziskuju manipulaciju i propagandu. Na žalost, uvriježeno je mišljenje među mnogim novinarima, političarima, ali i laicima kako je „etika u odnosima s javnošću“ oksimoron: ili je nestvarna mogućnost ili je paravan kako bi se sakrila obmana“ (Tanta, Lesin ger 2014: 543). Bernays u knjizi „Kristaliziranje javnog mišljenja“ piše kako je struka odnosa s javnošću u stalnoj opasnosti da izazove negodovanje gomile jer je često otvoreno u opreci prema čvrstim gledištima mnogih grupa koje tvore društvo. „Upravo je ovaj aspekt rada savjetnika za odnose s javnošću uzrok neodobravanja njegove struke u široj javnosti“ (2013: 133). 5. Etički kodeksi

„Kako ne postoji jedinstvena definicija i okvir kojega bi se praktičari trebali- držati, etika u odnosima s javnošću danas se uvelike oslanja na etičke kodekse koji postoje unutar svih relevantnih udruga za odnose s javnošću, a koji se najčešće od nose na moralne principe poput iskrenosti, poštenja i nenanošenja štete drugima“131 Tena Malinić, dr Gordana Lesinger, dr Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta...

(Tanta, Lesinger, 2014: 543). - Etičke norme definiraju nacionalne i međunarodne strukovne organizacije, ponekad i velike PR agencije. Oni, također, definiraju kodekse i smjernice koji obu hvaćaju norme ponašanja u struci (Milas, 2012: 59). „Međunarodno udruženje PR stručnjaka - IPRA, koje ima članstvo u 77 zemalja- svijeta, objavilo je 1991. monografiju o Etičkim dilemama u odnosima s javnošću u kojoj se raspravlja o nekim etičkim pitanjima koja su se pojavila u posljednje vri jeme, kao i o tamnim stranama koje zadaju velike probleme ovoj struci“ (Skoko, 2006: 133). Etičko ponašanje i profesionalizam promiče i najveća istoAmerička organizacija- za odnose s javnošću PRSA (Public Relations Society of America). „U svom Kodeksu profesionalne etike, u 17 članaka promiče etičko vladanje“ ( ). Tako, članovi PR- SA-e moraju pokazati poštivanje i biti pravedni te se držati najviših normi točnosti i istinitosti bez svjesnog širenja lažnih i obmanjujućih informacija. Isto tako, ne smi ju primiti honorar ili bilo kakav oblik nagrade izvan dogovorene plaće te moraju- čuvati poslovnu tajnu. - „Uglavnom svi PR-kodeksi u prvi plan stavljaju moralne vrijednosti poslova nja, visoku kulturu i maksimalnu humaniziranost komuniciranja s javnošću“ (Osre- dečki, 1995:132). Cutlip (Skot Katlip) i Center (Alen Senter) (2012:121) u knjizi „Učinkoviti odnosi s javnošću“, napisali su kako „odgovornost u profesiji znači da se praktičari moraju suočiti s posljedicama svojih djela“, odnosno da se odnosi s javnošću mora ju ponašati etično te poticati svoju radnu sredinu na etično ponašanje. Imperativ je da etičnost bude autentična, institucionalizirana te afirmirana etičkim kodeksima, treninzima te sankcijama unutar organizacija. 6. Budućnost odnosa s javnošću

Budućnost odnosa s javnošću je neizvjesna. Mnogobrojni autori pokušali su- dati odgovor na pitanje razvitka odnosa s javnošću u budućnosti. „Većina njih vidi- daljni razvoj i uglavnom svijetlu budućnost struke. Međutim, neki od njih su prilič no skeptični i zagovaraju promjenu kursa, kako se odnosi s javnošću ne bi pretvo- rili u neki vid sofisticirane propagande“ (Skoko, 2006: 82). - „Kunczik idealneisto odnose s javnošću vidi u tzv. intelektualnim odnosima s jav nošću, koji bi bili oslobođeni djelomičnih interesa i sadržavali bi mogućnost transformacije društva“ ( ). Takvi odnosi s javnošću ne bi trebali biti usmjereni na dobit već bi postali intelektualna djelatnost koja poštuje suprotne interese te po kušava pokrenuti raspravu s ciljem rješavanja sporova. „No i sam autor kaže kako je taj prijedlog čista utopija, pa treba odnose s javnošću i nadalje graditi u okvirima društvenih očekivanjaisto i tržišnih zakonitosti, odnosno međusobnog razumijevanja i stalne prilagodbe, pazeći da se ne prijeđe ona tanka crta koja struku još uvijek dijeli od132 propagande“ ( : 82-83). Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

7. Istraživanje imidža struke odnosa s javnošću

Tijekom kolovoza 2016. godine, provedeno je istraživanje s ciljem utvrđiva- nja imidža struke odnosa s javnošću. Korištena je metoda online ankete kojom su prikupljena i kasnije analizirana mišljenja ispitanika o zadanoj temi. Upitnik se sa stojao od ukupno 12 pitanja. Prva četiri pitanja bila su općenitog tipa (demografski podaci), dok se preostalih osam (specifičnih) pitanja odnosilo na područje odnosa s javnošću. Anketi je pristupio 261 ispitanik. Svi prikupljeni podaci su analizirani i prikazani statistički te je na temelju njih, na kraju izveden zaključak.

a)Opći Spol podaci i dob

Istraživanje je sprovedeno na 261 ispitaniku, tijekom kolovoza 2016. godine. Anketi su pristupile većinom žene, odnosno njih 220 ili 84,3%. Obuhvaćene su sve životneb) Najvišidobi, uglavnom završeni stupanjizmeđu obrazovanja 18 i 30 godina (čak 95,8% ili 250 ispitanika).

Od 261 ispitanika koji su sudjelovali u anketi, više od polovice njih, odnosno 176 ili 67,4% imaju završenu srednju školu. 70 ispitanika ili 26,8% ima završeno fakultetsko obrazovanje. Magisterij je završilo 12 osoba ili 4,6% dok doktorat imaju samo 2 osobe, tj. 0.2%. Osnovnu školu, kao najviši završeni stupanj obrazovanja ima samo jedna osoba (Grafikon 1).

Grafikon 1 - Obrazovanje ispitanika

c) Fakultetski smjer -

Od 261 ispitanika, 204 osobe trenutno pohađaju fakultet. Anketom su obuhva- ćeni ispitanici različitih fakultetskih usmjerenja uglavnom iz Osijeka i Zagreba. U najvećoj su mjeri to studenti filozofije (27 ispitanika: 13,24%), ekonomije (16 ispi tanika: 7,84%), kulturologije (15 ispitanika: 7,35%), isti toliki postotak i studenata s pravnog fakulteta, zatim studenti Hrvatskih studija (10 ispitanika: 5%), studenti učiteljskog fakulteta (8 ispitanika: 4%), te Verna (7 ispitanika: 3,45). Zastupljena su i ostala fakultetska usmjerenja, koja zbog, malog postotka, nisu navedena. 133 Tena Malinić, dr Gordana Lesinger, dr Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta...

Specifična pitanja

- a) Na pitanje: „Jeste li ikada čuli za odnose s javnošću ili PR“, svi ispitanici (100%) odgovorili su potvrdim odgovorom. To dokazuje da je pojam odnosa s jav nošću postao neizostavan dio svakodnevne komunikacije i da su danas, odnosi s- javnošću globalno zanimanje. b) Sljedeće pitanje odnosilo se na poimanje definicije odnosa s javnošću (Grafi kon 2). Zanimalo nas je što ispitanici prvo pomisle kada čuju pojam odnosi s javnošću, odnosno PR. Rezultati su pomalo iznenađujući jer suprotno negativnim konotacijama- (kakve su prikazane u stručnoj literaturi), mali postotak ispitanika (8 ili 3,1%) prvo pomisli na blefiranje, manipulaciju i spin. Najveći dio, njih 63,2% odnosno 165 ispi tanika, pod pojmom odnosa s javnošću podrazumijeva upravljanje odnosima između organizacije i njezine javnosti. 33,7% ili 88 ispitanika smatra kako odnosi s javnošću služe za izgradnju imidža nekog pojedinca ili organizacije. Iz ovoga se može zaključiti kako ispitanici imaju poprilično pozitivan stav prema struci odnosa s javnošću, no u daljnjem istraživanju, to se i neće pokazati baš takvim.

Grafikon 2 - Poimanje definicije odnosa s javnošću

c) Sljedeći upit odnosio se na važnost vještina dobrog savjetnika za odnose s javnošću (Grafikon 3). Ispitanici su morali ocijeniti pojedinu kategoriju (ocjenama od 1 do 5) i tako izraziti koliki stupanj važnosti ima svaka od njih. Na uzorku od 261 ispitanika, čak 123 (47.13%), je vještinu kreativnosti ocijenilo najvišom ocjenom. To znači da većina smatra kako je kreativnost izuzetno važna vještina za osobu koja se bavi odnosima s javnošću. Nadalje, 184 ispitanika (70,5%) smatra kako dobar PR-ovac treba imati dobre- organizacijske vještine. Odlučnost je također visoko ocijenjena, pa tako 146 ispitanika ili (56%) sma tra ovu vještinu iznimno bitnom. Otvorenost je ocijenjena vrlo visoko jer je čak 193 ispitanika odnosno njih 74%, ovu kategoriju ocijenilo s najvišom ocjenom. 134 Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

Vještine: integritet, timski rad i inteligencija dobile su podjednako visoke ocjene. 117 ispitanika (44,9%) ocijenilo je integritet ocjenom 5, njih 119 (45,6%) ocijenilo je timski rad tom istom ocijenom, dok je 120 ispitanika (46%) ocjenu 5 dodijelilo kategoriji inteligencije. Uvjerljivost i komunikativnost dvije su vještine, za koje ispitanici smatraju da su PR stručnjacima najpotrebnije. 201 ispitanik, odnosno 77% njih, smatra kako oni trebaju biti uvjerljivi, a najviše, čak 234 ispitanika (90%) smatra kako dobar PR stručnjak treba biti komunikativan kako bi bio uspješan u svom poslu.

Grafikon 3 - Važnost vještina dobrog savjetnika za OSJ

d) Na pitanje „Koliko često praktičari za odnose s javnošću manipuliraju in formacijama?“ (Grafikon 4), čak 62,8% ispitanika, odnosno njih 164 smatra kako- se informacijama često manipulira, dok 24,9% (65 ispitanika) smatra kako se to ponekad čini. Zanimljiva je činjenica kako niti jedan ispitanik nije zabilježio odgo vor „nikada“ što znači da smatraju kako se informacije ne plasiraju samo u svrhu informiranja. S druge strane, njih 12,3% (32 ispitanika) vjeruje kako informacije služe isključivo za manipuliranje javnosti. Iz prikazanih rezultata jasno je kako su odnosi s javnošću za sve ispitanike na neki način povezani s manipulacijom.

Grafikon 4 - Koliko često praktičari za odnose s javnošću manipuliraju informacijama?

135 Tena Malinić, dr Gordana Lesinger, dr Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta...

- e) Sljedeći zadatak za ispitanike bio je izraziti stupanj slaganja, odnosno ne slaganja s dvije navedene tvrdnje. Prva od njih glasi: „Odnosi s javnošću su proda vanje magle“. 24 osobe, odnosno 9,3% ispitanika u potpunosti se nije složilo s tom tvrdnjom. 67 osoba (26%) nije se složilo s tvrdnjom. Najveći broj ispitanika, njih- 127 (49,2%) zabilježilo je odgovor „niti se slažem, niti ne“. To može upućivati na nedostatak poznavanja pozadinske slike odnosa s javnošću. S tvrdnjom da su odno si s javnošću „prodavanje magle“, složilo se 35 osoba (13,6%) dok se u potpunosti složilo samo 5 osoba odnosno 1,9% ispitanika. 3 osobe od 261 ispitanika nije dalo odgovor na ovo pitanje (Grafikon 5).

Grafikon 5 - Odnosi s javnošću su ‘’prodavanje magle’’

Druga tvrdnja za koju su ispitanici morali iskazati svoj stupanj slaganja, od nosno ne slaganja, glasi: „Odnosi s javnošću su isto što i propaganda“ (Grafikon 6). 27 osoba, odnosno 10,4% ispitanika u potpunosti se nije složilo s tom tvrdnjom. Najveći broj ispitanika, njih 89 (34,2%) nije se složilo s tvrdnjom. Odgovor „niti se slažem niti ne“ zabilježilo je 86 ispitanika (33,1%). Kao i u prethodnom primjeru, to može upućivati na nedovoljno znanje ispitanika o struci odnosa s javnošću. S tvrdnjom da su „odnosi s javnošću isto što i propaganda“, složilo se 49 osoba (18,8) dok se u potpunosti složilo samo 9 osoba odnosno 3,5% ispitanika. Jedna osoba od 261 ispitanika nije pristupila ispunjenju ovog pitanja.

136 Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

Grafikon 6 - ‘’Odnosi s javnošću su isto što i propaganda’’

f) Na pitanje „Imate li povjerenja u rad praktičara za odnose s javnošću?“, naj veći postotak ispitanika (70,5%), odnosno njih 184, zabilježilo je odgovor: „nisam- razmišljao/la o tome“. Iako je pretpostavka bila kako će većina ispitanika izraziti nepovjerenje prema radu PR stručnjaka, to se nije dogodilo. Samo 12,6% ispitanika (33) izrazilo je nepovjerenje. S druge strane, 16,9% ispitanika (44) izrazilo je povjerenje prema njihovu radu. Uzimajući u obzir ovakve rezultate, možemo za ključiti kako, suprotno početnim pretpostavkama, praktičari za odnose s javnošću- uživaju povjerenje od strane javnosti. Ta činjenica osvijetljava budućnost razvoja struke jer je upravo njihov smisao izgradnja i održavanje dobrih odnosa utemelje nih na povjerenju (Grafikon 7).

Grafikon 7 - ‘’Imate li povjerenja u rad praktičara za odnose s javnošću?’’

g) Sljedeće pitanje odnosilo se na neetična ponašanja koja praktičare za odno se s javnošću mogu navesti na krivi put. Ispitanicima je bilo ponuđeno šest mogućih 137 Tena Malinić, dr Gordana Lesinger, dr Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta...

neetičnih ponašanja, a oni su mogli da odaberu jedno ili više za koje smatraju kako ih mogu pripisati praktičarima. Prvo od njih je nezakonitost (npr. pružanje usluga koje ne treba pružati). Za to ponašanje, odlučilo se 35 ispitanika (13,4%). 104 ispitanika, odnosno 39,8% njih, smatra kako su praktičari za odnose s javnošću nestručni u svom poslu, odnosno kako često nemaju dovoljno znanja ili iskustva. Nedostatak morala (npr. prihvaćanje mita) odabralo je 127 ispitanika (48,7%). Neetična ponašanja u vidu izostanka objektivnosti i manipuliranja ispitanici u- najvećoj mjeri pripisuju praktičarima za odnose s javnošću. 157 ispitanika (60,2%) smatra kako su praktičari previše subjektivni, dok čak 176 ispitanika (67,4%) prak tičare smatra manipulatorima. Opciju „ništa od navedenog“ odabralo je 11 ispitanika (4,2%), iz čega zaključujem kako oni rad praktičara smatraju etičnim (Grafikon 8).

Grafikon 8 - Neetična ponašanja praktičara za odnose s javnošću

h) Na pitanje „Smatrate li da struka odnosa s javnošću ima problem s etikom?“,- više od polovice ispitanika, njih 135 (51,75) odgovorilo je potvrdno (Grafikon 9). To potvrđuje činjenicu kako je etičnost „bolna točka“ ove struke. Nadalje, 102 ispitanika (39,1%) nije sigurno da li odnosi s javnošću imaju problem s etikom ili ne. Taj dio ispitanika vjerojatno nije htio izraziti svoje mišljenje s obzirom da je mož da nedovoljno upućen u samu struku. Na kraju, najmanji broj ispitanika, njih 24 (9,2%) smatra kako odnosi s javnošću nemaju problem s etikom.

138 Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

Grafikon 9 - ‘’Smatrate li da struka odnosa s javnošću ima problem s etikom?’’

- - i) S obzirom kako je analiza prethodnog pitanja dokazala kako odnosi s javno šću imaju problem s etikom, ovo pitanje odnosilo se na mogućnost rješenja tog pro blema. Ispitanicima su bila ponuđena tri moguća rješenja, a oni su, prema svojim nahođenjima mogli odabrati jedno ili više njih. Tako su 54 osobe ili 36% ispitanika- odabrala dodatno obrazovanje na području etike kao moguće rješenje problema. 91 ispitanik ili 60,7% rješenje vidi u kvalitetnom dijalogu i međusobnom upozna vanju struke i javnosti. Najveći broj ispitanika, njih 94 (62,7) smatra kako strože etičke norme i kodeksi mogu poboljšati etiku odnosa s javnošću i „prisiliti“ njihove praktičare da se odgovornije i moralnije ponašaju (Grafikon 10).

Grafikon 10 - Rješenje problema etičnosti

139 Tena Malinić, dr Gordana Lesinger, dr Ivan Tanta Kriza komuniciranja imidža i identiteta...

Zaključak

Proučavajući literaturu za ovu temu, pokazalo se prilično teškim definirati po jam odnosa s javnošću, te još teže pronaći univerzalno prihvaćenu definiciju. Iz toga možda slijedi i njihov pomalo nejasan identitet koji je takav, od samih početaka razvoja struke. U radu se nastojalo bazirati na imidžu odnosa s javnošću, odnosno na percpeciji- kakvu javnost ima o njima. S obzirom da joj mnogi teoretičari i praktičari pripisuju negativne konotacije, bilo je za očekivati kako će i javnost imati ista ili bar slična staja liša. Vlastitim istraživanjem, provedenim nad 261 ispitanikom, došlo se do spoznaje o tome kako su odnosi s javnošću danas postali sveprisutna tema u svakodnevnoj komunikaciji. - Na prvi pogled, kada je riječ o njihovom definiranju, više od polovice ispitanika odlučilo se za njihov pozitivan kontekst (odnosi s javnošću podrazumijevaju uprav ljanje odnosima između organizacije i njezinih javnosti), izostavljajući pri tome, blefiranje, spin i manipulaciju. Ipak, ta, na prvi pogled pozitivna slika, mijenja se u onu negativnu, kada više od polovice ispitanika na pitanje: „Koliko često praktičari- za odnose s javnošću manipuliraju informacijama“, izaberu odgovor često. O tome da postoji relativno loš odnos između odnosa s javnošću i njezine jav nosti, govori i činjenica kako velika većina ispitanika nije sigurna u svoje odgovore,- što ukazuje na nedovoljno znanje o pozadinskoj slici struke. Isto tako, ispitanici u velikoj mjeri nisu bili sigurni vjeruju li praktičarima za odnose s javnošću ili njiho vom radu, što može ukazivati na nedostatak dijaloga i nedovoljne informiranosti ispitanika. Kada je riječ o pitanju etike, više od polovice ispitanika složilo se kako- struka ima problem na tom području. Kao najčešća neetična ponašanja, ispitanici vide manipuliranje i izostanak objektivnosti, a rješenje vide u strožim etičkim nor mama i kodeksima. - Svekupno gledajući, odnosi s javnošću kao struka ima problem u vlastitim odnosima s javnošću. Smatramo kako nisu uspjeli prenijeti bit svoje aktivnosti ši roj javnosti i kako je, upravo zbog toga, njihov imidž loše pozicioniran. Dok jedni- predviđaju njihovu svijetlu budućnost, drugi su skeptični. Ostaje nam neizvjesnost i vjera u promijene koje će podići reputaciju ovoj struci i osigurati joj sigurnu bu dućnost.

140 Tena Malinić, PhD Gordana Lesinger, PhD Ivan Tanta Crisis of Communication Image and Identity of the Profession...

Literatura

• Kristaliziranje javnog mišljenja

• Bernays, L. E. (2013).Mediji, propaganda i sistem . Zagreb: Visoka škola za • odnose s javnošćuInformacije, i studij medija odnosi Kairos s javnošću i moć - Chomsky, N. (2002). . Zagreb: Tisak- Čvorak. • Cottle, S. (2009). Effective Public Relations. Zagreb: Naklada Medi jska istraživanja. • Cutlip, S.M., Center, H. (2012).Odnosi s javno u za organizaciju. New civilnog Jersey: Prenticedru tva Hall. • Hajoš, B., Skoko, B. (2009).Odnosi s javnošću šć š . • Zagreb: HrvatskaEtički udruga konflikti za odnose u odnosima s javnošću. s javnošću Kunczik, M. (2006). . Zagreb: Fakultet političkih znanosti. • Milas, D. (2012). Odnosi s javnošću / Public relations. MediAnali, 6 (11): 51- 66. • Osredečki, E. (1995).Ethics in Public Relations: A Guide to Best. Samobor-Zagreb: Practice Naklada Edo. • Parson, P.J. (2004). Blefsikon - Odnosi s javnošću . London and Philadelphia: Kogan Page Limited. • Saunders, B., Rae,Priručnik C.A. (1996). za razumijevanje odnosa s javnošću:. Zagreb: knjiga Mozaik eseja i praktičnihknjiga. uputa za snalaženje u jednome od najpoželjnijih zanimanja današn- jiceSkoko, B. (2006). • . Zagreb: Millenium promocija. Tanta, I. (2007). Oblikovanje mnijenja ili nužnost manipulacije. MediAnali • :međunarodni znanstveni časopis za pitanja medija, novinarstva, masovnog komuniciranja i odnosa s javnostima 1 (2): 13-32. Tanta, I., Lesinger, G. (2014). Etika struke odnosa s javnošću - utječu li odnosi • s javnošću na novinarstvo u RepubliciOtkrivanje Hrvatskoj?. odnosa s javnošću In medias res, 3 (4): 540- 554. • Tench, R., Yeomans, L. (2009). . Zagreb: Hrvatska udruga za odnose s javnošću. • Theaker, A. (2007).Teorije Priručnik i modeli za odnose odnosa s javnošću.s javnošću Zagreb: Hrvatska udruga- za odnose s javnošću. Tomić, Z. (2013). . Zagreb/ Sarajevo: Syn opsis.

141

MA Branislava Kragović, asistent

Katedra za sociologiju, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Prištini sa UDK 316.774(497.115) privremenim sedištem u Kosovskoj Mitrovici1

Uloga novih medija u zamrznutom konfliktu i pridobijanje javne pažnje2

Apstrakt: - - Pojava novih medija dovela je do izmeštanja simboličke moći iz pri vilegovanih krugova „čuvara kapija“ ka širokoj javnosti, utičući i na sadržaj plasira nih informacija. Masovna komunikacija je doživela kvalitativnu promenu, ne samo prema broju potencijalnih primalaca, već i po karakteristikama pošiljaoca – koji- više nisu monopol profesionalnih organizacija, već demokratski potencijal svakog nevidljivih,građanina. Geografske ali u praksi granice upostavljenih su postale linija? porozne, ali ostalo je pitanje da li novi me diji proširuju komunikacijski uticaj i preko kulturoloških, etničkih, verskih i ostalih-

Otuda kao predmet ovog rada zamrznuti konflikt na Kosovu i Metohiji, geo- Pregledni rad / Research review article političkom prostoru dubokih antagonizama i dugotrajnih sukoba. Dve dominantne- zajednice, srpsku i albansku, razdvajaju etničke i konfesionalne, političke i lingvi- stičke, kulturološke i komunikacijske razlike. Više od jednog veka ovde traje per manentniNa primeru sukob kojitviter opterećuje kampanje civilizacijski za i protiv dijalog u pokušaju iznalaženja trajni jeg rešenja statusa KiM, odnosno modaliteta suživota. ulaska „Kosova“ u UNESKO metodom analize sadržaja istražujemo moć društvenih mreža u kriznom komuniciranju.- Naučni cilj je da istražimo koliko je publika u transformisanom socio-kulturnom- kontekstu spremnija za kreiranje zajedničkog diskursa, odnosno medijskih kon strukcija koje bi makar približile sajber javnost, dok društveni cilj vidimo u prome ni starih obrazaca nacionalnog opredeljivanja kao prepreke za međusobni dijalog i natoleranciju. pitanje da Polazeći li time iod kulturne hipoteze zajednice da umreženi postaju identiteti još udaljenije zasnovani i razdvojenije? na zajedničkim Novi vrednostima samo ojačavaju međuetničke granice i razlike, tragamo za odgovorom - mediji imaju veliki potencijal u mobilisanju javnosti, ali u specifičnom kontekstu sa rastom međuetničkog i međureligijskog nepoverenja smanjuju se šanse za kreira njemKljučne zajedničke reči agende.: novi mediji, Twitter, Kosovo i Metohija.

1 [email protected] -

2 Rad je nastao u okviru naučnoistraživačkog projekta III 47023 Kosovo i Metohija između nacio nalnog identiteta i evrointegracija koji finansira Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije. 143 MA Branislava Kragović, assistant

temporarily seated in Kosovska Mitrovica Department of Sociology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Priština,

The Role of New Media in a Frozen Conflict and Gaining Public Attention 3

Abstract: The emergence of new media has led to the relocation of the symbo- the content of placed information. Mass communication has undergone a qualitati- licve powerchange, of not the only privileged according circles to the of “gatekeepers” number of potential to the general recipients, public, but influencingalso by the - characteristics of the sender – who are no longer the monopoly of professional or andganizations, expand butcommunication the democratic across potential cultural, of everyethnic, citizen. religious Geographic and other boundaries invisible, buthave in become practice porous, the established but the question lines. remains whether the new media influence - - Hence, this paper’s subject is the frozen conflict in Kosovo and Metohija, the geo political area of deep antagonisms and long-lasting conflicts. The two dominant com munities, Serbian and Albanian, are separated by ethnic and religious, political and resolutionlinguistic, cultural for the statusand communication of Kosovo and differences.Metohija, i.e. Permanent modalities conflictof co-existence. lasts here more than a century and it is burdening civilized dialogue in the attempt of finding a lasting- CO we explore the power of social media in crisis communication using the method of In the case of a Twitter campaign for and against the entry of “Kosovo” in UNES a common discourse in transformed socio-cultural context, i.e. media constructions content analysis. The scientific goal is to explore how the audience is willing to create that would bring together “cyber public”, while we see the social goal in the change strengthenof old patterns inter-ethnic of national boundaries affiliations and as adifferences, barrier to mutualwe seek dialogue to answer and the tolerance. questi- onStarting whether from by the this hypothesis cultural communities that networked are becomingidentities basedmore distanton shared and values separated. only with the growth of inter-ethnic and inter-religious mistrust, they reduce the chances ofNew creating media a have joint greatagenda. potential in mobilizing the public, but in the specific context

Key words: new media, Twitter, Kosovo and Metohija

Kosovo and Metohija between national identity and Eurointegration 3 The work was created within the scientific-research project III 47023 financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological 144Development of the Republic of Serbia. MA Branislava Kragović The Role of New Media in a Frozen Conflict and Gaining ...

Uvod masovnog, tako i interpresonalnog komuniciranja. To je proces koji je još uvek u Novi mediji su otvorili tehnološke mogućnosti za drastičan preobražaj kako- toku, ali istraživači već ocrtavaju obrise promene o kojoj je reč. Pojava svakog no vog medija ne označava samo tehnološki napredak budući da mediji i uticaji njihove upotrebe presecaju tkivo društva, već povlači za sobom i šire društvene promene. „Nove informacione i komunikacione tehnologije su zaista revolucionarne“ (Kahn,- Kellner, 2012:93), ali novi elektronski mediji, kako više autora zapaža, još uvek nisu zamenili prethodno postojeće, već ih pre možemo smatrati dopunom spektra elek tronskih medija (McQuail, 2005; Aday et al. 2012). Teškoće određenja pojma novih medija proističu iz izbora samog termina i ostajenjegove otvoreno vremenske pitanje determinisanosti, koliko dugo je i novoraznolikosti novum pojava koje čine njegov sadržaj. Pojam potiče iz 1960-ih, ono što je tada bilo novo teško da je i sada; takođe, uvek- dok ne postane tradicionalno; i,- najznačajnije, sam pridev pogrešno upućuje na novinu kao najmanju zajedničku ka rakteristiku medija o kojima je reč. Ukoliko je jedini zajednički sadržalac novih me dija trenutak njihovog nastanka, nije opravdano (osim u konteksu istorijskih nauka)- poimati ih i proučavati skupa. Opisne definicije novih medija, kao njihove ključne karakteristike ističu pove zanost, dinamičnost uloga pošiljalaca i primalaca, dostupnost, globalni karakter, itd. Internet kao medij poseduje sve ove karakteristike, ali je sve mogućnosti koje pruža- i posledice koje proizvodi gotovo nemoguće obuhvatiti jednom definicijom. Njegovu- kompleksnost Erik Šmit (Eric Schmidt), direktor Gugla, opisuje na sledeći način: „In ternet je prva stvar koju je čovečanstvo stvorilo a da je uopšte ne razume, to je naj- veći pokušaj stvaranja anarhije koji je ikada preduzet“ (prema Tjurou, 2013:247). „Kvalitativno drugačiji u odnos na ranije postojeće masovne medije, internet svoju privlačnost temelji na obilju brzo, lako i relativnofeedback jeftino dostupnih informacija, inkorporiranju sadržaja ostalih masovnih medija i, najznačajnije, pružanju moguć nosti recipročne komunikacije. Uz postojanje -a , demokratičnijim ga čini i sposobnost uspostavljanja različitih tipova komunikacije u odnosu na broj učesnika komunikacijskog procesa – intrapersonalne, interpersonalne, grupne, masovne, ali -i komunikacije mnogih sa mnogima“ (Kragović, 2013: 354). Raznolikost mogućnosti koje internet pruža i specifičnost nekih od njih, naroči to onlajn platformi za društveno umrežavanje (OPDU), popularno nazvane društvene- mreže, osnov su za isključivanje interneta iz kategorije masovnih medija i njegovo svrstavanje u grupu virtuelnih medija. Upravo su OPDU ( My Space, Facebook, Twi tter, Instagram,..) i na njima kreirane virtuelne zajednice okupirali pažnju najvećeg broja istraživača. - Sajber-entuzijasti su u virtuelnim zajednicama videli prostor za prevazilaženje društvenih barijera koje dele realne zajednice. Oslobođen fizičkih, ali i struktural nih (rasnih, etničkih, kulturnih, itd.) ograničenja, internet je glorifikovan kao prostor restrukturiranja postojećih društvenih odnosa, transformacije postojećih zajednica145 i MA Branislava Kragović Uloga novih medija u zamrznutom konfliktu i pridobijanje...

- nimnjihovog projekcijama. kreiranja Ukolikounutar granica je štampa, interesovanja kako nas uverava a ne pozicija MakLuan, pojedinaca. dovela Anonimnedo pojave pričaonice i različiti specijalizovani forumi su davali dovoljno potkrepljenja pozitiv- - nacionalizma (McLuhan, 2008: 155), mogu li novi mediji ostvariti ideale kosmopo- litizma? Međutim, relativno rano je uočen jedan negativi fenomen internet komuni kacije, nazvan sajber-balkanizacija – „fenomen atomizacije sajber prostora na veliki broj specijalizovanih, ali međusobno diskonektovanih virtuelnih grupa. Osnovna pretpostavka koja stoji iza ove ideje je da ako internet omogućava da ljudi zado voljavaju svoje potrebe, bez obzira na ograničenja fizičkog prostora, onda to može dovesti do sve većeg i preciznijegonline komunikacije zadovoljenja na uske tih potreba zajednice u sajber istih interesovanja prostoru, što neće u konačnici imati za posledicu sve suženiju međuljudsku komunikaciju“ (Petrović, 2013: 225). Sužavanje remeti u tolikoj meri utopističke predstave interneta koliko bi ih remetilo ukoliko bi virtuelnise sajber-balkanizacija globalni prostor, virtuelnog te bi on prostora bio samo odvijala virtuelno duž ogledalorealno postojećih realnih društvenih granica. U tom slučaju, strukturalne barijere ustanovljene u globalnom društvu, presecale bi i još jedan od frontova na kojima se odvija borba? podela. U društvima dubokih rasnih, etničkih ili verskih sukoba, da li je internet samo

Poster (Poster) navodi pet karakteristika novih medija koje ih razlikuju od- pređašnjih: 1) mogućnost komunikacije mnogih sa mnogima (many-to-many), 2) simultani prijem, izmena i redistribucija kulturnih sadržaja, 3) izmeštanje komu nikativnog delovanja iz nacionalnih okvira, 4) omogućavanje trenutnog globalnog- nokontakta, društvo, i jer 5) uvlačenjepored sposobnosti subjekta da u aparattrenutno umreženih primaju vesti mašina i informacije (navedeno poseduju prema McQuail, 2005: 138). Novi mediji, kako drugi autori zapažaju, „preoblikuju global- moć povratne veze, uključujući i proizvodnju poruka“, a „mišljenja pojedinaca teorijski postaju dostupna svim žiteljima globalnog sela“ (Jevtović, 2009: 72-73). Većina autora, dakle, kao dominantne karakteristike novih medija ističe inte- nikacijskograktivnost i procesaglobalnost. od, Kombinacijas jedne strane, ovih prostornih dveju karakteristika i nacionalnih upravo okvira, upućuje a s druge na zaključak da novi mediji pružaju socio-tehnološku osnovu za oslobođenje komu strane od „čuvara kapija“. Međutim, interaktivnost i izbor koje novi mediji pružaju „nisuPitanje univerzalne koje razmatramo koristi; mnogi na ljudiovom nemaju mestu energije,jeste da liželje, novi potrebe mediji saili svojimveštine ko da- munikativnimse angažuju u takvom karakteristikama procesu“ (Rice,1999, kako su opisane navedeno mogu prema da vrše McQuail, uticaj u 2005: pravcu 139). pre- vazilaženja društvenih barijera u specifičnim uslovima zamrznutog konflikta.

146 MA Branislava Kragović The Role of New Media in a Frozen Conflict and Gaining ...

Novi mediji i konflikti

Jedan od najvećih podsticaja istraživanju uloge novih medija, posebno druš tvenih mreža, u društvima u konfliktu pružilo je Arapsko proleće. Politički sukob nije nastao niti iniciran na društvenim mrežama, on je postojao, verovatno bi proizveo iste posledice i bez širenja društvenih mreža. Njihova uloga je, pak, bila značajna u širenju informacija, u organizovanju protesta i, najbitnije, u- privlačenju javne pažnje u drugim zemljama (Wolfsfeld, Segev, Sheafer, 2013). Isti autori naglašavaju značaj društvenog okruženja u proučavanju uticaja novih teh nologija, jer se taj uticaj različito prelama u različitim lokalnim kontekstima. I drugi- autori ulogu novih medija u Arapskom proleću vide pre kao megafon, posrednik u iznoseširenju tvrdnjuinformacija da postoji van regiona dovoljno i privlačenje empirijskog javne potkrepljenja pažnje u međunarodnim za hipotezu da okvi novi rima, nego kao ratni poklič koji je delovao unutar zemalja o kojima je reč. Takođe, mediji promovišu političku i društvenu polarizaciju, kao i za hipotezu da su ovi mediji korisniji u uslovima spornih političkih pitanja, odnosno političkih sukoba,- nego za redovne demokratske procese. Na primeru Bahreina, naročito je uočljivo preslikavanje religijskog sukoba na onlajn procese (Adey et al., 2012). Način upo trebe novih medija tokom sukoba u Egiptu, jedan od aktivista ovako objašnjava: „FejsbukTwitter koristimo da zakažemo proteste, Tviter da ih koordiniramo, a Jutjub da kažemo svetu“ (Khondker, 2011: 677). Twitter je korišćen i kao poligon za sukobe raznih pobunjeničnih grupa sa- predstavnicima NATO-a. Talibani i somalijski pobunjenici su 2011. pokrenuli svoje- profile kako bi predstavili svoje viđenje sukoba u „ratu rečima“ sa @ISAF media, (zvanični nalog NATO’s International Security Assistance Force in Afgha nistan) i majorom Čirčir (Emmanuel Chirchir, zadužen za Tviter aktivnosti vojske Kenije u podršci operacijama u Somaliji) (Bennett, 2013:48), a Youtube je neretko bio platforma i za širenje rasne mržnje (videti Johns, McCosker, 2015). Kosovo i Metohija, zamrznuti konflikt i kulturna baština

- Sukobi Srba i Albanaca na prostoru Kosova i Metohije obeležili su vek za nama. To je prostor kontinuiranih napetosti i čestih etničkih sukoba. Kulturološke, etnič ke, konfesionalne, pa i jezičke barijere među dvema zajednicama javljaju se kao nepremostiva prepreka međusobnoj komunikaciji i mirnom suživotu. „Srbi gledaju na pokrajinu Kosovo kao na postojbinu srpskog naroda, srce Srbije, koja ni po koju- cenu ne sme biti predana albanskoj većini (...) Ovo je još uvek mesto hodočašća za Srbe, upravo kao što epske balade o Kosovu i njihovom heroju, Marku, nastavljaju da zauzimaju posebno mesto u srcima Srba“ (Smith, 1999,place navedeno d`arme prema da se Šljukić, 2013:140). Za Albance, Kosovo je prostor novoosvojene državnosti, ostva- renje višedecenijskog sna o nezavisnosti i otcepljenju od Srbije i započne sa realizacijom projekta „Velike Albanije“. Kako ističe Jelena Guskova, „se147 MA Branislava Kragović Uloga novih medija u zamrznutom konfliktu i pridobijanje...

paratistička aktivnost radikalno nastrojenih delova albanskih grupa u Autonomnoj Pokrajini Kosovo počela je odmah nakon rata [Drugog svetskog rata, prim. autora] i nije prestajala ni na jedan dan. Ujedinjenje sa Albanijom bilo je i dalje njihov glavni Metohiji.cilj. Ka tom Kulturni cilju oni spomenici su stremili na sve Kosovu vreme, i doslednoMetohiji predstavljaju i uporno“ (2014:19). materijalni izraz kulturneJedna okosnice od okosnica srpskog sukoba nacionalnog je i pitanje identiteta. prava na Oni kulturno su simbol nasleđe i sublimacija na Kosovu isto -i rije, trajanja, vrednosti oko kojih se konstituiše kulturna posebnost srpskog naro-

Kosovada. „U slavističkim, i Metohije središnjabalkanološkim spona i srpskogsrodnim identiteta,naučnim evropskim temelj kolektivne krugovima, narodne kao i među širom obrazovanom publikom, nikada nije bilo sporno da je srpska baština - svesti i sveukupog narodnog stvaralaštva“ (Terzić, 2012:48), pa ipak, predstavnici- samoproglašene „Republike Kosovo“ u okviru svog nacionalnog projekta kontinu irano deluju na njenom preimenovanju u kosovsku baštinu.. Prvi (neuspešni) po kušaj učlanjenja nepriznate države kao baštinika i zaštitnika4 kulturnog nasleđa na KiM u UNESKO odigrao se 2011. godine, a drugi 2015 Rezultati istraživanja

Albanija je 11. septembra 2015. godine podnela zahtev za prijem samoprogla šene „Republike Kosovo“ u Organizaciju Ujedinjenih nacija za obrazovanje, nauku i kulturu (UNESKO), čemu se Srbija decidirano protivi, i ovo pitanje je postalo još- jedansništva kamen jedne spoticanjaili druge zajednice u odnosima i institucija dveju zajednica. kojima priznaju Pitanje članstvalegitimitet „Kosova“ nad spo u- UNESKO-u u javnosti je dominantno percipirano kao pitanje moralnog prava vla istorije i nacionalnog identiteta. menicimaNa Twitter kulture-u sukoji kreiranjem su u vlasništu haštagova Srpske #kosovoinunesko pravoslavne crkve i #nokosovounescoi koren su srpske pripadnikepokrenute dve dve kampanje zajednice, – albanske za i protiv i srpske. članstva „Kosova“ u ovu organizaciju, i među zastupnicima dva oprečna stava i učesnicima dve kampanje jasno prepoznajemo Twitter Metod analize sadržaja primenili smo na tvitove sa jednim ili drugim haštagom, na namernom uzorku koji je činila komunikacija u periodu od 1. do 10. novembra- 2015. godine, jer je to period najintezivnijeg tvitovanja u obema kampanjama, budući da je glasanje Generalne skupštine UNESKO-a po spornom pitanju zakazano replyza 9. no vembar 2015. godine. Među desetinama hiljada tvitova, izdvojeni su oni koji su deo konverzacije. Tviter konverzacija započinje tvitom koji se uputi kao odgovor ( ) na već objavljeni tvit, čime se oni povezuju u jednu komunikacijsku celinu, posredovanu interpersonalnu ili grupnu komunikaciju, u zavisnosti od broja učesnika. Upadljivo je mali broj konverzacija i njima obuhvaćenih tvitova, ako se ima u vidu intenzitet kampanja i učestalost korišćenja haštagova #kosovoinunesko i 1484 Više u „Serbian heritage in Kosovo and Metohija: between actual and imposed history“ Zorana Jovanovića. MA Branislava Kragović The Role of New Media in a Frozen Conflict and Gaining ...

tvita Tabelu 1 #nokosovounesco.5 U posmatranom uzorku bilo je 88 konverzacija sa ukupno 453 (videti ). Twitter konverzacije 88 Ukupan broj tvitova 453 Prosečan broj tvitova u konverzaciji 5,14 Prosečan broj tvitova u konverzacijama sa oba haštaga 6,97

Tabela 1. - Twitter konverzacija

- deti GrafikonOd ukupnog 1 broja konverzacija, u 18 nalazimo samo haštag #kosovoinunesko, u 38 samo haštag #nokosovounesco, dok u preostale 32 nalazimo oba haštaga (vi ).

Grafikon 1.

- Distribucija Twitter konverzacija - Budući da je cilj našeg istraživanja utvrditi spremnost korisnika novih medija da kreiraju zajednički diskurs koji preseca etničke granice, težili smo utvrđivanju ta čaka dodira dveju kampanja, odnosno njihovih zagovornika. U tom smislu, možemo reći da se kampanje presecaju u više od 32 konverzacije, jer još u 13 konverzacija, navedenoiako je eksplicitno u vidu, opravdano naveden jedan je u Twitterili drugi haštag, korisnici se mogu identifikovati onekao pripadniciu kojima drugi različitih nije eksplicitno etničkih zajednica naveden, i zastupnici jer i kada govorimorazličitih kampanja. o konverzacijama Imajući konverzacije sa oba haštaga uračunati i

5 Prostom pretragom Tvitera po ovim haštagovima dobija se nešto veći broj konverzacija, ali su u predmet naše analize ušli samo oni koji se direktno ili indirektno tiču kampanja za i protiv članstva „Kosova“ u UNESKO-u. Osim njih, bilo je konverzacija koje se sadržinski nisu ticale naše teme, ali je neki od tvitova u njima bio obeležen pomenutim haštagovima. 149 MA Branislava Kragović Uloga novih medija u zamrznutom konfliktu i pridobijanje...

- sa oba haštaga, u fokusu pažnje je zapravo uspostavljanje dijaloga među pripadni cima različitih etničkih zajednica. Sa ovako definisanim kategorijama, distribucija izgleda znatno drugačije: konverzacije koje segrafikon odvijaju 2 u okviru jedne zajednice čine 49% ukupnog broja konverzacija, dok konverzacije koje možemo označiti kao tačke preseka dve kampanje čine 51% (Videti ).

Grafikon 2.

Konverzacije koje ostaju -u Distribucija okvirima jedne Twitter kampanje konverzacija su razvrstane 2 u dve kategorije na osnovu toga da li su učesnici istomišljenici ili ne. Za razliku od konverzacija- među pripadnicima različitih zajednica, ovde je reč o pripadnicima iste zajednice koji suprotstavljaju stavove o značaju ili metodama kampanje, ili se, pak, u okviru kampa- panjenje koja #kosovoinunesko ih povezuje sukobljavaju upadljiv je po visok drugim stepen političkim slaganja, pitanjima. samo u jednoj Ovo razlikovanjekonverzaciji nam daje uvid u karakter čitavih kampanja, o čemu će kasnije biti reči. U okviru kam Tabelu 2 nalazimo neistomišljenike. Drugu kampanju, #nokosovounesco, karakteriše i veći broj konverzacija i veći broj disonantnih tonova, 8 od 33 (videti ). Konverzacije sa jednim # ∑ istomišljenici 1 #kosovoinunesco 10 neistomišljenici 9 istomišljenici 8 #nokosovounesco 33 neistomišljеnici 25 ∑ 43

Tabela 2. - Konverzacija sa jednim haštagom

Konverzacije u kojima se seku dve kampanje razvrstali smo u tri grupe: dis- konverzacije koje karakteriše pomirljiv ton, duh dijaloga i suprotstavljanje stavova kusija, diskvalifikacija i prelazni oblici. U grupu „diskusija“ svrstane su sve one 150 MA Branislava Kragović The Role of New Media in a Frozen Conflict and Gaining ...

- ili argumenata. Mnogi od njih ne predstavljaju ono što pod diskusijom uobičajeno- podrazumevamo, ali ilustruju ono što se često navodi u optimističkim predstava madruge novih kampanje, medija ali– virtuelni smo stanovišta prelazak da realnih je makar društvenih takav vid granica. komunikacije Često jekorak u pita ka nju samo haštag koji označava jednu kampanju kao odgovor na tvit sa haštagom - uspostavljanju međusobnog dijaloga, odnosno napredak u odnosu na potpuno ignorisanje suprotne kampanje. Ovakav vid „diskusije“ smešten je u podgrupu „su protstavljanje stavova“, dok su primeri racionalne razmene argumenata smešteni u podgrupu „suprotstavljanje argumenata“. Kategorija „diskvalifikacija“ obuhvata one razmene tvitova u kojima se sagovornik omalovažava ili etiketira na uvredljiv način (rasista, terorista, ludak,....), koje sadrže pretnje ili psovke. I, najzad, u nekim konverzacijama se ton rasprave menja – od razmene argumenata ka uvredama ili obratno – i one su obuhvaćene kategorijom „prelazni oblici“. Od ukupogTabelu broj konverzacija 3 koje predstavljaju tačke preseka dveju kampanja, nešto više od 75% čine diskusije, 15% su diskvalifikacije, a 9% odlazi na prelazne oblike (videti ). U konverzacijama među zastupnicima različitih kampanja razmenjeno je u proseku po 7 tvitova. Konverzacije sa dva # ∑ % suprotstavljanje stavova 17 diskusija 34 75,6 suprotstavljanje argumenata 17 diskvalifikacija 7 15,6 prelazni oblici 4 8,8 ∑ 45 100

Tabela 3. - Konverzacija sa dva haštaga

Tumačenje dobijenih rezultata

- - Uvidom u karakteristike kampanja za i protiv ulaska „Kosova“ u UNESKO, uvi- đamo da je reč o dve prilično različite kampanje. Dok je # kosovoinunesko usme rena, sistematična i organizovana, usmerena na pridobijanje pažnje u međunarod unim kampanji, okvirima, kampanja čemu u prilog#nokosovounesco govore dominantna je spontanija, upotreba inicirana engleskog od strane jezika, nevla mali- dinebroj konverzacija,organizacije i daklenekolicine uglavnom entuzijasta, jednosmerna stoga difuznija, komunikacija paralelno i učešće usmerena zvaničnika i na - zacija, ali i prisustvo disonantnih tonova, kritike i autoironije. međunarodnu i domaću javnost, uz veću upotrebu srpskog jezika, veći broj konver - jedniceVeoma i u virtuelnom mali broj konverzacija prostoru uglavnom i njima obuhvaćenih ostaju zatvorene tvitova jedna potvrđuju prema naš drugoj, stav o održanju starih kulturnih obrazaca u novom socio-kulturnom kontekstu. Dve za održavajući na etnicitetu ustanovljene identitete i njima pripadajuću distancu. 151 MA Branislava Kragović Uloga novih medija u zamrznutom konfliktu i pridobijanje...

- - Zanimljiva pojava koju uočavamo, pak, jeste da postoje ti retki pokušaji kori šćenja Tvitera kao platforme za demokratski dijalog i uspostavljanje komunikaci je preko društvenih barijera. Od ukupnog broja konverzacija među pripadnicima- sukobljenih strana, čak 75% se odvija u pomirljivom tonu, a polovina od tog broja- (37,7%) predstavlja prave razložne, argumentovane diskusije u pokušaju da se ra zume stanovište druge strane. Međutim, pogledamo li ko su učesnici ovakvih kon verzacija, u velikom broju njih ćemo pronaći iste učesnike (Sava Janjic ‏@SavaJanjic, obimaSeremb kontakata Gjergji ‏@Seremb, dveju grupa. Apolo’s Border Guard ‏@Nietzscheanac, vitomir perić‏@ vitomirperic), što je važno imati u vidu kako ne bismo upali u zamku precenjivanja

Zaključna razmatranja

Twitter

Analiza dveju kampanja potvrđuje naš stav da novi virtuelni prostor, iako u tehnološkom smislu označava nesaglediv napredak i u komunikacijskom- kismislu karakter pruža zajednice nemerljive u savremenosti, mogućnosti, on njeno nastaje, odvajanje postoji od i upotrebljava prostora, velikim se u zadatim delom socio-kulturnim okvirima i, kao takav, integriše stare društvene podele. Dinamič- omogućeno informaciono-komunikacionim tehnologijama (IKT), gubi se u uslo vima zamrznutog konflikta, kad društvene granice iz realnog prodiru u virtuelni mestasvet i on kao postaje okvira poprište komunikacije, sukoba iako ili, kao na prviu našem pogled primeru, deluje prostortako jer podela se poruka duž šaljeistih potencijalnimgranica u okviru primaocima kojih korisnici prostorno žive. udaljenim,U ovom slučaju ali je onane dolazi duboko do vezana oslobađanja za mesto, od kodirana u socio-kulturnom obrascu iz koga se šalje. - - Opravdano je pretpostaviti, iako to ostaje otvoreno pitanje za dalja istraživa nja, da u uslovima zamrznutog konflikta internet ne doprinosi probijanju struktu kompresijomralnih ograničenja vremena u uspostavljanju i prostora vodi dijaloga. izdizanju Sukobi procesa identiteta, formiranja sa kakvimidentiteta se iznadovde suočavamo, izazov su za demokratski društveni poredak. Stav nekih autora da IKT smislu,lokalnog navodi: konteksta „Koliko (pa ihgod možemo da ideja smatrati o tome ida činiocem se identitet prevazilaženja sve više formira identitetskih prema sukoba), podložan je kritici. Dalibor Petrović, kritikujući Harvija (Harvey) u tom nekim univerzalnim prostorno-vremenskim orijentirima deluje logično, ipak ovo shvatanje zahteva neku vrstu empirijske verifikacije. (.....) To da li identifikacija sa- lokalnim kontekstom slabi otvoreno je pitanje. Mnogi događaji pokazuju da su na- sceni u najmanju ruku kontradiktorni procesi jačanja globalnih ali i lokalnih utica ja“ (2013: 37). U uslovima zamrznutog konflikta, odnosno društva duboko podelje nog duž etničkih granica, pojedincikosmopolitske stupaju u pre virtuelne nego lokalne zajednice koje preslikavaju podele onih realnih, što u određenoj meri demantuje Slevinov stav da su virtuelne zajednice nesigurne, fluidne i (Slevin, 2000, prema 152McQuail, 2005: 149). MA Branislava Kragović The Role of New Media in a Frozen Conflict and Gaining ...

Istina o uticaju novih medija u uslovima zamrznutog konflikta leži negde izme đu ekstremnih očekivanja da će internet podstaći ili prevazići identitetske barijere komesvake sevrste. novi Proučavanje medij koristi. svakog novog medija, osim potencijala koji pruža, mora uzeti u obzir i način na koji korisnici (ne) koriste date potencijale, kao i kontekst u

Temeljna socološka činjenica da društvo, kao najširi okvir u kome nastaju i razvijaju se svi društveni fenomeni, utiče na njihovo oblikovanje i trpi povratne uticaje, ne sme se prenebregnuti ni u proučavanju novih medija.

Literatura

• New media and conflict after the Arab Spring -

• Aday, S. et al. (2012). . Washing- ton: United States Institute for Peace. Media, War & Conflict, Bennet, D. (2013). Exploring the impact of an evolving war and terror blo, gosphere on traditional media coverage of conflict, • vol.6 (1), 37-53. DostupnoKosovo i Metohija: na http://mwc.sagepub.com/content/6/1/37 rat i uslovi mira. Kosovska Mitrovica: FilozofskiPosećeno 1.11.2016.fakultet. • Guskova, J. (2014).

• Jevtović, Z. (2009). Komuniciram – znači postojim!, Posebno izdanje Kulture- polisa, 71-90. Communication, Politics & CultureJohns, A, McCosker, A. (2015). Social Media Conflict: Platforms for Racial Vil • ification, or Acts of ProvocationSerbian Heritage and Citizenship?in Kosovo and Metohija: Between Actual and Imposed, vol. 47 History (3), 44-54. Philosophy.Jovanović, Z. (2015). • . Kosovska Mitrovica: University of Priština – Faculty of New media & society • Kahn, R, Kellner, D. (2004). New media and internet activism: from the ’Battle of Seattle’ to blogging, , vol.6 (1), 87-95. Khondker, H. (2011). Role of the New Media in the Arab Spring. Globalizations • vol. 8 (5), 675-679. Dostupno na http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1- 080/14747731.2011.621287#UpMu9MRDtO4Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta , Posećeno Univerziteta 1.11.2016. u Prištini, Kragović, B. (2013). Kritičko razmatranje uloge društvenih mreža u „Arap • skom proleću“. Razumijevanje medija • XLIII, 2 (2013), 353-368.McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory Publications.McLuhan, M. (2008). . Zagreb: Golden marketing. • McQuail, D. (2005).Društvenost u doba interneta . London: SAGE • Stara Srbija: drama jedne civilizacije Petrović, D. (2013). . Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga. Terzić, S. (2012). . Novi Sad: Pravoslavna reč.153 MA Branislava Kragović Uloga novih medija u zamrznutom konfliktu i pridobijanje...

• Mediji danas. Knj.2. Beograd: Clio. • Tjurou,opstanak. Dž. U (2013). Kulturno nasleđe Kosova i Metohije Šljukić, S. (2013). Kosovski mit kao kulturna baština: vrednosti i nacionalni , Ur. Šuvaković U. Kosovska • Mitrovica, Beograd: Filozofski fakultet, Kancelarija za Kosovo i Metohiju, 135- 147. International Journal of Press/Politics Wolfsfeld,G, Segev, E. and Sheafer, T. (2013). Social Media and the Arab Spring: Politics Comes First, 18(2), 115-137. Dostupno na http://hij.sagepub.com/content/18/2/115 , Posećeno 1.11.2016.

154 Mirela Karahasanović UDK 316.774:343.326(497.6)

1 Odjsek filozofija-sociologija, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Tuzli, Tuzla, MABosna Amela i Hercegovina Delić

2 Odsjek za žurnalistiku, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Tuzli, Tuzla, Bosna i Hercegovina Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni i Hercegovini

Apstrakt:

U radu analiziramo interpretacije terorizmagorućih na informativnimtema web

portalima u Bosni i Hercegovini. Mediji daju smisao događajima, kreiraju agendu i Stručni rad / Professional article interpretiraju neočekivanosti. Terorizam, kao jedna od današnjie za- služuje duboke i iscrpne interpretacije kako ne bi bila trivijalizovana. Naša polazna hipoteza je da informativni web portali u Bosni i Hercegovini terorizam tipski povezuju sa islamom i muslimanima smještajući ga u kontekst već usvojenih pretspo- stavki i predrasuda. Predmet naše analize bili su web portali: klix.ba, nezavisne. com, avaz.ba i pressrs.ba. Istraživanjem smo obuhvatili 212 tekstova. Iz njih smo metodom kritičketop analize temama diskursa koju daje Teun A. van Dijk, izdvojili ključne elemente novinarskog teksta koji utječu na kreiranje interpretativnih okvira, možemo slobodno reći o današnjice. Pokazalo se da mediji o terorističkim napadima izvještavaju često i površno, da su informacije o žrtvama terorističkih napada na Bliskom Istoku nedovoljne i neprecizne. Novinari često koriste informacije koje dobijaju od izvora bliskih te- rorističkim organizacijama. Medijski prostor rezervisan je uglavnom za zvanične izvore, izjave visokih zvaničnika, ali ne i za žrtve, a terorizam se eksplicitno ili im- plicitno povezuje sa islamom. Time je dokazana i naša polazna pretpostavka o tome da medijiKljučne tipski riječi: povezuju mediji, islam terorizam, i terorizam. islam, napadi, žrtve

1 e-mail: [email protected] 2 e-mail: [email protected] 155 Mirela Karahasanović

Department of Philosophy-Sociology, Faculty of Philosophy, MAUniversity Amela of Delić Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Department of Journalism, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract:

In this paper, we analyze the interpretation of terrorism on the informative web portals in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Media give meaning to events, create an agenda and interpret unexpectedness. Terrorism, as one of the burning issues of today, deserves deep and comprehensive interpretations so as not to be trivialized. Our starting hypothesis is that the information web portals in Bosnia and Herzegovina typically associate terrorism with islam and muslims, placing it in the context of the already adopted preconceptions and prejudices. The subject of our analysis were the web portals klix.ba, nezavisne.com, avaz.ba and pressrs. ba. We conducted research and covered 212 texts. From them we, by the method of critical analysistop of thetopics discourse given by Teun A. van Dijk, allocated the key elements of journalistic text that affect the creation of the interpretative frameworks, we can freely say, of today. It turned out that the media often and superficially reports about terrorist attacks and, that information about the victims of the terrorist attacks in the Middle East is insufficient and inaccurate. Journalists often use information that they receive from sources close to terrorist organisations. Media space is mainly reserved for official sources, the statements of high-ranking officials, but not for the victims, and terrorism is explicitly or implicitly associated with islam. Our starting hypothesis thatKey the words: media media, typically terrorism, connect Islam, terrorism the attacks, and islam the hasvictims been proven.

156 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

Uvod

U „globalnom selu“ (McLuhan) teško je ne biti informisan, ali je istovremeno teš- ko biti i dobro informisan. Teoretičari su već i ranije upozoravali da mediji, pored svojih društveno važnih funkcija imaju i „narkotizirajuću disfunkciju“ (Kunczik, Zipfel 1998:54), te da publiku mogu dovesti u zabludu o dobroj informiranosti na osnovu mnoštva površnih informacija koje joj daju. Na tom tragu je i Fransis Bal kada kaže da „previše informacija ubija informaciju“ (1997:13). Sasvim je prirodno da od medija očekujemo informacije o događajima kojima ne možemo prisustvovati, mada često nismo svjesni da mnoštvo događaja u svijetu ostane „nepokriveno“, jer nije uspjelo da se nametne kao važna tema na medijskoj agendi. Mediji nam nude gotove predstave svijeta i događaja, a čitav proces „opažanja, opisivanja, izvještavanja, i zatim predstavljanja već je obavljen za nas“ (Lippman, 1995:73). No, važno je znati da mediji nisu nezavisni i nepristrasni u svom izvještavanju. Oni su, možda i najviše od svih društvenih podsistema, arena borbe različitih interesa. „Mediji ne opisuju i bilježe događaje u svijetu pasivno, nego ih aktivno (re) konstruišu, uglavnom na temelju više izvora diskursa. Korporativni interesi, vrijednosti vijesti, institucionalna procedura, profesionalna ideologija i formati vijesti igraju važnu ulogu u ovoj transformaciji“ (Van Dijk, 1991:203). Iako nisu slika svijeta, oni su ipak slika svijeta najmoćnijih grupa, koje u skladu sa svojim interesima upravljaju diskursom. Ne potcjenjujući ni u jednom trenutku mogućnost publike da medijske tekstove na svoj način dekodira i interpretira, ipak smatramo da komunikacijski kapital nije ravnopravno raspoređen između medija kao komunikatora i publike (recipijenta). Nažalost, suptilno i sofisticiranim sredstvima, manjina i dalje pokušava i uspijeva nametnuti odgovarajuća viđenja svijeta većini. Mediji ne samo da i dalje postavljaju agendu, oni naime, još uvijek nameću interpretativne okvire (frejmove), putem kojih većina tumači događaje u svijetu. To rade: pristrasnim biranjem tema, pristrasnjim filtiriranjem činjenica, pristrasnim naglašavanjem pojedinih elemenata, pristrasnim smiještanjem događaja u objaš- njavajući kontekst, zadržavanjem rasprave unutar prihvatljivih pretpostavki i pri- strasnom hijerarhizacijom događaja (Herman, Čomski prema Kurtić, 2006:99). Iako se možda u početnim raspravama o internetu činilo da će nas on odvesti u smjeru pluralizacije mišljenja i znatno većeg utjecaja publike na kreiranje mas medijskih sadržaja, te su prognoze ipak bile suviše optimistične. Neosporno je da internet ima veliki potencijal, koga ne iskorištava samo publika. Moćna manjina našla je način da ovlada novim medijem u svrhu ostvarivanja vlastitih interesa. Agenda je i dalje ostala homogena u većini medija, a uprkos njihovom velikom broju, oni baš i ne pružaju neko bogatstvo interpretacija događaja. Drugim riječima, medij se mije- njao, ali suština, sadržaj medijskih tekstova i dalje diktiraju vladajuće elite. A publika novih medija, tzv. „digitalni urođenici“ ili „digitalni imigranti“ (Pren- sky, 2001), nisu izbirljiviji od svojih prethodnika kada je u pitanju kvalitet informacije. Ono po čemu oni vrednuju informacije, samo su njihovi formalni elementi. Istraživanje koje su proveli Robins i Holms (Robins i Holmes) pokazuje da publika157 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

sadržaje u online medijima vrednuje više na osnovu estetskih elemenata, što oni nazivaju „efektom ublažavanja“, pri čemu kvalitetniji estetski izgled stranice pove- ćava njen kredibilitet kod publike. Metodologija

U istraživanju smo se koristili metodom kritičke kvalitativne analize diskursa koju je utemeljio van Dijk (Teun A. van Dijk). Njegovo je stanovište da treba dodatno analizirati sam tekst u medijima – naslove, teme, šemu, stil, retoriku. Jer, upravo se kroz medijski diskurs grade mentalni modeli stvarnosti, nerijetko se utvrđuju pre- drasude, stereotipi i formira mišljenje o drugima. „Svaki narativ može biti podijeljen u dva dijela: priča, tj. ‘šta se desilo i kome’, i diskurs, tj. ‘kako je priča ispričana’“ (Car, 2008:150). Iz diskursa se može doznati koja viđenja svijeta, ideologije i politiku pro- miču mediji. „Šema medijskih izvještaja“ (van Dijk, 1991), podrazumijeva postojanje nekoliko obaveznih elemenata u svakoj vijesti. Prema van Dijku šemu čine naslov, podnaslov, lid, bekgraund (historijski ili historija događaja o kojem pišemo i kontest događaja), verbalna rekcija učesnika u događaju i ponekad, komentar novinara o do- gađaju. Svaki od ovih dijelova šeme može biti i mjesto za manipulaciju, te je samim tim i dobro mjesto za analizu i istraživanje. Ili, kako to zapaža Car „da bi razumjeli medijski narativ, svi dijelovi priče koji su sastavni dio njene konstrukcije moraju biti istraženi“ (Car, 2008:150). Pretpostvke kojima se van Dijk također vodi su da ljudi razumiju vrlo malo od onog što čitaju u medijima te da iz tog razloga možemo govoriti o utjecaju medija na publiku samo u domenu zapamćenih sadržaja, ali i da recipijenti informacije iz medija interpretiraju u skladu sa znanjima koja već imaju o svijetu. Ipak, ono što je možda najvažnije znati iz ove teorije je „da su ti aktivni procesi razumijevanja i pamćenja ugrađeni u društveni, kulturni i politički kontekst“ (van Dijk, 1991:228). Ove pretpostavke o ulozi publike u upotrebi informacija iz masovnih medija donekle su sličnebilo ko s pretpostavkamapristupa medijskim teorije sadržajima, zadovoljenja bilo kada potreba, i bilo premagdje kojoj publika ustvari od medijskih sadržaja uzima ono što je zanima, i to sada po Balovoj 3A formuli – . Zajednička je van Dijkovoj i teoriji zadovoljenja potreba i svijest o postojanju strategija koje publika koristi kada procesuira mas medijske informacije. Recipijenti, dakle, ne analiziraju mas medijske sadržaje sistematično i u cijelosti, nego radije djelimično, „prelijetanjem preko“ naslova, lida i fotografija, tj. onoliko koliko im je dovoljno da razumiju vijest. Pri tome se većina ovih radnji odvija gotovo automatski i paralelno. Pošto mediji moraju, zbog vremenskih i prostornih ograničenja reducirati komplek- sne događaje,isto publika će na osnovu informacija iz medija izgraditi model o novoj si- tuaciji „odnosno, mentalnu predodžbu o akterima, radnjama ili događaju opisanima u tekstu“ ( :230). Praznine koje se pojave u razumijevanju događaja, recipijent će popuniti već postojećim znanjem o sličnim situacijama, zavisno od vlastitog iskustva.158 Uloga medija u ovom procesu ogleda se ponajviše u njihovoj sposobnosti da Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

isto postave agendu, jer na osnovu informacija iz medija „formira se ili aktivira mišljenje o događajima, akterima iz vjesti ili o onome što rade“ ( ). Sve navedene pretpostavke o ulozi publike u tumačenju mas medijske poruke idu u prilog našoj tezi da publika ustvari nije ravnopravan komunikator u ovom procesu. Jedna od ključnih pretpostavki izloženog modela jeste da publika ne fomira mi- šljenje o događaju na osnovu pročitane vijesti, nego da se taj proces odvija kumulativ- no, odnosno mišljenje se formira u procesu čitanja vijesti. Nakon što modeli koje publika razvija na osnovu informacija iz medija postanu uobičajeni i dovoljno apstraktni oni se razvijaju u više apstraktne obrasce, tzv. skripte. Često mogu prerasti i u predra- sude. A značajan je i zaključak da se modeli i skripte često preuzimaju od drugih čla- nova grupe jer „ljudi čitaju ili čuju kako drugi ljudi razumiju ili procjenjujuisto događaje i obično prilagođavaju svoje modele sa modelima drugih, kako bi bili u stanju uspješno komunicirati, ili da bi se osjećali kompetentnim članovima grupe“ ( ), što je ustvari postavka ista onoj koju daje teorija spirale šutnje. Dakle, naše je stanovište da publika ni u kom slučaju nije pasivni primatelj mas medijskih poruka. Ona svakako može vršiti i vrši selekciju, procjenu, interpretaciju. No, svi su ti procesi pod utjecajem medija, a i izbor vijesti iz medija nije pravi izbor zbog činjenice da je neko prije publike izabrao za nju teme koje će uopšte ući u javni diskurs. Pa čak i u slučajevima u kojima nedostajuća objašnjenja u vijesti nadogra- đujemo vlastitim iskustvom, ono je često formirano pod utjecajem medija. Odno- sno, „u zavisnosti od informacija koje smo pročitali ili čuli ili slika koje smo vidjeli na televiziji, mi ćemo razumjeti ili objašnjavati situacije u našem svakodnevnom životu“ (Car, 2008:147). U tom smislu, imamo svijest o mogućnostima publike, ali ne glorifikujemo fenomen aktivnetematske publike. okvire Jer teorija zadovoljenja potreba „zanemaruje mogućnost kumuliranja efekata koji su ideološke premise vremenom usadile u slike, životne stilove i , kao i sposobnost onih koji kontrolišu medije da istražuju i eksperimentišu sa sredstvima za prevazilaženje otpora kod publike“ (Herman, Mc- Chesney, 2004:287). (Ne)mogućnost određenja terorizma i njegovog razumijevanja u medijima

islama Jedan od problema s kojim se današnji svijet susreće, a koji zaokuplja pažnju svih medija i ljudi širom svijeta je pitanje terorizma, i s njim u neraskidivoj vezi . Činjenica da se ova dva pojma u medijima redovno pojavljuju u paru dovoljno je motivirajućaposredovanju za naše istraživanje. Jedna od definicija mas medijske vijesti koja kaže da su one prvi grubi nacrt historije, a možda i njen falsifikat, ukazuje na važnost medija u značenja. Jedinstvena definicija terorizma nije moguća. Shodno tome postavlja se pitanje da li se uopšte može definisati terorizam s obzirom na njegovu praksu koja nije ujednačena, odnosno s obzirom na različite manifestacije terorizma? Ipak, svaku159 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

društvenu pojavu koja posredno ili neposrednoterror, terroris utječe na odvijanje svakodnevnog života čovjeka potrebno je situirati i odrediti na određeni mogući način. Sam pojam teorizam nastao je od latinske riječi ( , a znači jak strah). Da je shvatanje teorizma u 18. i 19. vijeku prevashodno imalo političku konotaciju svjedoči i definicija G. Sorela (Žorž Sorel) francuskog filozofa i teoretičara koja glasi: „Terori- zam je namerna upotreba nasilja sa ciljem da se raširi strah zbog političkih ciljeva“ (Oksfordski filozofski rječnik 1999:429). Endru Hejvud (Andrew Heywood), terorizam definiše na sljedeći način: „Terorizam se, u najširem smislu odnosi na upotrebu terora u ostvarivanju političkih ciljeva; on nastoji da stvori klimu straha i strepnje“ (2005:318). Danas terorizam ima mnogo šire značenje od političkog terora. Skoro da je povezivanje terorizma s religijom preuzelo primat nad njegovim povezivanjem s politikom.opterećuju Stoga da bi razumjeli logiku terorizma, potrebno je najprije da razumijemo logiku vrijednosti koja prati teroristički akt. Vrijednosti koje prate i koje donekle razumijevanje terorizma jesu religijske vrijednosti, te se stoga, terorizam danas razumijeva najčešće u vezi sa onim što se naziva religijski fundamentalizam ili konkretnije islamski fundamentalizam. Tako se terorizam pojavljuje kao metod ostvarenja ciljeva religijskog fundamentalizma. Stajalište da se danas isključivo govori o islamskom fundamentalizmu i da je takav oblik religijskog fundamentalizma jedini izvor sukoba bilo bi jedno- strano. Stjuart Sim (Stuart Sim) smatra da su danas na sceni ne samo islamski fundamentalizam, već i kršćanski i židovski pa i hinduski fundamentalizam, te da je svaki od navedenih oblika prepreka ka normalizaciji odnosa u svijetu. Stoga Sim (2006) postavlja pitanje zašto svi mrze islam?. R. Garaudi (Garaudy) razlog negativnog odnosa Zapada prema islamu prona- lazi u kulturi. Kultura Zapada, razvijajući se iz dva izvora grčko-rimskog i jevrej- sko-kršćanskog, naslijedila je, kako tvrdi Garaudi, „osjećaj svoje izuzetne superi- ornosti“ (2000:141). Zapadna kultura prema Garaudiju jeste etnocentrična, i kao takva usmjerena na samu sebe, vlastite vrijednosti smatrajući ih najboljim i jedinim vijednostima kojim se treba voditi i usmjeravati ljudski život. Na taj način Zapad propagira isključenje svih onihslobodu naroda koji ne slijede ili ne dijele vrijednosti Zapa- da. „Dvije najviše korišćene teme za izazivanje straha i prezira u odnosu na islam jesu one koje se odnoseisto na (to jest na odnose prema prirodi i prema Bogu), izjednačujući islam sa fatalizmom i fanatizmom, osuđujući stav prema ženi i njenoj ulozi u društvu“javnog ( komuniciranja:146). Pitanje slobode pojedinca prema Garaudiju ne može se posmatrati neovisno od sredstava , pa čak ni institucija u čiju korist rade televizija, radio, reklama i drugi mediji.isto „Masovni mediji uzgajaju uvjetne reflekse, stereotipe na polju ljudskih osjećaja, pa čak i političke reakcije mase pripremljene po una- prijed zadatim formulama“ ( ). Implikacija takvog stanja jeste nemogućnost po- jedinačnog aktivizma, anticipacije budućnosti, uopšte otvaranje nove perspektive, jer je struktura iznad čovjeka, ona poprima i ontološki i antropološki status. Stoga su i mediji u ulozi strukture čija poruka treba biti obznanjena i obistinjena. U tom smislu160 bi i kritika medija Melise Rutven (Melisa Ruthven), da mediji promiču sliku Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

islama, gdje je islam isključivo povezan sa terorizmom i fanatizmom, te da su na taj način uopšte „zanemarili humanu i racionalnu stranu islama“ (Sim, 2006), prema Garaudiju bila odraz vladajuće sheme. Vijesti iz medija ponudile su nam „ideju tipa“ (Kurtić, 2006) teroriste. Te ideje tipa ili čak stereotipi su ograničavanje vlastite sposobnosti promišljanja, jer oni sa- drže samo „idealne varalice, idealne neprijatelje, idealne ratoborne šoviniste“ (Li- ppman, 1995:82), pa tako i „idealne teroriste, idealne ekstremiste, idealne izbjegli- ce (Ibid) Iz te perspektive musliman koji se raznese bombom je terorista, ali kršća- nin, hindus, katolik koji ubije naprimjer veliki broj mladih ljudi kao masovni ubica Breivik u Norveškoj, samo je psihički nestabilna osoba. Na taj način nas medijske slike terorizma i islama „štite od zbunjenosti do koje bi došlo pri pokušaju da na svijet gledamo bez kolebanja i da ga vidimo cijelog“ (Lippman, 1995:89). A čini se da je sve počelo 11.9.2001. godine. 9/11 je datum koji je postao plane- tarno poznat, a aludira i na broj hitne službe u Sjedinjenim Državama. „Također se i naziva ‘danom kada se svijet promijenio’, što ga stavlja na mjesto neusporedivo većeg značaja od bilo koje druge katastrofe ili zločina“ (Brown, 2008:3). Slike 11. septembra prenošene su u medijima iz dana u dan, stvarajući tako i onima koji nisu bili lično tu, sliku terora koju neće nikada zaboraviti. Gledali smo iznova rušenje Svjetskog trgo- vinskog centra, ljude kako očajni iskaču kroz prozore, potragu za preživjelim, izjave saučešća zvaničnika širom svijeta, fotografiju bradatog zlikovca – tzv. islamskog teroriste, koji će postati sinonim terorizma. U medijima nije bilo mnogo riječi o tome kako je bilo moguće da se desi jedan takav napad, niti šta je izazvalo tako radikalan potez. Takva prezentacija napada u medijima neraskidivo je povezala islam s terorizmom, i opravdala vojnu intervenciju u Iraku. Ubijanje nevinog stanovništva Iraka u medijima je bilo sve osim toga – ubijanja nevinih ljudi. Umjesto toga, rat je predstavljan kao borba dobra protiv zla, civilizacije protiv varvarizma, zapada protiv zaostalog istoka, demokratskih vrijednosti protiv zaostalosti i neslobode. Slika islama od 11. septembra 2001. godine u medijima postajala je sve uža- snija. To je datum kada je islam zvanično postaoželjno neprijatelj zastrašujućih Zapadu priča i njegovim vrijednostima. „Bilo to pošteno ili ne, na islam se gleda kao na prijetnju zapadnjačkom načinu života, a mediji pronalaze gledateljstvo o mogućim ciljevima Al-Qaide, jedva da prođe i jedan dan bez takvih vijesti“ (Sim, 2006:66). Jedan od značajnih kritičara američke intervencije na Bliski Istok, Hauvard Zin (Howard Zinn), smatra da način na koji se Amerika odlučila da rješava problem terorizma nije prihvatljiv. Taj način je vojno rješenje koje nikako ne doprinosi sta- bilizaciji situacije. Zin čak smatra da Amerika na taj način potpomaže ekspanziju terorizma. Stoga kaže: “Užas terorističkih napada koje smo iskusili 11. rujna nešto je što su narodi ostalih dijelova svijeta Jugoistočna Azija, Irak i Jugoslavija iskusili u našim bombardiranjima i terorizmu kojeg je provodio narod kojega smo mi pot- pomagali i naoružali“ (2003:10). Iz takve prakse moralo bi se zaključiti da vojna in- tervencija ne rješava problem, ona ga dodatno usložnjava. Jedini ispravan i moralan način na koji bi se mogla kriza rješavati jeste upotreba ljudskih kapaciteta i resursa, čovjekovog uma, inteligencije. Odnos prema žrtvama Američke intervencije kraj161- Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

nje je poražavajući. Nebrigu oko broja stradalih potvrđuje i činjenica da Pentagon priznaje da ne zna tačan broj stradalih civila. „Pored toga izvještaji o smrti civilnog stanovništva koji su prošli kroz filter kontrole medija, samo su djelić prave istine“ (Zinn, 2006:11). Ono što možemo naučiti iz događaja 11. septembra prema Zinu jeste „da počnemo misliti o ljudima i njihovim nevoljama u svakomisto dijelu svijeta i šta su sve pretrpjeli. Moramo to gledati jasno i zainteresirano, s tako snažnim emo- cijama kao što smo gledali slike Tornjeva blizanaca na televiziji“ ( :15). Ukratko ne smijemo biti pristrasni, moramo pokazati istu dozu empatije prema žrtvama i njihovim nevoljama bez obzira u kojem dijelu svijeta se nalazili. Prethodna istraživanja

Braun (Brown) je jedan od rijetkih autora koji smatra da se u odnosu prema islamu u svijetu ništa novo nije desilo nakon septembra. On iznosi argumente da su slike o islamu prije 11.9. bile ustvari onakve kakve vidimo u svijetu i medijima danas. To znači da se i prije „prijetnje terorizmom“ islam predstavljao kao „suštinski različit i inferioran, zato što se vjerovalo da je on homogen i neotvoren za promjene, za razliku od kulturne različitosti i napretka koje karakterišu moderni Zapad“ (Brown, 2008:5). Govori o nekoliko ključnih ideja koje se vezuju uz islam: egzotič- nost, fanatizam, delinkvencija i žrtva. Daglas Kelner (Douglas Kellener) smatra da su i terorističke organizacije poput Al Kaide, ali i Džordž Buš iskoristili medije poslije 11.9. za promociju svoje po- litičke agende. „U globalnom medijskom svijetu, ekstravagantni spektakl terora or- kestriran je kako bi se zadobila svjetska pažnja, dramatizovali problemi uključenih grupa, i postigli specifični politički ciljevi“ (Kellner, 2004:3). On je u svojim djelima opisivao američke filmove kao prvi medij u kojem se moglo primjetiti pomjeranje fokusa američkog neprijateljstva sa Sovjetskog saveza na arapski svijet. I to još kra- jem osamdesetih. U svom istraživanju o načinu na koji su teroristički napad u Norveškoj predstavili britanski i hrvatski mediji, Kurtić i Đukić su došli do rezultata koji pokazuju površno izvještavanje s „fokusom na sam razvoj događaja i njegovu analizu“ (Kurtić, Đukić, 2013:14) u hrvatskim medijima, dok su neki britanski mediji (Telegrhaph. co.uk i Guardian.co.uk) imali analitički pristup u izvještavanju o napadu. Autori su također zaključili daisto je uokviravanje vijesti „pod utjecajem, ne samo profesionalnih standarda i normi, već i više ili manje, jasnih interesa različitih ekonomskih i poli- tičkih struktura“ ( :21). Batler je analizirao medijske izvještaje o terorizmu prije i poslije 11.9., te do- šao do zaključka da se riječ terorizam mnogo više koristi nakon septembarskih napada, te da je i frekvencija izvještavanja o ovoj temi mnogo veća. Prije rušenja tornjeva, u New York Times-u, bilo je mnogo više informacija o terorističkoj grupi IRA u Engleskoj, nego o Al Kaidi i drugim terorističkim organizacijama na Bliskom Istoku.162 „Mediji su konstruisali terorizam na takav način da mi konstantno mislimo Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

o njemu kao o opasnosti koja prijeti nama i našoj zemlji“ (Butler, 2015:25). Steuter i Vils (Steuter i Wills) su pak, istraživale na koji način su predstavljeni muslimani i islam u kanadskim medijima nakon 11. septembra. Generalni zaključak je da su „osumnjičeni teroristi, neprijateljska vojska i političke vođe, i u konačnici, cjelokupno stanovništvo, metaforično povezivani sa životinjama, i posebno s plije- nom“ (2009:13). Istražujući koliko mediji pažnje posvećuju terorističkim napadima, Džeter (Jetter) zaključuje da su samoubilački teroristički napadi siguran način da se dobije medijska pažnja, te to dovodi u vezu sa povećanom popularnošću istih među teroristima. Također, i on je došao do rezultata koji pokazuju da mediji u SAD-u (NYT u ovom istraživanju) posvećuju više pažnje terorističkim napadima u SAD, ili bogati- jim državama, te državama u kojima je na vlasti ljevica. Rezultati i diskusija

Portali koji su obuhvaćeni388 ovom analizom su: klix.ba, nezavisne.com, avaz.ba i pressrs.ba. Ukupan broj vijesti o terorizmu ili212 islamu i terorizmu na propraćenim web portalima iznosio je . Međutim, veliki broj42 vijesti isti je na četiri analizirana portala, pa je stvaran broj analiziranih vijesti . U periodu od mjesec dana (8.5 – 8.6.2016.) na web portalima je izvještavano o teroristička napada, koji su se dogodili u Iraku,Turskoj, Siriji, Somaliji, Afganistanu, Nigeriji, Maliju, Jemenu, Ka- zahstanuOdnos prema i Bangladešu. žrtvama

Svaki teroristički čin koji ima žrtve (ubijene ili povrijeđene) ima više šanse da bude predmet novinarske vijesti. Napadi ispunjavaju visoke kriterije vrijednosti vijesti kakvi su značaj, utjecaj i konflikt, a pri tome su bogati i fotografijama ili video snimcima. U istraživanju smo posvetili pažnju odnosu medija prilikom izvještava- nja o žrtvama terorističkih napada. Uočili smo mnogo nepotpunih i nepreciznih informacija o broju žrtava. Ponekad na istom portalu postoji neusaglašenost o broju žrtavaPrimjer: jednog Bagdad te istog jeterorističkog jučer potreslo napada. više bombaških napada u kojima je život izgu- bilo više od 20 ljudi. Najmanje 18 osoba je poginulo, a 32 je povrijeđene u jučerašnjem samoubi- lačkom napadu automobilom bombom koji se dogodio u sjevernom okrugu Bagdada, Tajiu. (Klix, 16.5.)

Čak i kada su u pitanju djeca, ona ne dobijaju dovoljno prostora u medijima. Zin tako kaže da su se u američkim medijima rijetko mogle pronaći infommacije o žrtvama američKih napada na Irak. Te su vijesti bile „tako raspršene da učvršćuju163 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

ideju kako je bombardiranje civila vrlo rijetko, ustvari nesretan slučaj, ili nesretna pogreška“Primjer: (Zinn, Oko 2003:75). 1.200 ljudi, od kojih je svaki deseti dijete, zatočeno je u kasarni Giwa u gradu Maiduguri, gdje ih drže u prljavštini, pretrpanim ćelijama bez dovoljno hrane i vode, a zabranjen im je i pristup pravnoj pomoći ili sudu, izjavio je Amnesty. Oko 150 ljudi, uključujući sedmero male djece i četiri bebe, poginulo je ove godine u kasarni Giwa, tvrdi Amnesty. Uglavnom su podlegli bolestima, gladi, dehi- draciji i ranama od vatrenog oružja. (Avaz, 11.5.)

Kada su žrtve terorističkih napada izvan Evrope ili SAD-a, vidimo da ne dobijaju dovoljno medijske pažnje. Ličnih priča žrtava uopće nema, ne zna se mnogo o njima, njihovom životu, planovima, porodici, osobinama. Do sličnih rezultata došao je i Daud Kutab (Daoud Kuttab), koji je analizirajući način na koji su civili u Iraku predstavljani u medijima napisao: „Smrt iračkih civila ne tretiraju se kao nešto više od statistike“ (2007:879). Na taj način se izbjegava priznavanje odgovornosti i cijelog svijeta za ovakva stradanja. Unutrašnjost stana u kojem jeKada živio je napadač 12.6. u Orlanduiz Orlanda: u terorističkom Star Wars posteljina napadu i Mickeyubijeno Mouse 50 ljudi, kalendar mediji (Klix, su o 14.6.),žrtvama, Ko alisu ibile napadaču žrtve napada detaljno u izvještavali.Orlandu: Menadžeri, Naslovi poput medicinski tehničari, plesači... (Klix, 14.6.)

bili su uobičajeni. Medijski spektakl

Medijski spektakl Daglas Kelner definiše kao događaje koji imaju „estetsku di- menziju, i često su dramatični, povezani sa konkurencijom, kao što je dodjela Oska- ra ili Olimpijske igre“ (2009:1). Pod medijskim spektaklom Kelner podrazumijeva i politički spektakl, spektakl Istoterora i straha, spektakl prirodnih katastrofa, ali i natje- cateljske događaje. Ovakvi događaji su također „komercijalni, vulgarni, blistavi, ali i arena političkih zbivanja“ ( ). Događaji kakav je 11. septembar, afera Klinton-Le- vinski, rat u Iraku, smatraju se primjerima medijskog spektakla. Mnoge su vijesti o terorizmu u praćenim online medijima predstavljene na spek- takularan, filmski, senzacionalan način. Mjesto informacije u hijerarhiji vrijednosti zauzela je fotografija, dramatična naravno, primamljiv naslov, sve to prožeto strahom, a nerijetko i seksualnim konotacijama. Smrt, mučenja, ubistva, i progoni, predstavljeni su Primjer:na jedan DAMASK zanimljiv - Video-snimak i prihvatljiv način. trenutka Ubijanje kada projektilse servira pogađa kao video snajperistu igra. Islam- ske države koga su spazili vojnici u Siriji objavljen je na internetu. (Nezavisne, 11.5.)

Publika je konstantno izložena prijetnjama neprijateljem koji se pojavljuje ni- 164otkud, a opet se može očekivati bilo gdje. Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

Primjer: Dvije torbe ostavljene bez nadzora ispred kuće ministra vanjskih poslova Austrije Sebastiana Kurza, alarmirale su policiju. (Klix, 9.5.). Tijelo Hamze Bin Ladena, koji ima najverovatnije 23 ili 24 godine, nije nađeno nakon racije koju je iz- vršila CIA 2011. godine u Pakistanu kada je trajala potraga za najtraženijim terori- stom. Niko ne zna gdje se on trenutno nalazi, ali pojedini eksperti vjeruju da se nalazi u sjedištu Al Kaide gdje se priprema da jednog dana krene očevim stopama, prenosi “Independent”. (Press, 12.5.)

Terorizam, kao top tema današnjice, spada prema Kelnerovom mišljenju u „megaspektakl“, jer je „dominantno zastupljen u medijima, novinarstvu, internet čavrljanjima, i istaknut i uokviren kao najznačajniji događaj stoljeća“ (2009:5). Ili, kako to zapažaju Katzinfoteinment i Liebes (2007) terorizam je kao jedan od traumatičnih doga- đaja preuzeo primat nad ostalim medijskim događajima. Sa medijskim spektaklom blisko je povezan i – hibridni žanr koji kombinuje informaciju i zabavu. Odlikuje ga predstavljanje politike, rata, i uopće tema od velike važnosti za javnost na zanimljivPrimjer: i Maliprivlačan „pauci način. ID-a” predstavljaju novu vrstu ofanzive, sa kojim se Irak mora boriti. Paralelno sa militantima ID-a, „pauci DAEŠ-a” su ušli u borbu sa stanov- nicima Iraka, kršeći njihov mir, bezbjednost, uništavajući njihove kuće i izbjegličke kampove. (Nezavisne, 11.5.)

Izjednačavanje terorizma sa islamom

U 15 analiziranih vijesti islam se direktno povezuje s terorizmom. To možemo vidjetiPrimjer: u sljedećim Minhen: primjerima. Uz povike “Allahu ekber” nožem ubio jednu i ranio tri osobe (Klix, 10.5.)

Primjer: Neidentifikovani napadač je ubio jednog muškarca i još tri osobe ranio nožem istočno od Minhena, a policija istražuje moguće islamističke veze. (Nezavi- sne, 10.5.). Na ovaj način se islamističke veze poistovjećuju sa terorističkim, pa čak i svaki mogući napad bez obzira na to da li posjeduje elemente terorizma i povezanosti sa islamom uopće.

Primjer: Slovenska policija još ne daje informacije o ovom slučaju, a mediji koji se pozivaju na tršćanski list “Il Piccolo” navode kako je uhićeni osumnjičenik za terorizam 26-godišnji medicinski tehničar iz Kamnika, Rok Žavbi. On je prije više godina prešao na islam, a tijekom 2014. boravio je u Siriji. (Avaz, 9.5.)

Primjer: Prema policiji, Kiguzo Mwangolo Mgutu i Abubakar Jillo Mohammed su se radikalizirali posjećujući džamiju u sirotinjskom naselju u Najrobiju, gdje ih je regrutirao ISIL. (Avaz, 25.5.)

165 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

Primjer: Religijska zatucanost u Saudijskoj Arabiji umalo je života stajala lje- kara koga je upucao suprug žene koju je porodio, piše Independent. (Nezavisne, 27.5.)

Povezivanjem islama sa terorizmom mediji koriste poznatu metaforu zlih „drugih“ koji su nasilni, opasni i prijetnja svim „našim“ vrijednostima. To je već po- znata metoda medijskog konstruiranja neprijatelja, uz nesebičnu pomoć politike. Umjesto da vode računa o posljedicama informacija koje šire, mediji, vjerovatno zbog ekonomskih. Fico: Nismo pritisaka, pogodna ali zemljai neznanja, za muslimane prenose izjave (Nezavisne, političara 25.5.) koje doprinose tabuizaciji islama, a sigurno i služe u sakupljanju poena kod potencijalnih birača. Npr Naše pitanje je zašto u moru izjava nije izabrana neka koja doprinosi premo- šćavanju postojećih tenzija? Možda zbog činjenice da je sam konflikt visoko rangi- rana vrijednost vijesti, ali i zato što privlači pažnju čitalaca i donosi profit, a možda i namjerno u svrhu podržavanja postojeće pretpostavke o nemogućnosti integriranja islama u Zapadnu civilizaciju. No, najvjerovatnije su ovakvi naslovi posljedica svih pomenutih faktora. Uokviravanje ide u smjeru predstavljanja islama i muslimana kao potpuno drugačijih od građana Evrope i Amerike ili općenito Zapada. Sve to doprinosi njihovoj isključenosti i direktno se reflektuje na odnos prema izbjeglicama. Dehumaniza- cija i deindividualizacija muslimana ima svoje posljedice u stvaranju i jačanju predrasuda, stereotipa i diskriminacije, ali i fizičkih napada ili odobravanja nasilja nad muslimanima. „Elizabeth Pool primjećuje da se u medijskoj raspravi o terorizmu, antizapadno nasilje vidi ‘kao nešto što izvire iz islama’“ (Steuter, Wills, 2009:11). Manipulacija kontekstom

Znamo od ranije da se svaki tekst, pa tako i medijski može razumjeti samo uz analiziranje konteksta. Kontekstualizacija u medijima je dobro mjesto za manipulaciju, pošto je samim činjenicama teže manipulisati. Kontekst može da sugeriše objašnjenja događaja, za koje, ustvari i nema dovoljno utemeljenih argumenata. Oslobođenje od konteksta istovremeno je oslobođenje od biti, značenja, sadržaja. Bodrijar o tome kaže: „Kada su stvari, znakovi, radnje oslobođeni svoje ideje, kon- cepta, svoje biti, referencije, svog izvora i kraja, tada počinje samoreprodukcija u beskraj. Stvari se nastavljaju odvijati dok je njihova ideja davno iščeznula. One nastavljaju funkcioniratiloša beskonačnost u posvemašnjoj ravnodušnosti u odnosu na vlastiti sadržaj. A paradoks je u tome da fukcioniraju još bolje“ (2001:166). Samoreprodukcija u beskraj jeste (Hegel), odnosno krivi put do istine. Sve ono što teži oslobođenju od samoga sebe, od svoje ontološke, gnoseološke, antropološke, sociološke dimenzije ujedno se oslobađa samoga sebe, istinitostimedijsko vlastitog zavođenje postoja- nja,može vlastitog biti progresivno utemeljenja. samo Ako ukoliko stvari je funkcionišu besmisleno. i odvijaju se još bolje oslobođajući se vlastitog značenja, smisla, konteksta, to bi moglo značiti da 166 Shodno tome i „televizija pak dje- Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

isto luje u posvemašnjoj ravnodušnosti spram vlastitih slika (one bi se mogle nastaviti nizati čak i uz pretpostavku da čovjeka nestane)“ ( ). Stoga nije isključivo problem u nedostatku konteksta, jer nemoguće je da se stvari uopšte odvijaju bez konteksta. Međutim, problem je u tome što se one odvijaju bez njima pripadajućeg konteksta. To se jasnije uočava na kontekstu fotografije, jer „retko susrećemo fotografije u uslovima u kojima su nastale“ (Šćepanović, 2010:33). Fotografije obično govore za onog u čijem interesu se pojavila, i koji na- meće njeno tumačenjeisto:33 i značenje, „i tako nam se nameće kontekst slike. Za društvo spektakla fotografija je značajna jer može da cirkuliše u kontekstima u kojima nije bila napravljena“ ( ). Uz veliki broj analiziranih vijesti o terorističkim napadima na Bliskom Istoku nisu date fotografije s mjesta događaja, nego fotografije iz arhive ili ilustracije. Već ranije smo rekli da idealni tipovi ne postoje. Međutim, mediji nam nude idealne modele najčešće kroz fotografiju.

Primjer: Nezavisne.com (13.5.)

Ova fotografija je dosljedan primjer idelanog tipa teroriste, u čijem otjelovlje- nju su učestvovali mediji. Ono što određuje teroristu su simboli po kojima je prepo- znatljiv iz medijskog diskrusa. To su fizički izgled (obično brada, kratke nogavice), ime i prezime, zastava, i vjersko obilježje (Kur’an). Bez simbola koji određuju teroristu, on to ne bi ni bio bez obzira na to je li počinio napad. Zamijenimo zastavu IDIL-a nekom drugom, ili svetu knjigu Kur’an nekom drugom. Hoće li ovo i dalje biti terorista? U prilog tezi da neće ide i slučaj terorističkog čina u Njemačkoj, gdje je na autobuskoj stanici napadnuto četvero ljudi. Web portali koje smo pratili pomno su izvještavali o ovom događaju, i to spektakularno iz minute u minutu i do najsitnijih detalja, a onda smo dobili završnu informaciju – nije u pitanju teroristički čin, na- padač je Njemac. Kontekst može da sugeriše objašnjenja događaja s kojim ih recipijent inače ne bi povezaoPrimjer: bez Trump takvog je konteksta.iznio ideju o zabrani ulaska muslimana u SAD nakon pogub- nih napada islamističkih ekstremista u Parizu i Kaliforniji prošle godine, podsjeća britanska agencija. (Klix, 10.5.)

167 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

Primjer: Dijarbakir i okolno područje su posljednjih mjeseci više puta bili meta napada zabranjene Radničke partije Kurdistana (PKK), protiv koje je turska vojska pokrenula nemilosrnu kampanju. (Nezavisne, 10.5.)

Primjer: Za sada niko nije preuzeo odgovornost za ove napade, ali su borci Islamske države samo tokom prošle nedelje izveli napade u okolini Bagdada u kojima je poginulo najmanje 100 ljudi. (Nezavisne, 17.5.). Bez obzira što niko nije preuzeo odgovornost za ove napade, čitatelji će ih opet povezivati sa ISIL-om, jer im mediji to sugerišu.

Izvori informacija

U analiziranim vijestima najviše je zvaničnih izvora informacija poput: portpa- rola, gradonačelnika, raznih državnih službi (policije, granične službe) i institucija, medicinskih i vojnih izvora informacija, a najčešće i samih političkih lidera. Veliki dio vijesti nema uopće izvora informacija, ili je izvor nepoznata osoba, neimeno- vana osoba (neimenovani zvaničnici, policijski izvori). Najmanje je vijesti u kojima su izvor informacije direktno žrtve. Mnogo je vijesti u kojima su izvori informacija novinske agencije ili mediji koje uređuju terorističke organizacije nrp: Mediacentar Patriotskog saveza Kurdistana, saopštenje talibana, twitter postovi osoba koje pri- jete terorističkim napadima, novinska agencija AMAK (za koju sami mediji tvrde da je bliskaPrimjer: tzv. Islamskoj BAGDAD državi).- Islamska država pozvala je sljedbenike na napade u SAD i Evropi tokom svetog mjeseca ramazana, koji počinje u junu. Na audio-snimku, koji je juče postavljen na “tviter” nalozima koje koristi “Islamska država”, portparol isla- mista Abu Mohamed al-Adnani predlaže napade na vojne i civilne ciljeve. “Ramazan je mjesec osvajanja. Pripremite se, budite spremni, tako da to bude mjesec nesreće za nevjernike gdje god da su”, kaže on. Autentičnost audio-snimka nije potvrđena. (Nezavisne, 22.5.)

Primjer: Vašington - Novi broj Al Kaidinog magazina poziva džihadiste da unište američku ekonomiju tako što će ubiti vodeće biznismene i preduzetnike, prenosi Foks njuz. Naime, članak u „Inspajeru” poziva „profesionalne ubice” i prikazuje fotografiju muškarca s navučenom kapuljačom kako s ulice gleda na kuću. Takođe, prikazuje i fo- to-montažu na kojoj je Bil Gejts, pištolj i prolivena krv, piše Vašington tajms. Neprofit- na organizacija Bliskoistočni institut za medije, koja posjeduje primjerak magazina, tvrdi kako u njemu pišu detalji o pripremama i izvršenju ciljanih ubistava. Citiraju urednika „Inspajera” Jahja Ibrahima kako govori: „Prorok je naredio ubistvo mnogih kriminalaca koristeći ovu metodu… A mi slijedimo njegove korake i način na koji se borio sa svojim neprijateljima i prijateljima. Nikada nećemo odložiti oružje dok ne ispunimo ono što Alah traži od nas”. (Nezavisne, 18.5.)

168 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

Osim medija i političara, i teroristi imaju koristi od medijskih izvještaja, jer upravo je pažnja javnosti ono što im pomaže da je plaše. Moguće je da se svjetski zva- ničnici također osjećaju obaveznim da reaguju na terorističke napada kada su oni zastupljeniji u medijima. Tako, teroristi uspjevaju dobiti i pažnju političara, a u svemu im kao dodatna pomoć služe novi mediji. „Meteorski uspon društvenih medija je do- zvolio radikalnim grupama i teroristima da slobodno šire ideje na više načina, uklju- čujući web stranice, blogove, društvene mreže, forume i videosharingisto usluge“ (Jetter, 2014:14). Možemo se složiti i s konstatacijom koju daje Džeter kada kaže da mediji služe kao „platforma za promovisanje dnevnog reda terorista“ ( :2). Pristrasnost u izvještavanju može se prepoznati i u načinu na koji se biraju sago- vornici. Treba obratiti pažnju i na pitanja: „Ko govori, koliko često i koliko istaknuto i šta komentariše?“ (van Dijk, 1991:151). Odgovori na ova pitanja u rukama su novinara, a samim tim i pod utjecajem njihovih mentalnih modela, ideologije, politike, ekonomije, ukratko, moći. A čak ni izjave takvih pojedinaca često se u medijima ne prenose u potpunosti zbog prostornih i vremenskih ograničenja novinarstva, što samim tim obavezuje novinara na selekciju, skraćivanje, parafraziranje, pojednostavljivanje. Uz brojne funkcije koje imaju, citati često mogu poslužiti i za „umetanjeisto subjektiv- nih interpretacija, objašnjenja, ili mišljenja o trenutnim novostima, a da se pri tome ne prekrši ideološko pravilo razdvajanja mišljenja od činjenica“ ( :152). Ideološka pristrasnost u medijskim izvještajima može se prepoznati i u biranju sagovornika. O islamu, terorizmu, slijedno tome i izbjeglicama najčešće govore političari, borci za ljudska prava, i uglavnom svi osim onih kojih se taj problem najviše tiče. Što se izvora informacija tiče, naglasili bi još da je u vijestima uglavnom zastupljen jedan, umjesto propisanih tri izvora informacija. Često novinar nema niti jedan izvor informacija, pa se cijela vijest temelji na izjavi nekog političara koju nije izvorno dao za taj medij. Naj- zastupljenije izjave u tekstu su upravo izjave političara, najčešće onih kontroverznih, što je opet jedna vrsta infoteinmenta jer javnost uglavnom nije ravnodušna spram političara kakav je Donald Trump ili Vladimir Putin. Često su i naslovi temeljeni na ovakvimPrimjeri: izjavama, koje plijene pažnju i ne ostavljaju vas ravnodušnim. Putin: Ujedinite se protiv terorista (Pressrs, 9.5.) Trump: Zabranio bih ulazak muslimanima, ali Sadik Khan bi bio izuzetak (Klix,9.5.) Erdogan: Turska je ubila 2000 boraca IDIL-a u Siriji (Klix, 11.5.) Trump: Sprema se novi 11. septembar (Klix, 11.5.)

Apstraktnost

Kada izvještavaju o terorističkim napadima mediji često izvještavaju na viso- kom stupnju apstraktnosti, te nam iz teksta nije jasno šta se ustvari desilo. Publika je ionako preplašena i zbunjena, a za medijima i poseže kako bi razriješila svoju neizvjesnost. Međutim, sa ovakvim informacijama, publika ne da ne dobija jasnu predodžbu događaja, nego se i dodatno zbunjuje. 169 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

Primjer: Na osnovu njega (plana), vlada će uspostaviti centre za rehabilitaciju za žrtve radikalizacije u svakoj od 13 regija u zemlji do kraja 2017. (Klix, 9.5.) Primjer: Ken Heidenreich, glasnogovornik tužioca u Minhenu kazao je da je na- padač “dao politički motivisane komentare” tokom napada, u kojem su ranjene četiri osobe, od kojih je jedna preminula. (Klix, 10.5.)

Napadač je ustvari, kako mediji prenose, prilikom napada izgovarao tekbir, iako nije musliman. To mnogo govori o zloupotrebi islama, ali treba tražiti i korije- ne tom problemu. Zaljučak

U ovom radu bavili smo se analizom vijesti na četiri informativna web portala u Bosni i Hercegovini – klix.ba, nezavisne.com, avaz.ba i pressrs.ba. Mjesec dana pratili smo kako ovi mediji izvještavaju o terorizmu i islamu. Na osnovu prikupljenih poda- taka iz 212 tekstova zaključili smo da mediji često izjednačavaju terorizam sa islamom. To rade na senzacionalistički način, sa provokativnim naslovima, zastrašujućim i stereotipnim fotografijama,infoteinmenta te video snimcima koji podsjećaju na ratne video igrice. Terorizam je u tom smislu najveći medijski spektakl našeg vremena. U tom bu- nilu spektakla, i senzacije, mediji idu toliko daleko da se odlučuju za izvore informacije koji su u bliskoj vezi sa teroristima, a ponekad su izvori informacija i teroristi sami. To je ustvari potpuno apsurdno i neprofesionalno jer od medija čini saučesnike u teroru, a cilj terorizma i jeste sijanje straha među velikim brojem ljudi. Radikalne grupe su iskoristile medije za svoje potrebe. I ne samo radikalne grupe, nego i radikalni, kontroverzni političari, od čijih izjava se prave vijesti. Nažalost, te izjave ne služe napretku u međuljudskim odnosima i poštivanju drugih i drugačijih. S druge strane, izjava žrtava terorističkih napada skoro da i nema. Oni su potpuno marginalizovani i svedeni na broj. Pa čak ni taj broj ponekad nije precizan niti istovjetan na svim portalima, što pokazuje nemaran odnos prema žrtvama. Tako- đer, skoro nikada ne viđamo njihove fotografije, a nismo čitali o njihovim sudbina- ma i životima prije nego su ubijeni, povrijeđeni ili protjerani. Pomenuti mediji često manipulišu kontekstom, fotografijom i izjavama, kako bi dobili vijest koja će uplašiti i privući što više čitatelja. Teroristički napadi o kojima mediji izvještavaju često su predstavljeni apstraktno, i čitateljima nije jasno ko je počinilac zločina, ni koji su njegovi motivi za isti. Općenito, izvještavanje o terorizmu na četiri analizirana web portala ne odvija se po pravilima novinarske profesije, nije nepristrasno, nije utemeljeno na relevantnim i svim dostupnim činjenicama, izvori informacija nisu relevantni ni reprezentativni, brojem žrtava i kontekstom se manipuliše. Mediji su kreirali idealni tip terorističkog čina u koji pokušavaju „utrpati“ činjenice do kojih dolaze. A pitanje je da li uopće i tragaju za činjenicama koje se kose sa preferiranim razmišljanjima o terorizmu. Na osnovu ovako dobijenih informacija, čitatelji nemaju potpunu i jasnu sliku o170 jednoj od najkompleksnijih i najvažnijih pojava današnjice. Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Medijske interpretacija terorizma na web portalima u Bosni...

Literatura:

• Moć medija • Simulacija i zbilja, • Bal, F. (1997). , CLIO Beograd. • Baudriilard, J. (2001).Local media representations Jesenski iof Turk Islam Zagreb. before 9/11 Blekburn, S. (1999). Oksfordski filozofski rečnik, Svetovi, Novi Sad. Brown, D. M. (2008). , U: Ma- • jority cultures andThe the Media everyday Construction politics of Terrorismethnic difference: Pre and Post-9/11whose house is this? Palgrave Macmillan Ltd., Basingstoke, United Kingdom, str. 188-205. • Butler, T. (2015).Myths in Media Text , Jour- nal of Undergraduate Research Lebanon. • Car, V. (2008). , Medianali, Vol. 2, No. 4, Sveučilište u • Dubrovniku, str. 145-165.Živi islam • Dimitrijević, V. (1982). Terorizam, Radnička štampa Beograd. Garaudy, R. (2000). , El Kalem Sarajevo. • Hejvud, E. (2005). Političke ideologije,Globalni Zavod mediji za udžbenike i nastavnaInformation sredst- Processingva, Beograd. and Management • Herman, E., McChesney,Terrorism R. (2004). and the Media , CLIO Beograd. 44 (1): 386-399. • Jetter, M. (2014). , Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor. Katz, E., Liebes, T. (2007). “’No More Peace!’: How Disaster, Terror and War • have Upstaged Media9/11, Events”, spectacles Dostupno of terror, na: http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/and media manipulation: A cri- article/view/44/23tique of Jihadist and Bush media politics. Critical Discourse Studies, 1 Kellner, D. (2004). (1), str. • 41-64. Online: https://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/essays/911terrMedia Spectacle and Media Events: Some Critical Reflections,- orspectaclemedia.pdf Kellner, D. (2009). • Dostupno na: https://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/essays/2009_Uvod u publicističku znanost i komunikologiju Kellner_MediaEventsJulyFINAL.pdf • Kunczik, M., Zipfel,Kod A. novinarstva(1998). , • Zaklada Friedrich Ebert Ured uKomparativna Zagrebu. analiza izvještavanaj o teroris- tičkomKurtić, N.napadu (2006). u Norveškoj na hrvatskim, MediaPlan i internet institut, portalima Sarajevo. Velike Britanije Kurtić, N., Đukić, M. (2013). • The media and Iraq: A blood bath for and gross dehumaniza-, Medianali,tion of Iraqis Vol. 7, No. 14, Sveučilište u Dubovniku, str. 1-23. • Kuttab, D. (2007). Aesthetics and credibility in website design • , International Review of the Red Cross 89(868), 879-891. Robins, D., Holmes, J. (2008). , Sim, S. (2006). Svijet fundamentalizma, Planetopija, Zagreb. 171 Mirela Karahasanović, MA Amela Delić Media interpretations of terrorism on web portals in Bosnia...

• Discourses of Dehumanization: Enemy Con- struction and Canadian Media Complicity in the Framing of the War on Terror Steuter, E., Deborah, W. (2009). • Medijski spektakl i destrukcija: estetika destrukcije i, spektakularizacijaGlobal Media Journal stvarnosti -- Canadian - 11. Edition, septembar Vol. kao2, str. medijski 7-24. fenomen Šćepanović, V. (2010). • Racism and the Press, , Službeni • glasnik Beograd. Media Attention to Terrorist Attacks: Causes and Conse- quence,Van Dijk, T.A. (1991). Routledge, London and New York. Walsh, J.I. (2010). • Institute for HomelandNew Terrorism Security and Solution, New Media Dostupno na: http://sites. duke.edu/ihss/files/2011/12/IHSS_Research-Brief_Walsh.pdf • Weimann, G. (2014).Terorizam i rat , Washington, DC: Com- mons Lab of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Zinn, H. (2003). , Prometej Zagreb.

172 Prikaz knjige UDK 316.774 (Book review)

dr Tanja Grmuša, Katedra za komunikacije, Visoka poslovna škola Zagreb, Zagreb, Republika Hrvatska predavač

MEDIJI I JAVNI INTERES Zbornik radova 6. regionalne konferencije "Vjerodostojnost medija" Prikaz knjige / Book review

ur. Viktorija Car, Marijana Matović, Lejla Turčilo Fakultet političkih znanosti i HannsSeidelStiftung, 2016., 175 str.

ISBN 978-953-95835-4-3 (Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung) ISBN 978-953-6457-91-5 (Fakultet političkih znanosti Sveučilišta u Zagrebu)

Medijski je sadržaj na prostoru bivše Jugoslavije u središtu kritičkih rasprava akademske zajednice i javnosti, ponajviše zbog utjecaja različitih interesnih skupina, ali i loše upravljačke strukture. Stoga se tražiMediji odgovor i javni na interes pitanjeu izdanju‘’kakve medije želimo i trebamo’’ (2016: 1), ističe se u predgovoru zbornika radova šeste regionalne konferencije ‹’Vjerodostojnost medija’’ dijela;Fakulteta Mediji političkih i javni interes, znanosti Mediji, Sveučilišta javnost u i Zagrebulokalna zajednica, i HannsSeidelStiftunga, Obrazovanje novinara koji su uredilete Istraživanja: Viktorija mediji, Car, Marijanajavnost Matović i Lejla Turčilo. Zbornik je podijeljen u tri Ispunjavanje javnog interesa u središtu je rasprava o medijskom djelovanju, a i država. ‘’Me- diji i javni interes: ogled na primeru Srbije’’ tu sintagmu koriste i ostali društveni akteri, ističe MiroljubRadojković u radu . Javni je interes marginaliziran u ideolo- nigiji novinarski neoliberalnog standard. kapitalizma koja promiče privatni interes i profit, ističe autor, a njegovo zagovaranje predstavlja tek normativan zahtjev, rado prihvaćen kao temelj-

U posljednje se vrijeme sve više govori ‘’Medijitrećego medijima tzv. sektora: trećeg sektorakonceptualizacija kojima se pridaju različiti označitelji – alternativni, radikalni, kritički, neprofitni mediji (2016, 20) o čemu govori Helena Popović u radu 173 i društveni kontekst njihovog djelovanja’’

. Stoga se mediji trećeg sektora, nazivani i medijima civilnog društva, ističu kao sredstvo za pokretanje društvenih promjena i kreiranje alternativnih javnosti, ali i kao alat za izgradnju socijalnog kapitala, ističe kaoautorica teorijski donoseći koncept pregled da bi njihova se tek razvojakasnije u s Hrvatskoj. demokratskim promjenama prenio u Pojam mediji civilnog sektora u Srbiji je na snazi ‘’Medijiod 1993. civilnog godine društva isključivo kao neiskorišćena šansa za transformaciju lokalnih medija u Srbiji: perspektive medijskih poslenika’’.praksu, ističu Brankica Drašković i Jelena Kleut u radu

Ispitujući stavove medijskih profesionalaca o medijima civilnog druš- tva, javnom interesu i projektnom financiranju,autorice su utvrdile kako su mediji civilnog sektora i dalje nejasan pojam za većinu ispitanika, koji su pokazali i nepo- znavanje medijske regulative o osnivanju istih,a percepcija uloge medijskih profesionalaca i građana u radu tog medija opterećena‘’Community je predrasudama. radio: razvoj i perspektive neprofitnihRazvoju trećeg medija’’ medijskog sektora u EU prethodile su prilagodbe pojedinih zemalja članica, ističe Marina Mučalo u radu , donoseći povijesni pregled razvoja ovog tipa radija u EU i SAD-u. Trivijalizacija sadržaja i tzv. formatirani radio obilježja su aktualne radijske scene u Hrvatskoj, na štetu informativnosti i radiofoničnosti, ističe Mučalo, dodaju- ći potrebu za uspostavom trećeg medijskog sektora po uzoru na pojedine zapadno- europske zemlje (Francuska, Danska, Nizozemska), pri čemu je ključna interakcija s (lokalnom) zajednicom, ali i politička volja. Specijalizacija prema lokalnoj‘’Lokalni publici onlinenameće mediji se kao i utjecaj jedan lokalne od poželjnih politike po na- primjeruslovnih modela, Dubrovnika’’ budući da takvi mediji mogu povećati vrijednost kroz lokalni sa- držaj, ističe Mato Brautoviću radu . Analizirajući dvanaest dubrovačkih lokalnih medija, Brau- tović je utvrdio snažan utjecaj lokalne i regionalne samouprave kroz oglašavanje i sponzorstva, ali i neodrživost poslovnog modela. Istodobno, ističe se problematič- na vlasnička struktura, a zamjetna je i medijska pristranost. ‘’Izazovi obrazovanja novinaraZa strukturalne u BiH: zašto promjene nam jevažan potrebna je dijalog promjena akademske pristupa?’’ zajednice. Medijska i medijskih scena u profesionalaca, naglašavaju Lejla Turčilo i Seid Masnica u radu

BiH neuređeno je tržište, čiji je normativni okvir donesen pod patronatom među- narodne zajednice, a obilježja publike pod utjecajem su etničkog zaleđa. Ispitivanje stavova studenata i medijskih praktičara pokazalo je kako obje skupine ističu nedostatak prakse u obrazovnim programima. Stoga je ključna promjena pristupa za jačanje neformalne edukacije, samorazvoja i kompetencija, što je zapostavljeno u poslijeratnoj BiH, a može doprinijeti ispunjavanju društvene uloge medija, zaklju- čuju autori. Stupanj medijskih sloboda pokazatelj je razvoja demokratske‘’Stavovi građanki kulture iu građa druš- natvu, Beograda a Srbija oje odnosu jedna državeod triju i medija’’zemalja zapadnog Balkana s tendencijom njihovog pada, upozoravaju Marijana Matović i Nikola Jović u radu . Mediji u Srbiji pod utjecajem su ekonomskih i174 političkih interesa, a prisutan je i visoki stupanj klijentelizma, što se odražava i na povjerenje građana u medije. Također, pokazalo se kako nema prostora za kriti- uloga.ku, kao ni za pregovaranje o društvenim vrijednostima u medijima, čime novinari bivaju gubitnicima tranzicije, budući da im je onemogućeno ispunjavanje njihovih

Sve temeljne funkcije medija može‘’Transformacija ispuniti javni medijski javnih RTV servis, sistema ali se u morajavne medijskeprilagoditi servise: konvergentnom analiza web okruženju portala javnih i zahtjevima RTV servisa digitalnog u BiH’’. doba, ističu ZafraHr- njićKuduzović i Asim Šahinpašić u radu Analiza četiriju online portala javnih servisa usmjerena na sljedeće elemente: multimedijalnost portala, njihovu interaktivnost te participaciju korisnika, linearnost i specijaliziranost, pokazala je nedovoljnu prilagođenost digitalnom okruženju, što je i posljedica‘’Manipulaci kaš- njenjaja u medijskom provedbe diskursu: digitalne kritička strategije analiza javnih diskursa RTV servisa naslova u BiH. najposjećenijih hrvatskih onlineInternetski medija o hrvatskoj portali u predsjednicisredištu su analize Kolindi IvaneGrabar Vrtič Kitarović’’. i Viktorije Car

Polazeći od naslova, kojekoji imajuupotrebljavaju agitativnu novinari i promotivnu i urednici funkciju u izvještavanju u privlačenju o predsjednici pažnje konzumenata, Grabar Kita te pojma manipulacije u medijskom diskursu, autorice su analizirale jezične izbore - rović. Uočeno oslovljavanje hrvatske predsjednice imenom potvrda je tabloidizacije u hrvatskim medijima, te odnosa prema ženama u društvu i medijima, ističu autorice, Zbornikdodajući radova kakoupotreba’’Mediji i zamjenicejavni interes’’ ‘ona’ doprinosi polarizaciji između aktera izvještaja, ali iudruštvu, kao i metaforički prikaz rata na relaciji lijevi – desni. progovara o različitim aspektima ispu- njavanja društvenih funkcija medija, među kojima je i osiguravanje javnog interesa, ali i manipuliranje istim.Stoga je nezaobilazni priručnik namijenjen studentima novinarstva, komunikologije i odnosa s javnošću, kako bi razumjeli utjecaj globalnih medijskih trendova u kontekstu regionalnih medijskih sustava, kao i medijskim praktičarima, identificirajući probleme s kojima se mnogi od njih susreću, a sve s ciljem jačanja percepcije uloge medija kao rješenja društvenih problema i pokreta- ča pozitivnih promjena.

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Prikaz knjige UDK 316.774:070(494) (Book review)

mr Dragić Rabrenović, direktor

Lokalni javni emiter Radio Bijelo Polje GOSPODARI MEDIJA

Marcello Foa Gli stregoni della notizia - Prikaz knjige / Book review Autor: Marčelo Foa Naslov originala:

Izdavač CLIO - Beograd2017 Preveo sa italijanskog Marin Pavić Godina978-86-7102-558-4 izdanja:

ISBN:

Dugogodišnji italijanski novinar i predavač novinarstva u Švajcarskoj Marčelo Foa (Marcello Foa) u novoj knjizi, koja je premijerno predstavljena u oktobru 2017. godine na Međunarodnom sajmu knjiga u Beogradu, pod nazivom Gospodari medija - spin doktori i manipulacija javnošću u službi vlasti, bavi se ovim fenomenom koji sve više zaokuplja pažnju teoretičara, ali i javnosti. Iako eksperti za propagandu i manipulaciju koriste medije kao sredstva od njihovog nastanka čini se da je danas posebno značajno analizirati ovu problematiku. Jedan od razloga je medijamorfoza koja se odvija u sadašnjem vremenu, odnosno pojava i dominacija novih medija i opstanak tradicionalnih. Poznati su gospodarima medija moć i mogućnosti koje imaju novine, radio i televizija, koristili su ih i dalje ih koriste, ali su svom arsena- lu pridodali i onlajn medije, a posebno društvene mreže, zbog čega je neophodno skrenuti pažnju javnosti na spin doktore koji svoju djelatnost neprestano usavršav- aju koristeći sofisticiranije tehnike. Marčelo Foa je knjigu je podijelio na sedam poglavlja uz uvod, zaključak i dodatak drugom dopunjenom izdanju. Iz razloga upoznavanja sa ovim fenomenom dao je istorijski prikaz razvoja spina od Bernajsa do danas. Stoga se uvodno poglavlje ‘’Istorijski koreni spina’’ nastavlja podnaslovom ‘’Sto godina ubeđivanja, ne uvek u skladu sa etičkim normama’’. Autor je nastojao da kroz prikaz događaja koji su obilježili prethodne decenije poput pitanja Votergjet i Vijetnam, kao i da kroz177 eksperata za manipulaciju posredstvom medija. analizu uticaja Holivuda i Pentagona ukaže na ulogu medijskih eksperata, odnosno

Naredno poglavlje je posvećeno principima uticanja na medije koje se kako nekada, po shvatanju Majkla Devera eksperta za imidž predsjednika SAD Ronalda Regana, tako i danas zasniva na principu 1. Kontrola protoka informacija; 2. Plani- periodranja svih nije vrsta promijenila komunikacija, autorov 3. stav Valorizovanje da razmotri predsjednikovog druge principe uticanjaimidža (odnosno na medi imidža onoga ko vas je angažovao). Sama činjenica da je prošao značajan vremenski razliku od diktatura, gdje je pribjegava cenzuri, u demokratijama se zapravo radi o- je. Međutim, Foa primjećuje da se, kada je riječ o kontroli protoka informacija za tzv. izboru vijesti. Ne treba posebno pojašnjavati značaj i ulogu eksperata, odnosno spin doktora koji se u tom slučaju aktiviraju. Nakon opsežne analize principa kroz niz primjera u više podnaslova autor dolazi do pitanja ko su ti ‘’spin doktori’’, odnosno ‘’gospodari medija’’? Tako se u trećem poglavlju bazira na zvanične ili službene spin doktore, odnosno agencije za odnose sa javnošću i privatne koje su u službi pojedinih vlada. Pri čemu se kao posebno poglavlje tretiraju primjeri iz Velike Britanije, nakon čega je peto poglavlje naslovljeno pitanjem ‘’Da li je unosno biti „mag informisanja“?’’ u kome nastoji da pruži odgovor kroz primjere iz prakse uvidom u dešavanja vezana za Buša, Klintona i Blera. Posljednja dva poglavlja su takođe posvećena primjerima koji su poznati svjet- skoj javnosti, Prvi se odnosi na rat u Iraku, sa podnaslovom ‘’sjaj i beda spin dokto- zemljera’’, dok Zapada, se drugi a posebnogeografski se vežetretira za ievropski spin izvan kontinent Zapada. pod naslovom „Inficirana“ Evropa u kome se obrađuju Švajcarska, Italija, Njemačka, Francuska i Švedska kao za dodatak koji je nastao nakon deset godina od pojave prvog izdanja ove knjige, jer Iako je po okončanju ovih sedam poglavlja Foa ponudio i zaključak odlučio se i je zaključio da tema uloge spin doktora u manipulaciji medijima postaje sve aktuel- nija. Kako bi to potvrdio razmatra nekoliko značajnih podnaslova i to Informisanje i totalni rat, Epidemološka upozorenja: baš svako je kredibilno; Otpor!Obuka i transformacija; Islamska država i uznemirujući snimci tako savršeni da izgledaju isti- niti; Nisu radili svoj posao 2013 (o slučaju Sirije); Sve više spina kako bi se zaveli birači - od Rencija do Obame; Obamina izdaja; Skriveno lice društvenih mreža. Upravo posljednje pitanje zbog koga smo na početku napomenuli da je ne- spinaophodna sve dodatnaviše širi ianaliza da postoje uloge razlozi gospodara za veliku medija zabrinutost. u savremenom Ipak, smatra društvu da jepostoje osta- vljeno za sam kraj ove studije. I ne samo to Marčelo Foa zaključuje da se fenomen i neki ohrabrujući znaci. ‘’Spin, manipulacije, eksperimenti socijalnog inženjeringa i psihološka uslovljavanja nisu uspeli da pobede građansku svest. Naprotiv’’ (Foa, 2017: 286). Ovaj autor, nakon opsežne analize upotrebe medija u svrhe različitih propagandnih kampanja, manipulacije javnošću dolazi do predviđanja da je za to zaslužan internet, koji iako budi sjećanja na Orvelovska predviđanja, postaje moćna poluga178 slobodnog informisanja. ‘’Internet je umanjio značaj tradicionalnih medija i omogućio širenje informacija, analiza i vizija koje do tada nisu uspevale da nađu mesta u najuticajnijim dnevnim listovima i u programima velikih televizijskih kuća’’ (Foa, 2017: 287). Ovakva predviđanja mogu da ohrabre javnost, ali istovremeno i da upozore te- oretičare da se posvete proučavanju fenomena novih medija koji su takođe predmet pažnje i proučavanja stručnjaka za odnose sa javnošću najčešće u službi raziličitih gospodara. Stoga je neophodna analiza svakodnevnog uticaja i mogućih manipulacija posredstvom društvenih mreža i veb portala, kao i istraživanje o pozitivnim i negativnim karakteristikama građanskog novinarstva. U tu svrhu ova knjiga je izu- zetan temelj na osnovu koga se može bazirati dalji naučni rad. Osim toga kroz teo- rijskaZbog gledišta svega i brojne navedenog primjere ne treba iz svijeta posebno stvorena isticati je dasinteza je knjiga koja Gospodari na sveobuhvatan medija način tretira ovu izuzeto važnu oblast za pitanja proučavanja medija i komunikacija. izuzetno korisna literatura studentima novinarstva i medija koji će ući u svijet spi- novanja i manipulacija, kao i novinarima i urednicima koji su svakodnevno suočeni sa ovim problemima a da često nijesu ni svijesni toga. Takođe, iako prilazi ovom problemu sa jedne strane medalje, knjiga je izuzetna studija koja može koristiti i političarima, a posebno stručnjacima za odnose s medijima i odnose s javnošću.

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Uputstvo autorima

Media and Communication / Mediji i komunikacije je

međunarodni naučni časopis za medije, komunikacije, novinarstvo i odnose s javnošću.

U časopisu se objavljuju naučni, stručni, pregledni, prevedeni radovi, prikazi knjiga i izvorni istraživački radovi iz društvenih i humanističkih nauka - iz oblasti medija, komunikacija, novinarstva i odnosa s javnošću. Prihvataju se isključivo originalni radovi koji nijesu i neće biti objavljivani u drugim publikacijama što garantuje autor osim prema posebnom dogovoru s izda- vačem časopisa. Izdavač zadržava prava na objavljene radove, osim ako se drugačije ne dogovori s autorom. U časopisu će biti objavljivani radovi na exYu jezicima ili na engleskom, koji su potvrđeni sa dvije anonimne pozitivne recenzije međunarodnih medijskih stručnjaka. Maksimalni obim originalnih naučnih i preglednih radova je do 7000 riječi, stručnih i prevedenih radova do 3000 riječi, prikaza do 1000 riječi. Prva stranica treba da sadrži osnovne podatke o autoru i koautorima i to: ime i prezime, naučno zvanje i funkcija koju obavlja, naziv institucije i e-mail. Za radove koji potiču iz doktorske disertacije, magistarske teze ili istraživačkih projekata u fusnoti treba navesti naziv, mjesto i fakultet na kojem je odbranjena, odnosno naziv programa u okviru koga je rad nastao, kao i naziv institucije koja je finansirala projekat.Kriterijumi za pripremu rada

Strukturu rada čine naslov, apstrakt (sa prevodom na engleski), uvod, podna- slovi, zaključak, literatura. Font rada je Times New Roman, veličine 12, proreda Single. Apstrakt dužine do 300 riječi sa najviše pet ključnih riječi, sadrži predmet i cilj rada, hipoteze, metode, rezultate i zaključke. Fusnote se koriste na dnu svake strane za dodatne komentare i numerišu se kontinuirano arapskim brojevima. Fotografije, grafikoni, tabele i ostali prilozi moraju imati redni broj, naslov i objašnjenjaSistem citiranja oznaka. u Ilustracije tekstu treba obilježiti i dostaviti i kao posebne dokumente.

U tekstu treba citirati sve izvore korištenjem harvardskog sistema citiranja - prezime autora, godina izdanja i broj stranice, pismom kojim je štampan izvor na koji se poziva: Primjer: (Strit, 2003:25); (Street, 2003:25). Za parafraziranje u tekstu koristiti prezime autora i godinu izdanja, na primjer (Kelner, 2004). 181 Kod prvog navođenja stranih imena, iza imena u zagradi staviti ime u originalu uz godinu publikovanja rada, npr. Bojd (Boyd, 2002), a potom imena pisati transkri- bovana.Popis literature Svaki citat treba da bude sa znakovima navoda na početku i na kraju citata.

Za popis literature koristiti harvardski sistem navođenja i to: prezime, prvo slovo imena autora/urednika (godinu izdanja). Naslov djela (kurziv). Mjesto izdavanja: Izdavač. Primjer: Dwyer, T. (2010). Media Convergence. Berkshire: Open University Press. Za tekst na internet stranici navesti: prezime i prvo slovo imena autora, godina objavljivanja teksta (ili godina postavljanja teksta na internet stranicu), naslov i podnaslov teksta (kurziv), internet adresa, datum posjete. Primjer: Raboy, M. (2002). Rethinking Broadcasting Policy in a Global Media Environment, http://ripeat.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/raboy.pdf, Posje- ćeno 20.12.2013. NačinU popisudostavljanja literature rada se navode samo citirana djela posložena abecednim redom.

OstaleRadovi informacije se šalju elektronski na mail [email protected].

Elektronsko izdanje će biti dostupno na internet stranici časopisa www.media-com.me. Izdavač zadržava prava na objavljene radove, osim ako se drugačije ne dogovori s autorom. Prilikom svakog eventualnog sljedećeg objavljivanja rada u štampanoj ili elektronskoj verziji potrebno je navesti časopis kao izvor. Radovi autora po pozivu se neće recenzirati. Redakcija zadržava pravo da ne razmatra radove koji ne ispunjavaju uslove iz ovog uputstva. Autor dobija besplatan primjerak časopisa u kojem je njegov rad objavljen. Časopis će izlaziti dva puta godišnje u junu (tematski broj) i decembru.

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Instructions to authors Media and Communication / Mediji i komunikacije - is international scientific journal for media, communication, journalism and public relations.

The journal publishes scientific, professional, reviewed, translated works, book reviews and original research papers from the social sciences and humanities - in the field of media, communication, journalism and public relations.

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ISSN 2336-9981 = Media and communication COBISS.CG-ID 25072912

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