NO: 3, ISSUE: 1, 2015
Jean Monnet – From the Marshall Plan to the British refusal MIHAI ALEXANDRESCU
Feminism in International Relations. Case study: Indira Gandhi and Margaret Thatcher PALLUKACS HAJNAL
Democratic awakening in Macedonia: Expecting the unexpected ELENA CEBAN
Norway’s Public and Cultural Diplomacy STEFANA TEODORA POPA NO: 3, ISSUE: 1, 2015 2 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy Editor-in-Chief: EDITORIAL BOARD ISSN 2344–6293ISSN–L 2344–6293 issues may theme. on focus aparticular multi and interdisciplinary papers. Occasionally, individual journal.academic The issues include journalwill the of abiannualJGPCD is (June and peer-reviewed December), and Cultural Diplomacy from Cluj-Napoca, Romania. aproject of Center the for European Dialogue JGPCD is CURRENT DIPLOMACY (JGPCD) GLOBAL POLITICSAND coordinate research and practice incurrent diplomacy and are to develop, promote and JGPCD The objectives of and CulturalDialogue Diplomacy (DEDIC) şi Diplomaţie Culturală/Center for European Dialog European pentru Centrul PUBLISHER MariaLia Pop, PhD –University of (Romania) Oradea Museum, Cluj-Napoca (Romania) “George Baritiu” of Romanian Academy. Director, The Art Lucian Nastasa-Kovacs, PhD –The Institute of History University College, University of Phoenix (USA) Cristina I.Marine, PhD –University of Maryland Goethe-Universität Frankfurt (Germany) Sergiu Gherghina, PhD –Institut Politikwissenschaft. für Politik), (Germany) Berlin Anneli Ute Gabanyi, PhD –Stiftung Wissenschaft und International Board Advisory Editor: Design Indexing and Abstracting: Editors Editorial Board: Mihai Alexandrescu, PhD : Ioana Ştefănuţ, PhD; Daniela Czimbalmos, PhD Mihai-Vlad Guţă :
Flaviu Orăştean
help professionals working fields inthe economicof aims to JGPCD studies, economy, and sociology. The its interconnection with International Relations, European first publication by JGPCD. republished, provided author the makes reference to the to publish and disseminate paper. the The mayarticle be for publishing, not JGPCD does impose exclusive the right compensations from In third of parties. case acceptance and not shall pay royalties of incase demands for financial footnote. The DEDIC notbe shall held legally responsible matters. This issue shouldbe mentioned nevertheless ina may accepted not be does ifthis raise exclusive licence workoriginal already published, updated and improved, for to reviewing other journals. Still, version anew of the papers were which not previously published or submitted giveJGPCD priority will to publication the of original COPYRIGHT RULES diplomatic academies. diplomacy, not leastworld’s the foreign and ministries stake infirst-rate and accessible of aspects all articles on is for a journal with an everyone interest or JGPCD the European Studies, and Economic Secondly, Sciences. Studies, Cultural Diplomacy, International Relations, with educators and trainers on programmes inDiplomatic graduate students of International Relations, together researchers,and inparticular tanks, think teachers and The JGPCD’s readership primarily consists of universities READERSHIP decision-making process. of diplomacy, International Relations and European Union institutions and persons concerned with complex the role governmentexperts, agencies, and academic research of communication diplomats, policy-makers, between makers. The Journal aims to establish an effective channel decision-making, international communication and policy diplomacy, intercultural studies, European Union diplomacy, financial diplomacy, commercial and corporate Contents Stefana Teodora Norway’s Public and Cultural Diplomacy Elena Democratic awakening unexpected the inMacedonia: Expecting Pallukacs Relations. Indira study: Gandhi Case and Margaret Thatcher Feminism inInternational Mihai Jean Monnet –From Marshall the Plan to British the refusal CEBAN ALEXANDRESCU HAJNAL
POPA
CONTENT 35 23 13 5
3 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy
T what we now Schuman the call Declaration. The existence of a‘high authority’,which would sovtheabsorb common interests of states, the inorder of needs to the citizens. satisfy the Monnet’s transformed idea into Furthermore, Monnet found construction the of asupranational entity necessary, would which integrate the world process Anew peace. with three stages: was needed appeasement, reconstruction and reorganization. Working Peace System”, he inwhich expressed his own arguments against territorial the order of future considerably deteriorated. In 1943, David Mitrany published at Chatham House, his well-known work “A last the During interwar years and first the three yearsSecond the of World War, relationsbetween states Abstract Department ofInternational Studiesand Contemporary History,e-mail: * fort possible that only be will under auspices the of a federation” ( with imminent the danger and with American the effort becomemust a genuine European ef clusion: “the effort the of Western European countriesbe consistent to withthe circumstances, desirethe to help themselves. In aforementioned the letter, Monnet reached following the con ernment to willing help was fully Europe, but was waiting for European the states to manifest Schuman. Caught emotion inthe and ambience, Monnet to show tried that American the gov tempted to harness lessons the of war the infavour of future peace. known at that time. Marshall’s was meant idea to offer a pragmaticsolution, which at and tear, portrayed which resignation, looking from of that perspective facts the the were former British prime minister’s approach was expression the of politico-diplomatic wear George Marshall proposed an economic recovery plan for European the continent. The helplessnessthe of states. roadmap of launched ideas by leaders and politicians influenced by awarwhich proved John Gillingham. ( Keywords: ereignty of participant states, ablockage determined in negotiations with Great Britain. Mihai Alexandrescu is a Lecturer at the “Babeș-Bolyai” University, Faculty of History and Philosophy, MihaiAlexandrescu isaLectureratthe “Babeș-Bolyai” University,Faculty ofHistoryandPhilosophy, Marshall PlantotheBritishrefusal Jean Monnet–Fromthe On the 18th of 18th On the April 1948,Jean Monnet sent aletter from United the States to Robert In 1947,ayear after WinstonChurchill had delivered his famous speech at Fulton, Marshall Plan named can be “American the monnetism”, afterthe expression used by HE DECADETHAT David Mitrany, Jean Monnet, Schuman’s Declaration, Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee Gilligham 1995:21-36 preceded Treaty the of Rome (1957)and began with which the ) These two ) These pillars in European a history reveal [email protected]
Mihai Monnet, Schuman 1986: 188 ALEXANDRESCU * © The Author(s)2015
). ** - - - - - 3(1) 5–11
5 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 6 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy also affirmed that,affirmed also from standpoint,political a Allied powers the had to pursue two ma “Territorial,had titled Ideological, or Functional International Organization?” Mitrany he presentedService, to work the group (1941)and to his superiors (1942)aproject he British Foreign Office. As he was a partthe of institution’s Foreign Research and Press work result the was infact of an ampler analysis he which had done up until 1941for the regulated different the areas of internationaleconomic social, political life.or Mitrany’s gesting instead an interconnected system of international agencies would which have expressed his own arguments against territorial the order of future world sug peace, lished at Chatham House, his well-known work “A Working Peace System”, he inwhich functionalist influence on his arguments. The sameyear, in1943, David Mitrany pub promoted which those pecially of idea the auniversal federation ( nation-states as main players. federalist projects period, this During were intrend, es ternational order could not have realized, without been into taking consideration the relations states between considerably deteriorated. Any scheme meant to reconstruct in ropean entity” ( democratic regime inEurope and economic (b)the and organization political of a“Eu thathis belief two major goals were reached: to be (a) re-establishing or establishing the summer of 1943,hein which referred to In post-war notes, peace. these he expressed in 1948,were not entirely new. Some notes of Monnet remained, dating back from the ferent meaning and in differentperspectives. However,the expressed ideas by Monnet, and federalization. Speeches were held, that same the utilized concepts, only with dif repairs, measures and solved, policy could be to realizesecond the goal, initiative the through signingtreaties, the of issues, peace through such particular which as borders, jor goals: (a)resolving war the and (b)organizing If peace. first the was goal realizable Over the following the Over years, there were many debates regarding sovereignty, integration, Reading the mind the Reading of was who later “Monsieur called l’Europe”, I found many clues of last the During interwar years and first the three yearsSecond the of World War, dominantthe factor inEuropean reconstruction.” worth. The weight spendingwill prevent of military or delayreform.social Fearwill once morebe European between knowwe all result. the sealed be nations; Alliances will know we all what are they future treaty, peace some nations allowed be to re-arm; will others not. will That in1919; tried was Europe once again adopt defensive positions, huge once armies will again necessary. be Under the thatwith all is entailed interms of prestige politics and economic protectionism. If nations the of in peace be no Europewill the if “There States are reconstituted basisthe on of nationalsovereignty, For second the goal, Monnet argued that: Monnet 1943 ). MIHAI ALEXANDRESCU (Monnet 1943) . Alexandrescu 2010 ). ------the League of League the Nations ( Work Organization or other organizations under coordination the of Secretariat the of in differentsectors the internationalby agencies, as thecase theit was of International cause of his this, recommendation was to into take account accumulated the experience ing and conducting different reconstruction and international organizingBe actions. plan. In mission said the the case, of planning the authority was counselling, coordinat staterial of moment. the Mitrany argued infavour of areconstruction and development nuity policy, outlining along-term plan for development, without considering mate the construction guaranteed could be through converging immediate the with needs aconti calming actionwas an urgent issue, albeit spatially and temporally limited, re the while 173-177 formal treaties or through any other means considered opportune. to be ( to organize administrative system, special peace anew accords were necessary, through establish constitutional new order. transferThe powerof between former combatants ing occupied the territories treaty. and peace the The provisional governments had to agreed that two steps The taken. had first to be between timeframe liberatone the was after a half long,of a decade war.generalized In preventing these old realities, Monnet ize at least aharmonization of European interests. Marshall plan was obvious, as he had considered it an instrument or opportunity to real thors thought about adurable and Monnet’s peace. functional optimism regarding the trany 1975b:121 not inaprotected but peace ina working peace”, Mitrany wrote to UKofficials the ( potentialthe for offense the actorsof the internationalof system. represents widening the of territorial and administrative but base, not will solve however plans of erawere the considering constituting afederation: tion that asked hadby been Mitrany, context inthe majority the inwhich of pacifying the Based on above-mentioned the Based considerations, following the question aques arises, The processthree had stages: appeasement, reconstruction and reorganization. The The most unmanageable feelingthat is of fear of an enemy/externaldanger, especially At time, this wethe find influence Mitrany had on Monnet’s evident. Both ideas au as notSo to leave question the unanswered, Mitranythat specified aunion federal enough. In what way would federation ( go further?” andLeague, therefore its advocacy it takes for granted that it because failed didnot League the go far of units political by democratic lt methods. would mean an association much than closer was the „ Federation only the indeed alternative seemed far so for tried to together linking aLeague anumber ) ). Mitrany 1975a:179 MARSHALL PLANTOTHEBRITISHREFUSAL JEAN MONNET–FROMTHE ). Mitrany 1975b:105
).
“We must put our faith Mitrany 1975a: Mi ------
7 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 8 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy Schuman Declaration of of 9th the May 1950.From moment this on, months of negotia in order of needs to the citizens. satisfy the supranational entity necessary, would which integrate common the interests of states, the cooperationsectoral was necessary. Furthermore, Monnet found construction the of a distribution, wellbeing, communication. In order for solved, to be these atransnational considered nation-state the incapable of solving issues relating to public management, single state was not enough of needs to the citizens. satisfy the More precisely, Mitrany eration. The state was itself not a forgoal Mitrany. For Monnet, however,the effort ofa first regarded the it in form of integration,the while consideredother it a form of coop numerous elements found inMitrany’s functionalist approach. on Marshall the project inorder to sketch future the organizing of Europe, utilizing also on basis of the international arrangements. sectoral Simultaneously, Jean Monnet relies vision is kept to be in mind, in that he recommended organizing future the system peace a general support for reconstruction. other Onthe hand, David Mitrany’s functionalist wellbeing of Europe, as asource of continental was which only peace, possible through of George Marshall, on of speech 5th the June whose on economic the 1947focused ofber major projections referring to stability the of Onone peace. hand, project the Monnet, he inwhich referred to necessity the of aEuropean effort, canwe grasp a num thatideas into hadtaken to be consideration: took into account conference peace the itself. To end, this Monnet brought to light eight public opinion was necessary, as was avoiding economic nationalism.second The step construction towards despotism or anthropolatry. In apermanently sense, this informed was affected possiblethe by dangers which could havethe course derailed post-warof re for or against Schuman the Plan, with more or less conviction. European press and western the states’ leaders presented political own their arguments tions followed, inorder to institute first the European community, thewhichtime during Monnet’s project initial transformed, slowly but surely, into what we now the call What separates Monnet form Mitrany was interpretation the of The functionalism. Concretely, Schuman in1948,at Robert when time the received letter the from Jean (8) Organizing aWorld with European Council ( participation. political(7) The and financial organizing of Europe; (6) Associating United the States, Great Britain and USSR the systems inthese and controls; (5) Monitoring of aeronautical the and industry of airlines the by aEuropean authority; (4) Creating aEuropean inventory of heavy metallurgy; (3) The regulatory program Germanthe of problem theand movements population;the of (2) Europe’s status inrelation to United the States, Great Britain and Union; Soviet the (1) Aplan with regard to and political the economic reconstruction of Europe; MIHAI ALEXANDRESCU Monnet 1943 ). - - - - ry ratificationfromry the sixsigning states. He attributedthis dynamic the to ambiguities had transformed, inmerely ayear, into aTreaty, was which merely awaiting parliamenta member states ( Assembly. What remained unclear was role the of institutions these inrelation to the organization: High the Authority, of Council the Ministers, of Justice Court the and the guities persisted which upon four institutions new would which created be by new the ian’s Monday issue of of 19th the analysis February 1951,the provided ambi revealed Schuman Plan: concepts, new institutions, new unclear goals. In Manchester the Guard officials ( steel inWestern Europe inprivate discussed had American been and between European to William Diebold Jr., there was no doubt regarding that fact the of and apooling coal operated through Konrad Adenauer and maybe eventhrough Jean Monnet. According already been approvedalready been by West-German the government. ( other hand, British the government presented had been with acommuniqué had which that Monnet and his counsellors different each described and contradicting plans.the On specific ambiguity employed by Jean Monnet in presentingthe somePlan, even accusing attitudecerning reserved the of Her Majesty’s government. one Onthe hand, it regards the officials.Taking into consideration theBritish reaction, two reasons bedetected con can comment on subject” the ( proposal indetail, we of shall course examine it attentively, but mean inthe Icannot time Minister for Foreignsupposedly Bevin, told the see Massigli: Affairs, “when will we Ervin in search of a chair reading when Schuman’s by nature,project. Reserved British the iswhich A reminiscentscene of Dickens Ch. novels, presents French the diplomat high Plan. new the Thisthe was situation Renéof Massigli,the French ambassadorLondon. in ish, but afew French also diplomats on mission, where had to argue they and advocate for sence,the Ifind commentaries and suspicions created aroundthe be subject to justified. of negotiations were these not published in‘Les Travaux Préparatoires’, and ab intheir “questionable”. to be labelled What that is fact the is certain, innine years from debut the ciples accompanying implementing the norms. Moreover, norms the themselves were Nevertheless, author the remained with regard surprised to reduced the number of prin in findingthelanguage coverwhichwill avariety of circumstances ( In 1959,Diebold Jr. expressed his thoughts Schuman the inwhich on speed the Plan The British press,alike German counterpart,its reported thelack on of clarity the of GermanThe communists, opponents the of Plan,saw in the it hand which of America, Beyond these initial explanations, initial these Beyond followed which those form in the of memorandum Jean Monnet travelled to London inorder to Schuman the discuss Plan with British Viewed through lens the of French era,the the initiative not surprised only Brit the Diebold Jr. 1959:45 Manchester Guardian 1951 MARSHALL PLANTOTHEBRITISHREFUSAL Foreign Office1950 ). JEAN MONNET–FROMTHE ). ).
Diebold Jr. 1959:49 Diebold Jr. 1959:47 ) ). ------
9 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 10 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy tions frequently differed, leaving room for interpretation ( ernment lacked a methodology, and opinions the hewhich himself presented at negotia discussions with Jean Monnet, it was evident that plan the proposed by French the gov June House 1950,inthe of Commons, Prime the Minister mentioned that following his and of leader the opposition, the Winston Churchill. In his intervention on of 13th the 1950, aheated debate Prime Labourist the ignited Minister, between Clement Attlee, ipant countries”, of because athorough which study was inorder ( Paris was to have “long term implications on future the economic structure of partic the eulogy, this Beyond of head the British the Cabinet underlined that proposition the from for striving the of French the initiative to offersolution a to severe“a European issue”. Prime Minister Clement Attlee, who, on of 11th the May 1950declared his admiration Housein the of Commons on opportunity the focused to participate innegotiations. age innegotiations with Great Britain. The disputeLabouristsConservatives between and authority’, would which absorb sovereignty the of participant states, ablock determined island press opinions allowed these evermore seen to be clearly. The existence of a‘high exchanges other highlighted the arguments consolidated which British the position. The munity, much had which been complained about 1950and between 1951. itwhether would sufficient be for initiating the construction newthe of European com offerthe continent a Treaty signed whichbeen by six had states. It remainedseen be to negotiation always lingering of on ambiguity boundary the and rejection has managed to economic Monnet’s perspectives. approach was unusual for European the cabinets. His have remained of logic territorialism strict inthe and sovereignty and inpolitical both relationspersonal with and political financial European leaders, Western Europe would lessonsthe of war. Furthermore, without Jean Monnet’s initiative and his vast network of of time the competing functionalistwas truly thinking, with harsh the realism upheld by ing on pressures the of moment the it inwhich was affirmed. Themiddle of last century construction, has functionalist known thinking readjustment and remodelling, depend of opposition the parliamentary inthe battle. ropean politics. However, his interventions of understood ambitions can inview the be thatseems Churchill had not yet lost of his sense orientation amidst dynamics the of Eu tation, anegative one, „[b]ut why not there be to give answer?” the ( more steel, but to grow tomatoes his answer instead?” would have without been, hesi authority has which power the to tell Great Britain not to cut any more or coal make any later, Churchill claimed, that asked: ifhe had“Would been you agree to asupra-national What remains that is fact the long in the duration of of history the post-war European Following debates the British in the Parliament months in the of May and June of In any diplomatic the case, language didnot to abandon seem British the Labourist MIHAI ALEXANDRESCU Hansard 1950a Foreign Office1950 Hansard 1950b ). Afew weeks ). It ). ------Foreign Office(1950), Duchêne (1994)François, Diebold Jr. (1959)William, System (David Mitrany)], Cluj-Napoca: Eikon. Alexandrescu (2010) Mihai, orders”. ( interpretation insaying that “we are no longer Mr. erainwhich inthe Monnet gave the Frenchthe government, in1958,offered an argument to supportthe aforementioned tive process caused by it. AfterCharlesall, deGaulle again, becoming after headthe of Monnet’s initiative, Schuman the Plan would not have existed, entire the alike integra monnetism” 1947and between 1957,for without Marshall the Plan and without Jean -fr-571914fa-e531-4d94-aa28-e550388ff8f5.html the (accessed 21ston January 2015). de recherche européenne, available at http://www.cvce.eu/obj/lettre_de_jean_monnet_a_robert_schuman_18_avril_1948 Monnet Jean, Schuman Robert (1986), l’Europe, Lausanne Archives Jean Monnet, Fonds AME. 33/1/4. Monnet (1943) Jean, “Jean Monnet’s thoughts on future the 5 August (Algiers, 1943)”, Fondation Jean Monnet pour Politics Mitrany (1975b)David, „Territorial, Ideological, or Functional Organization”, inDavid Mitrany, ofSchool Economics and Political Science. Mitrany (1975a)David, “Agenda of Peacemaking”, inDavid Mitrany, February. Manchester Guardian (1951),“Schuman Plan Progress. I–European Institutions”, in Hansard (1950b), Hansard (1950a), Integration History Gillingham (1995)John, “American Monnetism and European Community Coal-Steel Fifties”, inthe in Industries. May-June 1950 References Coming back to by phrase the utilized John Gillingham, we can refer to an “American , London, London of School Economics and Political Science. Duchêne 1994:315 Weekly Hansard Commons Weekly Hansard Commons , No. 1,vol. 1,pp. 21-36. Anglo-French Discussions Regarding French Proposals for the Western European Coal, Iron and Steel , London 1,p. 1950,doc. 3(CMD. 7970). Jean Monnet: The First Statesman of Interdependence TheSchuman Plan. A Study in EconomicCooperation Funcţionalismul şi sistemul internaţional (David Mitrany) MARSHALL PLANTOTHEBRITISHREFUSAL Correspondance 1947-1953, Lausanne, Fondation Jean Monnet pour l’Europe ) , June 13,1950,no 476,col 35-36. , June 27,1950,no 159,col. 2147. JEAN MONNET–FROMTHE The Functional Theory of Politics
, New York: Norton. , New York: Paeger. [Functionalism and International the The Manchester Guardian Manchester The The Functional Theory of The Theory Functional Journal of European , London, London , Centre , 19 -
11 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy T the people they are peoplethe they leading. to prove that, although under falling category the of female the gender, a politician’s should focus primary be politics, two femaleglobal politicians shaped who world the lived they in.Through thecase study, the aim is to nuance, ifnot to combat harsh the feminist point of by view focusing on two key figuresthe history in of The presenttakes thearticle on subject of feminism in international relations. The objective thisarticle of is Abstract centruldedic.ro Philosophy, Management ofInternational Relations andEuropean UnionPolitics,e-mail: * Pállukács Hajnal isaMAStudent atBabeş-BolyaiUniversity fromCluj-Napoca, Faculty ofHistoryand analysts had no interest injoining debate, the remaining neutral or detached. debates –although few –didappear. The majority of researchers and international relations feminine with regard perspective to issues the of international politics. Controversy and en’s as shadow seen perspective, actors ininternational politics. thatfact areconsideration of field the is necessary,paying attentionspecial the to wom out by its subtitle feminist („Making of sense International Politics”), revolves around the written by Cynthia was published Enloe, in1990.Thepointed main book, as idea the of of of feminism, international the as atheory relations field, emotions. 1987: (Cohn state and of acts war have that become aspects are fundamentally separated from human cultureized of institution the of defense the has brought about asituation the inwhich into author’s the focus conviction, summarized can which as: strongly be the masculin the said1987: 687-718).The problem discusses article of nuclear weaponry, also bringing title “Sex the bearing and Rational Death inthe World of Defense Intellectuals”. (Cohn Keywords: and MargaretThatcher Relations. Casestudy:IndiraGandhi Feminism inInternational During the following the During years, more and more voices have supported necessity the of a relations. The first to which sucharticle subscribed an opinion was published in1987, HE FEMINIST POINT feminism, Gandhi, Thatcher, international relations, gender of view has been voicedof has been only view recently with regard to international passim ) The book that book ) The the had most influence the on emergence Bananas, Beaches and Bases
Pallukacs hajnal.pallukacs@ HAJNAL © The Author(s)2015 1 - - * , 3(1) 13–21 13 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 14 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy by men assume the who role the of ( policy-makers. From outskirts, the theoreticians the of feminism offer criticism theories the constructed to regardingsome perspectives issues, can which prove social to world. political the useful thatexperiences women had lived through, on outskirts the of politics, have granted them most the to relevant be for field the at hand. The feministstandpoint theoriesclaim that the consensus. As such, categories the presented present in the article are ones the considered of understanding the deepening purpose the of international relations. national relations and way the are these inwhich attributed to agender or other, the with by sexes. At both same the time, it includes an analysis of concepts field inthe used of inter plies an analysis of way the stage the inwhich of international politics affects and is affected common conception on feminism ininternational relations is following: the feminism im view, would constitute an oxymoron. ( that to study using gender theory, without approaching subject the from a feminist point of feminists norms. ( that arefact they resistant to co-opting gender as an explanatory framework, separate from cannot seriously, taken be and feminists contribute to marginalization this through the andlogical normative differences preventthe integration of gender issues,which as such having conceptualized been as representing issues. ( social concretely undermining the of men, was brought “masculinities” into so-called the focus, feminist theory.that The idea there wasdanger a real in bringing women onto center-stage, would more be theory recommended study inthe of international relations, compared to a school of thought. more Likewise, voices appeared that supported that fact the agender necessarily subscribing to feminist the point of view, was poorly received by feminist the that sense in the Keohane’s stating idea, that research should make of use gender but not Feminist International Relations”.said The article proves thesome radicalism of feminists tion: “Good Girls, Little Girls and Girls: Bad Male Paranoia Keohane’s in Robert Critique of ( researchers feminist inthe community. The first response came fromCynthia Webber of become afeminist internationaltially theory relations, is received as an attack by some 1989: feminism in international relations formulated originally by Sylvester Christine (Sylvester itics and advocates for inclusion the of women into existing the structures of world pol states.viewpoint position The liberal the undermined analyses of polwomen global in 1994: 337-349 Robert O.Robert Keohane’s article ( Realist feminismRealist is interested ingender roles strategic and power-policies between divides intocategories, theory Thisseveral but whichas exactly,to there is no unanimous Taking into consideration works the of mentioned the authors, as well as others, the passim ), and attempts which to provide constructive criticism of what could poten ), who wrote), who an article, title of the proved which acidity the of interven the Carpenter 2002:153-154 Keohane 1989:245-253 PALLUKACS HAJNAL Sjoberg 2009:191 ) On the other) Onthe hand, Terell considered Carver Keohane 1989:245 ) ), which reutilizes a typology of reutilizes), which atypology Carpenter 2002:157 ) ) Epistemo ------answers attempted be will given to be to following the questions, referring of to cases the told apart, is research the question ( one of defining the characteristics and throughone which academic feminismbe can 188 it on analysisfocuses the of dichotomies, such as “rational-emotional”. ( nine inconstituting is appanage policies, the global of feminism. post-structuralist Thus, contribute to empowerment the of and masculine the marginalization the of femi the politics. The analysis the linguisticof manifestations of gender, the wayof whichthese in preconceivedin which and views opinions about gender form and are formed by global its power inworld politics. feminism Constructivist gravitates around study the of ways owntheir actions and decisions. ( nism, ability the inwhich of women to showcase and maintain equality their through itics. ( cast by her father’s successor, Bahadur Shastri. Gandhi Lal chose to have an active role in ister, Jawaharlal Nehru. made possible) by that fact the Indira Gandhi was daughter the of India’s first min prime considered.had never been Her ascent of had course been facilitated (ifnot altogether point. Up until that moment, that fact the awoman could to ascend aleading position notations, such as emotions and sensitivity. have a different ruling, style of utilizing and implying conceptswhich have feminist con ples, of a part feminist the theory, according to women,which of because gender, their feminist? In context, this have advocated they for fulfillment the that of an ideal canbe considered Margaret Thatcher and Indira Gandhi: Indira Gandhi Because of that, fact the Because according to feminists field inthe of international relations, feminismCritical is interested and idea inthe manifestation of gender identity and After her father’s death, in1964, she was named Minister of Information and Broad power rise Theto of The objective the of present is article to disprove,through the aforementioned exam decisions their Do realm inthe of international politics prove feminist considerations? What were thoughts their on feminism? In what way life was political their affected their by gender? Can afeminist applied key be to actions their ininternational politics? ) Sjoberg 2009: 188 RELATIONS. CASE STUDY:INDIRAGANDHIANDMARGARETTHATCHER ) At same the time, it represents an individualist form of femi Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi happened at turning a political FEMINISM ININTERNATIONAL Goldstein 2013 Ackerly, Stern, True 2006:5 : v. „Liberal feminism”)„Liberal
), in the present), inthe study Sjoberg 2009: ------15 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 16 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy leader. ( pressure from USA and the proving China, to entire the world that she was acapable Pakistan, but with its also supporters, and China USA.She the held her ground under Pakistan, of because danger the especially of involving India inaconflict not withonly Indira Gandhi had abig taken risk by offering support the liberalizationto Eastern of 2012: 7 Indo-Sovietthe Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation der to counter USA,Pakistan the bond the between and Indira China, Gandhi signed to Union. Soviet the The USSRbecame India’s most important weapons provider. In or riving ina chaotic manner, of to fall led Gandhi’s which the popularity. She turned then promise of aid from USpresident the Lyndon Johnson. ( cause of she this, of made use her femininity and charm, in order to eventually receive a obtain financial and material aid (food), butwithout having to ask for it explicitly.Be troubled internal situation, in1966Gandhi made an official visit the USA,in to order to gotten worse with USinvolvement the inVietnam. ( aidthe (weapons) offered the USA by to Pakistan theduring war in 1965, and had only lems regarding India’s relations with United the States of These America. originatedfrom War matters. ( At first, she held the idea to of non-alignment, regardingthe non-involvementCold in 2002: 184 ner-Wright 2012:6 moment she inwhich stopped regarded being only as daughter the of Nehru. ( actions were to have effects benefic on her image the eyes in the of public. This the was infiltrates,the first act of theGandhi wasprime to minister, notify theand results of her politics. In 1965,having arrived inKashmir at of time the discovery Pakistani the mently claim the that she was a feminist. Implicitly, she was bothered by questions the in 1980.Her assassination was adirect result of her ironclad convictions. political of Syndicate, the but strong also enoughas to so assure victory. ( malleable and manipulated, easily for thus perfect being role the of puppet hands inthe marasami Kamaraj. of that fact the Because she was awoman, she was considered to be for position the of prime minister of India. Her candidature was orchestrated by Ku of old ladies”. ( With regard to convictions personal the of Indira Gandhi, she always vehe denied She proved her worth again, she when regained her position of power aftertwo years, The aid howeverrunninglate was shipmentstheand food were not organized, ar From an international relations viewpoint, Ms.Gandhi’s actions were controversial. Afterthe death of Shastri elections new were announced and Gandhi wascandidate a ) In of December same the year, there was another Pakistani attack on India. Mukherjee 2015:30-31 ) Wagner-Wright 2012:7 Everett 1993:112 ) She reputation the had earned of “the being only man inaCabinet ) ) PALLUKACS HAJNAL ) However, she was reticent and there were prob Frank 2002:187-188 Frank 2002:187-188
in 1971. ( Katz 2012:34;Frank Wagner-Wright ) Forced by the ) Wag ------connotation concept, given to masculinized the although reference the is clearly to a and preferred not to get involved. The main issuewiththis comparison positivethe is men) are(all as “old viewed ladies” (women) of because that were fact the they cowards parison is labelgiven the to other the members of Cabinet. the The rest the of members as a“man” of because her courage and of her sense duty. At opposite the of pole com the theoreticalwesides this idea, obtain proof through that fact the Indira Gandhi is labeled presentthe what case, is invoked is courage. This is a strongly concept.Be masculinized conceptsthe and genders associated of feminism. to case the them, post-structuralist In old ladies” ( 1965. The most importantthing to noticethe citation,is “the only manCabinet ina full of ginning of her carrier, political aforementioned the that episode took place inKashmir, in is perception the thing that of is observed to public be the regarding Gandhi, at be the 2002: 187 of reporters wanted who to find out more about her role politician.as a female ( woman of state, the aprime minister. In however, case this role the of only one woman, Madhuri Gupta, but issue the is at raised another subject level the of when aresearch is a andgic power The policies. example of women spies comes to mind, such as Mata Hari or that fact the confer she will can this use adifferent role to a woman ininter-states strate thing thought of insuch awoman’s acase, attributes Ofcourse, transcend said the aspect. something must regarded be as agiven, sure In fact. no way only the should be sexuality realist feminism.that The fact a woman her will utilize gender’s attributes in order to gain notdoes mention such apossibility. It could however of inwith perspective the tied be to achieve her goal. Interestingly on enough, feminist the international theory relations Gandhi’s behavior during her official visit usethe USA, to her of her gender in order der, was supported evenifthis not apolicy by her. tions, Gandhi contributed to development the of a different opinion regarding her gen helped by politics, as well global as Hindu culture. Although, through her ulterior ac regarding Indira Gandhi’s gender was that it was malleable. This opinion formed was fitting for her. Hereinthe lies issue brought up by constructivist feminism. The opinion dicate regarding Indira Gandhi. As she was awoman, role the of apuppet to be seemed customsthe inpatriarchal of experiences the states. relations want to change is adeeply actually rooted concept inworld culture, of because involvedalthough those were men. This all is proofthat what feminists ininternational woman, and at same the time, negative the connotation given to feminized the concept, Looking atLooking things from viewpoint the of feminism ininternational relations, first the A third issue that should given not neglected, subject the of be present the paper, is secondpointThe of interestfrom a pointfeminist the is view of opinion the of Syn ) Everett 1993:112 RELATIONS. CASE STUDY:INDIRAGANDHIANDMARGARETTHATCHER ). Thus, acore idea is of proved,feministtheory thecase of FEMINISM ININTERNATIONAL
Frank ------17 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 18 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 12 Thatcherthe pretenseto obey refused of aunited Europe ( relationshipblish special the Great between Britain and USA. At the same the time, through a seat on UN’s the and Council through nuclear Security power, and to reesta ( a compliment, but Thatcher to decided wear withit ( pride giventitle to had been her by newspaper, aSoviet Star, Red and was not meant to be as first the elected female ministerprime in British history. ( British history, awoman gained control of helm the of one of great the parties political shewhich had received officially the 11 on 1974 she announced her candidature for presidency the of Party, Conservative the title as State for Educat Secretary in 1959as amember of Party. Conservative the In 1970she was appointed Cabinet inthe Gandhi had been. family or her name; she could not considered be assetdue apolitical to as these, litically prominent family. Her to power rise didnot have anything to dowith her ner-Wright to robot. consider apolitical ( her acyborg, to be would have probably as well.what Thisalso was ruled the determined author Sylvia Wag statethe solely of because her gender, but in a way and acted ruled that also who a man conceptions. Thus,there is nothing to preventfrom her being considered a “woman” of gard to theme the of paper. this Her actions didnot offer proof of anytypically feminine –, but not that of women. all or that group of aselect of women changes play will who arole –those inworld politics jurisdiction ofjurisdiction islands the was not issue avital for Great Britain, islanders the however territory, but were dependent on Argentina go. as far as Maintaining services British Great Britain, as well as Argentina to had islands. ties the The islands were British Blake 1990:319 Blake 1990:341 ) Margaret Thatcher Regarding her way of Indira ruling, not Gandhi does enter into any category with re The wareyestheFalkland was, in of politicalmost analysts, her moment glory.of In affairs, external the issues werealways the under mottoplaced “Britain namedShe Iron hadthe been before Lady getting as Prime elected Minister. The Thatcherbeganpoliticalcareer her in1950, seatreceivingthe a in British Parliament Unlike Indira Gandhi, Margaret Thatcher Hilda Roberts was not into born apo . ) ) . . Approximately four years later, inMay 1979,Margaret Thatcher was Thatcher strove to reconfirm GreatBritain’s status asa world power ion and Science PALLUKACS HAJNAL th February 1975 when, for February 1975when, first the time in ( Wagner-Wright 2012: 10 Wagner-Wright 2012: 10 Wagner-Wright 2012:9 Wagner-Wright 2012: 11- ) . In of October first” ) ) . - - - -
opportunities” of stemmed 1969),actually from her individualist convictions ( might have had, that might categorized be as “feminist” (such as “equal pay and equal ( annual rebate of 66%of difference the British between contributions and revenues years of debate, in 1984, at Fontainebleau the Summit, Great Britain was granted an could remain on European the market. In 1975, Britain was contributing approxi reason practical 1973, the that being was only this the way British inwhich products European Community. Great Britain had joined Common the European Market in stable. The same, however, cannot said about be Great Britain’s relations with the were forced to surrender on 14 the tallyers. Theshowed final thatpeople 260 lost their lives, theand Argentinean forces islands was launched on 21 the with her nation’s state o lands on 2 the power ( nuclearsend submarines into Southern Atlantic the as athreat and ademonstration of issue were held with Argentina, but to no avail. Tensions rose, and Thatcher to decided thought of it as essential ( always had her hair and make-up done. She kept attributes these for asimple reason: she presented herself, that fact the she didnot abandon for skirts trousers, and that she otism, two key characteristics of astatesperson. emotion that deduced can from be her actions and is herof passion style rule and patri Throughoutcase. thewhen entire Margaretperiod Thatcher wasPrime Minister, theonly never came up and was never thought of as an option. Emotions played no role inthis and as to them athreat willing use Falkland inthe Islands conflict. tarism. Even ifThatcher considered these weapons lastbe a to seemed sheresort, ready against weapons of mass such destruction, as nuclear weaponry, strongly opposing mili is nuclear the issue. Feminist international relations theory, regarding security, is strongly 2012: 14 ( mately 20% of total the budget of Community, the but return the rate Wagner-Wright 2012:14 Wagner-Wright 2012:14 With regard to bilateral relations were is they and with fact USA, the the good was unsuccessful.tactic The The Argentinean forces launched an attack the on is The only acknowledgeable feminine side, as far as Thatcher’srule, the was way she At same the time, with regard to war, retreating for reasons, such as safeguarding life, The most striking problem,with regard the to feministviewpoint on external affairs, As did Indira Gandhi, Thatcher also repudiated feminism. Any belief idea orshe Wagner-Wright 2012:12 ) . nd RELATIONS. CASE STUDY:INDIRAGANDHIANDMARGARETTHATCHER of April 1982, and with regard to war, Thatcher found herself agreeing f mind ) Wagner-Wright 2012:12 ) . . Thatcher was not content with situation the and after five ( FEMINISM ININTERNATIONAL st Blake 1990:350 of May.Cabinet The was preparedsoldi 1000 to lose ) . th June ( Blake 1990:352 ) . Thecampaign in order to reclaimthe ) . Thus, negotiations regardingthis
) . was only 5% Katz Katz - - - - -
19 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 20 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy structure. existing not structure of politics to will lead a dramatic global reconfiguration saidthe of on it two distinct cases, these stated canBased be that including more women into the ones are they in which not preoccupied with identity, personal their as far as gender. to consider of issue each the aspect at hand, however, most the efficientactions the are has a to be of chose them to behave andbehavior Their act. the conclusionbegs that a statesperson trary, that were fact the they women had nothing to dowith manner the both inwhich surrounded her, but exploited. she which also on of power. Most likely, she enjoyed aforementioned the discomfort, felt by who those affected that the fact by she was a woman, at least not after positi ascendedshe hadto a during her firstvisit the USA, to preciselybecause trumpsthe of provided by her gender. otherOn the hand, she managed to get into of graces the President Lyndon B. Johnson, byviewed members the of Syndicate the as manipulated, easily of because her gender. themselves inways considered can which be feminist innature. that not does however mean that didnot they have opinions, or views didnot manifest research questions become clear. Gandhi, as well as Thatcher, repudiated feminism, afact samethe way as Indira Gandhi, considered can be acyborg. that Thatcher was not a woman,when referring to her public life. Thus, the Lady,Iron in ( advantage, adiscomfort that hadwomen, near they all but mostly near was surrounded by men. She counted on and high-class men’s used discomfort to her Blake (1990), Robert, Blake (1990),Robert, Cambridge University Press. Ackerly, Brooke; Stern, Maria; True, Jacqui (2006)(eds.), Wagner-Wright 2012:14 References Conclusions The decisions made in external affairs do not areveal feminist viewpoint. the To con Unlike Indira Gandhi, Margaret Thatcher’spolitical life did notseem to have been Indira Gandhi’s life political was affected beginning the at of career,her having been Having benefit the of an theview on overall issue at hand,the answers posed the to In feminist historiography and innon-feminist historiography as well it is considered state’s person TheConservative from Party Peel to Thatcher , the behavior, the scheme androgynousbeing in nature. haveThey ) . PALLUKACS HAJNAL Feminist Methodologies for International Relations, , Fontana Press, London. women inpower Cambridge, - -
230-254. Pirages,in Dennis Sylvester Christine ( Sylvester (1989) Sjoberg (2009)Laura, Mukherjee (2015)Pranab, Studies International of Journal Keohane O., (1989)Robert onaccessed 03 Their During Gender Ascent to Power”, Katz (2012)Ariel, “Margaret Thatcher,Golda Meir, and Indira Gandhi’s Actions Rhetoricand Regarding Feminism and Goldstein (2013),Joshua S., Frank (2002)Katherine, Leaders Everett (1993)Jana, Without: Women, Gender, and Theory”, (1987) Cohn International Studies Review Charli,Carpenter (2002)R. „Gender in Theory World ContributionsPolitics: of a Nonfeminist Standpoint?”, in International Relations”, in Webber (1994)Cynthia, „Good Girls, Little Girls and Girls: Bad Male Paranoia Keohane’s inRobert Critique of Feminist forumonpublicpolicy.com/vol2012.no1/archive/wagner.wright.pdf I,IndiraElizabeth Gandhi, And Margaret Thatcher”, in Wagner-Wright (2012)Sylvia, “Common Denominators inSuccessful Female Statecraft: The Legacies Queen Political of , London, ed. Sage, pp. Carol, and Rational Death inthe World „Sex of Defense Intellectuals”, in rd December 2014). December Christine, RELATIONS. CASE STUDY:INDIRAGANDHIANDMARGARETTHATCHER “ “ Indira Gandhi and Exercise the of Power”, inMichael A.Genovese (coord.), Introduction Studies: to Security Feminist Contributions”, in Indira –The Life of Indira NehruGandhi The Dramatic Decade – TheDramatic Decade The Indira GandhiYears “ Millenium The Emperor’s Theories and Transformations:Looking the Field at Through Feminist Lenses”, , Vol. 4,No. 3,autumn International Relations, 2007-2008Edition “ InternationalContributions Relations Theory: of a Feminist Standpoint”, in
103-134. , No. 18:2,pp. 245-253. , No. 23:1,pp. 337-349. CMC Senior Theses, eds Summer FEMINISM ININTERNATIONAL .), Transformations in , pp. 687-718. , pp. 153-165 Forum on Public Policy Online, Policy Public on Forum Paper 518 . , London, ed. HarperCollins.
the Global Political Economy, , accessed on, accessed 04 the , ( , http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/518 Just the Facts 101 , New ed. Delhi, Rupa.
Security Studies th January 2015). Signs Vol 2012, No 1.,August, ( series, ed. Cram101, e-Book. series, , Vol. 12,No. 4,„Within and London, Macmillan, pp. , No. 18:2,pp. 183-213. Women asNational Millenium – http:// , 21 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy above-mentioned problems, people organized into amovement and established acamp infront of gov the Claiming that conflict the in Kumanovo was staged the by authorities to distract public attentionfrom the able recordings revealing government schemes of corruption, fraud, election murder political and nepotism. ing law, tax stagnating the educational law, outrageous the conduct of of Health, Ministry the unbeliev the mostwitnessed the massive popular movement inits history. People of ethnicities protested all oppress the third biggest city inMacedonia. However, it was just tip the of iceberg the –for months seven Macedonia weekendOn the of 9-10of May 2015,afirefight with grenades and sniperstook place in Kumanovo, the Abstract University fromCluj-Napoca (Romania), * and was granted status the of candidate in2005( factions. political Macedoniaall an signed Association Agreement with EUin2001 the and other denominations. ethnic Bosniaks Serbs, that territory (25,000sq.km.) a small hosts Macedonians, Albanians, Turks, Romani, it brings on asmile Macedonians’ faces,it suits quite country the well –Macedonia is preservation of diversity. – Macedonian and Albanian, but it developed mechanisms also for better integration and conflicting situations several nessed including between clashes twoits main ethnicities due to its historical heritage. In its twenty three years of independence, Macedonia wit Keywords: mass dissatisfaction with government the inpower. thorough 2001conflict,the a analysis of internal factors indicatesthat the commotion is revolving around ernment, to determined leave only government the when resigns. While voices echo resemblance the with ElenaCebanisaMaster graduateinTransatlantic StudiesatFaculty ofEuropeanStudiestheBabes-Bolyai Civil unrest:sevenmonthsofmurkywaters Expecting theunexpected Macedonia: in Democratic awakening Although amultiethnic country, its general of goal European integration is shared by One often hears Europeans associatethe term “Macedonia” salad. fruit withWhile a It is not uncommon to hear about unrest civil or armed confrontation Balkans, inthe Macedonia, protest, corruption,political conflict, crisis [email protected] European
Commission 2005 Elena CEBAN ), but fur © The Author(s)2015
- - * - - - 3(1) 23–33 23 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 24 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy the Universitythe space. While classes were boycotted, students together with profes their that inNovember started 2014gradually transformed intooccupation a fully-fledged of students marching streets the of Skopje, inwhat would become agenuine movement. ination. For first the time since its independence, sawMacedonia tens thousandsof of protests against law new the of education that introduced an additional exam external shooting incident that took lives the of eight policemen and injured over 30people. of an armed conflict, followwill we the chain eventsof that culminated early in Maya with massive student protests inlate 2014to recorded proof of level corruption high and athreat in Macedonia and analyze systemic the components of current the crisis.From political governmentsbetween and citizens. their is goal to Our get of an latest the overview events national newspapers, yet most of reports the fail to encompass complex the power-relations sight 2010 Agreement granted which rights political equal to Albanian the population. ( fightersthe 2001 conflictguerrilla in and advocates full the implementation the of Ohrid name inorder to enable to country the join NATO. internationalthe community, and flexibilitythe in rowwith Greece overthe country’s wiretapped recordings. His stands party for economic liberal co-operation policies, with main the became who faceof anti-government the protests after releasingthe infamous sphere,political presented be three will the main parties political below. with Greececountry negotiationsther were of because ongoing the stalled dispute over official the name the of 4 3 2 1 party wonparty majority the of seats inparliament four since times 2006. entation; its leader, current the Prime Minister Nikola took Gruevski, office in2006. The Stage I:Thestudents’movement Democratic Union for Integration Social Democratic UnionofMacedonia Internal MacedonianRevolutionary Organization –Democratic Party forMacedonian NationalUnity. Greece claimsthat Macedoniaisthehistorical name ofaGreek region andrepresents theGreek heritage. For of better purpose the understanding current the power-sharing schemes in the Studentski Plenum The unrest bestvisibleamong was when society studentsthe civil started organizing The recent firefight in Kumanovo headlines the made the of main European and inter DUI SDSM VMRO-DPMNE 4 , the third, the and “junior” government; inthe party ruling it was formed by former 3 ). is main the opposition and party second inParliament; it by is led Zoran Zaev, 2 1 is acentre-right with Democrat-style aChristian ori party ruling , which also vetoed Macedonia’s also , which into entry NATO. is name the by taken students to movement: their identify protests ELENA CEBAN Balkan InBalkan - - - - - ing students about possible actions by undertaken Plenum. the University, giving alternative lectures, organizing debates on relevant topics and inform sors created (who own their Professor’s Plenum) found could be on premises the of the Democratic Union of Macedonia, publishing has been recordings wire-tapped of illegally order to express disagreement with breach the of right the to civic association. Since regular then, camps infront of of Education Ministry the and were Science held in cision to prohibit any of type student association, came which at of beginning the April. educational law. ( Teachers joined movement, the supporting pupils their quest intheir for the modifying to old the pattern for graduation the exam and EUeducational respecting the standards. reforms”,bad students requested cancellation the of examination, external the returning even organizing alternative in activities some Under high-schools. slogan the “Stop the of Macedonia, with students protesting boycotting aweek, times while several classes and Plenum example of older their counterparts and own their started movement – the interests. with Plenum the decision the taking not to disband and continue representing students’ by surprise. occupation OnFebruary 24,the of university the took everybody ended, Stage II:Protestsrelated tothewiretapscandal The government’swith decision talks to representativesopen the of students’ body • • • Below are pleas the made by students the of State the University For past the couple of months, main the opposition inMacedonia, party Social the But what made students turn protests their into a movement was government’s the de What happened next was evenmore surprising. High-school students followed the sessment. studentthe inatransparent body process with suggestions on aneeds-as based introducing amore democratic process of decision-making that would involve byinfected corruption and often sudden changeseducationalthe in law. state university, lack the of adequate representative student that are bodies not denouncing deplorable the condition of dormitories, lack the of funding for the upondecide preferred the of method grading. that specifies universities and righttheeducational other can to bodies reserve amination. Students claim that law the against goes system, which Bologna the cancelling newly-adopted the law on education that introduces an ex external (High-school Students’ Plenum).time, This protests coveredwholethe territory DEMOCRATIC AWAKENINGINMACEDONIA:EXPECTINGTHEUNEXPECTED Radio MOFRadio 2015 ). Ss.
Cyril and MethodiusCyril Srednoskolski Srednoskolski : - - - - 25 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 26 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy ence that he would not step down and dissolve current the government, adeclaration knowledge authenticity the of tapes, PMmentioned revealed the the inapress-confer in collaboration with opposition, the inorder to destabilize country. the Refusing to ac “crushing opposition” the during second the round of elections ( order to invalidate “disappear”, making ballots ballots, the etc.). Interlocutors refer also to dismissal and business owners with closure, staging incidents at polling stations the in first round becauseof elections of apparent loss their side(threateningon employeeswith thatalogues refer to different techniques party membersruling thecancelused to by the of Administration the and for Counterintelligence: Security Antonio former Milososki, the Foreign Minister and Mijalkov, Saso former the Director Macedonia’s name.tape The includes conversationsbetween theNikola PM, Gruevski, latest PMGruevski’s bombs exposes hypocrisy over dispute the with Greece regarding had police inwhich beatena case ayoung reveler to death ( critic. Another recording to seems implicate government the insweeping under rug the scheming to cover up a dubious car accident that took life the of anoted government groupedbeing according to main the breach. legal cution. At around being, time the 30 such bombs have made public, been conversations of journalistssurveillance and interference and prose judiciary the the with media, the including fraud, election intimidation, motivated politically the jailing of opponents, 20,000 people. byheaded Mijalkov Saso and that orchestrated Gruevski of some surveillance illegal the The opposition claimsthat the conversations been recordedhad Secret the by Police conversations of prominent figures, political journalists“bombs”. andcalled activists, aljazeera.com/ajb/2015/makedonija-bombe/eng/index.html 5 proteststhat further triggered backed by opposition. the The dismissal twoof ministers Al Jazeera created an interactive map of the transcripts, together with profiles participants, at participants, profiles with together transcripts, the of map interactive an created Jazeera Al Gruevski insistedGruevski that tapes the were created by unnamed “foreign secretservices”, An extended spacewas given to topic the of bombs fraud. election reveal di Several by insisting that current the Macedonian name changed has been significantly’.” (Marusic (Northern) or (Vardar). says also that Milososki able Greeks the be to this own to their sell will public oreign Democratic before name the Republic of Macedonia, with a suffix in bracketslike (Upper), namecountry that would include aprefixwith a connotation”“political like Independent,Sover “Milososki appears to explain and to Gruevski Mijalkov that should acomplex they seek compound In most the shocking revelation, senior government officials allegedlyheard are tapesThe have the lid lifted ona range ofwrongdoings suspected senior by officials, ELENA CEBAN Joseph 2015 Al JazeeraAl 2015 ). One of the http://interactive.
2015a). ). - 5 - - - - 1
to resign. nalists; debates; musical events, etc. People insisted that and PMGruevski his cabinet had protest and not to respond to provocations. that urged people not to resort to violence, not to bring sharp or dangerous to objects the numberact unavailable. being Numerous Facebook users supported an online campaign building(the of government). Estimates 20.000and go between 100.000people, ex the marched streets the of Skopje week establishing every aprotest camp infront of Vlada the (I protest), extremely became which popular on Facebook, tens of thousands of people tion, protests aregular became sight inSkopje, capital. the Under slogan the Protestiram change of governing the elite. jalkov, Intelligence the chief –didnot manage to for people the feed hungry aconsistent involved –Gordana scandal inthe Jankulovska, Minister of Internal Affairs, and Saso Mi 2015b had planned terror attacks across country, the intending destabilization serious ( sion noted that prompt action neutralized agroup police dozen of people that several Nationalthe Council, oppositionwhich attended. Security leaders also party ses The despite blockade the and that citizens had nothing to fear. ( days of shootings, eight policemen were and another killed 37people were wounded there was reason no actual to that believe an two the During escalation was expected. heard for two days around city. the Ageneral feeling of uneasiness overtook city, the but Kosovo. streets on Albanian Several the sideof city the were blocked, and shootings were tookpolice place town inthe of Kumanovo near border the of Macedonia, and Serbia, istered. disagreement camps, both between distance was kept, and no violent outburst was reg was doing citizens their it ( all could to serve tained that were they there on own their that lived will, they well and that government the organizeding party acounter-camp to show support for government. the People main Marusic 2015b Stage III:ThearmedclashinKumanovo As aresponse of to act this popular rebellion, supporters of VMRO-DPMNE the rul Daily included activities held speeches by professors, businessmen, politicians, jour Amid from refusal government the to any take actionregarding claims the of corrup Macedonian President Gjorge Ivanov on 10 the 8 On the ). Ivanov incident the used also to urge Western powers to unblock Macedonia’s th of May terroristso-called 2015,angroupbetween a armed conflict theand DEMOCRATIC AWAKENINGINMACEDONIA:EXPECTINGTHEUNEXPECTED ). Official media reported mediathat ). Official reported the situation the in city remainedcalm Jordanovska 2015 th of May 2015chaired asession of ). Despite evident the Marusic ------27 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 28 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy whole region. Thus, after the Treaty of Lausanne was adopted the in1922, Muslim pop name as expressions of extraterritorial ambitions ( donia – challenged republic’s the status by interpreting its constitution, flag new and very known neighborly stand-off, the Greece – northern region called Mace whichalso of is overpolice rights the of Albanian the minority inWestern Macedonia. And best- inthe as Albanian were involved allegedly invarious armed confrontations with Macedonian its Albania faced own ofspeak. crises transition, but Macedonian citizens self-identified state,new but not nation the to its which majority belongs, nor language the that they passed withto Thessaloniki Greece theand Pirin Macedonia to ( Bulgaria ofa part Kingdom the Croats of Serbs, the and Slovenes, Aegean the while Macedonia reshaped entire the region, Balkan Macedonia included: thus, Vardar Macedonia became Wars Balkan (in1912),the Balkans the (1912-1913)and First the World War (1914-1918) nation-states:modern Bulgaria, Greece and FYROM. The end Ottomanthe of rule over future action plan, and for both for society civil the actors political involved. movement into streets the today. Understanding difference this for is crucial imagining a armedthe conflict in2001differ considerably from the thatones driving are the popular eventsof these déjà-vu provide misleads general the opinion. The forcesthat triggered conflict 2001ethnic the and raised fears of escalationthe in region. However,sense the clashethnic city inthe of Kumanovo, population whose is 35%Albanian. Facebook and Twitter were as main used tools to spread message the that there was no andspeech avoiding escalation the ofthrough conflict the the spread of misinformation. around corruption the allegations. Considerable effort was put into keepingtrack of hate ing conflict the in orderpeople’s to distract attentionfrom ever-growingthe scandals on police, the voices from opposition the government’s the suspect involvement instag intoentry NATO and EUinorder the to avoid of rise such the terrorist groups. Greeks from Anatolia came into Greece and its adjacent regions ( Muslims from Macedonia were displaced to Turkey, around while 1.200.000 ethnic ulation was considerably reduced apopulation when exchange happened: some 350.000 Remembering the2001conflict:whatisdifferentnow While government the insists to hold extremist Albanians responsible for attack the The ethnic componentThe ethnic fluctuated time, in asa response the to major the imbalance in Afterthe declaration of Macedonianthe independence in1991, Bulgaria recognized Historically geographic the speaking, of territory Macedonia is scattered across three The policeearlyclasharmed withthe in May inevitablytriggered associationswith ELENA CEBAN Cowan, 2005:2 ). Sotirovic 2015 Sotirovic 2015 ) . Eighty ) - - - . assembly, police, university and academy of Enforced sciences. by impressive the number that Kosovo obtained it, together with right the to have own their president, government, “minorities”. TheAlbanian-speaking minority was notgranted autonomysamethe in way languagehood, and alphabet. ( that basis ‘nationalities’ residing throughout various the republics, and gave rights on certain them as a constituentognized ‘people’. Tito’s structure new separate recognized ‘peoples’ and emergence of nationalist politics. Under Tito’s inYugoslavia, rule, Macedonians were rec leavingAlbanian-speaking, around 65%Macedonians and roughly 10%other ethnicities. population census happened in2002.Nevertheless, around afourth of population the is hard to estimate today’s ratio of Albanian-speaking citizens, due that to fact the last the Kosovo arrived inMacedonia –one refugee eight for citizens ( every years after, as a result the warof in Kosovo, over a quarter of amillion from refugees September 2002elections. Democratic Union for Integration, DUI, entered which coalition government afterthe municipalities. Thus,politicians, leaders theturned Albanian of guerrilla foundedthe Albanian representation inParliament and gave more autonomy to Albanian-populated ( ceive education native intheir language, becomes which an official language statethe of ethnicity that represents over 20%of population the of Macedonia got right the to re Macedonia’s sovereignty by making concessions to Albanian the population. Thus,every tee for Macedonia’s accession to NATO and EU. the The Agreement bids for keeping – adocument backed by United the States and EUthat the main the became guaran remains unknown ( of over 60Macedonian soldiers and policemen. The number casualtiesof among NLA thousands several with ended flict of internallypersons displaced and theclaimed lives towns northern the of Kumanovo and Tetovo and to close capital the Skopje. The con near border the with Kosovo. next the few months, Over fighting spread to areas near National called so Liberation control Army seized (NLA) over of village the Tanusevci community got involved inan armed conflict beginning the at century.of a new North-West and by radicalized awish to gain power political and privileges, Albanian the of Kosovar indifferent refugees settled who Macedonian regions acrossthe North and Framework Agreement 2001) Naturally, establishment the of a“majority” automatically shaping the triggered of The commotion created twoby world wars displacementand ethnic leftspace the for But Agreement Ohrid the had alimited impact. While focusing on immediate results The outcomes the conflictof were materializedthe by Ohrid FrameworkAgreement The conflict in armed the of the guerrillas Macedoniawhen started in 2001, February Cowan, 2005:12 DEMOCRATIC AWAKENINGINMACEDONIA:EXPECTINGTHEUNEXPECTED Balkan InsightBalkan 2007 ). The Socialist Socialist Macedonia). The gained recognition of its nation . Besides recognition. Besides of cultural rights, it created space for ). Cowan, 2005:5 ). It is - - - - - 29 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 30 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy that monitors hate political works speech, to prevent violence during protests and offers projects. The Committee Helsinki for HumanRights in Skopje is an active organization tions supported development the by of funding society civil and encouraging cultural Since proclamation the of independence 23years ago, various international organiza cooperation inmixed municipalities, fostered by emergence the of an open civic society. claim achange of government. namethe dispute with Greece are just some reasons that pushed people into streets the to expression, of scandals corruption high and halted negotiations of with EUbecause the economic situation. High rates of unemployment, increased taxes, limited freedom of ( frastructure discrimination labor inthe market, insecondary, and education, higher inoutlays on in administration increased by 25%,Albanians intermittently Macedonians the accused of though Albanians were handed important and ministries participation their public inthe government’sthe survival. a starting point, we can safely assume that at stake is not Macedonia’s integrity, but rather and allegations of corruption to apresumable clash ethnic and escalation. Having as this hold on to power by switching public attention from massive the wiretapped scandals a terrorist Albanian faction in the side of Kumanovo is an attempt of government the to encouraging young the generation not to foster division. the Albaniansbetween and Macedonians by organizing events held languages inboth and by Kumanovo is known on anational level for its efforts to blurthe physicalboundaries interethnictween them, friendships are not uncommon and even joint events happen. side doesn’t mean that conflict is imminent.Although there is limited interactionbe Albanian events. shop in Albanian shops and markets, on weekends go to they Albanian cafes and attend community is culturally divided. Albanian children go to Albanian schools, parents their due to institutionalized the procedure of “double majority”. Political interests aside, the created with Albanian deadlocks, junior often party ruling blocking legislative initiatives, communities. The envisionedsolutionpolitical of double representation in government includedwhich actions, division the halting it two the ethnic military deepened between to European funds for and political both funding sectors. civil the opportunities Other ment with EUand the becoming acandidate in2005,Macedonia country got access counseling and support to LGBT the community. Afterthe signing Association Agree Another argument infavor from descends an of established theory this practiceof In Albanians 2001,the were genuinely disenchanted with governing the party. Al As previous inthe seen of paper, this section recent the and police clash the between But that fact the there is adivision municipalities inthe where ethnicities re both Vaknin, 2009:591 ). Today, population the all is dissatisfiedcurrentwiththe ELENA CEBAN ------its ruling. power of aprofoundly corrupt government ignores which popular dissatisfaction with renewed conflict draws ethnic the attention awayfrom the real problem:the retention in 2015 was largely unheard of traditionally inthe segregated ethnically ( sector media published sharp anti-government commentary by Macedonians, ethnic something that toairtime opposition voices, aremarkable gesture of solidarity. Albanian web-sites have Alsat, an station Albanian-owned that TV was airing wiretaps the and offering extensive dented mass movement that preceded conflict the in Kumanovoearly in May. And it was banians gathered inSkopje to request Prime Minister to resign, Gruevski inan unprece perceivedcould be during anti-governmental the protests. Macedonians Both and Al came from of Council the Europe and from Soros the Foundation. would thank himfor spending of years his best walls the Vlada, the atwitter between and Twitter are main the “meeting points” for people to connect and plan activity. their agenda for daily events. The Protestiram movement hasdaily a agenda as well. Facebook Plenum and High-School the Students’ Plenum had an position official statement and an to media mobilize forcessocial and build up astructured movement. Students’ the Both veillance ( to openly express opinions, their and another are to state they 64%think exposed sur European Training in2014 indicated that majority the of Macedonia’s citizens, 53%,fear likes of Venezuela ( House’s Press Freedom Index. year, Last Macedonia sunkto 123,languishing with the ofparts Macedonia. government extremely acted careful inorder not to fever letthe of unrest raise inother Skopje due that to fact the nationalchannels TV and press were not covering The them. siderable of part population the that was unaware of frequent the protests happening in and what is delivered to rest the of population. the Without any doubt, there is acon Media coverage To sum up, comparing year’s this events with 2001and claiming that there is arisk of The results this continuousof process of between communitiesfostering dialogue For instance, afterthe PM Gruevski’swhich in he mentioned speech that nobody Condemning corruption the circles, media inthe young people resorted to online In 2007,Macedonia ranked number of 36,ahead United the States, in Freedom Media plays role acrucial in creating what between link the is happening streets in the ). Georgievski 2015 Georgievski DEMOCRATIC AWAKENINGINMACEDONIA:EXPECTINGTHEUNEXPECTED Joseph 2015 ). ). Research conducted by Macedonian the Centre for Joseph - - - - 31 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 32 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy uents out walking with resignation their confident inhand to be seemed about it. organizedwho acamp infront of Government the with intention the to watch its constit masses.the party, opposition the boldly, to act decided and apparently enjoyed they support the of more careful consideration constantly made. to needs be Being constrained by ruling the Yet, rather than immediately jumping to conclusion the that it’s another conflict, a ethnic duecountry to its Albanian population are echoing still and country inthe both abroad. belligerent at episode end the of twentieth the century. tablished afterthe collapse the of YugoslavRepublic and wentthrough an unfortunate Its tumultuous keeps history haunting still-young the democratic republics that were es countriesBalkan comes up and news inthe read tags the “conflict”, “protest”, “casualties”. ( bigger than simply disseminating information about situation the inKumanovo 2015). (Georgievski have become synonymous with regime the that inpower has been for nearly ten years ofof law, rule the government’s the tightening control of and media the other issues that out state to poor the of economy, level of high the corruption, application selective the tude”. With messages of irony full and sarcasm, Macedonia’s twitter community pointed campaign under hashtag the thankyouNikola (falaNikola) awave unleashed of “grati Georgievski 2015 Georgievski Concluding remarks This time,Thisthatthe wind blowsfrom Macedonia promises a change. peopletheAt least When it comes to Macedonia, concerns over possibility the of adisintegration of the It is inevitable for European the community one time to feel of uneasiness the every Serbian) that media published alot of disinformation, essentially for calling blood.” and as adirect opposite acted to numerous the Macedonian pro-government and regional (especially “It showed its importance as atool for calming tensions different the between communities ethnic from Georgjevski that BIRNBoris believes role was the much media of social the ): ELENA CEBAN - - -
http://www.radiomof.mk/stav-na-nastavnichkiot-plenum-vo-vrska-so-prekinot-na-bojkotot-na-srednoshkolcite/ “Twitter (2015)Boris, Georgievski and Facebook Demolish Macedonia’s Wall of Silence” ,in framework_agreement_ohrid_130801_en.pdfv on 13August 2001,available at http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/the_former_yugoslav_republic_of_macedonia/ Framework Agreement (2001), Democratic Reform and Adapting to the Needs of Fighting Terrorism Fluri PH, Gustenau GE,Pantev PI (2005) (ed) available a0074http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52005DC0562&from=EN former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia for membership of the European Union European Commission (2005),Commission of European the Communities, Cowan JK(2000) balkaninsight.com/en/article/who-is-who-political-parties-in-macedonia InsightBalkan (2010),„Key Political Parties inMacedonia” in InsightBalkan (2007),“Macedonia Marks Six Year of Anniversary Peace Ohrid Deal”, in http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/thousands-attend-counter-protest-macedonia-150518182726231.html . JazeeraAl (2015),“Thousands attend counter-protest in Macedonia”, in Vaknin S(2009) Sotirovic (2015)Vladislav B., “Kosovization of Macedonia”, in available at: (Statement of Teachers’ the Plenum regarding boycott the of students), high-school MOF, Radio 20.05.2015, 12:08, MOFRadio (2015),“ Marusic (2015b)Sinisa Jakov, “Calm Returns to Devastated Macedonian Town”, in May 2015. Marusic (2015a), Sinisa Jakov, “Macedonia Opposition Tapes Challenge PM’s Patriotism Claims”, in 10 May 2015. Joseph (2015)Edward P.,Balkans, Interrupted. “The The Protests in Macedonia Beginning”, Only are the Jordanovska (2015)Meri, “Pro-Regime Down inMacedonia”, Campers Bed in References Macedonia: ANation at aCrossroads Macedonia: The Politics of Identity andDifference DEMOCRATIC AWAKENINGINMACEDONIA:EXPECTINGTHEUNEXPECTED Став на Наставничкиот пленум во врска со прекинот на бојкотот на средношколците” на бојкотот прекинот со врска во пленум на Наставничкиот Став Ohrid
Framework Agreement. Concluded at Ohrid, Macedonia. The Evolution of the Civil-Military Relations Southin East Europe:Continuing , Lidija Rangelovska -ANarcissus Publications Imprint, Skopje. Balkan Insight InSerbia , Pluto Press, London. , Physica Verlag, Heidelberg. , 23May 2015. Al Jazeera
Commission Opinion on the application from the the from application the on Opinion Commission , 27September 2010,available at , COM(2005) 562final, 09.11.2005, Brussels, Balkan Insight , 18May 2015,23:18GMT, avilable at Balkan Insight Balkan Insight Balkan Insight , 19May 2015. Signed at Skopje, Macedonia , 11May 2015. , 13August 2007. Balkan Insight, Foreign AffairsForeign , 15May 2015.
http://www. . 16 , 33 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy A fields. Furthermore,Scandinavianthe without as acountry seen is country particular profile, a strengths or was createdCouncil inorder to solve questions related to cooperation among Nordic the countries inall promoting The 74 peace. agreementswiththe EU, third led to a modification in law.Norwegian A Nordic that Norway is an isolated country. Norway is one of strongest the international actors it when comes to the ScandinavianThe is strategy to on alimitedfocus number of international relationships.doesn’t This mean Abstract Cluj-Napoca (Romania). E-mail: * collaboration and international cooperation. War past inthe few and years, especially Norway to has work begun harder inmatters of tion, without integrating or belonging group. to aparticular Thus,Second after the World wished. In current the context of globalization, it has become impossible to live inisola geographical area,in a particular where could organize they and live lives their as they Tevdovski thinks? comes to culture, it is legitimate to ask it whether really is as important an actor, as Ljuben initiatives (Tevdovski sense inthis and work, dialogue in peace one being of countries the that has most the projects and known about Norwegian culture on an international level. (Kavli; Thorkildsen 2009). majorin which improvements are required. The research showsthingsthat few are very of Norwegianthe International Ministry Affairs,culture represents one the of main fields Key words: public and cultural diplomacy. andweaknesses that about few people think or are to. linked Norway as inmatters amodel seen can be of ȘtefanaTeodora PopaisaPhDStudentinLetters atFacultyofLetterstheBabeș-Bolyai Universityfrom Diplomacy Norway’s PublicandCultural In past, Norwegians the the were happy and satisfied to live„beautiful isolation”, in According to Ljuben Tevdovski, Norway is a major cultural actor and a role model however, is rarely associated with concept the of „culture”. In by areport realised NATION’S CULTURE SHOULD Norway, public diplomacy, cultural diplomacy, NORAD, peacekeeping [email protected]
2009: 68).Norway is amilitant for but peace, it when aid inachieving international recognition. Norway
Stefana Teodora POPA © The Author(s)2015 1 - * 3(1) 35–49 35 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 36 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy to EU rules (single currency,to EUrules policy, security etc.) such as Britain, Sweden or Denmark, Finland or Germany, for example. Compared to other countries that present exceptions that Norway is associated with three-quarters of work the of EUcountries, more than decisive influence the EU of on is obvious.policy Norwegian The also concludes report of 74agreements with EU. the third This led to a modification in law.Norwegian The nothing to dowith country. their if such action implied possibility the of death for Norwegian soldiers inawar that had blishing inAfghanistan, peace Norway assumed responsibility the to troops, send even fightingpoverty, as muchpossible. as theWhen UN requestedthe help of NATO for esta supports objectives the of organization this regarding strategy, peace human rights and tional decisional system implies assuming some obligations. As aUNmember, Norway mentionedto be that Norway is aNATO member and as such, of part being an interna st pollution and of destruction the natural resources. Considering power, political it has most(the recent example is Ukraine), one of most the important actors fight inthe again onepeace, of countries the that offer strong financial support to impoverished countries nomically and culturally. Even ifNorway state, is asmall influence this both ways. goes areeven Africa continents that have great influence the on politically,Norwegians, eco deration its connections with other countries and organizations. Europe, USA,Asia and patterns as other nations. position, history, culture are features special and thus, Norway doesn’t follow same the financial crisis of recent years like other western countries. Ofcourse, its geographical an EU member, or it because is one of few the countries that has not affected been the by major interest ininternational relations. sought to expand its partnerships with countries that had not previously represented a relationships, want they which to develop. However, past inthe few years, Norway has with European the Union 2012 butthem, it stands outside of decision-making the EU ( the bodies figurethe is clearlylarger for Norway.Scandinavian The nearly is country as integrated as Norway’s internationalrelations Mainly, Scandinavian the strategy is to on focus alimited number of international A 2012report on Norway’s relations with Europe showed that Norway has atotal Norway is one of strongest the international actors it when comes to promoting the This doesn’t thatmean Norway is an isolated country, if take intowe especially consi Norway is often a called “different country”. This is largely fact due the to that it is not ). STEFANA TEODORAPOPA Norway’s agreements - - - - - ( to maintain its neutrality political and was careful not to violate principles the of NATO main regarding goal country’s the foreign affairs was NATO accession, Norway wanted to Internal led this. ideology litical affairs weresameBecausethe in guided direction. attention to West. the The orientation towardspolicy, security foreigneconomy po and from seen following the be Second after perspective: the World War, Norway turned its interestedther only country northern the extent. to asmall Thelack of interest may also that old but rivals, between believed process the also they of bringing countries the toge arouse much interest at first. The the initiativesNorwegians praised toreduce animosities become an EUmember. and citizens.experts It cannot still said for be sure or whether not Norway one will day lations nations. In context the of establishing Norway’s international relations with other sta as importance the of national their identity. strength and depth of Norwegian the bond the between people and country, their as well erotic patriotic connection ( with country” their title of an „The Norwegian article in asuccessful newspaper: Norwegians have almostan say that it is an ideology, aguiding principle Norwegian inthe life. The followingthe is Rudi; Tønnessen 2009 European Parliament, European the European Council, the Commission ( have chance the represented to be of decision-making inthe EU, the bodies such as the troleum and fishing industry), relationswith countries outsidethe ERA, and it doesn’t doesn’t share same the politics it when comes to justice, security, natural resources (pe environmental protection, insurance, education, culture etc. petition. The agreement includesalso collaboration in other life,areas social suchof as At same the time, itfrom benefits sametherules and conditions regarding market com guarantees “the four freedoms”: movement free and capital. of people, services goods, Norway’s agreements with European the Union 2012 Norwegian Culture Throughthe EuropeanEconomic Area (EEA) Agreement, Norway is guaranteed and In Norwegian the environment, political European the integration process didn’t Since ‚60s,there the have ongoing been debates inNorway regarding country the The concept of The culturesubject, particular and Norwegian we would is a wrongnotbe very if we otherOn the hand, Norway is not obliged to introduce Euro), (the EUcurrency the it with European the community. Opinions are almost divided equally, among both ‘ culture’ is slightly different in Norway,from what it means for other ) . NORWAY’S PUBLICANDCULTURAL DIPLOMACY Skjeggestad 2013 ). ) . This title. This suggeststhe Tøtlandsmo; ’s re ’s ------37 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 38 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy gian way of promoting themselves abroad. a sensitive matter, and it must studied be carefully ifwe want to understand Norwe the attitude have they towards importance the and significance culture.their of It is obviously an issue among Norwegians (even disputes networking on social sites) clearly shows the enough ( swer Tajik gave caused adisturbance were they because not traditionalist and nationalist culture and ifit was important for state the to defend its culture and traditions. The an officially asked Hadia theTajik, Ministerculture of that at time, how she saw Norwegian and firm. malevolent, complicated and can follow wrong the path, but nature always prevails, pure patience and simplicity. Civilizations can break down, and can being be man, as asocial of identity. In eyesof the Norwegians, nature is asymbol of strength and continuity, human rights and values Christian are Nordic deeply inthe embedded citizens’ sense around other the values all which revolve. values, such as equality Social-democratic or to Norwegian culture and ways the must they inwhich Kindness preserved. be is axis the identity, Norwegian culture and traditions is omnipresent and puts Norway indifficulty. otherOn the hand, fear the that immigration once will again to loss lead the of national rights and and therefore peace feels that it is a moral duty to accept and help immigrants. to react insuch asituation. one Onthe hand, Norway is astrong supporter of human debate and disagreement. In away, Norway didnot (and it doesn’t still yet) know how identity. The issue of immigrationcaught them guardoff thereforeand generated much was forced to confront another issue that to seems threaten its barely regained national other Onthe hand,ideals. recent inthe years, context inthe of globalization, Norway was hard to rediscover Norwegian the essence and it one became of main the national Norwegians werefree finally to come forward. soAfter many centuries of domination it unfavourable contexts. gained Aftertheirthey when definitive 1905, independence, the strong desire Norwegian the to assert spirit, to get out of suppression the by imposed of other the Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Sweden), Norway has always had a concept means to As them. that acountry has always under domination the been of one tes from and especially a cultural point of view, it is important to understand what this central location or hub of organizations or multinational corporate brands, and is not a only 5million people, lacks an international language or transnational culture, is not a plomacy through actions rather than broadcasting. Norway example. is agood It has Joseph S.Nye claims that “some countries accomplish of almost all public their di The simplethat fact evasivean answer regardingthe culture Norwegian created such The debatebegan the endat when a of 2012, representative the of Progress Party In January 2013,there was astrong debate concerning values the that are important Stortinget 2012 ). STEFANA TEODORAPOPA - - - dia havedia made Norway’s politics external much more on image the focused that Norwe its image and role.” ( overall, Norway shows how can country exploit a small a diplomatic niche that enhances politicstic of sometimes whaling adiscordant strike note among environmentalists, but peacekeeping forces. Ofcourse, not Norwegians all actions are on message. The domes andSri Lanka, Colombia, as well as its large aid budget, and its frequent participation in world. inthe peace The relevant include activities conflictmediation East, the in Middle its target audiences and its concentration on asingle message –Norway as aforce for out of proportions to its modest sizeand resources through prioritisation aruthless of member of European the Union. Nonetheless, it has developed avoice and apresence ropean countries. Moreover, by analysing we this, get a better understanding of way the However, it is only normal that Norway belongs to agroup differentfrom the other Eu associateof interviewees Norwaythe with North, the cold, the handball, or blonde hair. countries. One of conclusions the of report the mentioned above Most this. is exactly cognition is that it is often part whole,as seen of a alongside Scandinavianthe other ( Norwegian characteristics, clean wilderness, environment, brave explorers, and forth so thatcan see it is built inaprofessional manner. We are introduced to most the beautiful andgical efficient manner. Considering thewww.norway.org.uk, website for instance, we meansthe of culture. Such as inany other field, serious,carries Norway ina itself strate Norway tural diplomacy. At same the time, other organizations, such as of The Ministry Foreign Affairs the is mainplayer coordinating in activities the cul of states that were formerly of part enemy the camp. firstthe time. Around 1950 bilateral agreements statesbothwerewithallied signed and cond World War. Concurrently, Norwegian the cultural diplomacy was formalized for connections invarious areas” ( „improves mutual understanding, establishes long-term contacts, and strengthens the gians have abroad. of The Ministry Foreign Affairs defines public diplomacy as one that Holden 2007:89 Norwegian CulturalDiplomacy In past the few years, technological the development and democratization of me the One of problems the Norway has with regarding to deal international cultural re In last the few years, Norway has invested much very ininternational promotion. The state engaged in itself promotingthe culture Se Norwegian after the especially or or NORAD (development agency) ) . Nye 2002:141-142 NORWAY’S PUBLICANDCULTURAL DIPLOMACY Støre
2009 ). play role a crucial in promoting by country the ). Visit Norway, Innovation ------39 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 40 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy University professors were dominants meetings inthe ( have any direct contact with governments the or parliaments of involved the countries. among Nordic the countries came into In being. its form, initial Commission the didnot sion was held inOslo. Thus,without anywritten agreement,culturalthe collaboration tobers aNordic Cultural Commission. One year later, first the meeting this commisof Sweden. concluded, They among things,that other each country should appoint 2 mem countries. Unfortunately, of because war, the meetings the didnot continue. tween students, teachers as well as teaching the of Nordic languages of in all Nordic the met inorder inCopenhagen tries to establish some agreements regarding exchanges be as acommonhad basis for served national the all culture. itbecause belonged to before atime national fixed boundariesbecause hadand been it site sidesof war. the War five the led Nordic countries intothree different camps, two which of were on oppo foreign relations, defence and economics. We cannot also forget that World Second the testantism. However, five the governments pursue incompatiblepolicies in matters of of education, constitutions similar political and a common adherence to Lutheran Pro different.level ahigh They all are welfare services, states, social developed highly with ofCouncil European the Council. collective cooperationthe 21member the states between Cultural in the Cooperation is and Sweden), together with Finland and Iceland form The Scandinavian (the North word Norwegian cultural diplomacy has evolved. inter-parliamentary organ of consultation.treaty The with dealt collaboration in judicial, cooperation treaty and it wasn’t meant to change status the of Nordic the as an Council national delegations and three the sectors now had apermanent secretariat each. for education, higher one for general education and one for adult education and The arts. two parliament members. Also, commission the its divided work into one three sections: reorganised:had been eachnational delegation included one seniorthe official, besides tion among Nordic the countries fields. the inall By 1954, Nordic CommissionCultural mission. The NordicCouncil was created in ordersolve to questions related to coopera Noreen After the SecondAfterthe World War,Scandinavianthreethe countries (Denmark, Norway In Helsinki 1962,the Agreement was signed. The Helsinki Agreement was a Nordic The NordicCouncil was formed in1952 vigourto add the to Nordic ComCultural However, ministers the in1946,asecond meeting between of education took place, in Shortly before of start the World Second the War, representatives of Nordic the coun The Nordiccultural heritage been hasregarded as common property. This was both The Nordic countries representgroup, a special homogeneous, but samethe at time ) signed the European the ) signed Cultural Convention, and played an important role in STEFANA TEODORAPOPA Haigh 1974:149 ). ------nected with nationalnected conditions can, however, required. be Nordic the value inall qualifying countries. Additional for studies reasons necessary con for agiven profession or trade. Such education should, as far as possible, have same the domicile, irrespective of where country the studies the are pursued. Nordic country. It should possible to be receive economic assistance from of country the examination inany passed Nordic towards country examination afinal taken in another establishments. It possible, should be to greatest also the possible extent, to count apart a student from another Nordic to country pursue studies and graduate inits educational tions of other the Nordic countries. clude, inasuitable degree, language, inthe instruction culture condi and general social collaboration, clauses the read as follows: economiccultural, social, matters, communications and other fields.Regarding cultural had supplies. better food To support exchanges, these along with inother activities fields thousands of Norwegian and Finnish children to Swedish or Danish families, as latter the ter-towns”. authorities local the and other voluntary organisations. the This concept led to „sis of portant cities and ones. even insmall Plus, branches local the have contacts close with influencethe Nordiccultural relations,which continued carried be out to by NGOs. character. tenttreaty practices.The did not represent a regulation,strict it rather had a more general radio and television should borne inmind.” be ( theatre, film and fieldsother culture; of among possibilities things, other the provided by Parties promote shall Nordic free popular education fields inthe of literature, art, music, ble way, among other things by establishing joint institutions. funds and other resources available co-ordinated be will and exploited In possi best the development plans and implementation. their tional establishments should made uniform be through continuous co-operation over Article 10. The Contracting 10.The Article shouldParties co-ordinate publiceducation qualifying Contracting 9.Each PartyArticle should maintain and extend opportunities the for Nordic 8.In every country,„Article education and training given at in schoolshall After the SecondAfterthe World War,the Swedish Danishand associations organizedvisits for Most of Nordic the non-governmental organizations have branches of in all im the In its first years of existence,the Nordic CommissionCultural did not significantly These werearticles important conventionalised becausethey mostly alreadythe exis 13.InArticle order to support and strengthen cultural development Contracting the 12.Co-operationArticle field inthe of researchso shouldbe organisedthat research 11. InArticle fieldswhere the co-operation isthe expedient, development educaof NORWAY’S PUBLICANDCULTURAL DIPLOMACY Haigh 1974:140-141 ). ------41 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 42 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy relations states. between of isolated countries inan international system meant to develop cultural the diplomatic countries the between belonging group. to aspecial Moreover, to integration led the this By creating treaties those and all agreements, collaboration a powerful was developed waswhich of significant importance forthe Nordic countries and by default, for Norway. contribution ininternational cultural cooperation. Atactivities. same the time, treaty the had aim the of creating abasis for acoordinated combined effect the countries’of investmentseducation, in research and cultural other Parties inorder develop to Nordic the further cultural community and to increase the ening and intensifying cultural Contracting the cooperation between sense inawide strument was which expressed agreement. new inthe hadwhich itself played an important inworking part out plans the for in said the new One of features new the of it was disappearance the of Nordic the Cultural Commission, a more instrument powerful of cultural collaboration than any that had existed before. members of Committee. the The new Nordic Cultural Agreement to create succeeded governments, between tacts represented by of Council the Ministers, and the between equivalentmentary of aNordic of Council Ministers. This in aided formalizingthe con and strengthened position the of Nordic the Council. Moreover, it parlia the became created by Nordic the Cultural Agreement, same inthe year signed ( dic countries continued to operate until it 1971, when was replaced by structure, a new award two years musical inthe every field. This patterncultural of diplomacy the in Nor a writer from Nordic the year. countries every literature, Besides offer also they asimilar to strengthen cooperation the cultural inthe field.Council theSincehas 1962, awarded through grant, a small it to 5 hadmillion Danish risen crowns by 1972 ( connected to culture, decision the to create aNordic Cultural Fund was made. Instituted is one of issues the that challenge Norwegian the public diplomacy. Leonard and Small end of said the war, Nordic the was somewhat country overshadowed. This invisibility members of because its geographical position (border with Russia north), afterin the the Actors andactions The NordicCouncil,through the Committee,Cultural initiated actions certain meant While, during War, Cold the Norway was astrategic priority for USAand other NATO which followedSecondperiod Thethe World War represented acollective experience The samerevisionsthe basically had before. as goals The treaty was aiming atstrength Basically, structure version new was this arevised of Nordic the Cooperation Treaty STEFANA TEODORAPOPA Haigh 1974:149 Haigh 1974:149 ). ). - - - - - in Norway to negotiate asolution.ritual The that is participantsthe are invited in to walk mentionedwhen ina conflicting processes. war parties is This used method are invited Norwegian actors governmental (both and non-governmental) conduct above inthe fighting for humanrights peace keepingand (since 1950). gian government involved has been for along inhelping time impoverished countries, ture. Establishing objectives may like more these seem formal nowadays, but Norwe the gether with nature, the an egalitarian and an international with aspirit society of adven is:which asuperpower humanitarian inthe maker, field/peace which lives society ato to distinguish it from rest” the ( for Norwegian the it identity; is similar to Scandinavia –its shared culture not does help wegians English but speak not versa; vice it lacks brands or icons -there are no emissaries –inpopulation,small economy it and lacks linguistic culturally; attraction –many Nor showed that „there are anumber of factors that perpetuate Norway’s invisibility: it is Norwegian award. Council Design is nowportal officialthat the face showsNorway the to world and in2004 itreceived the connected to Norway the Portal, introduced at end the of 2003( most visited as well. embassies’ the All websites have astandardized and are design they most the activehas one been interms of amount the of documents uploaded and the Norwegianthe government has established official their websites, the Foreign Ministry foreign ( activities policy ways had to share information with public the inorder to get support and approval of of problematic the Because relationship with domestic the society, has al Ministry the and lectures where groups only actors select of have societal invited been to participate. anism Foreign the has relied upon Ministry is consulting public the through conferences publicthe indiscussions about initiatives political and priorities. Rather, only the mech ues of its foreign policy. rely ministries Other on a broad array of mechanisms to engage samethe it time is reluctant to engage inpublic debates regarding priorities the and val tion exchange and it coordinates number itself actors, with aselect of but society civil at 2000: 51-53 resentative (Guatemalan guerrilla-representatives inmid-1990s)( agreement in1993)or to private inthe spendtime cottage of aNorwegian NGO-rep north of woods the Oslo (Israeli and Palestinian negotiations that to Oslo led the peace Dobinson a metaphor, and used Dale the In order to change view, this Norway has to present itself to world the as a country Norway relies on coordination the of public diplomacy inacentralized and corporat The internet effectivetoolbecome has a very for public outreachactivities. Ever since The Norwegian Foreign establishes variousMinistry collaboration forms, informa ). NORWAY’S PUBLICANDCULTURAL DIPLOMACY Batora 2005:16-21 Leonard and 2003:2 Small ). Norwegian backpack ). www.norway.info , to describe how, to describe the Dobinson and Dale ). This ------43 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 44 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy tation, and Department the for Information and Press ( into two separate of sections Ministry, the Department the for Culture and Norway presen to culture and its promotion.culture The media, and informationsector was now divided 1980andplace between 1990as an activity of Foreign the and paid more Ministry attention in Lillehammer, in1994.The projectOppbrudd og fornyelse and (Beginning took renewal) image of Norway continued, context inthe especially of Winter the Olympic Games, hosted capitalistwith new the way of looking at cultural cooperation ( were on human focused rights policy. and security aligned vision This perfectly new was In it case, this was clearly underlined that Norwegian the goals regarding foreign policy wegian parliament. New visions were replacing traditionalist one. the with anew policy development and culture must protected be from commercialization” ( by led Norwaycultural policy on grounds isthe based that “culture has value, culture brings at alook take support the it has received from Norwegian the state throughout years. the The attract worldwide attention. themselves with state. their Furthermore, enables on focus peace Norway special the to wegian Foreign can capitalize Ministry on, actors as to so attract into societal identifying and cultures around world) the ( atwhich same the is time attractive to outside the world (most regimes, political religions rectional platform, majority the which of can Norwegian with, the identify and society space. The virtual in the stateNorwegian has managedposition to itself on a multi-di themselves ininternational to activities promote one of or values, especially these several worldin the would find attractive. actorsNorwegian (both state and non-state) involve imagesThese and valuesnature, (peace, equality) represent valueswhich any society of Norway have upon, decided inorder been to represent Nordic the abroad. country way is presented abroad. Therefore,set a of images and valuesthat capture the essence ist manner. of The Ministry Foreign Affairsactor the coordinates is which the way Nor to have state’s inthe foreign matters. policy Moreover, in field and public diplomacy. This indicates the major thatrole communication begun has emphasise development the and importance of international collaboration cultural inthe „Oppbrudd ogfornyelse” In project, this main the was to idea portray role the of culture in foreign and to policy discussions 1990s,the the During and attempts to establish ways to promote aunited In relation 1985,the culture between and foreign was clarified the policy by Nor In order about to talk how foreign concept the uses policy of culture, it’s important to STEFANA TEODORAPOPA www.norway.info ). Thisgreat is a abilitythat the Nor Lending 2000 Oppbrudd og fornyelse og Oppbrudd Matlary 2002 Schackt 2009:40 ). ). ). , it was ). - - - - - infrastructure, agriculture and other economic This commitment aspects. with started way took inmatters of cooperation for development the of life standards, institutions, why to create it was necessary such an instrument was public the commitment that Nor tiative, NORAD reports to of Norwegian the Climate Ministry and Environment. tional collaboration. In matters regarding Norway’s International Climate and Forest Ini of Norwegianthe Foreign Ministry Affairsthat withthe development deals of interna structure evolving around NORAD the program for cultural development. cultural field should notbelong to ministerial structures. It shouldbe anindependent proposed for third the that time administration the of international cooperation inthe were returning back home visions with knowledge. new global and This mentality social, Lutheranthe missionaries’ expeditions around world. the The missionariesNorwegian nore. Many of its present keeping practicesinpeace have roots deep inhistory, since Leraand 2015 underdeveloped countries, human rights and environment protection ( make Norway one of most the important actors on international the of scene supporting VietnamLanka, and on. so Nowadays, NORAD one is still of main the mechanisms that NORAD had stand-alone branches countries: inseveral India, Ethiopia, Portugal, Sri wegians embassies, project initially through atrial that took place inNamibia in1990. tensively inAsia After andthe 1990, agency’s Africa. offices were integrated the in Nor management of bilateral assistance. In its first years of activity, NORAD had worked in regularly beganto be ects implemented, more NORAD focused on planning the and role inhelping people better understand development the of aid-projects. When proj the mentation of bilateral agreements for development aid. Also, mechanism this had abig agreement Norway between and India regarding fishing ( a subvention Norway offered the to Fund for UnderdevelopedCountries andwith an Peace keeping NORAD NORAD came into in1968 as being Directorate the for Development Aid. The reason NORAD The work peace keeping in Norway does is an impressive one and impossible to ig In 1970sand the 1980s,NORAD played acentral role inplanning both and imple or The Norwegian Agency forDevelopment Cooperation is an underagency ). NORWAY’S PUBLICANDCULTURAL DIPLOMACY Norad 2015 ). Johannessen and ------45 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 46 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy exporter, Norway as astable, is seen reliable partner. as amediator, militant, peace support for Third World countries or as a fishseafood and son 2005:80-83 fighttries againstpoverty, corruption, and forpeace-building peacekeepingand ( with Great Britain, Canada, Germany, Netherlands the and Sweden. Together, coun these “Utstein Group” partnership, for example, is aproject developed by Norway in cooperation and in significant quantity.Also, it capableis easily coordinatingof with countries.other society. Norway is that a country has a lot to offer, and it thecapacityhas of acting quickly lished just with governments, but with organizations, also associations, companies or civil pared to branding and manipulation.partnerships The do not necessarily havebe estab to partnerships. Partnerships are on is which dialogue, amore based effective com method ence, Norwegians the have visible, to be noticed. tobest be The way thatto do through is scene, Norway should promote itself as ahumanitarian superpower. In order to gain influ “the international capital of peace” ( istic spirit, by desire the to solve conflicts aroundthe world.Basically, become Norway has fjords,the amazing nature the or are discovery oil overshadowed the by altru Norwegians keeping has become most the important element of national pride. The midnight the sun, tured into Cyprus and and Somalia Sudan” ( slavia, and Colombia’s government and FARC the rebel movement. Norwegians have ven Communist between rebels talks andpeace Philippine the government; Croatia and Yugo for astep-by-step reconciliation Realisations between and Palestinians. northofin the Europe. The Oslo Accord went public in August 1993 and it contained ideas confidentialitysomehow was naturally assured the by positiongeographical of Norway, up Altogether, to opening led the of they asecretchannel, „the Oslo Channel”. Back called The raeli counterparts. Moreover, research academic to Norwegian-Israeli led new connections. Party Labour the and religious circles, have always maintained relations close with Is their conflictthis was developed outsidethe official sphere.Norwegian politicians, of members year) is an example of efforts the peace Norway keeping.makes in Partially,solutionthe to since 1901. as background the forserved Nobel the Prize for Peace project, inOslo part takes which player field inthe soft of power. foralso superpowers. the The effectiveness of its public diplomacymakes global a Norway The mediation the between conflict of Israel andPalestine (1993, resolved the in same We can say that Norway is a role for model and small both medium-sized countries, but Through variousthese partnerships, Norway gains access. Whether considering its role thatConsidering fact the it country, is a small with no major role on international the In 2002,Frank argued Bruni that „over last the Norwegians decade, have had ahand in ). ). STEFANA TEODORAPOPA Bruni 2002 Bruni Bruni 2002 Bruni ). ). ). This continuous workpeace in Henrik ------the attractivenessthe of Norway as atourist destination, to inwhich as acountry invest, to op and idea this put it intoCommission’s practice. The main objectives are to increase Norwegians themselves. see aboutis also identifying core values underpinning and Norwegian the way the society of is not country this only about desire the perceived to way be inacertain by others. It identity is of great importance. An appropriate strategy for building image asuccessful prestige. As long as states the are central units international in the system, national ( ular profile, strengths or thatand weaknesses people think about few or are linked to positive. Furthermore, Scandinavian the without as acountry is seen country apartic muchknow very about Scandinavian the country, but overall the picture have they is way abroad. is seen The majority these studiesof have concludedthat people don’t cultural life, industry, tourism and influencethat Norway may have internationally. a clear, attractive image of Norway international inthe arena and to strengthen the well thought out and it has to have aclear and positive position. nerable insome country Therefore, respects. the profile of beextremelyhasNorway to groups of Muslims after Muhammadcartoons episode, showthat avul Norway is still tatives of cultural life, organizations, associations, etc.). actors that can assure development the of that attractive profile (authorities, represen states have sufficient resources to create an effectivecollaboration between different presenting an attractive profile; clear, accessible and desirable for those abroad. Many sources and with no work inadvance ( strategy. Until Scandinavian the then, rarely had been country canalized, with few re Norway is little known abroad and what is known about it, is not result the of a certain proposals in order to extend Norway’s importance ( The committee’sjob was to the country’s analyse situation and develop effective good, committee was composed of representatives of authority, and industry cultural life. a profile of Norway and improve its reputation abroad, Omdømmeutvalg.called This Vea 2006 Omdømmeutvalg In aworld of globalization, more and more countries develop importance their by The establishmentthe body is this of result of along that processthebased fact on ofIn Foreign Ministry 2004,the Affairs established acommission in order to build Nowadays, anation can gain a lot by having asuitable strategy for increasing its Since and mid-1980svarious the research surveys were out carried how to see Nor this committeeof The purpose primary is to a build strong plan in order to promote eventsThe of recent years, such as fish export boycottcertain or with conflicts ) . NORWAY’S PUBLICANDCULTURAL DIPLOMACY Omdømmeutvalg Vea 2006 is acomplex project that wants to devel ). Vea 2006 ). ). ------47 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy 48 Journal of Global Politics and Current Diplomacy of cultural and public diplomacy. The Norwegians havethe importance realised softof state the respect, programs has developed several and projects, field inthe especially for Norway to become more visible, better known by people around world. the In this that have amuch bigger role on international the scene. However, there astruggle is still has managed throughouttry years the to become astrong, reliable for partner countries country,is asmall somewhat isolated and with adifferent history,Scandinavianthe coun In 2006was 100 the in Norway. inspiration for contemporary simultaneously while art, increasing international interest Year” wanted to show world the greatness the of works Ibsen and to portray himas an of Norwegian culture and to engage with foreign in direct dialogue audiences. „Ibsen tion and research, to promote and art culture ( strengthen capacities the of labour instrategic areas, to promote technological innova power and continuously they to develop and it try use instrument. as political apowerful ( a budget of about 70million NOK, and preparations the for events these beganin1997 of Giza chaired inEgypt, by first the lady. The committee in charge „Ibsen of Year” had royal family and guests from abroad, and an international held Great gala inthe Pyramid Yearcultural spaces.Ibsen included also asuperb opening gala inOslo, attended by the and seminars about life the and works of famous the writer, held innational libraries or continents.all events These rangedfrom theatre TV programs, to concerts, conferences and spread around world. the advantage of moment. the publicized highly cultural were activities Several organized Henrikson 2005:80-83 A conclusion Ibsen year Norway as inmatters amodel seen can be of public and cultural diplomacy. Even ifit Year”„Ibsen involved 8059 differentevents aroundthe world, in 83 countries, on Henri is afamous Ibsen Norwegian writer, considered of „father drama”. the modern “Ibsen Year” represented aunique opportunity for Norway to show world the best the th anniversary of Ibsen’s death and Norwegian the government took ). STEFANA TEODORAPOPA Vea 2006 ). ). - - Matlary (2002)J.H, Leonard A.(2003), M.;Small pbrudd-og-fornyelse/id105583/ Lending (2000)Mette, nal-printed.pdf gen.no/globalassets/upload/ud/vedlegg/kultur-og-profilering/omdoemme/synovate---improving-norways-reputation-fi Kavli Håkon, LarsH.Thorkildsen (2009), Johannessen, Bjørn Leraand, (2015),“Norad”, Dag inStore norske leksikon. Available at: Holden John, Kirsten, Bound Rachel, Jones Briggs Samuel (2007), in Jan Melissen (ed.), Henrikson (2005)Alan K.,“Niche Diplomacy World inthe Public Arena: Corners of Global the Canadaand Norway”, Haigh (1974),Anthony, Kritiske perspektiver på norsk utenrikspolitikk Dobinson G. (2000), K., Dale (2002)Frank,Bruni International Relations Clingendael. Batora (2005) Joseph, jeringen.no/globalassets/upload/kilde/ud/bro/2006/0049/ddd/pdfv/275674-nyskapende_i_samspill_internett.pdf Vea (2006)Jon, node/8362 Tøtlandsmo Ole Steinar, Rudi Inga Tønnessen Berntsen, (2009), Ragnhild plomacy-Theoretical and comparative studywith a special focus on Macedonia-, Tevdovski Ljuben (2009), Skriftlig-sporsmal/?qid=55722 10.12.2012, available at Stortinget (2012), bladet.no/debatt/2009/utenrikspolitisk_grunntone Støre (2009) html able at: Skjeggestad Helene (2013), Schackt Jon (2009), Nye (2002) Joseph S., Norway’s official website abroad, able at http://www.eu-norway.org/Global/SiteFolders/webeu/NOU2012_2_Chapter_3.pdf Norway’s agreements with European the Union (2012). Outside and Inside,December. Official Reports, Norwegian Avail wards-2015.pdf no/globalassets/import-2162015-80434-am/www.norad.no-ny/filarkiv/vedlegg-til-publikasjoner/norads-strategy-to Norad (2015), demokratiutredningen 1998-2002;No 46,August. References
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