A Gnostic Perspective on Jesus Christ

READINGS •o ^Q

Christianity and Western Culture H=> _Q

Fall 2007

Bethel University / CWC Readings

Contents

Introductory Materials CWC Words 3 Christians and Culture 4 Using the "Christians & Culture" Categories in CWC 5 Martin Luther King Jr., "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" 7

Unit One: The Ancient World and the Early Church Unit Timeline 12 Crito 13 Plato, "The Allegory of the Cave" 14 Aristotle • Parts of Animals 17 • Nicomachean Ethics 18 "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas" 21 Tertullian, "Pagan philosophy—the parent of heresies" 26 Selections from 1 John 27 A Gnostic Perspective on Jesus Christ 28 Christian Creeds 30 "The Letter to Diognetus" 32 Augustine • Confessions 34 • on the "Problem of evil" 41 • The City of God 42 Christians & Culture: Debating Military Service • Tertullian, The Chaplet 49 • Augustine, "Letter to Count Boniface" 50 The Rule of St. Benedict 52

Unit Two: The Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and Luther Unit Timeline 55 "Gawain and the Green Knight" 56 Bede's Penitential 62 Hildegard of Bingen, "These are True Visions..." 64 Anselm, "The Ontological Argument" 68 Thomas Aquinas • "Thomas Responds to Anselm" 69 • "On divine, natural, and human law" 70 Renaissance Humanists on Free Will • Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man 75 • Erasmus, On Free Will 75 Erasmus, A Weapon for the Christian Warrior... 76 Michelangelo, "If my rough hammer..." 81 Martin Luther • "Preface to Paul's Letter to the Romans" 82 • Secular Authority 86 Christians & Culture: Debating the Peasants' War • "The Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants" 89 • Luther, "Admonition to Peace" 91

Unit Three: The Reformations and the Age of Reason Unit Timeline 93 The Reformers and the Anabaptists 94 "The Schleitheim Confession" 97 "The Martyrdom of Michael Sattler" 101 John Calvin, The Golden Booklet of the True Christian Life 105 The Westminster Shorter Catechism 109 "A Homily on Obedience" 111 Thomas Cranmer, "Last Words..." 115 Ignatius Loyola • Spiritual Exercises 117 • "Rules for Thinking with the Church" 118 Galileo, "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" 121 Blaise Pascal, Pensees 124 Baron d'Holbach, Good Sense 127 Benjamin Franklin, Autobiography 131 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan 138 John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government 141 Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence 144 CWC Words

All academic disciplines have their own "jargon"—language which is used as a short-cut to express ideas which are used over and over again in that discipline. CWC is no exception. Here are some key terms you'll need to understand to be successful in CWC.

Culture: Customs, beliefs, values, lifestyles, habits, institutions and symbols of society. (Notice that by "culture" we don't mean just things like theater or museums.) For example, elements of contemporary American culture include "rugged individualism," the right to own a gun, the ability to own your own car, Barbie dolls and MacDonald's.

Western Culture: A broad mega-term we use to cover a set of diverse and evolving cultures which grew up in Europe (Italy, France, Germany, Spain, England etc.) and were later carried to parts of the world Europeans colonized (especially the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand.) We group these cultures/countries together under the umbrella of "Western Culture" because they share a common base in 1) the ideas, institutions and symbols of the ancient Greek and Roman world, and 2) the dominant and formative influence of medieval (Roman Catholic) Christianity. Western Culture is typically associated with the following (both negative and positive) ideas: democratic institutions and the ideal of liberty; an emphasis on logic, authority, and efficiency; individualism; Judeo-Christian morality; a perception that symmetry and order create beauty; and the exploitation of non-western nations.

The "Big Three CWC Questions' As we examine the events, ideas, and people involved in the shaping of Western Culture, we use three basic questions which help us identify distinctive elements over the centuries: 1. What is the relationship between the Individual and God? 2. What is the relationship between the Individual and the Church? (and the nature of the Church)? 3. What is the relationship between Christians and the culture around them? Christians and Culture When the CWC faculty look at the relationship between Christians and the culture around them, they use a set of categories first proposed by H. Richard Niebuhr in 1951. He suggested that as Christians wrestle with their relationship to the culture around them, their attitudes tend to fall into five broad categories. We use a version of these categories in CWC because they give you a useful framework for learning, not because we think they're the whole truth. Spielvogel (the course textbook) also uses some of these categories, but in a less sophisticated way. 1. Christians absorb Cultural Values: This view stresses that human culture is essentially good, and that Christians should affirm and adopt the culture around them. Frequently Christian distinctives disappear into the dominant culture. Example: 19^120^ c Liberal Christianity.

2. Christians reject Cultural Values: This view emphasizes that the world (or human culture) is wicked and that Christians should have nothing to do with the world. For these sorts of Christians "This world is not my home, I'm just a-passing through." Example: 16th century Anabaptists.

3. Christians transform Cultural Values. This position holds that the original goodness of human culture has been thoroughly twisted by the Fall. However, because Christ has come to redeem the whole world (culture as well as individuals), Christians have the job of changing the fallen culture into a Christian culture. Most Christians who hold this view believe that this task will not be completed until Christ comes again to make all things new. Example: the reformer John Calvin.

4. Christians control Cultural Values: This view affirms that human culture is rooted in the goodness of God's creation, but that it is also distorted by the Fall, and therefore under evil dominion. However, because Christ has redeemed the whole world, it is possible to redeem fallen culture. These Christians believe that they have succeeded in transforming the fallen (pagan) culture into a culture dominated by Christian values. Examples: Byzantine society, Medieval Christendom and the Church of England.

5. Christians struggling with Cultural Values: This view affirms that human culture is rooted in the goodness of God's creation, but that it is also distorted by the Fall and, therefore, under evil's domination. Until Christ returns to redeem his creation, believers must live both as members of God's kingdom and in the human culture. Christians in this category believe that they can affirm what is best and biblical in the human culture while avoiding its evil elements. Example: the reformer Martin Luther and his "Two Kingdoms" view. Christians who fit in different categories are not necessarily antagonists. Nor is any particular category "right." People who have deeply and truly loved Christ have fit into all these categories. Nor do all Christians fit neatly into one or another. Real life is amazingly complex. Using the "Christians & Culture" Categories in CWC

Q: What are "cultural values"? A: Cultural values are the ideas, customs, and views which most people in a particular place and time share. For example, some cultural values for 20th century Americans include individualism and appreciation for material success. Although individual medieval men and women might have appreciated these values, as a culture they shared appreciation for continuity and hierarchy (as seen in the great chain of being) and for contentment. Continuity, hierarchy, and contentment are medieval cultural values. Q: What does it mean to "absorb" cultural values? A: To say that a Christian "absorbs" cultural values means that that person willingly accepts a dominant cultural standard or value as the most appropriate Christian position. For example, the 2nd century apologist Justin Martyr is a good example of a Christian absorbing cultural values when he states that intellectual Reason (a highly regarded Greco-Roman cultural value) is so important that he concludes that anyone who is truly reasonable must be a Christian. Q: What does it mean to "reject" cultural values? A: To say that a Christian "rejects" cultural values doesn't necessarily mean that that person rejects everything about the culture. The early monastics (e.g., Anthony, Macrina the Younger) are examples of Christians who reject cultural values—but it doesn't have to be that extreme. Christians who reject cultural values are those who reject specific, dominant values of their time: for example, in the 16th century, Anabaptists like Michael Sattler rejected the medieval value of Christendom and refused to take up arms against invading Turkish armies.

Q: What does it mean to "control" cultural values? A: Medieval and Byzantine Christians (and, in the 16th and 17th century, the Church of England) largely considered themselves to control the values of their culture. The term "Christendom" — a confident sense of the whole of Europe, or Byzantium, really being Christ's kingdom — is born in this moment. This kind of Christian is serious about holding his culture to Christian standards, but has difficulty imagining an alternative, non-Christian approach. Q: What does it mean to be balancing between cultural values -- that is to "Live in Two Kingdoms"? A: Christians we'd label as "Two Kingdoms" are those who are conscious that they simultaneously live both as citizens of the Church and as citizens in the world. Life for them is dominated by the necessity to make appropriate choices. They recognize that their first loyalty is to God, but they must also live responsibly among their fellow humans. The reformer Martin Luther articulates this view. He felt that sometimes the choices between the values of the heavenly kingdom and the values of the earthly kingdom don't leave a Christian any "workable" position. For example: the Gospel values mercy and love highly. The Law values justice highly. If you were sitting on a jury, would you, as a Christian and an earthly citizen, be able to condemn a guilty man to death? To be a "Two Kingdoms" Christian is to live a life in which you keep identifying specific cultural values, and struggle to make appropriate choices. Q: What does it mean to "transform" cultural values? A: Christians whom CWC faculty would label as "transforming cultural values" may be difficult to distinguish from "Two Kingdom" people at times. Both the "Two Kingdoms View" and the "Transforming" view are moderate positions between the poles of absorbing and rejecting cultural values. The reformer John Calvin and the 5th/6th century theologian Augustine are both examples of Christians who try to transform cultural values. In both cases, they take specific, dominant cultural values that they feel are essentially true, and then they modify, adapt, and change them so that Christians can use these values without cautious reservations. Augustine, for example, so transformed the neo-Platonic view of the Supreme Good in the realm of the Forms, that modern Christians still find it easy to understand God as the supreme, only true, and ultimate Good. Calvin wants Christians to approach government this way; he sees government as a necessary thing God intended humans to have— but individual governments and types of government are flawed. Calvin wants Christians to be actively involved in the government with the goal of transforming it into one whose approach to justice and service are more like what God had intended when he created Adam and Eve. Both Calvin and Augustine reject some elements of their cultures...and unconsciously absorb others. Nevertheless, because they consciously choose elements of their current cultural values for a radical reworking which will make these values appropriate for Christians, we label them "transformers."

Spielvogel and the Christians and Culture Categories

Spielvogel (author of the course text Western Civilization: A Brief History) is also interested in the interplay between Christian faith and the surrounding culture. In his text, however, he has simplified the categories to two: Christians either reject or absorb culture. Inside his category of "absorb," however, Spielvogel draws distinctions that parallel CWC categories "transform," "Two Kingdoms/balancing," and "control." (Spielvogel's discussion of the early church fathers Tertullian, Augustine and Jerome is a good example, p. 127.) The CWC faculty insist that their students use the more sophisticated and nuanced version of the categories described above. Martin Luther King Jr. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-68) was an outstanding American Christian leader in the mid twentieth century. From 1956 to his death in 1968 he advocated Christian non-violence and challenged unjust laws as a means to better the treatment of blacks in the United States.

"Letter from a Birmingham Jail"

King wrote this famous letter to a group of clergymen who had criticized his willingness to break the law in order to speed the process of desegregation. Our selection emphasizes King's use of the Western Christian tradition in developing his arguments and illustrates how the "cloud of witnesses" was so important in his life and thought. Authors and individuals important to CWC are placed in italics.

SOURCE: Why We Can't Wait (New York: Harper, 1963).

April 16, 1963 longer be ignored. My citing the creation of tension as part of the work of the nonviolent- My Dear Fellow Clergymen: resister may sound rather shocking. But I While confined here in the must confess that I am not afraid of the word Birmingham city jail, I came across your "tension." I have earnestly opposed violent recent statement calling my present activities tension, but there is a type of constructive, "unwise and untimely." ... But since I feel nonviolent tension which is necessary for that you are men of genuine good will and growth. Just as Socrates felt that it was that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I necessary to create a tension in the mind so want to try to answer your statement in what that individuals could rise from the bondage I hope will be patient and reasonable terms. of myths and half- truths to the unfettered I think I should indicate why I am realm of creative analysis and objective here in Birmingham; I am in Birmingham appraisal, so must we see the need for because injustice is here. Just as the prophets nonviolent gadflies to create the kind of of the eighth century B.C. left their villages tension in society that will help men rise and carried their "thus saith the Lord" far from the dark depths of prejudice and racism beyond the boundaries of their home towns, to the majestic heights of understanding and and just as the Apostle Paul left his village of brotherhood. Tarsus and carried the gospel of Jesus Christ My friends, I must say to you that we to the far corners of the Greco-Roman world, have not made a single gain in civil rights so am I compelled to carry the gospel of without determined legal and nonviolent freedom beyond my own home town. Like pressure. Lamentably, it is an historical fact Paul, I must constantly respond to the that privileged groups seldom give up their Macedonian call for aid [Acts 16:9-10]. privileges voluntarily. Individuals may see You may well ask: "Why direct the moral light and voluntarily give up their action? Why sit-ins, marches and so forth? unjust posture; but, as Reinhold Niebuhr has Isn't negotiation a better path?" You are reminded us, groups tend to be more immoral quite right in calling for negotiation. Indeed, than individuals. this is the very purpose of direct action. You express a great deal of anxiety Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such over our willingness to break laws. This is a crisis and foster such a tension that a certainly a legitimate concern. Since we so community which has constantly refused to diligently urge people to obey the Supreme negotiate is forced to confront the issue. It Court's decision of 1954 outlawing seeks so to dramatize the issue that it can no segregation in the public schools, at first

7 glance it may seem rather paradoxical for us without a permit. Now, there is nothing consciously to break laws. One may well wrong in having an ordinance which requires ask: "How can you advocate breaking some a permit for a parade. But such an ordinance laws and obeying others?" The answer lies becomes unjust when it is used to maintain in the fact that there are two types of laws: segregation and to deny citizens the First- just and unjust. I would be the first to Amendment privilege of peaceful assembly advocate obeying just laws. One has not and protest. only a legal but a moral responsibility to I hope you are able to see the obey just laws. Conversely, one has a moral distinction I am trying to point out. In no responsibility to disobey unjust laws. I sense do I advocate evading or defying the would agree with St. Augustine that "an law, as would the rabid segregationist. That unjust law is no law at all." would lead to anarchy. One who breaks an Now, what is the difference between unjust law must do so openly, lovingly, and the two? How does one determine whether a with a willingness to accept the penalty. I law is just or unjust? A just law is a man- submit that an individual who breaks a law made code that squares with the moral law or that conscience tells him is unjust, and who the law of God. An unjust law is a code that willingly accepts the penalty of is out of harmony with the moral law. To put imprisonment in order to arouse the it in the terms of St. Thomas Aquinas: An conscience of the community over its unjust law is a human law that is not rooted injustice, is in reality expressing the highest in eternal law and natural law. Any law that respect for law. uplifts human personality is just. Any law Of course, there is nothing new about that degrades human personality is unjust. this kind of civil disobedience. It was All segregation statutes are unjust because evidenced sublimely in the refusal of segregation distorts the soul and damages the Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego to obey personality. It gives the segregator a false the laws of Nebuchadnezzar, on the ground sense of superiority and the segregated a that a higher moral law was at stake [Dan 3]. false sense of inferiority. Segregation, to use It was practiced superbly by the early the terminology of the Jewish philosopher Christians, who were willing to face hungry Martin Buber, substitutes an "I-it" lions and the excruciating pain of chopping relationship for an "I-thou" relationship and blocks rather than submit to certain unjust ends up relegating persons to the status of laws of the Roman Empire. things. Hence segregation is not only In your statement you assert that our politically economically and sociologically actions, even though peaceful, must be unsound, it is morally wrong and sinful. condemned because they precipitate Paul Tillich has said that sin is separation. Is violence. But is this a logical assertion? Isn't not segregation an existential expression of this like condemning a robbed man because man's tragic separation, his awful his possession of money precipitated the evil estrangement, his terrible sinfulness? Thus it act of robbery? Isn't this like condemning is that I can urge men to obey the 1954 Socrates because his unswerving decision of the Supreme Court, for it is commitment to truth and his philosophical morally right; and I can urge them to disobey inquiries precipitated the act by the segregation ordinances, for they are morally misguided populace in which they made him wrong. drink hemlock? Isn't this like condemning Sometimes a law is just on its face Jesus because his unique God-consciousness and unjust in its application. For instance, I and never-ceasing devotion to God's will have been arrested on a charge of parading precipitated the evil act of crucifixion? We must come to see that, as the federal courts disappointed with the white church and its have consistently affirmed, it is wrong to leadership. Of course, there are some notable urge an individual to cease his efforts to gain exceptions. But despite these notable his basic constitutional rights because the exceptions, I must honestly reiterate that I quest may precipitate violence. Society must have been disappointed with the church. I do protect the robbed and punish the robber. not say this as one of those negative critics But though I was initially who can always find something wrong with disappointed at being categorized as an the church. I say this as a minister of the extremist, as I continued to think about the gospel, who loves the church; who was matter I gradually gained a measure of nurtured in its bosom; who has been satisfaction from the label. Was not Jesus an sustained by its spiritual blessings and who extremist for love: "Love your enemies, will remain true to it as long as the cord of bless them that curse you, do good to them life shall lengthen. that hate you, and pray for them which When I was suddenly catapulted into despitefully use you, and persecute you" [Lk the leadership of the bus protest in 6:27-28]. Was not Amos an extremist for Montgomery, Alabama, a few years ago, I justice: "Let justice roll down like waters and felt we would be supported by the white righteousness like an ever-flowing stream" church. I felt that the white ministers, priests [Am 5:24]. Was not Paul an extremist for the and rabbis of the South would be among our Christian gospel: "I bear in my body the strongest allies. Instead, some have been marks of the Lord Jesus" [Gal 6:17]. Was not outright opponents, refusing to understand Martin Luther an extremist: "Here I stand; I the freedom movement and misrepresenting cannot do otherwise, so help me God." And its leaders; all too many others have been John Bunyan: "I will stay in jail to the end of more cautious than courageous and have my days before I make a butchery of my remained silent behind the anesthetizing conscience." And Abraham Lincoln: "This security of stained-glass windows. nation cannot survive half slave and half In spite of my shattered dreams, I free." And Thomas Jefferson: "We hold came to Birmingham with the hope that the these truths to be self-evident, that all men white religious leadership of this community are created equal..." So the question is not would see the justice of our cause and, with whether we will be extremists, but what kind deep moral concern, would serve as the of extremists we will be. Will we be channel through which our just grievances extremists for hate or for love? Will we be could reach the power structure. I had hoped extremists for the preservation of injustice or that each of you would understand. But for the extension of justice? In that dramatic again I have been disappointed. scene on Calvary's hill three men were I have heard numerous southern crucified. We must never forget that all three religious leaders admonish their worshippers were crucified for the same crime the crime to comply with a desegregation decision of extremism. Two were extremists for because it is the law, but I have longed to immorality, and thus fell below their hear white ministers declare: "Follow this environment. The other, Jesus Christ, was an decree because integration is morally right extremist for love, truth and goodness, and and because the Negro is your brother." In thereby rose above his environment. Perhaps the midst of blatant injustices inflicted upon the South, the nation and the world are in the Negro, I have watched white churchmen dire need of creative extremists. stand on the sideline and mouth pious Let me take note of my other major irrelevancies and sanctimonious trivialities. disappointment. I have been so greatly In the midst of a mighty struggle to rid our nation of racial and economic injustice, I of the average community is consoled by the have heard many ministers say: "Those are church's silent and often even vocal sanction social issues, with which the gospel has no of things as they are. real concern." And I have watched many But the judgment of God is upon the churches commit themselves to a completely church as never before. If today's church otherworldly religion which makes a strange, does not recapture the sacrificial spirit of the un-Biblical distinction between body and early church, it will lose its authenticity, soul, between the sacred and the secular. forfeit the loyalty of millions, and be In deep disappointment I have wept dismissed as an irrelevant social club with no over the laxity of the church. But be assured meaning for the twentieth century. Every that my tears have been tears of love. There day I meet young people whose can be no deep disappointment where there is disappointment with the church has turned not deep love. Yes, I love the church. How into outright disgust. could I do otherwise? I am in the rather Perhaps I have once again been too unique position of being the son, the optimistic. Is organized religion too grandson and the great-grandson of inextricably bound to the status quo to save preachers. Yes, I see the church as the body our nation and the world? Perhaps I must of Christ. But, oh! How we have blemished turn my faith to the inner spiritual church, the and scarred that body through social neglect church within the church, and the hope of the and through fear of being nonconformists. world. But again I am thankful to God that There was a time when the church some noble souls from the ranks of organized was very powerful in the time when the early religion have broken loose from the Christians rejoiced at being deemed worthy paralyzing chains of conformity and joined to suffer for what they believed. In those us as active partners in the struggle for days the church was not merely a freedom. thermometer that recorded the ideas and I hope the church as a whole will principles of popular opinion; it was a meet the challenge of this decisive hour. But thermostat that transformed the mores of even if the church does not come to the aid of society. Whenever the early Christians justice, I have no despair about the future. ... entered a town, the people in power became We will win our freedom because the sacred disturbed and immediately sought to convict heritage of our nation and the eternal will of the Christians for being "disturbers of the God are embodied in our echoing demands. peace" and "outside agitators." But the Before closing I feel impelled to Christians pressed on, in the conviction that mention one other point in your statement they were "a colony of heaven," called to that has troubled me profoundly. You obey God rather than man. Small in number, warmly commended the Birmingham police they were big in commitment. They were force for keeping "order" and "preventing too God- intoxicated to be "astronomically violence." I doubt that you would have so intimidated." By their effort and example warmly commended the police force if you they brought an end to such ancient evils as had seen its dogs sinking their teeth into infanticide and gladiatorial contests. unarmed, non-violent Negroes. I doubt that Things are different now. So often you would so quickly commend the the contemporary church is a weak, policemen if you were to observe their ugly ineffectual voice with an uncertain sound. and inhumane treatment of Negroes here in So often it is an arch defender of the status the city jail; if you were to watch them push quo. Far from being disturbed by the and curse old Negro women and young presence of the church, the power structure Negro girls, if you were to see them slap and

10 kick old Negro men and young boys; if you said: "The last temptation is the greatest were to observe them, as they did on two treason: To do the right deed for the wrong occasions, refuse to give us food because we reason." wanted to sing our grace together. I cannot I hope this letter finds you strong in join you in your praise of the Birmingham the faith. I also hope that circumstances will police department. soon make it possible for me to meet each of It is true that the police have you, not as an integrationist or a civil- rights exercised a degree of discipline in handling leader but as a fellow clergyman and a the demonstrators. In this sense they have Christian brother. Let us all hope that the conducted themselves rather "nonviolently" dark clouds of racial prejudice will soon pass in public. But for what purpose? To preserve away and the deep fog of misunderstanding the evil system of segregation. Over the past will be lifted from our fear-drenched few years I have consistently preached that communities, and in some not too distant nonviolence demands that the means we use tomorrow the radiant stars of love and must be as pure as the ends we seek. I have brotherhood will shine over our great nation tried to make clear that it is wrong to use with all their scintillating beauty. immoral means to attain moral ends. But Yours for the cause of Peace and now I must affirm that it is just as wrong, or Brotherhood, perhaps even more so, to use moral means to Martin Luther King, Jr. preserve immoral ends. As T. S. Eliot has

11 Unit One The Ancient World and the Early Church

Timeline

500 BC Socrates (469 - 399) Plato (ca. 429 - 347) Aristotle (384 - 322) Alexander the Great (356 - 323)

Augustus Caesar (63 BC - AD 14) / BC AD 1 Birth of Christ The Apostle Paul (ca. 5 - ca. 67)

1 John (written late 1st century AD) Gnosticism (2nd century) Tertullian (ca. 160-230) "Letter to Diognetus" (written late 2nd century) Perpetua and Felicitas (died 203)

Anthony of the Desert (ca. 251 - 356) Constantine (d. 337) Edict of Milan (313) Council of Nicea (325) Augustine of Hippo (354 - 430)

Collapse of Roman Empire in the West (late 5th century) AD 500 Benedict of Nursia (ca. 480 - ca. 547)

Names/titles in bold refer to readings in this packet.

12 Plato Plato (428-347 BC) was the most famous student of Socrates (469-399 BC) and one of the most influential thinkers in all of Western Culture. Indeed, the British philosopher A.N. Whitehead once claimed that "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."

Crito Plato is also our source for the ideas of his teacher Socrates, who didn't leave behind his own writings. In the following selection from the Platonic dialogue Crito. Socrates, after having been sentenced to death for corrupting the youth of Athens, is encouraged by Crito to flee. It is generally presumed that Socrates would not have been actively prevented from flight, thereby sparing his life, yet in his discussion with Crito, Socrates imagines a discussion with the laws of the polls, and reveals his reasons for accepting his sentence. In this selection Socrates displays an ancient understanding of the relationship between the individual and the group.

SOURCE: Plato, Crito, translated by Benjamin Jowett, http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/crito.html

SOCRATES: Then consider the matter in the state? In the first place did we not bring this way: Imagine that I am about to play you into existence? Your father married your truant (you may call the proceeding by any mother by our aid and begat you. Say name which you like), and the laws and the whether you have any objection to urge government come and interrogate me: "Tell against those of us who regulate marriage?" us, Socrates," they say; "what are you about? None, I should reply. "Or against those of us are you not going by an act of yours to who after birth regulate the nurture and overturn us—the laws, and the whole state, as education of children, in which you also were far as in you lies? Do you imagine that a state trained? Were not the laws, which have the can subsist and not be overthrown, in which charge of education, right in commanding the decisions of law have no power, but are your father to train you in music and set aside and trampled upon by individuals?" gymnastic?" Right, I should reply. "Well What will be our answer, Crito, to these and then, since you were brought into the world the like words? Any one, and especially a and nurtured and educated by us, can you rhetorician, will have a good deal to say on deny in the first place that you are our child behalf of the law which requires a sentence and slave, as your fathers were before you? to be carried out. He will argue that this law And if this is true you are not on equal terms should not be set aside; and shall we reply, with us; nor can you think that you have a "Yes; but the state has injured us and given right to do to us what we are doing to you. an unjust sentence." Suppose I say that? Would you have any right to strike or revile or do any other evil to your father or your CRITO: Very good, Socrates. master, if you had one, because you have been struck or reviled by him, or received SOCRATES: "And was that our agreement some other evil at his hands?—you would not with you?", the law would answer; "or were say this? And because we think right to you to abide by the sentence of the state?" destroy you, do you think that you have any And if I were to express my astonishment at right to destroy us in return, and your country their words, the law would probably add: as far as in you lies? Will you, O professor of "Answer, Socrates, instead of opening your true virtue, pretend that you are justified in eyes—you are in the habit of asking and this? Has a philosopher like you failed to answering questions. Tell us, What discover that our country is more to be complaint have you to make against us which valued and higher and holier far than mother justifies you in attempting to destroy us and or father or any ancestor, and more to be

13 regarded in the eyes of the gods and of men view of what is just: and if he may do no of understanding? also to be soothed, and violence to his father or mother, much less gently and reverently entreated when angry, may he do violence to his country." What even more than a father, and either to be answer shall we make to this, Crito? Do the persuaded, or if not persuaded, to be obeyed? laws speak truly, or do they not? And when we are punished by her, whether with imprisonment or stripes, the punishment CRITO: I think that they do. is to be endured in silence; and if she lead us to wounds or death in battle, thither we follow as is right; neither may any one yield or retreat or leave his rank, but whether in battle or in a court of law, or in any other place, he must do what his city and his country order him; or he must change their

"The Allegory of the Cave" The selection below comes from Book VII of Plato's Republic and is commonly referred to as the "analogy (or allegory) of the cave". The inside of the cave represents the physical world and Plato depicts the unenlightened individual as a prisoner chained from birth in this cave unable to see anything but moving shadows, which the prisoner believes to constitute the whole of reality. The world outside of the cave represents the world of the Forms that transcend the physical world as the unchanging objects of true knowledge. Movement from the cave to the world outside represents the effects of education on the soul as a process of coming to desire knowledge of reality (the non- physical realm of the Forms) over attachment to that which is mere appearance (the physical world).

SOURCE: Plato, Republic, translated by Allan Bloom (N. Y.: Basic Books, 1969), pp. 193-96.

"Now, then," I said, "imagine human "It's a strange image," he said, "and nature (with respect to education or the lack strange prisoners you're telling of." of education) in the following way. See "We are just like them" I said. "Do human beings as though they were in a wide you suppose such men could see any more of underground cave with a long entrance open themselves or each other than flickering to the light. They live it from childhood with shadows thrown by the fire on the blank wall their legs and necks locked in bonds so that of the cave in front of them?" they are only able to see in front of them, and "How could they," he said, "if their never able to turn around to see the entrance heads were locked motionless their whole of the cave. A fire burns behind them and life?" between the fire and the prisoners are a path "And what about the things the and a wall, built like a puppet stage. puppeteers carry? Isn't it the same with "I see," he said. them?" "Imagine along this wall human "Of course." beings carrying all sorts of things, which "And what if the cave echoed so that project above the wall, and statues of men the sound appeared to come from the front? and other animals made from stone, wood, Whenever one of the men passing by and every kind of material. Some of these happened to utter a sound, do you suppose people make sounds, others are silent." they would believe that anything other than the passing shadow was uttering the sound?"

14 "No, by Zeus," he said, "I don't." "When he remembered his first home "Then most certainly," I said, "such in the cave and the wisdom there, and his men would hold that the truth is nothing but fellow prisoners in that time, don't you the shadows of artificial things." suppose he would consider himself happy for "Most certainly," he said. the change and pity the others?" "Now consider," I said, "what release "Quite so." from bonds and healing from folly would be "And if there were among them any like. Imagine that one of them is released and honors and prizes for the man who is suddenly forced to stand up, to turn his neck sharpest at making out the shadows and most around, to walk and look up toward the light. remembers which of them normally came He would be in pain and, because he is before, which after, and which at the same bedazzled by the light, would be unable to time as others, and who is thereby most able make out those things whose shadows he saw to predict what will come next, in your before. What do you suppose he'd say if opinion would he seek those honors and envy someone were to tell him that before he saw those who are honored and hold power silly nothings, while now, because he is among these men? Or, rather, would he be somewhat nearer to what is and more turned affected as Homer says and prefer 'to be on toward beings, not shadows, he sees more the soil, a slave to another man, one without correctly. If, moreover, someone were to an inheritance' and to undergo anything show him each of the things that pass by and whatsoever rather than to hold these opinions were to compel the man to answer questions and live that way?" about what they are? Don't you suppose he'd "Yes," he said, "I suppose he would be at a loss and believe that the shadows prefer to undergo everything rather than live were truer than what he was now shown?" that way." "Yes," he said, "by far." "Now reflect on this too," I said. "If "And if," I said, "someone dragged such a man were to come down again and sit him away from there by force along the in the same seat, on coming suddenly from rough, steep, upward way and didn't let him the sun wouldn't his eyes be dazzled again?" go before he had been dragged out into the "Very much so," he said. light of the sun, wouldn't he be distressed and "And if he once more had to compete annoyed at being so dragged? And when he with those perpetual prisoners in forming came to the light, wouldn't he be unable to judgments about those shadows before his see even one of the things we believe are eyes had recovered, and if the time needed true?" for getting accustomed were not at all short, "No he wouldn't," he said, "at least wouldn't he be the source of laughter, and not right away." wouldn't it be said of him that he went up and "Then I suppose he'd have to get came back with his eyes corrupted, and that accustomed, if he were going to see what's it's not even worth trying to go back up? above. At first, he'd most easily make out And if they were somehow able to get their the shadows; and after the shadows of the hands on and kill the man who attempts to human beings and the other things in water; release and lead up, wouldn't they kill him?" and, later, the things themselves. And from "No doubt about it," he said. there he could turn to seeing the things in "Well, then, my dear Glaucon," I heaven itself, more easily at night—looking at said, "this image as a whole must be the light of the stars and the moon—than by connected with what was said before. day—looking at the sun and sunlight." Compare the world revealed through sight to "Of course." the cave, and the light of the fire in it to our

15 sun; and, compare going up and seeing what but once seen, it must be concluded that this is above to the soul's journey up to the is in fact the cause of all that is right and fair intelligible place. In any event, this is the in everything—in the visible it gave birth to way things look to me: in the knowable the light; in the intelligible, it provided truth and last thing to be seen, and that with intelligence—the man who is going to act considerable effort, is the idea of the good; prudently in private or in public must see it."

16 •

Aristotle Aristotle (384-322 BC), a student of Plato, wrote the founding works of Western logic and natural science as well as treatises on ethics, aesthetics, politics, literature, rhetoric, and history.

Parts of Animals In this piece Aristotle rejects Plato's idea that the unchanging objects of true knowledge (the Forms) are entirely separate from the physical world and argues that form is inherent in the natural world. For Aristotle, the knowledge Plato sought in the transcendent realm of the Forms can be obtained by investigating the patterns and structure of the natural world.

SOURCE: Aristotle, Parts of Animals, 1.5, translated by W. Ogle, in J. Barnes, ed. The Complete Works of Aristotle, (Princeton, 1984), pp. 1003-05.

Of things constituted by nature some are aversion from the examination of the humbler ungenerated, imperishable, and eternal, while animals. Every realm of nature is marvelous: others are subject to generation and decay. and as Heraclitus, when the strangers who The former are excellent beyond compare came to visit him found him warming himself and divine, but less accessible to knowledge. at the furnace in the kitchen and hesitated to The evidence that might throw light on them, go in, reported to have bidden them not to be and on the problems which we long to solve afraid to enter, as even in that kitchen respecting them, is furnished but scantily by divinities were present, so we should venture sensation; whereas respecting perishable on the study of every kind of animal without plants and animals we have abundant distaste; for each and all will reveal to us information, living as we do in their midst, something natural and something beautiful. and ample data may be collected concerning Absence of haphazard and conduciveness of all their various kinds, if only we are willing everything to an end are to be found in to take sufficient pains their greater nearness Nature's works in the highest degree, and the and affinity to us balances somewhat the resultant end of her generations and loftier interest of the heavenly things that are combinations is a form of the beautiful. If the objects of the higher philosophy. Having any person thinks the examination of the rest already treated of the celestial world, as far of the animal kingdom an unworthy task, he as our conjectures could reach, we proceed must hold in like disesteem the study of man. to treat of animals, without omitting, to the For no one can look at the primordia of the best of our ability, any member of the human frame-blood, flesh, bones, vessels, kingdom, however ignoble. For if some have and the like-without much repugnance. no graces to charm the sense, yet even these, Moreover, when any one of the parts or by disclosing to intellectual perception the structures, be it which it may, is under artistic spirit that designed them, give discussion, it must not be supposed that it is immense pleasure to all who can trace links its material composition to which attention is of causation, and are inclined to philosophy. being directed or which is the object of the Indeed, it would be strange if mimic discussion, but the relation of such part to the representations of them were attractive, total form. Similarly, the true object of because they disclose the mimetic skill of the architecture is not bricks, mortar, or timber, painter or sculptor, and the original realities but the house; and so the principal object of themselves were not more interesting, to all natural philosophy is not the material at any rate who have eyes to discern the elements, but their composition, and the reasons that determined their formation. We totality of the form, independently of which therefore must not recoil with childish they have no existence. As every instrument

17 and every bodily member subserves some is a function, and not sawing for the saw. partial end, that is to say, some special Similarly, the body too must somehow or action, so the whole body must be destined other be made for the soul, and each part of it to minister to some Plenary sphere of action. for some subordinate function, to which it is Thus the saw is made for sawing, for sawing adapted.

Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle is also famous for his ethical writings. In this excerpt he again draws on natural experiences, this time to explain how humans can attain the good life by becoming virtuous.

SOURCE: Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II, translated by W. D. Ross, http://classics.mit.edU/Aristotle/nicomachaen.2.ii.html

1. VIRTUE, then, being of two kinds, them, we learn by doing them, e.g. men intellectual and moral, intellectual virtue in become builders by building and lyre players the main owes both its birth and its growth by playing the lyre; so too we become just by to teaching (for which reason it requires doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate experience and time), while moral virtue acts, brave by doing brave acts. comes about as a result of habit, whence also This is confirmed by what happens in its name (ethike) is one that is formed by a states; for legislators make the citizens good slight variation from the word ethos (habit). by forming habits in them, and this is the From this it is also plain that none of the wish of every legislator, and those who do moral virtues arises in us by nature; for not effect it miss their mark, and it is in this nothing that exists by nature can form a habit that a good constitution differs from a bad contrary to its nature. For instance the stone one. which by nature moves downwards cannot Again, it is from the same causes and be habituated to move upwards, not even if by the same means that every virtue is both one tries to train it by throwing it up ten produced and destroyed, and similarly every thousand times; nor can fire be habituated to art; for it is from playing the lyre that both move downwards, nor can anything else that good and bad lyre-players are produced. And by nature behaves in one way be trained to the corresponding statement is true of behave in another. Neither by nature, then, builders and of all the rest; men will be good nor contrary to nature do the virtues arise in or bad builders as a result of building well or us; rather we are adapted by nature to receive badly. For if this were not so, there would them, and are made perfect by habit. have been no need of a teacher, but all men Again, of all the things that come to would have been born good or bad at their us by nature we first acquire the potentiality craft. This, then, is the case with the virtues and later exhibit the activity (this is plain also; by doing the acts that we do in our in the case of the senses; for it was not by transactions with other men we become just often seeing or often hearing that we got or unjust, and by doing the acts that we do in these senses, but on the contrary we had the presence of danger, and being habituated them before we used them, and did not come to feel fear or confidence, we become brave to have them by using them); but the virtues or cowardly. The same is true of appetites we get by first exercising them, as also and feelings of anger; some men become happens in the case of the arts as well. For temperate and good-tempered, others self- the things we have to learn before we can do indulgent and irascible, by behaving in one

18 way or the other in the appropriate But not only are the sources and circumstances. Thus, in one word, states of causes of their origination and growth the character arise out of like activities. This is same as those of their destruction, but also why the activities we exhibit must be of a the sphere of their actualization will be the certain kind; it is because the states of same; for this is also true of the things which character correspond to the differences are more evident to sense, e.g. of strength; it between these. It makes no small difference, is produced by taking much food and then, whether we form habits of one kind or undergoing much exertion, and it is the of another from our very youth; it makes a strong man that will be most able to do these very great difference, or rather all the things. So too is it with the virtues; by difference. abstaining from pleasures we become temperate, and it is when we have become so 2. Since, then, the present inquiry does not that we are most able to abstain from them; aim at theoretical knowledge like the others and similarly too in the case of courage; for (for we are inquiring not in order to know by being habituated to despise things that are what virtue is, but in order to become good, terrible and to stand our ground against them since otherwise our inquiry would have been we become brave, and it is when we have of no use), we must examine the nature of become so that we shall be most able to stand actions, namely how we ought to do them; our ground against them.... for these determine also the nature of the states of character that are produced, as we 6. We must, however, not only describe have said .. . virtue as a state of character, but also say First, then, let us consider this, that it what sort of state it is. We may remark, then, is the nature of such things to be destroyed that every virtue or excellence both brings by defect and excess, as we see in the case of into good condition the thing of which it is strength and of health (for to gain light on the excellence and makes the work of that things imperceptible we must use the thing be done well; e.g. the excellence of the evidence of sensible things); both excessive eye makes both the eye and its work good; and defective exercise destroys the strength, for it is by the excellence of the eye that we and similarly drink or food which is above or see well. Similarly the excellence of the horse below a certain amount destroys the health, makes a horse both good in itself and good at while that which is proportionate both running and at carrying its rider and at produces and increases and preserves it. So awaiting the attack of the enemy. Therefore, too is it, then, in the case of temperance and if this is true in every case, the virtue of man courage and the other virtues. For the man also will be the state of character which who flies from and fears everything and does makes a man good and which makes him do not stand his ground against anything his own work well. becomes a coward, and the man who fears How this is to happen we have stated nothing at all but goes to meet every danger already, but it will be made plain also by the becomes rash; and similarly the man who following consideration of the specific nature indulges in every pleasure and abstains from of virtue. In everything that is continuous and none becomes self-indulgent, while the man divisible it is possible to take more, less, or who shuns every pleasure, as boors do, an equal amount, and that either in terms of becomes in a way insensible; temperance the thing itself or relatively to us; and the and courage, then, are destroyed by excess equal is an intermediate between excess and and defect, and preserved by the mean. defect. By the intermediate in the object I mean that which is equidistant from each of

19 the extremes, which is one and the same for towards the right people, with the right all men; by the intermediate relatively to us motive, and in the right way, is what is both that which is neither too much nor too little- intermediate and best, and this is and this is not one, nor the same for all. For characteristic of virtue. Similarly with regard instance, if ten is many and two is few, six is to actions also there is excess, defect, and the the intermediate, taken in terms of the object; intermediate. Now virtue is concerned with for it exceeds and is exceeded by an equal passions and actions, in which excess is a amount; this is intermediate according to form of failure, and so is defect, while the arithmetical proportion. But the intermediate intermediate is praised and is a form of relatively to us is not to be taken so; if ten success; and being praised and being pounds are too much for a particular person successful are both characteristics of virtue. to eat and two too little, it does not follow Therefore virtue is a kind of mean, since, as that the trainer will order six pounds; for this we have seen, it aims at what is intermediate. also is perhaps too much for the person who Again, it is possible to fail in many is to take it, or too little- too little for Milo, ways (for evil belongs to the class of the too much for the beginner in athletic unlimited, as the Pythagoreans conjectured, exercises. The same is true of running and and good to that of the limited), while to wrestling. Thus a master of any art avoids succeed is possible only in one way (for excess and defect, but seeks the intermediate which reason also one is easy and the other and chooses this- the intermediate not in the difficult- to miss the mark easy, to hit it object but relatively to us. difficult); for these reasons also, then, excess If it is thus, then, that every art does and defect are characteristic of vice, and the its work well- by looking to the intermediate mean of virtue: "For men are good in but one and judging its works by this standard (so way, but bad in many." that we often say of good works of art that it Virtue, then, is a state of character is not possible either to take away or to add concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e. anything, implying that excess and defect the mean relative to us, this being determined destroy the goodness of works of art, while by a rational principle, and by that principle the mean preserves it; and good artists, as we by which the man of practical wisdom would say, look to this in their work), and if, determine it. Now it is a mean between two further, virtue is more exact and better than vices, that which depends on excess and that any art, as nature also is, then virtue must which depends on defect; and again it is a have the quality of aiming at the mean because the vices respectively fall short intermediate. I mean moral virtue; for it is of or exceed what is right in both passions this that is concerned with passions and and actions, while virtue both finds and actions, and in these there is excess, defect, chooses that which is intermediate. Hence in and the intermediate. For instance, both fear respect of its substance and the definition and confidence and appetite and anger and which states its essence virtue is a mean, with pity and in general pleasure and pain may be regard to what is best and right an extreme. felt both too much and too little, and in both cases not well; but to feel them at the right times, with reference to the right objects,

20 "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas" A graphic account of martyrdom comes from shortly after A.D. 200, when the wealthy Roman Perpetua and her slave Felicitas were martyred at Carthage in Roman Africa. We have several accounts which purport to be from eyewitnesses and they seem authentic. These women embraced martyrdom with what seems to our eyes ghoulish enthusiasm, but we are told that the steadfastness of their wimess and the kindness they showed to each other and to their captors led to the conversion of the jailer. Furthermore, churches retold their story as part of the worship service within a century or so as an example to others.

2.1 Some teenagers in the church's terrified, because I had never experienced confirmation class were arrested: Revocatus, such darkness. 6) Oh awful day, due to the Felicitas (his fellow slave), Saturninus, and roaring tumult of the crowd in prison, and the Secundulus. Vibia Perpetua was also a class rush of the soldiers. Worst of all, I was member who was arrested. Perpetua was extremely worried about my baby, who was well-born, fully educated, respectably with me in that situation. 7) Then Tertius married, 2) having father, mother and two and Pomponius, blessed deacons who were brothers, one of whom was also instructed in ministering to us, arranged by payment that the church's teaching, and an infant son she for a few hours we might be relocated in the was nursing. 3) She was then about 22 years prison and go to a better place to refresh old. This whole sequence of her martyrdom ourselves. 8) At that time, those who were that follows is what she herself narrated by moved were all left to themselves. I tried to the handwritten record she left, and the nurse my infant, who was by now impression she left on others. malnourished for lack of food. I unburdened 3.1 "You've been involved in this Christian my anxieties about him to my mother and stuff enough now," my father said, when we comforted my brother. I placed my son into were at the prosecutors. He wanted to their care. I was in anguish when I saw them dissuade me from my confession and experience hardship on my account. 9) In persisted in trying to deprogram me, because such anxious care I spent many days. After of his love for me. "Dad," I said, "Do you getting permission, I took back my baby to see, for instance, the jar lying here, a small stay with me in prison. Immediately he pitcher or some such thing?" "I see," he regained his health and I felt relieved from replied. 2) And I continued, "Is there some my care and concern about him. Suddenly I other name by which it can be called?" And felt as though my prison had become a he replied, "No." "So I cannot be called comfortable mansion, and I found myself anything else, except what I am, a Christian," wishing that I could be nowhere else. I said. 3) At the word "Christian," my father 4.1 Then my [Christian] brother said to me, moved toward me in order to tear out my "Worthy sister, now you are in high esteem, eyes, but he shook too much to do so and so much so that if you ask for a vision it will left; he and the devil's arguments were even be shown to you, whether there shall be conquered. 4) Then for a few days while my a martyrdom or release for us. 2) And since I dearest father was gone, I was refreshed and was certain of the things which I spoke with thanked the Lord that I could be alone. 5) In the Lord, whose great benefits I had the same period of a few days we were experienced, I confidently gave my word to baptized, and the Spirit indicated to me when my brother saying, "I'll let you know I came out of the water that I should expect tomorrow." So I asked, and this is the vision nothing but physical suffering. After a few that was shown to me. days we were taken back to prison, and I was

21 Perpetua describes a vision of a ladder report immediately spread through the areas leading upwards with a dragon guarding the around the forum and a great crowd gathered. foot. At the top she saw a previously 2) We walked up on the defendants' martyred Christian friend who called her to platform. Others asked to recant were doing come up. Stepping on the dragon's head she so. My turn came. And my father appeared climbed into beautiful garden where a at that moment with my son and pulled me shepherd welcomed her with thousands of from my place in line, saying, "Get out of people surrounding them. The shepherd this. Have mercy on your baby." 3) And gave her a cup of milk and as she drank, he Hilarianus the sergeant, who had then and the others said "Amen." received the right to try and execute capital crimes on behalf of the recently retired 4.10 And at the sound of his voice I woke proconsul Minucius Timianus, said, "Show up, still savoring something sweet I did not consideration to your dear father and infant know. And immediately I mentioned it to son, sacrifice for the welfare of the my brother. We therefore understood emperors." 4) T will not," I responded. martyrdom to be ahead, and began to place Hilarianus asked, "Are you a Christian?" no hope in this present world. And I replied, "I am a Christian." 5) Then 5.1 After a few days a rumor spread that when my father stood to dissuade me he was we were to receive an official hearing. My ordered by Hilarianus to be shoved down and father arrived from the city, very tired, and struck with a rod. It pained me on account of he approached me so as to dissuade me my father, as if I had been struck, the more saying, 2) "have mercy, daughter, my so because of his pitiable old age. 6) So he sweetness; have mercy on your father, if I am rendered judgment on us together and worth being called "Father" by you, if I sentenced us to the beasts, and we returned brought you with these hands to the flower of happily to the prison. 7) Then because my virginity, if I placed you before all your baby had been accustomed to nurse at my brothers, don't shame me by public disgrace! breasts and remain with me in prison, 3) Look at your brothers; look at your mother immediately I sent to Father Pomponius, the and aunt; look at your son who will not be deacon, asking for my child. But the father able to live after you. 4) Ease up; don't refused to grant my request. 8) And so God forget about all of us! For no one shall speak willed, for neither did the child long for freely about us, if you continue in this. 5) He breastfeeding anymore, nor did they want to was speaking these things as a devoted complicate matters for me, lest I should be father, kissing my hand and prostrating bothered by anxious care over the infant and himself at my feet and weeping, calling me the pain of breastfeeding. not "daughter" but "woman." 6) And I was grieving at the plight of my father; of my Perpetua has another dream and a whole family he was the only one who could vision where her brother, who had died many not rejoice over my suffering. And I years before, was delivered from his comforted him saying, "It shall happen in the suffering as a result of her fervent prayers defendants' chamber as God wills. For I know that we are secure not in our own 9.1 Then after a few days, Pudens, the power, but in God." At that he was soldier's assistant who was in charge of the depressed, and left me. prison, began to hold us in high esteem, 6.1 On another day while we were eating thinking we had great virtue. He was breakfast, we were unexpectedly carried off allowing many to come see us, so that we for a hearing. We arrived at the forum. The

22 and they both could benefit from such visits.1 in deep mourning, because she was still 2) Now when the fateful day drew near, my pregnant (for it was not allowed for pregnant father came to me, weakened by worry. He women to appear for punishment) and she began to tear hair from his beard and drop it did not want to pour out her holy and to the ground. Then he fell prostrate on his innocent blood with common criminals who face and began to complain about his age and were to be executed later. 30 Even her co- to say such words as would disturb the whole martyrs were deeply saddened, because they creation. 3) I was grieving because of the did not want to leave a good friend who was misery he was experiencing in his old age. like a fellow traveler all alone on the road to the same hope. 4) Therefore they joined Perpetua has a vision where a deacon together in a single sigh of prayer to the Lord leads her into the gladiatorial arena. In the on the third day before the execution. 5) dream, she is suddenly transformed into a Immediately after the prayer her labor pains male gladiator and has to fight an Egyptian. came. And when she was experiencing the She defeated him and was led towards what pain of labor due to the difficulty of giving she called the Gate of Life. birth in the eighth month, a certain one of the servants who ran the sluices into the prison 10.14 So from this dream I learned that I said, "If you suffer so much right now, what was not to be thrown to the beasts, but that I will you do when you become food for the was to fight against the devil. Here I knew animals? You thought nothing of them when myself to be victorious. 15) I have written you refused to sacrifice!" 6) And she this right up until the day before my responded, "I only suffer what I suffer, but judgment; now that the day itself has come, this other one in me will suffer on my if anyone wishes, let that person write. account, because I will pass away before her. Then she bore a baby girl, and a sister raised Here the account relates the vision of it as her own daughter. another member of Perpetua's prison group. 16.1 Therefore since the Holy Spirit permits or by permitting was willed that an account 14.1 These are the more noteworthy visions of this spectacle be committed to writing, of the most blessed martyrs, Saturus and even if I lack the capacity completely to Perpetua, which they put in writing describe such glory, nevertheless as if on themselves. 2) It was certainly God who command of the most holy Perpetua, or summoned Secundulus while in prison for an rather as her beneficiary, I add to this record earlier exit from this world; His grace was one more instance of her patient and noble not missing also in that he was spared from soul. 2) When the bailiff began to punish the beasts. 3) Nevertheless, even if it was them, because on the warnings of some not his soul, his body experienced the sword. stupid people he wished to take precautions 15.1 In respect to Felicitas, the grace of the that the Christians would not vanish from Lord also came in this way. 2) When she prison by some magical spells, Perpetua was eight months pregnant (for she was responded to him in person. 3) "Why don't pregnant when she was arrested), the day of you allow us to refresh ourselves as we her judgment was approaching and she was deserve, since we are the Emperor's prisoners and are to fight on his birthday.

1 Wouldn't it rather be to your advantage if we The practice of allowing visitors to stay with were more healthy when finally exhibited for convicts in Roman prisons is attested for Christians also in the New Testament (Philemon 10; 2 Timothy our death?" 4) The bailiff turned red with 4:11) and in a pagan text of the second century A.D. embarrassment. And so he ordered that the (Lucian's The Passing of Peregrinus. 12).

23 prisoners were to be treated in a more knows when justice speaks. The bailiff humane way, and allowed Perpetua's agreed. They were to be led out into the brothers and some others to come in and take arena just as they were clothed. Perpetua sustenance with the prisoners. The soldier's was singing a psalm, already walking over assistant in charge of the prison was already the Egyptian's head.2 Revocatus, Saturninus, a believer. and Saturus began to preach warnings to the 17.1 On the day before their end, they spectators. When Hilarianus the Roman observed a final meal together. It is called judge came into view, they began to point as the free party, but they did not hold a party. if to say, "You sentenced us to this, but God Instead they observed a Communion meal. will sentence you!" 9) With this the crowd They addressed the crowd in prison with the went wild, demanding that these men be usual consistent spirit, warned them of God's scourged by a row of gladiators. The judgment, emphasized their happiness in Christians then really became happy that they suffering, and even made fun of those who could follow the Lord Jesus in the same kind came to see them just out of curiosity. of suffering he endured. Saturus said, 2) "Won't tomorrow be good enough for your folks? Why do you make The account here states that each of the sure to watch something you detest? Friends martyrs received the kind of death each one today, you who will be our enemies had hoped for in prison tomorrow, please observe our faces carefully now so that you will be able to recognize us 20.1 The devil arranged that an unbred cow, tomorrow." 3) So they all left the prison an extremely wild one, would be the animal shocked, and many of these people believed. for the young woman. The use of this kind 18.1 Dawn came on the Christians' of animal was not the norm; it was done to victorious day. They moved in procession match the women with an animal of the same from the prison to the sports center happily, sex. 2) Their clothes were stripped off; they as if they were walking into heaven. Their were put inside nets and brought into the facial expressions were controlled. If there arena. The spectators were aghast when they was trembling, it was from joy rather than saw that one martyr was a delicate young fear. 2) Perpetua marched along with a face woman and the other woman, breasts that shone and an even step as the bride of dripping, had recently borne a child. 3) So Christ, God's dear one, making spectators they were called back and clothed in glance away when she met their eyes with oversized T-shirts. First Perpetua was her resolute expression. 3) There was thrown by the heifer and landed on her side. Felicitas, happy to have borne her child so 4) There she sat up, pulling the torn shirt that she was able to fight the beasts. She was over her thighs, concerned with her honor going from one bloody scene to another, more than her pain. 5) Then she asked for a from the midwife to the gladiator, prepared hairpin to hold her disheveled hair in place, to purify herself after childbirth in a second for it was not fitting for a martyr to die with baptism. 4) They were led to the entry chutes and the men were forcibly clothed 2 Musurillo, a previous translator, refers to Genesis with robes of Ceres's priestesses. The 3:15 and Revelation 12:3. These texts still do not fervent woman resisted this faithfully until explain the use of "Egyptian's head." I suggest that the end. For she said, "Look, we came here this is an allusion to Exodus 15:1-21, where a godly by choice, so that we would not have to woman sings a psalm of praise to God for victory over the pagan Egyptians. This also fits with the Exodus accept these robes. We made an agreement typology used by early Christians to describe what with you precisely to avoid this." Injustice Christ's death and resurrection means for them (Lk 9:31).

24 her hair in disarray, lest one seem to be establish you. 5) At the same time he asked grieving when actually in one's glory. 6) Pudens for a ring from his finger. After Then she stood up. When she saw Felicitas dipping it in his wound he returned it as an knocked down, she approached her, offered a inheritance, a token and record of his death. hand and helped her to her feet. The two 6) Then he was thrown with the rest of the then stood together. 7) With this the crowd's martyrs and landed unconscious in the usual hunger for violence was satisfied, so the area of the sports center where the victims women were called back to The Survivors' had their throats slit. 7) But the crowd Gate. 8) There a member of the confirmation changed their request to have the bodies class named Rusticus stayed near Perpetua, brought into the center of the arena, so that supporting her. She awoke as if from sleep their own eyes might be partners with the (for to that point she had been in a spiritual murderous sword that cut them. At this the ecstasy), and began to look around. To martyrs rose and walked voluntarily to the everyone's surprise she said, "When are we place the crowd specified. Just before they going to be brought to that heifer, or took their places, they kissed each other and whatever it's called?" 9) And after she heard so brought their martyrdom to closure with that it was already over, at first she would not the ritual of sharing the peace. 8) Some of believe it, until she saw signs of the struggle the others were motionless, accepting the on her body and shirt. 10) Then calling her sword silently. This was especially so in brother and one of the men in the Saturus's case. Since he climbed the stairs to confirmation class, she spoke to them saying, that spot first, he was the first to give back "Stand in faith and let all love each other, his soul. For he was still waiting for and don't be put off by our suffering." Perpetua. 9) But Perpetua had to take more 21.1 Likewise in another gate Saturus pain. She shouted when the sword hit bone encouraged Pudens the soldier, saying, "So and shifted the clumsy hand of the novice far it is going according to every detail as I gladiator to her throat. 10) Perhaps this was thought and predicted; so far not even one because so great a woman, since she was animal has brushed me. And now in order feared by the evil spirit in the gladiator, that you may believe with your whole heart, I could not be called in any way except if she make one more prediction: "Here I go into wished it. 11) Oh, most brave and happy the arena, and I will be eaten by one bite by martyrs! Oh, those genuinely invited and the leopard. 2) And all at once as the event chosen to share in the glory of our Lord Jesus was just about over, a leopard was thrown Christ! Anyone who magnifies, honors, and into the arena. After one bite, Saturus was so worships the Lord should read these accounts covered with blood that the spectators for the building up of the Church. They are shouted as witnesses to his second baptism: just as helpful as the ancient martyrdoms. "Great bath! Way to wash!" 3) And it's For these new acts of power show that it is completely true; he did bathe well, since he one and the same Holy Spirit continually washed in this way. 4) Then to Pudens the working up to today. They also point to the soldier Saturus said, "Take care; remember all-powerful Father God and his Son, Jesus the faith and remember me. What you've Christ our Lord, to whom belongs renown seen shouldn't upset you; it should rather and untapped power for all times. Amen.

25 Tertullian Tertullian (ca. A.D. 160-230) was an eloquent Latin writer who vigorously defended Christianity and sarcastically attacked the foolishness of the pagan culture around him.

"Pagan philosophy—the parent of heresies" Writing ca. 200, Tertullian advised Christians in how to respond to heresies like those of the Gnostics. He holds up Scripture as the source of truth, and warns Christians not to accommodate their beliefs to the philosophies of the day.

SOURCE: Tertullian, Against Heretics and Against Praxeas, ch. 7, in Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds, The Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 3 (rpt. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1969). Paraphrased by N. Lettinga, 1990.

These are "the doctrines" of men and "of sought in simplicity of heart" [Wis 1:1*]. demons" produced for itching ears of the Away with all attempts to produce a mottled spirit of this world's wisdom: this the Lord Christianity of Stoic, Platonic, and dialectic called "foolishness," and "chose the foolish composition! We don't want fine-tuned things of the world" to confound even arguments when we have Christ Jesus, no philosophy itself. For philosophy is the intellectual speculations when we have the world's wisdom, the rash interpreter of the gospel! For this is our complete faith; there nature and actions of God. Indeed, heresies is nothing more which we ought to believe. are themselves instigated by philosophy. The same subject-matter is discussed over and over again by the heretics and the philosophers; the same arguments are involved. Where does evil come from? Why is it permitted? What is the origin of man? and in what way does he come? From all these, when the apostle would restrain us, he expressly names philosophy as that which he would have us be on our guard against. Writing to the Colossians, he says, "See to it that no one takes you captive through hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the basic principles of this world rather than on Christ" [Col 2:8] He had been at Athens [Acts 17:16-33], and had in his discussions with its philosophers become acquainted with that human wisdom which pretends to know the truth, but only corrupts it, and is itself divided into its own multiple heresies, by the variety of its mutually antagonistic sects. What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What harmony is there between the Academy and the Church? What between heretics and Christians? Our instruction comes from "the * This is the first of many references in this reading porch of Solomon" [Acts 3:11, 5:12], who packet to the Book of Wisdom, which is one of the had himself taught that "the Lord should be "apocryphal" or "deuterocanonical" books that Catholic and Orthodox Christians (but not Protestants) accept as inspired Scripture.

26 Selections From 1 John

The three letters of John (the Johannine Epistles) are among the last of the New Testament books to be written, late in the first century A. D. (about 50 years after Jesus' death). In this letter John responds to a form of early gnosticism in the church, which emphasized secret knowledge (gnosis) and denied that Jesus had a material body, as we have. By contrast, John insists on the physical nature of Jesus as the Christ, and proclaims his death on the cross as the public (not secret) knowledge needed for salvation. Interestingly, John shares with the gnostics a strong emphasis on contrasts such as light and darkness, good and evil, truth and falsehood, life and death. But he rejects their dualism regarding matter and spirit, which saw matter as inherently evil.

Chapter 1 Spirit of God: Every spirit that acknowledges that 1 That which was from the beginning, Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God, 3 which we have heard, which we have but every spirit that does not acknowledge Jesus is seen with our eyes, which we have not from God. This is the spirit of the antichrist, looked at and our hands have touched - which you have heard is coming and even now is this we proclaim concerning the Word already in the world. of life. 2 The life appeared; we have seen it and testify to it, and we proclaim Chapter 5 to you the eternal life, which was with 1 Everyone who believes that Jesus is the Christ is the Father and has appeared to us. 3 We born of God, and everyone who loves the father proclaim to you what we have seen and loves his child as well.... 5 Who is it that heard, so that you also may have overcomes the world? Only he who believes that fellowship with us. And our fellowship Jesus is the Son of God. 6 This is the one who is with the Father and with his Son, came by water and blood - Jesus Christ. He did Jesus Christ. ... 5 This is the message not come by water only, but by water and blood. we have heard from him and declare to And it is the Spirit who testifies, because the you: God is light; in him there is no Spirit is the truth. 7 For there are three that darkness at all. 6 If we claim to have testify: 8 the Spirit, the water and the blood; and fellowship with him yet walk in the the three are in agreement.... 11 And this is the darkness, we lie and do not live by the testimony: God has given us eternal life, and this truth. 7 But if we walk in the light, as life is in his Son. 12 He who has the Son has life; he is in the light, we have fellowship he who does not have the Son of God does not with one another, and the blood of have life.... Jesus, his Son, purifies us from all sin. 20 We know also that the Son of God has come Chapter 4 and has given us understanding, so that we may 1 Dear friends, do not believe every know him who is true. And we are in him who is spirit, but test the spirits to see whether true - even in his Son Jesus Christ. He is the true they are from God, because many false God and eternal life. 21 Dear children, keep prophets have gone out into the world. yourselves from idols. 2 This is how you can recognize the

27 A Gnostic Perspective on Jesus Christ

Gnosticism (from gnosis, the Greek word for "wisdom") was a second century A.D. religious movement that combined selected Christian ideas or teachings with a basic Greek worldview. Because Gnostics shaped their Christian beliefs to fit into their Greek worldview, they are a prime example of the CWC category of "absorbing" cultural perspectives or values. Building on a common Greek concept that the spiritual or divine was good and that the material or matter was evil, Gnostics reinterpreted many of the Biblical accounts to fit their very different perspective. For example, whereas the Bible celebrates the account of the creation of the earth, most Gnostics took a dim view of it, since in their view matter was evil and only a lesser god of some sort would ever create matter. In the following selection, notice how the heavenly "Christ" or "anointed one" is distinguished from the earthly Jesus. (You may wish to compare this account with the orthodox Apostles' Creed and Nicene Creed that immediately follow this reading in the packet.)

[Selection is taken from Against the Heresies (1.30.12-13), a description and refutation of Gnostic teaching written by Irenaeus of Lyons, an orthodox Christian writer who lived in southern France in the second half of the 2nd century AD. Translation copyright © 1999 by M.W. Holmes.]

According to some Gnostics, rejoiced, resting in one another; this, they ... Wisdom1 [in Greek, "Sophia"] caused the [the Gnostics] claim, is the bridegroom and emergence of two men, one from Elizabeth, the bride. who was sterile, and one from Mary, a virgin. Now Jesus, inasmuch as he was 12. And since she herself [Wisdom] had no rest begotten of the Virgin through the action of either in heaven or on earth, in her distress she God, was wiser, purer, and more righteous called upon her Mother for help. And her than all other men. The Christ, united with mother, the First Woman2, was filled with Wisdom, descended into him, and thus Jesus compassion towards her repentant daughter and Christ was made. 13. They [the Gnostics] asked First Man3 that the Christ [the anointed claim that many of his disciples were not one4] should be sent to help her. The Christ aware of the descent of the Christ into Jesus; was sent forth and descended to his sister but when the Christ did descend into Jesus, he [Wisdom] and to the moisture of light. When began to work miracles, and heal, and Wisdom, who was already here below, announce the unknown Father5, and openly recognized that her brother was descending to confess that he was the son of the First Man. her, she announced his coming through John This made the powers6 and the Father of Jesus [the Baptist], and prepared a baptism of angry, and they worked to have him killed. repentance, and prepared Jesus properly in And when he was being led away to be advance, so that when the Christ descended, he executed, they [the Gnostics] say that the might find a pure vessel ... They [the Gnostics] Christ himself, along with Wisdom, went declare that he descended through the seven away into the incorruptible realm, but Jesus heavens, having assumed the likeness of their was crucified. sons, and gradually emptied them of power. The Christ, however, did not forget For they [the Gnostics] claim that the whole Jesus, and sent down into him a certain moisture of light rushed to him, and that the power from above, which raised him up Christ, descending to this world, first clothed again in his body, a body they call both himself with his sister Wisdom, and then both animate and spiritual, because he sent the

1 the Holy Spirit 2 the Gnostics mention this being, but do not explain 5 the "unknown Father", the "First Man" and the exactly who she is. "Father of lesus" are apparently three different beings, 3 presumably the first person of the Trinity, but the but the Gnostics [or at least Irenaeus] do not explain Gnostics do not explain exactly who this being is. the relationship among them. 4 the second person of the Trinity 6 evil spirits.

28 worldly elements of the body back into the mistake, in that they imagined that he had world. When his disciples saw him after he risen in a worldly [material] body, because had risen, they did not recognize him—nor did they did not know that "flesh and blood do they recognize the one by whose power Jesus not inherit the kingdom of heaven" (1 Cor rose from the dead. And they [the Gnostics] 15:50). claim that his disciples made a very great

29 Christian Creeds The Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed are brief summaries of the beliefs which the Church has found essential to Christianity. The earliest such summary can be found in 1 Timothy 3:16, which is probably a quotation from a baptismal summary of faith.

Tradition holds that each of the twelve apostles composed one article of the Apostles' Creed, which is where the Creed got its name. It was actually probably composed about the eighth century. It has remained the heart of orthodox Christianity, a statement of faith which virtually every Christian can affirm.

The Nicene Creed was written in response to a fourth-century heresy, Arianism, which denied the full deity of Christ. It is a summary of the teachings of the Council of Nicea (325) though the wording comes from the Council of Constantinople (381).

The Apostles' Creed

I believe in God the Father Almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord. He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit, and born of the virgin Mary. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried. He descended into hell. On the third day he rose again. He ascended into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again to judge the living and the dead I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic1 Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.

The Nicene Creed

We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven; by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.

'Catholic means universal.

30 We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through the prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one Baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

31 "The Letter to Diognetus"

For most of the first century A. D. Christianity was, in the larger world of the Roman Empire, scarcely noticed or noticeable. But in the second century, as Christianity continued to expand rapidly, the Roman state and pagan culture became increasingly aware of what the Roman historian Tacitus called a "pernicious superstition." Because Christian beliefs and practices often ran counter to Greco-Roman values and customs, the Church found itself in the midst of an increasingly hostile environment. Rumors that Christians practiced incest, cannibalism, and infant sacrifice were widespread among the general population; the state regarded these "atheists" (for Christians did not believe in the traditional Greek or Roman gods) as a threat to its own well-being and guilty of a capital crime; while educated intellectuals attacked Christian doctrines as a recent and perverse corruption of sound ancient traditions.

In the face of such attacks the Christian Apologists (ca. 130-200) sought to defend the faith to which they had committed themselves. They attempted, for example, to dispel the rumors arising out of half-truths and ignorance by describing in general terms Christian beliefs and rituals, to win for the faith a fair hearing from the authorities by asserting their loyalty and value to the government, and to counter the charge of newness by asserting that Christianity was, by virtue of its Jewish heritage, more ancient than Greek philosophy. Writers whose works have survived are Justin Martyr (d. 165), Athenagoras (ca. 170-180), Aristides (ca. 145), Theophilus of Antioch (ca. 180- 185) and Tatian (d. 180?). These, together with the "Epistle to Diognetus," comprise the Greek Christian Apologists. We do not know who the author is, nor do we know who "Diognetus" might have been.

Translated by J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. New Edition edited and revised by Michael W. Holmes, 1988

1. Since I see, most excellent Diognetus, stone, like that which we walk upon, and that you are extremely interested in learning another bronze, no better than the utensils about the religion of the Christians and are that have been forged for our use, and asking very clear and careful questions about another wood, already rotted away, and them— specifically, what God do they another silver, which needs a watchman to believe in and how do they worship him, so guard it lest it be stolen, and another iron, that they all disregard the world and despise corroded by rust, and another pottery, not a death, neither recognizing those who are bit more attractive than that made for the considered to be gods by the Greeks nor most unmentionable use? (5) These are the observing the superstition of the Jews; what things you call gods; you serve them, you is the nature of the heartfelt love they have worship them, and in the end you become for one another; and why has this new race of like them. (6) This is why you hate the men or way of life come into the world we Christians: because they do not consider live in now and not before?—I gladly these objects to be gods. welcome this interest of yours, and I ask 3. And next I suppose that you are God, who empowers us both to speak and to especially anxious to hear why Christians do listen, that I may be enabled to speak in such not worship in the same way as the Jews. (2) a way that you will derive the greatest The Jews indeed, insofar as they abstain from possible benefit from listening, and that you the kind of worship described above, rightly may listen in such a way that the speaker will claim to worship the one God of the universe have no regrets. and to think of him as Master; but insofar as 2. Come, then, clear your mind of all its they offer this worship to him in the same prejudices and cast aside the custom that way as those already described, they are deceives you. See not only with your eyes altogether mistaken. (5) Those who imagine but also with your intellect what substance or that they are offering sacrifices to him by what form those whom you call and regard as means of blood and fat and whole burnt gods happen to have. (2) Is not one of them offerings and are honoring him with these

32 tokens of respect do not seem to me to be the yet they offer respect. (16) When they do least bit different from those who show the good, they are punished as evildoers; when same respect to deaf images: the latter make they are punished, they rejoice as though offerings to things unable to receive the brought to life. (17) By the Jews they are honor, while the former think they offer it to assaulted as foreigners, and by the Greeks the One who is in need of nothing. they are persecuted, yet those who hate them 4. But as for the mystery of the are unable to give a reason for their hostility. Christian's own religion, do not expect to be 6. In a word, what the soul is to the able to learn this from man. 5. For Christians body, Christians are to the world. (2) The are not distinguished from the rest of soul is dispersed through all the members of humanity by country, language, or custom. the body, and Christians throughout the cities (2) For nowhere do they live in cities of their of the world. (3) The soul dwells in the own, nor do they speak some unusual dialect, body, but is not of the body; likewise nor do they practice an eccentric lifestyle. Christians dwell in the world, but are not of (3) This teaching of theirs has not been the world. (4) The soul, which is invisible, is discovered by the thought and reflection of confined in the body, which is visible; in the ingenious men, nor do they promote any same way, Christians are recognized as being human doctrine, as some do. (4) But while in the world, and yet their religion remains they live in both Greek and barbarian cities, invisible. (5) The flesh hates the soul and as each one's lot was cast, and follow the wages war against it, even though it has local customs in dress and food and other suffered no wrong, because it is hindered aspects of life, at the same time they from indulging in its pleasures; so also the demonstrate the remarkable and admittedly world hates the Christians, even though it has unusual character of their own citizenship. suffered no wrong, because they set (5) They live in their own countries, but only themselves against its pleasures. (6) The as aliens; they participate in everything as soul loves the flesh that hates it, and its citizens, and endure everything as foreigners. members, and Christians love those who hate Every foreign country is their fatherland, and them. (7) The soul is enclosed in the body, every fatherland is foreign. (6) They marry but it holds the body together; and though like everyone else, and have children, but Christians are detained in the world as if in a they do not expose their offspring. (7) They prison, they in fact hold the world together. share their food but not their wives. (8) They (8) The soul, which is immortal, lives in a are "in the flesh," but they do not live mortal dwelling; similarly Christians live as "according to the flesh. " (9) They live on strangers amidst perishable things, while earth, but their citizenship is in heaven. (10) waiting for the imperishable in heaven. (9) They obey the established laws; indeed in The soul, when poorly treated with respect to their private lives they transcend the laws. food and drink, becomes all the better; and so (11) They love everyone, and by everyone Christians when punished daily increase they are persecuted. (12) They are unknown, more and more. (10) Such is the important yet they are condemned; they are put to position to which God has appointed them, death, yet they are brought to life. (13) They and it is not right for them to decline it. are poor, yet they make many rich; they are in need of everything, yet they abound in everything. (14) They are dishonored, yet they are glorified in their dishonor; they are slandered, yet they are vindicated. (15) They are cursed, yet they bless; they are insulted,

33 Augustine Augustine of Hippo (AD 354-430) was one of the most prolific and influential theologians of the Early Church. Born in North Africa to a pagan father and Christian mother, Augustine did not become a Christian himself until later in life but eventually was named bishop of the city of Hippo. During his lifetime he wrote extensively on theology and philosophy, influencing later Christians' views of the church, sacraments, salvation, politics, and much more.

Confessions Written at the end of the 4th century A.D. while Augustine was in his mid-40s, his Confessions is one of the first spiritual autobiographies. In it Augustine looks back on his life from his earliest days up though his dramatic conversion experience and Christian baptism in his early 30s. Throughout the work, Augustine examines how his obsession with the origins of evil and his own sinfulness lead him through the vast and varied social, intellectual, and spiritual landscape of the Roman Empire of the 4th century. This book - in which Augustine addresses God directly - is significant both for its honesty and intimacy. In it Augustine offers his testimony. He lays bare not only the lengths to which he was willing to go in search of answers to life's big questions, but also his struggle to cast of his vanity, to be broken before God and others, and to receive the unmerited grace of God.

SOURCE: Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, translated and edited by Albert C. Outler, http://www.ccel.Org/a/augustine/confessions/confessions.html from BOOK ONE In the opening of Confessions. Augustine famously makes the statement to God: "thou hast made us for thyself and restless is our heart until it comes to rest in thee." This then becomes a major theme of Confessions — that human life is a restless, unsettled, and uncertain existence until we find our rest in God. In this excerpt from Book One, Augustine asks a series of questions to God about God and God's nature. These give us a glimpse into the questioning mind of Augustine which both drives and complicates his journey to Christ.

that we may come to know thee. But "how CHAPTER I shall they call on him in whom they have not believed? Or how shall they believe without 1. "Great art thou, O Lord, and a preacher?" (Rom 10:14) Now, "they shall greatly to be praised; great is thy power, and praise the Lord who seek him" (Ps 22:26), infinite is thy wisdom" (Ps 145:3, Ps 147:5). for "those who seek shall find him" (Mt 7:7), And man desires to praise thee, for he is a and, finding him, shall praise him. I will seek part of thy creation; he bears his mortality thee, O Lord, and call upon thee. I call upon about with him and carries the evidence of thee, O Lord, in my faith which thou hast his sin and the proof that thou dost resist the given me, which thou hast inspired in me proud. Still he desires to praise thee, this man through the humanity of thy Son, and who is only a small part of thy creation. Thou through the ministry of thy preacher.1 hast prompted him, that he should delight to praise thee, for thou hast made us for thyself CHAPTER II and restless is our heart until it comes to rest in thee. Grant me, O Lord, to know and 2. And how shall I call upon my God- understand whether first to invoke thee or to -my God and my Lord? For when I call on praise thee; whether first to know thee or call him I ask him to come into me. And what upon thee. But who can invoke thee, place is there in me into which my God can knowing thee not? For he who knows thee not may invoke thee as another than thou art. It may be that we should invoke thee in order 'A reference to Bishop Ambrose of Milan; see Bk. V, Ch. XIII; Bk. VIII, Ch. 11,3.

34 come? How could God, the God who made single part, and do all things contain that both heaven and earth, come into me? Is same part at the same time? Do singulars there anything in me, O Lord my God, that contain thee singly? Do greater things can contain thee? Do even the heaven and the contain more of thee, and smaller things less? earth, which thou hast made, and in which Or, is it not rather that thou art wholly thou didst make me, contain thee? Is it present everywhere, yet in such a way that possible that, since without thee nothing nothing contains thee wholly? would be which does exist, thou didst make it so that whatever exists has some capacity CHAPTER IV to receive thee? Why, then, do I ask thee to come into me, since I also am and could not 4. What, therefore, is my God? What, be if thou wert not in me? For I am not, after I ask, but the Lord God? "For who is Lord all, in hell—and yet thou art there too, for "if I but the Lord himself, or who is God besides go down into hell, thou art there" (Ps 139:8) our God?" (Ps 18:31) Most high, most Therefore I would not exist—I would simply excellent, most potent, most omnipotent; not be at all—unless I exist in thee, from most merciful and most just; most secret and whom and by whom and in whom all things most truly present; most beautiful and most are. Even so, Lord; even so. Where do I call strong; stable, yet not supported; thee to, when I am already in thee? Or from unchangeable, yet changing all things; never whence wouldst thou come into me? Where, new, never old; making all things new, yet beyond heaven and earth, could I go that bringing old age upon the proud, and they there my God might come to me—he who know it not; always working, ever at rest; hath said, "I fill heaven and earth"? (Jer gathering, yet needing nothing; sustaining, 23:24) pervading, and protecting; creating, nourishing, and developing; seeking, and yet CHAPTER III possessing all things. Thou dost love, but without passion; art jealous, yet free from 3. Since, then, thou dost fill the care; dost repent without remorse; art angry, heaven and earth, do they contain thee? Or, yet remainest serene. Thou changest thy dost thou fill and overflow them, because ways, leaving thy plans unchanged; thou they cannot contain thee? And where dost recoverest what thou hast never really lost. thou pour out what remains of thee after Thou art never in need but still thou dost heaven and earth are full? Or, indeed, is there rejoice at thy gains; art never greedy, yet no need that thou, who dost contain all demandest dividends. Men pay more than is things, shouldst be contained by any, since required so that thou dost become a debtor; those things which thou dost fill thou fillest yet who can possess anything at all which is by containing them? For the vessels which not already thine? Thou owest men nothing, thou dost fill do not confine thee, since even yet payest out to them as if in debt to thy if they were broken, thou wouldst not be creature, and when thou dost cancel debts poured out. And, when thou art poured out thou losest nothing thereby. Yet, O my God, on us, thou art not thereby brought down; my life, my holy Joy, what is this that I have rather, we are uplifted. Thou art not said? What can any man say when he speaks scattered; rather, thou dost gather us together. of thee? But woe to them that keep silence- But when thou dost fill all things, dost thou since even those who say most are dumb. fill them with thy whole being? Or, since not even all things together could contain thee altogether, does any one thing contain a

35 from BOOK EIGHT Through the first seven books of The Confessions. Augustine examines his life from his days as an adolescent trouble maker and a sex-obsessed teenager, to his young adulthood as a student and teacher of rhetoric and a searcher after truth. In book eight, however, we see Augustine wrestling with his will, which would not allow him to accept Christianity. This struggle led him to the dramatic conversion experience he describes below.

CHAPTER VIII not by ships or chariots or feet—indeed it was not as far as I had come from the house to the 19. Then, as this vehement quarrel, place where we were seated. For to go along which I waged with my soul in the chamber that road and indeed to reach the goal is of my heart, was raging inside my inner nothing else but the will to go. But it must be dwelling, agitated both in mind and a strong and single will, not staggering and countenance, I seized upon Alypius and swaying about this way and that—a exclaimed: "What is the matter with us? changeable, twisting, fluctuating will, What is this? What did you hear? The wrestling with itself while one part falls as uninstructed start up and take heaven, and another rises. we—with all our learning but so little heart- 20. Finally, in the very fever of my see where we wallow in flesh and blood! indecision, I made many motions with my Because others have gone before us, are we body; like men do when they will to act but ashamed to follow, and not rather ashamed at cannot, either because they do not have the our not following?" I scarcely knew what I limbs or because their limbs are bound or said, and in my excitement I flung away from weakened by disease, or incapacitated in him, while he gazed at me in silent some other way. Thus if I tore my hair, astonishment. For I did not sound like struck my forehead, or, entwining my myself: my face, eyes, color, tone expressed fingers, clasped my knee, these I did because my meaning more clearly than my words. I willed it. But I might have willed it and still There was a little garden belonging to not have done it, if the nerves had not obeyed our lodging, of which we had the use—as of my will. Many things then I did, in which the the whole house—for the master, our will and power to do were not the same. Yet I landlord, did not live there. The tempest in did not do that one thing which seemed to me my breast hurried me out into this garden, infinitely more desirable, which before long I where no one might interrupt the fiery should have power to will because shortly struggle in which I was engaged with myself, when I willed, I would will with a single until it came to the outcome that thou will. For in this, the power of willing is the knewest though I did not. But I was mad for power of doing; and as yet I could not do it. health, and dying for life; knowing what evil Thus my body more readily obeyed the thing I was, but not knowing what good thing slightest wish of the soul in moving its limbs I was so shortly to become. at the order of my mind than my soul obeyed I fled into the garden, with Alypius itself to accomplish in the will alone its great following step by step; for I had no secret in resolve. which he did not share, and how could he leave me in such distress? We sat down, as CHAPTER IX far from the house as possible. I was greatly disturbed in spirit, angry at myself with a 21. How can there be such a strange turbulent indignation because I had not anomaly? And why is it? Let thy mercy shine entered thy will and covenant, O my God, on me, that I may inquire and find an answer, while all my bones cried out to me to enter, amid the dark labyrinth of human extolling it to the skies. The way therein is punishment and in the darkest contritions of

36 the sons of Adam. Whence such an anomaly? in darkness, but now are you in the light in And why should it be? The mind commands the Lord" (Eph 5:8). But they desired to be the body, and the body obeys. The mind light, not "in the Lord," but in themselves. commands itself and is resisted. The mind They conceived the nature of the soul to be commands the hand to be moved and there is the same as what God is, and thus have such readiness that the command is scarcely become a thicker darkness than they were; distinguished from the obedience in act. Yet for in their dread arrogance they have gone the mind is mind, and the hand is body. The farther away from thee, from thee "the true mind commands the mind to will, and yet Light, that lights every man that comes into though it be itself it does not obey itself. the world." Mark what you say and blush for Whence this strange anomaly and why shame; draw near to him and be enlightened, should it be? I repeat: The will commands and your faces shall not be ashamed (Ps itself to will, and could not give the 34:5). command unless it wills; yet what is While I was deliberating whether I commanded is not done. But actually the will would serve the Lord my God now, as I had does not will entirely; therefore it does not long purposed to do, it was I who willed and command entirely. For as far as it wills, it it was also I who was unwilling. In either commands. And as far as it does not will, the case, it was I. I neither willed with my whole thing commanded is not done. For the will will nor was I wholly unwilling. And so I commands that there be an act of will—not was at war with myself and torn apart by another, but itself. But it does not command myself. And this strife was against my will; entirely. Therefore, what is commanded does yet it did not show the presence of another not happen; for if the will were whole and mind, but the punishment of my own. Thus it entire, it would not even command it to be, was no more I who did it, but the sin that because it would already be. It is, therefore, dwelt in me—the punishment of a sin freely no strange anomaly partly to will and partly committed by Adam, and I was a son of to be unwilling. This is actually an infirmity Adam. of mind, which cannot wholly rise, while 23. For if there are as many opposing pressed down by habit, even though it is natures as there are opposing wills, there will supported by the truth. And so there are two not be two but many more. If any man is wills, because one of them is not whole, and trying to decide whether he should go to their what is present in this one is lacking in the conventicle or to the theater, the Manicheans other. at once cry out, "See, here are two natures- one good, drawing this way, another bad, CHAPTER X drawing back that way; for how else can you explain this indecision between conflicting 22. Let them perish from thy wills?" But I reply that both impulses are presence, O God, as vain talkers, and bad—that which draws to them and that deceivers of the soul perish, who, when they which draws back to the theater. But they do observe that there are two wills in the act of not believe that the will which draws to them deliberation, go on to affirm that there are can be anything but good. Suppose, then, that two kinds of minds in us: one good, the other one of us should try to decide, and through evil. They are indeed themselves evil when the conflict of his two wills should waver they hold these evil opinions—and they shall whether he should go to the theater or to our become good only when they come to hold Church. Would not those also waver about the truth and consent to the truth that thy the answer here? For either they must apostle may say to them: "You were formerly confess, which they are unwilling to do, that

37 the will that leads to our church is as good as But what, then, if all delight us equally and that which carries their own adherents and all at the same time? Do not different wills those captivated by their mysteries; or else distract the mind when a man is trying to they must imagine that there are two evil decide what he should choose? Yet they are natures and two evil minds in one man, both all good, and are at variance with each other at war with each other, and then it will not be until one is chosen. When this is done the true what they say, that there is one good and whole united will may go forward on a single another bad. Else they must be converted to track instead of remaining as it was before, the truth, and no longer deny that when divided in many ways. So also, when eternity anyone deliberates there is one soul attracts us from above, and the pleasure of fluctuating between conflicting wills. earthly delight pulls us down from below, the 24. Let them no longer maintain that soul does not will either the one or the other when they perceive two wills to be with all its force, but still it is the same soul contending with each other in the same man that does not will this or that with a united the contest is between two opposing minds, will, and is therefore pulled apart with of two opposing substances, from two grievous perplexities, because for truth's opposing principles, the one good and the sake it prefers this, but for custom's sake it other bad. Thus, O true God, thou dost does not lay that aside. reprove and confute and convict them. For both wills may be bad: as when a man tries to CHAPTER XI decide whether he should kill a man by poison or by the sword; whether he should 25. Thus I was sick and tormented, take possession of this field or that one reproaching myself more bitterly than ever, belonging to someone else, when he cannot rolling and writhing in my chain till it should get both; whether he should squander his be utterly broken. By now I was held but money to buy pleasure or hold onto his slightly, but still was held. And thou, O Lord, money through the motive of covetousness; didst press upon me in my inmost heart with whether he should go to the circus or to the a severe mercy, redoubling the lashes of fear theater, if both are open on the same day; or, and shame; lest I should again give way and whether he should take a third course, open that same slender remaining tie not be broken at the same time, and rob another man's off, but recover strength and enchain me yet house; or, a fourth option, whether he should more securely. commit adultery, if he has the opportunity- I kept saying to myself, "See, let it be all these things concurring in the same space done now; let it be done now." And as I said of time and all being equally longed for, this I all but came to a firm decision. I all but although impossible to do at one time. For did it-yet I did not quite. Still I did not fall the mind is pulled four ways by four back to my old condition, but stood aside for antagonistic wills—or even more, in view of a moment and drew breath. And I tried again, the vast range of human desires—but even the and lacked only a very little of reaching the Manicheans do not affirm that there are these resolve—and then somewhat less, and then all many different substances. The same but touched and grasped it. Yet I still did not principle applies as in the action of good quite reach or touch or grasp the goal, wills. For I ask them, "Is it a good thing to because I hesitated to die to death and to live have delight in reading the apostle, or is it a to life. And the worse way, to which I was good thing to delight in a sober psalm, or is it habituated, was stronger in me than the a good thing to discourse on the gospel?" To better, which I had not tried. And up to the each of these, they will answer, "It is good." very moment in which I was to become

38 another man, the nearer the moment so stand not? Cast yourself on him; fear not. approached, the greater horror did it strike in He will not flinch and you will not fall. Cast me. But it did not strike me back, nor turn me yourself on him without fear, for he will aside, but held me in suspense. receive and heal you." And I blushed 26. It was, in fact, my old mistresses, violently, for I still heard the muttering of trifles of trifles and vanities of vanities, who those "trifles" and hung suspended. Again still enthralled me. They tugged at my fleshly she seemed to speak: "Stop your ears against garments and softly whispered: "Are you those unclean members of yours, that they going to part with us? And from that moment may be mortified. They tell you of delights, will we never be with you any more? And but not according to the law of the Lord thy from that moment will not this and that be God." This struggle raging in my heart was forbidden you forever?" What were they nothing but the contest of self against self. suggesting to me in those words "this or And Alypius kept close beside me, and that"? What is it they suggested, O my God? awaited in silence the outcome of my Let thy mercy guard the soul of thy servant extraordinary agitation. from the vileness and the shame they did suggest! And now I scarcely heard them, for CHAPTER XII they were not openly showing themselves and opposing me face to face; but muttering, 28. Now when deep reflection had as it were, behind my back; and furtively drawn up out of the secret depths of my soul plucking at me as I was leaving, trying to all my misery and had heaped it up before the make me look back at them. Still they sight of my heart, there arose a mighty storm, delayed me, so that I hesitated to break loose accompanied by a mighty rain of tears. That I and shake myself free of them and leap over might give way fully to my tears and to the place to which I was being called—for lamentations, I stole away from Alypius, for unruly habit kept saying to me, "Do you it seemed to me that solitude was more think you can live without them?" appropriate for the business of weeping. I 27. But now it said this very faintly; went far enough away that I could feel that for in the direction I had set my face, and yet even his presence was no restraint upon me. toward which I still trembled to go, the This was the way I felt at the time, and he chaste dignity of continence appeared to me— realized it. I suppose I had said something cheerful but not wanton, modestly alluring before I started up and he noticed that the me to come and doubt nothing, extending her sound of my voice was choked with weeping. holy hands, full of a multitude of good And so he stayed alone, where we had been examples—to receive and embrace me. There sitting together, greatly astonished. I flung were there so many young men and maidens, myself down under a fig tree—how I know a multitude of youth and every age, grave not—and gave free course to my tears. The widows and ancient virgins; and continence streams of my eyes gushed out an acceptable herself in their midst: not barren, but a sacrifice to thee. And, not indeed in these fruitful mother of children—her joys—by thee, words, but to this effect, I cried to thee: "And O Lord, her husband. And she smiled on me thou, O Lord, how long? How long, O Lord? with a challenging smile as if to say: "Can Wilt thou be angry forever? Oh, remember you not do what these young men and not against us our former iniquities" (Ps 6:3; maidens can? Or can any of them do it of Ps 79:8). For I felt that I was still enthralled themselves, and not rather in the Lord their by them. I sent up these sorrowful cries: God? The Lord their God gave me to them. "How long, how long? Tomorrow and Why do you stand in your own strength, and tomorrow? Why not now? Why not this very

39 hour make an end to my uncleanness?" and he looked on even further than I had 29. I was saying these things and read. I had not known what followed. But weeping in the most bitter contrition of my indeed it was this, "Him that is weak in the heart, when suddenly I heard the voice of a faith, receive" (Rom 14:1). This he applied to boy or a girl I know not which—coming from himself, and told me so. By these words of the neighboring house, chanting over and warning he was strengthened, and by over again, "Pick it up, read it; pick it up, exercising his good resolution and purpose- read it." Immediately I ceased weeping and all very much in keeping with his character, began most earnestly to think whether it was in which, in these respects, he was always far usual for children in some kind of game to different from and better than I-he joined me sing such a song, but I could not remember in full commitment without any restless ever having heard the like. So, damming the hesitation. torrent of my tears, I got to my feet, for I Then we went in to my mother, and could not but think that this was a divine told her what happened, to her great joy. We command to open the Bible and read the first explained to her how it had occurred—and passage I should light upon. For I had heard she leaped for joy triumphant; and she how Anthony [of the Desert], accidentally blessed thee, who art "able to do exceedingly coming into church while the gospel was abundantly above all that we ask or think" being read, received the admonition as if (Eph 3:20). For she saw that thou hadst what was read had been addressed to him: granted her far more than she had ever asked "Go and sell what you have and give it to the for in all her pitiful and doleful lamentations. poor, and you shall have treasure in heaven; For thou didst so convert me to thee that I and come and follow me" (Mt 19:21). By sought neither a wife nor any other of this such an oracle he was forthwith converted to world's hopes, but set my feet on that rule of thee. faith which so many years before thou hadst So I quickly returned to the bench showed her in her dream about me. And so where Alypius was sitting, for there I had put thou didst turn her grief into gladness more down the apostle's book when I had left plentiful than she had ventured to desire, and there. I snatched it up, opened it, and in dearer and purer than the desire she used to silence read the paragraph on which my eyes cherish of having grandchildren of my flesh. first fell: "Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh to fulfill the lusts thereof (Rom 13:13). I wanted to read no further, nor did I need to. For instantly, as the sentence ended, there was infused in my heart something like the light of full certainty and all the gloom of doubt vanished away. 30. Closing the book, then, and putting my finger or something else for a mark I began—now with a tranquil countenance—to tell it all to Alypius. And he in turn disclosed to me what had been going on in himself, of which I knew nothing. He asked to see what I had read. I showed him,

40 Augustine on the "Problem of Evil" Throughout his early life, Augustine was perplexed by the "problem of evil": that is, How could an all-powerful, perfectly good God create a world that contains evil and suffering? Manicheism, a religion that Augustine had adopted and then rejected, had an easy explanation for evil: it claimed that there were two equally powerful gods, a good one and a bad one, and the bad god was the source of the world's evil. But Christianity claimed that God was supreme. So where did evil come from? In this excerpt from the Enchiridion (ca. 420), Augustine gives his Christian solution to the problem of evil by arguing that evil is the mere absence of good that results from the corruption of the good things God has made.

SOURCE: Augustine, Enchiridion, translated by J.F. Shaw, http://www.leaderu.com/cyber/books/augenchiridion/enchiridion01-23.html

CHAP. 10.--THE SUPREMELY GOOD substance—the flesh itself being a substance, CREATOR MADE ALL THINGS and therefore something good, of which GOOD. those evils—that is, privations of the good By the Trinity, thus supremely and which we call health—are accidents. Just in equally and unchangeably good, all things the same way, what are called vices in the were created; and these are not supremely soul are nothing but privations of natural and equally and unchangeably good, but yet good. And when they are cured, they are not they are, good, even taken separately. Taken transferred elsewhere: when they cease to as a whole, however, they are very good, exist in the healthy soul, they cannot exist because their ensemble constitutes the anywhere else. universe in all its wonderful order and beauty. CHAP. 12.--ALL BEINGS WERE MADE GOOD, BUT NOT BEING MADE CHAP. 11.-WHAT IS CALLED EVIL IN PERFECTLY GOOD, ARE LIABLE TO THE UNIVERSE IS BUT THE CORRUPTION. ABSENCE OF GOOD. All things that exist, therefore, seeing that And in the universe, even that which is the Creator of them all is supremely good, called evil, when it is regulated and put in its are themselves good. But because they are own place, only enhances our admiration of not, like their Creator, supremely and the good; for we enjoy and value the good unchangeably good, their good may be more when we compare it with the evil. For diminished and increased. But for good to be the Almighty God, who, as even the heathen diminished is an evil, although, however acknowledge, has supreme power over all much it may be diminished, it is necessary, if things, being Himself supremely good, the being is to continue, that some good would never permit the existence of anything should remain to constitute the being. For evil among His works, if He were not so however small or of whatever kind the being omnipotent and good that He can bring good may be, the good which makes it a being even out of evil. For what is that which we cannot be destroyed without destroying the call evil but the absence of good? In the being itself. An uncorrupted nature is justly bodies of animals, disease and wounds mean held in esteem. But if, still further, it be nothing but the absence of health; for when a incorruptible, it is undoubtedly considered of cure is effected, that does not mean that the still higher value. When it is corrupted, evils which were present—namely, the however, its corruption is an evil, because it diseases and wounds—go away from the is deprived of some sort of good. For if it be body and dwell elsewhere: they altogether deprived of no good, it receives no injury; cease to exist; for the wound or disease is not but it does receive injury, therefore it is a substance, but a defect in the fleshly deprived of good. Therefore, so long as a

41 being is in process of corruption, there is in it will then be no good left, because there will some good of which it is being deprived; and be no being. Wherefore corruption can if a part of the being should remain which consume the good only by consuming the cannot be corrupted, this will certainly be an being. Every being, therefore, is a good; a incorruptible being, and accordingly the great good, if it can not be corrupted; a little process of corruption will result in the good, if it can: but in any case, only the manifestation of this great good. But if it do foolish or ignorant will deny that it is a good. not cease to be corrupted, neither can it cease And if it be wholly consumed by corruption, to possess good of which corruption may then the corruption itself must cease to exist, deprive it. But if it should be thoroughly and as there is no being left in which it can dwell. completely consumed by corruption, there

The City of God Augustine wrote City of God between AD 413 and 426, after Rome had been sacked by the Visigoths. In this book he explores the relationship between Christianity and the secular world and develops a philosophy of government that justifies secular political authority. He has important insights to share about how Christians can live in the secular world in a manner that reflects their Chrisitan values As you read the following excerpts from City of God, notice how Augustine integrates aspects of Greco-Roman culture, such as Plato's philosophy and the value o/paterfamilias, with his Christian commitments.

SOURCE: Augustine of Hippo, The City of God, translated by Marcus Dodds (Edinburgh: Clark, 1871), reprinted in Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 1 st series, vol. II (various publishers).

Book 14 he might not live according to himself, but according to Him that made him — in other Chapter 4 words, that he might do His will and not his own; and not to live as he was made to live, When, therefore, man lives according to man, that is a lie. For he certainly desires to be not according to God, he is like the devil. blessed even by not living so that he may be Because not even an angel might live blessed. And what is a lie if this desire be according to an angel, but only according to not? Wherefore it is not without meaning God, if he was to abide in the truth, and said that all sin is a lie. For no sin is speak God's truth and not his own lie. And of committed save by that desire or will by man, too, the same apostle says in another which we desire that it be well with us, and place, "If the truth of God hath more shrink from it being ill with us. That, abounded through my lie" [Rom 3:7]; "my therefore, is a lie which we do in order that it lie," he said, and "God's truth." When, then, a may be well with us, but which makes us man lives according to the truth, he lives not more miserable than we were. And why is according to himself, but according to God; this, but because the source of man's for He was God who said, "I am the truth" happiness lies only in God, whom he [Jn 14:6]. When, therefore, man lives abandons when he sins, and not in himself, according to himself — that is, according to by living according to whom he sins? man, not according to God — assuredly he lives according to a lie; not that man himself In enunciating this proposition of ours, then, is a lie, for God is his author and creator, that because some live according to the flesh who is certainly not the author and creator of and others according to the spirit, there have a lie, but because man was made upright, that arisen two diverse and conflicting cities, we

42 might equally well have said, "because some Book 15 live according to man, others according to Chapter 4 God." But the earthly city, which shall not be everlasting (for it will no longer be a city Chapter 28 when it has been committed to the extreme penalty), has its good in this world, and Accordingly, two cities have been formed by rejoices in it with such joy as such things can two loves: the earthly by the love of self, afford. But as this is not a good which can even to the contempt of God; the heavenly by discharge its devotees of all distresses, this the love of God, even to the contempt of self. city is often divided against itself by The former, in a word, glories in itself, the litigations, wars, quarrels, and such victories latter in the Lord. For the one seeks glory as are either life-destroying or short-lived. from men; but the greatest glory of the other For each part of it that arms against another is God, the witness of conscience. The one part of it seeks to triumph over the nations lifts up its head in its own glory; the other through itself in bondage to vice. If, when it says to its God, "Thou art my glory, and the has conquered, it is inflated with pride, its lifter up of mine head" [Ps 3:3]. In the one, victory is life-destroying; but if it turns its the princes and the nations it subdues are thoughts upon the common casualties of our ruled by the love of ruling; in the other, the mortal condition, and is rather anxious princes and the subjects serve one another in concerning the disasters that may befall it love, the latter obeying, while the former take than elated with the successes already thought for all. The one delights in its own achieved, this victory, though of a higher strength, represented in the persons of its kind, is still only shot-lived; for it cannot rulers; the other says to its God, "I will love abidingly rule over those whom it has Thee, O Lord, my strength" [Ps 18:1]. And victoriously subjugated. But the things which therefore the wise men of the one city, living this city desires cannot justly be said to be according to man, have sought for profit to evil, for it is itself, in its own kind, better their own bodies or souls, or both, and those than all other human good. For it desires who have known God "glorified Him not as earthly peace for the sake of enjoying earthly God, neither were thankful, but became vain goods, and it makes war in order to attain to in their imaginations, and their foolish heart this peace; since, if it has conquered, and was darkened; professing themselves to be there remains no one to resist it, it enjoys a wise," ~ that is, glorying in their own peace which it had not while there were wisdom, and being possessed by pride — opposing parties who contested for the "they became fools, and changed the glory of enjoyment of those things which were too the incorruptible God into an image made small to satisfy both. This peace is purchased like to corruptible man, and to birds, and by toilsome wars; it is obtained by what they four-footed beasts, and creeping things" For style a glorious victory. Now, when victory they were either leaders or followers of the remains with the party which had the juster people in adoring images, "and worshipped cause, who hesitates to congratulate the and served the creature more than the victor, and style it a desirable peace? These Creator, who is blessed for ever" [Rom 1:21- things, then, are good things, and without 25]. But in the other city there is no human doubt the gifts of God. But if they neglect the wisdom, but only godliness, which offers due better things of the heavenly city, which are worship to the true God, and looks for its secured by eternal victory and peace never- reward in the society of the saints, of holy ending, and so inordinately covet these angels as well as holy men, "that God may be present good things that they believe them to all in all" [1 Cor 15:28]. be the only desirable things, or love them

43 better than those things which are believed to unquestionably their prompt obedience to his be better ~ if this be so, then it is necessary every look is a source of pleasure to him. that misery follow and ever increase. And if this be not rendered, he is angry, he chides and punishes; and even by this storm he secures the calm peace of his own home, Chapter 12 as occasion demands. For he sees that peace cannot be maintained unless all the members Whoever gives even moderate attention to of the same domestic circle be subject to one human affairs and to our common nature, head, such as he himself is in his own house. will recognize that if there is no man who And therefore if a city or nation offered to does not wish to be joyful, neither is there submit itself to him, to serve him in the same any one who does not wish to have peace. style as he had made his household serve For even they who make war desire nothing him, he would no longer lurk in a brigand's but victory — desire, that is to say, to attain to hiding-places, but lift his head in open day as peace with glory. For what else is victory a king, though the same coveteousness and than the conquest of those who resist us? and wicked ness should remain in him. And thus when this is done there is peace. It is all men desire to have peace with their own therefore with the desire for peace that wars circle whom they wish to govern as suits are waged, even by those who take pleasure themselves. For even those whom they make in exercising their warlike nature in war against they wish to make their own, and command and battle. And hence it is obvious impose on them the laws of their own peace. that peace is the end sought for by war. For every man seeks peace by waging war, but Book 19 no man seeks war by making peace. For even they who intentionally interrupt the peace in Chapter 13 which they are living have no hatred of peace, but only wish it changed into a peace The peace of the body then consists in the that suits them better. They do not, therefore, duly proportioned arrangement of its parts. wish to have no peace, but only one more to The peace of the irrational soul is the their mind. And in the case of sedition, when harmonious repose of the appetites, and that men have separated themselves from the community, they yet do not effect what they of the rational soul the harmony of wish, unless they maintain some kind of knowledge and action. The peace of body peace with their fellow-conspirators. And and soul is the well-ordered and harmonious therefore even robbers take care to maintain life and health of the living creature. Peace peace with their comrades, that they may between man and God is the well-ordered with greater effect and greater safety invade obedience of faith to eternal law. Peace the peace of other men. And if an individual between man and man is well-ordered happen to be of such unrivalled strength, and concord. Domestic peace is the well-ordered to be so jealous of partnership, that he trusts concord between those of the family who himself with no comrades, but makes his rule and those who obey. Civil peace is a own plots, and commits depredations and similar concord among the citizens. The murders on his own account, yet he peace of the celestial city is the perfectly maintains some shadow of peace with such ordered and harmonious enjoyment of God, persons as he is unable to kill, and from and of one another in God. The peace of all whom he wishes to conceal his deeds. In his things is the tranquillity of order. Order is own home, too, he makes it his aim to be at the distribution which allots things equal and peace with his wife and children, and any unequal, each to its own place. And hence, other members of his household; for though the miserable, in so far as they are

44 •

such, do certainly not enjoy peace, but are all He had imparted to his nature, but severed from that tranquillity of order in something He took and something He left, which there is no disturbance, nevertheless, that there might remain enough to be sensible inasmuch as they are deservedly and justly of the loss of what was taken. And this very miserable, they are by their very misery sensibility to pain is evidence of the good connected with order. They are not, indeed, which has been taken away and the good conjoined with the blessed, but they are which has been left. For, were nothing good disjoined from them by the law of order. left, there could be no pain on account of the And though they are disquieted, their good which had been lost. For he who sins is circumstances are notwithstanding adjusted still worse if he rejoices in his loss of to them, and consequently they have some righteousness. But he who is in pain, if he tranquillity of order, and therefore some derives no benefit from it, mourns at least the peace. But they are wretched because, loss of health. And as righteousness and although not wholly miserable, they are not health are both good things, and as the loss of in that place where any mixture of misery is any good thing is matter of grief, not of impossible. They would, however, be more joy,—if, at least, there is no compensation, as wretched if they had not that peace which spiritual righteousness may compensate for arises from being in harmony with the the loss of bodily health,—certainly it is natural order of things. When they suffer, more suitable for a wicked man to grieve in their peace is in so far disturbed; but their punishment than to rejoice in his fault. As, peace continues in so far as they do not then, the joy of a sinner who has abandoned suffer, and in so far as their nature continues what is good is evidence of a bad will, so his to exist. As, then, there may be life without grief for the good he has lost when he is pain, while there cannot be pain without punished is evidence of a good nature. For some kind of life, so there may be peace he who laments the peace his nature has lost without war, but there cannot be war without is stirred to do so by some relics of peace some kind of peace, because war supposes which make his nature friendly to itself. And the existence of some natures to wage it, and it is very just that in the final punishment the these natures cannot exist without peace of wicked and godless should in anguish bewail one kind or other. the loss of the natural advantages they enjoyed, and should perceive that they were And therefore there is a nature in which evil most justly taken from them by that God does not or even cannot exist; but there whose benign liberality they had despised. cannot be a nature in which there is no good. God, then, the most wise Creator and most Hence not even the nature of the devil just Ordainer of all natures, who placed the himself is evil, in so far as it is nature, but it human race upon earth as its greatest was made evil by being perverted. Thus he ornament, imparted to men some good things did not abide in the truth [Jn 8:44], but could adapted to this life, to wit, temporal peace, not escape the judgment of the Truth; he did such as we can enjoy in this life from health not abide in the tranquillity of order, but did and safety and human fellowship, and all not therefore escape the power of the things needful for the preservation and Ordainer. The good imparted by God to his recovery of this peace, such as the objects nature did not screen him from the justice of which are accommodated to our outward God by which order was preserved in his senses, light, night, the air, and waters punishment; neither did God punish the good suitable for us, and everything the body which He had created, but the evil which the requires to sustain, shelter, heal, or beautify devil had committed. God did not take back it: and all under this most equitable

45 condition, that every man who made a good may arrive at some useful knowledge by use of these advantages suited to the peace of which he may regulate his life and manners. this mortal condition, should receive ampler But, owing to the liability of the human mind and better blessings, namely, the peace of to fall into mistakes, this very pursuit of immortality, accompanied by glory and knowledge may be a snare to him unless he honor in an endless life made fit for the has a divine Master, whom he may obey enjoyment of God and of one another in God; without misgiving, and who may at the same but that he who used the present blessings time give him such help as to preserve his badly should both lose them and should not own freedom. And because, so long as he is receive the others. in this mortal body, he is a stranger to God, he walks by faith, not by sight; and he Chapter 14 therefore refers all peace, bodily or spiritual or both, to that peace which mortal man has The whole use, then, of things temporal has a with the immortal God, so that he exhibits reference to this result of earthly peace in the the well-ordered obedience of faith to eternal earthly community, while in the city of God law. But as this divine Master inculcates two it is connected with eternal peace. And precepts,—the love of God and the love of therefore, if we were irrational animals, we our neighbor,—and as in these precepts a should desire nothing beyond the proper man finds three things he has to love,—God, arrangement of the parts of the body and the himself, and his neighbor, —and that he who satisfaction of the appetites,—nothing, loves God loves himself thereby, it follows therefore, but bodily comfort and abundance that he must endeavor to get his neighbor to of pleasures, that the peace of the body might love God, since he is ordered to love his contribute to the peace of the soul. For if neighbor as himself. He ought to make this bodily peace be awanting, a bar is put to the endeavor in behalf of his wife, his children, peace even of the irrational soul, since it his household, all within his reach, even as cannot obtain the gratification of its he would wish his neighbor to do the same appetites. And these two together help out for him if he needed it; and consequently he the mutual peace of soul and body, the peace will be at peace, or in well-ordered concord, of harmonious life and health. For as with all men, as far as in him lies. And this animals, by shunning pain, show that they is the order of this concord, that a man, in the love bodily peace, and, by pursuing pleasure first place, injure no one, and, in the second, to gratify their appetites, show that they love do good to every one he can reach. peace of soul, so their shrinking from death Primarily, therefore, his own household are is a sufficient indication of their intense love his care, for the law of nature and of society of that peace which binds soul and body in gives him readier access to them and greater close alliance. But, as man has a rational opportunity of serving them. And hence the soul, he subordinates all this which he has in apostle says, "Now, if any provide not for his common with the beasts to the peace of his own, and specially for those of his own rational soul, that his intellect may have free house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse play and may regulate his actions, and that he than an infidel" [1 Tim 5:8]. This is the may thus enjoy the well-ordered harmony of origin of domestic peace, or the well-ordered knowledge and action which constitutes, as concord of those in the family who rule and we have said, the peace of the rational soul. those who obey. For they who care for the And for this purpose he must desire to be rest rule,—the husband the wife, the parents neither molested by pain, nor disturbed by the children, the masters the servants; and desire, nor extinguished by death, that he they who are cared for obey,—the women

46 their husbands, the children their parents, the man help at the expense of some greater servants their masters. But in the family of benefit he might receive, so it is not innocent the just man who lives by faith and is as yet a to spare a man at the risk of his falling into pilgrim journeying on to the celestial city, graver sin. To be innocent, we must not only even those who rule serve those whom they do harm to no man, but also restrain him seem to command; for they rule not from a from sin or punish his sin, so that either the love of power, but from a sense of the duty man himself who is punished may profit by they owe to others—not because they are his experience, or others be warned by his proud of authority, but because they love example. Since, then, the house ought to be mercy. the beginning or element of the city, and every beginning bears reference to some end Chapter 16 of its own kind, and every element to the integrity of the whole of which it is an And therefore, although our righteous element, it follows plainly enough that fathers. The patriarchs had slaves, and domestic peace has a relation to civic administered their domestic affairs so as to peace,—in other words, that the well-ordered distinguish between the condition of slaves concord of domestic obedience and domestic and the heirship of sons in regard to the rule has a relation to the well-ordered blessings of this life, yet in regard to the concord of civic obedience and civic rule. worship of God, in whom we hope for And therefore it follows, further, that the eternal blessings, they took an equally loving father of the family ought to frame his oversight of all the members of their domestic rule in accordance with the law of household. And this is so much in the city, so that the household may be in accordance with the natural order, that the harmony with the civic order. head of the household was called paterfamilias; and this name has been so Chapter 17 generally accepted, that even those whose rule is unrighteous are glad to apply it to But the families which do not live by faith themselves. But those who are true fathers of seek their peace in the earthly advantages of their households desire and endeavor that all this life; while the families which live by the members of their household, equally with faith look for those eternal blessings which their own children, should worship and win are promised, and use as pilgrims such God, and should come to that heavenly home advantages of time and of earth as do not in which the duty of ruling men is no longer fascinate and divert them from God, but rather aid them to endure with greater ease, necessary, because the duty of caring for and to keep down the number of those their everlasting happiness has also ceased; burdens of the corruptible body which weigh but, until they reach that home, masters upon the soul. Thus the things necessary for ought to feel their position of authority a this mortal life are used by both kinds of men greater burden than servants their service. and families alike, but each has its own And if any member of the family interrupts peculiar and widely different aim in using the domestic peace by disobedience, he is them. The earthly city, which does not live corrected either by word or blow, or some by faith, seeks an earthly peace, and the end kind of just and legitimate punishment, such it proposes, in the well-ordered concord of as society permits, that he may himself be the civic obedience and rule, is the combination better for it, and be readjusted to the family of men's wills to attain the things which are harmony from which he had dislocated helpful to this life. The heavenly city, or himself. For as it is not benevolent to give a rather the part of it which sojourns on earth

47 and lives by faith, makes use of this peace heavenly city, then, while it sojourns on only because it must, until this mortal earth, calls citizens out of all nations, and condition which necessitates it shall pass gathers together a society of pilgrims of all away. Consequently, so long as it lives like a languages, not scrupling about diversities in captive and a stranger in the earthly city, the manners, laws, and institutions whereby though it has already received the promise of earthly peace is secured and maintained, but redemption, and the gift of the Spirit as the recognizing that, however various these are, earnest of it, it makes no scruple to obey the they all tend to one and the same end of laws of the earthly city, whereby the things earthly peace. It therefore is so far from necessary for the maintenance of this mortal rescinding and abolishing these diversities, life are administered; and thus, as this life is that it even preserves and adopts them, so common to both cities, so there is a harmony long only as no hindrance to the worship of between them in regard to what belongs to it. the one supreme and true God is thus But, as the earthly city has had some introduced. Even the heavenly city, therefore, philosophers whose doctrine is condemned while in its state of pilgrimage, avails itself by the divine teaching, and who, being of the peace of earth, and, so far as it can deceived either by their own conjectures or without injuring faith and godliness, desires by demons, supposed that many gods must and maintains a common agreement among be invited to take an interest in human men regarding the acquisition of the affairs, and assigned to each a separate necessaries of life, and makes this earthly function and a separate department,~to one peace bear upon the peace of heaven; for this the body, to another the soul; and in the body alone can be truly called and esteemed the itself, to one the head, to another the neck, peace of the reasonable creatures, consisting and each of the other members to one of the as it does in the perfectly ordered and gods; and in like manner, in the soul, to one harmonious enjoyment of God and of one god the natural capacity was assigned, to another in God. When we shall have reached another education, to another anger, to that peace, this mortal life shall give place to another lust; and so the various affairs of life one that is eternal, and our body shall be no were assigned,—cattle to one, corn to another, more this animal body which by its wine to another, oil to another, the woods to corruption weighs down the soul, but a another, money to another, navigation to spiritual body feeling no want, and in all its another, wars and victories to another, members subjected to the will. In its pilgrim marriages to another, births and fecundity to state the heavenly city possesses this peace another, and other things to other gods: and by faith; and by this faith it lives righteously as the celestial city, on the other hand, knew when it refers to the attainment of that peace that one God only was to be worshipped, and every good action towards God and man; for that to Him alone was due that service which the life of the city is a social life. the Greeks call latreia, and which can be given only to a god, it has come to pass that the two cities could not have common laws of religion, and that the heavenly city has been compelled in this matter to dissent, and to become obnoxious to those who think differently, and to stand the brunt of their anger and hatred and persecutions, except in so far as the minds of their enemies have been alarmed by the multitude of the Christians and quelled by the manifest protection of God accorded to them. This

48 Christians & Culture: Debating Military Service Although some did serve in Roman armies, most Christians before Constantine were pacifists who rejected violence of all kinds. But as Christianity became tied more and more closely to a Roman empire threatened by invasion, there was pressure for Christians to help defend against the "barbarian" armies. The following readings from Tertullian and Augustine illustrate changing attitudes about Christians taking up "the sword."

Tertullian, The Chaplet While receiving a customary gift from a new emperor, Roman soldiers would traditionally wear a laurel crown. When one Christian soldier refused to wear this crown (or "chaplet") in AD 211 and was thrown into prison, some in the church argued that he had been unnecessarily provocative, that his disobedience risked prompting another wave of persecution. Tertullian took the side of the soldier, arguing that while Christians should generally obey secular authorities, they should not if doing so would violate God's Word. In chapter 11 of this work, Tertullian goes further and argues that Christians should not be soldiers in the first place; in fact, they should refuse military service even at the risk of martyrdom. While his conclusions were extreme, the arguments Tertullian made against military service were not uncommon in the Early Church.

Source: Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian, ed. and tr. Philip Schaff, The Anti-Nicene Fathers, vol. Ill, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.vi.xi.html.

1. To begin with the real ground of the 8:10]? And shall he diligently protect by military crown, I think we must first inquire night those whom in the day-time he has put whether warfare is proper at all for to flight by his exorcisms, leaning and resting Christians.... Do we believe it lawful for a on the spear the while with which Christ's human oath to be superadded to one divine, side was pierced [Jn 19:34]? Shall he carry a for a man to come under promise to another flag, too, hostile to Christ? And shall he ask a master after Christ, and to abjure father, watchword from the emperor who has mother, and all nearest kinsfolk, whom even already received one from God? Shall he be the law has commanded us to honour and disturbed in death by the trumpet of the love next to God Himself, to whom the trumpeter, who expects to be aroused by the gospel, too, holding them only of less angel's trump [1 Cor 15:52]? And shall the account than Christ, has in like manner Christian be burned according to camp rule, rendered honour? when he was not permitted to burn incense to an idol, when to him Christ remitted the 2. Shall it be held lawful to make an punishment of fire? occupation of the sword, when the Lord proclaims that he who uses the sword shall 4. Then how many other offences there are perish by the sword [Mt 26:52]? And shall involved in the performances of camp the son of peace take part in the battle when offices, which we must hold to involve a it does not become him even to sue at law [1 transgression of God's law, you may see by a Cor 6:7]? And shall he apply the chain, and slight survey. The very carrying of the name the prison, and the torture, and the over from the camp of light to the camp of punishment, who is not the avenger even of darkness is a violation of it. Of course, if his own wrongs [Mt 5:39]? faith comes later, and finds any preoccupied with military service, their case is different, 3. Shall he, forsooth, either keep watch- as in the instance of those whom John used service for others more than for Christ, or to receive for baptism [Lk 3:14], and of those shall he do it on the Lord's day, when he most faithful centurions, I mean the does not even do it for Christ Himself? And centurion whom Christ approves [Mt 8:10], shall he keep guard before the temples which and the centurion whom Peter instructs [Acts he has renounced? And shall he take a meal 10]; yet, at the same time, when a man has where the apostle has forbidden him [1 Cor become a believer, and faith has been sealed,

49 there must be either an immediate life which has been lost for His sake; but, on abandonment of it, which has been the course the other hand, destroy that which for gain with many; or all sorts of quibbling will have has been saved to His dishonour [Mk 8:35]. to be resorted to in order to avoid offending With Him the faithful citizen is a soldier, just God, and that is not allowed even outside of as the faithful soldier is a citizen. military service; or, last of all, for God the fate must be endured which a citizen-faith 6. A state of faith admits no plea of has been no less ready to accept. necessity; they are under no necessity to sin, whose one necessity is, that they do not sin. 5. Neither does military service hold out For if one is pressed to the offering of escape from punishment of sins, or sacrifice and the sheer denial of Christ by the exemption from martyrdom. Nowhere does necessity of torture or of punishment, yet the Christian change his character. There is discipline does not connive even at that one gospel, and the same Jesus, who will one necessity; because there is a higher necessity day deny every one who denies, and to dread denying and to undergo martyrdom, acknowledge every one who acknowledges than to escape from suffering, and to render God [Mt 10:32-33]—who will save, too, the the homage required....

Augustine, "Letter to Count Boniface" Two centuries after Tertullian wrote against military service, Augustine explicitly defended it. In this letter from AD 418, Augustine (then bishop of Hippo) reassures the Roman governor of Africa that soldier is an acceptable profession for Christians. Note that, as in The City of God. Augustine cautions here that war should be waged only "in necessity" and then only to bring about peace.

Source: The Letters of St. Augustin, translated by Rev. J.G. Cunningham (New York, 1886), 552-54, The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnfl01.vii.LCLXXXIX.html.

4. Do not think that it is impossible for any directed him to send to the blessed Apostle one to please God while engaged in active Peter, and to hear from him what he ought to military service. Among such persons was do, to which apostle he sent a devout soldier, the holy David, to whom God gave so great a requesting him to come to him. Among them testimony; among them also were many were also the soldiers who, when they had righteous men of that time; among them was come to be baptized by John—the sacred also that centurion who said to the Lord: "I forerunner of the Lord, and the friend of the am not worthy that Thou shouldest come Bridegroom, of whom the Lord says: under my roof, but speak the word only, and "Among them that are born of women there my servant shall be healed: for I am a man hath not arisen a greater than John the under authority, having soldiers under me: Baptist" [Mt 11:11]—and had inquired of and I say to this man, Go, and he goeth; and him what they should do, received the answer, "Do violence to no man, neither to another, Come, and he cometh; and to my accuse any falsely; and be content with your servant, Do this, and he doeth it;" and wages" [Lk 3:14]. Certainly he did not concerning whom the Lord said: "Verily, I prohibit them to serve as soldiers when he say unto you, I have not found so great faith, commanded them to be content with their no, not in Israel" [Mt 8:8-10]. Among them pay for the service. was that Cornelius to whom an angel said: "Cornelius, thine alms are accepted, and thy prayers are heard" [Acts 10:4], when he 5. They occupy indeed a higher place before God who, abandoning all these secular

50 employments, serve Him with the strictest will, slay the enemy who fights against you. chastity; but "every one," as the apostle says, As violence is used towards him who rebels "hath his proper gift of God, one after this and resists, so mercy is due to the vanquished manner, and another after that" [1 Cor 7:7]. or the captive, especially in the case in which Some, then, in praying for you, fight against future troubling of the peace is not to be your invisible enemies; you, in fighting for feared. them, contend against the barbarians, their visible enemies. Would that one faith existed in all, for then there would be less weary struggling, and the devil with his angels would be more easily conquered; but since it is necessary in this life that the citizens of the kingdom of heaven should be subjected to temptations among erring and impious men, that they may be exercised, and "tried as gold in the furnace" [Wis 3:6], we ought not before the appointed time to desire to live with those alone who are holy and righteous, so that, by patience, we may deserve to receive this blessedness in its proper time.

6. Think, then, of this first of all, when you are arming for the battle, that even your bodily strength is a gift of God; for, considering this, you will not employ the gift of God against God. For, when faith is pledged, it is to be kept even with the enemy against whom the war is waged, how much more with the friend for whom the battle is fought! Peace should be the object of your desire; war should be waged only as a necessity, and waged only that God may by it deliver men from the necessity and preserve them in peace. For peace is not sought in order to the kindling of war, but war is waged in order that peace may be obtained. Therefore, even in waging war, cherish the spirit of a peacemaker, that, by conquering those whom you attack, you may lead them back to the advantages of peace; for our Lord says: "Blessed are the peacemakers; for they shall be called the children of God" [Mt 5:9]. If, however, peace among men be so sweet as procuring temporal safety, how much sweeter is that peace with God which procures for men the eternal felicity of the angels! Let necessity, therefore, and not your

51 The Rule of St. Benedict St. Benedict of Nursia (480-547 AD) is the father of Western monasticism. Though there had been monks for some 200 years before he wrote his Rule for Monasteries around 540 AD, the wisdom and piety of this guide soon established it as the standard "constitution" for monastic communities, which it remains to the present day. His message in the Prologue is simple: You have a choice, to obey God or not; his purpose is to motivate us to respond fully, generously, and joyously. While the Rule was addressed to "sons," there were also many Benedictine women, starting with his own younger sister, St. Scholastica. In the concluding chapters 72 and 73, he summarizes his understanding of the Christ-centered life. Note especially Benedict's constant reliance on Scripture, and the energy which he feels should characterize our response to God's love.

[Note: Although Benedict lived at the beginning of what we think of as the Middle Ages, we are including him in Unit One as a contrast with St. Anthony of the Desert and other early monastics discussed in large group.] SOURCE: Benedict of Nursia, The Rule of St. Benedict in English, edited by Timothy Fry, O.S.B., (Collegeville, Minn.: The Liturgical Press, 1982).

PROLOGUE ears to hear, listen to what the Spirit says to Listen carefully, my son, to the master's the churches (Rev 2:7). And what does he instructions, and attend to them with the ear say? Come and listen to me, sons; I will of your heart. This is advice from a father teach you the fear of the Lord (Ps 34:12). who loves you; welcome it, and faithfully put Run while you have the light of life, that the it into practice. The labor of obedience will darkness of death may not overtake you (Jn bring you back to him from whom you had 12:35). drifted through the sloth of disobedience. Seeking his workman in a multitude of This message of mine is for you, then, if you people, the Lord calls out to him and lifts his are ready to give up your own will, once and voice again: Is there anyone here who for all, and armed with the strong and noble yearns for life and desires to see good days? weapons of obedience to do battle for the (Ps 34:13) If you hear this and your answer true King, Christ the Lord. is "I do," God then directs these words to First of all, every time you begin a good you: If you desire true and eternal life, keep work, you must pray to him most earnestly to your tongue free from vicious talk and your bring it to perfection. In his goodness, he has lips from all deceit; turn away from evil and already counted us as his sons, and therefore do good; let peace be your quest and aim (Ps we should never grieve him by our evil 34:14-15). Once you have done this, my actions. With his good gifts which are in us, eyes will be upon you and my ears will listen we must obey him at all times that he may for your prayers; and even before you ask never become the angry father who me, I will say to you: Here I am (Isa 58:9). disinherits his sons, nor the dread lord, What, dear brothers, is more delightful than enraged by our sins, who punishes us forever this voice of the Lord calling to us? See how as worthless servants for refusing to follow the Lord in his love shows us the way of life. him to glory. Clothed then with faith and the performance Let us get up then, at long last, for the of good works, let us set out on this way, Scriptures rouse us when they say: It is high with the Gospel for our guide, that we may time for us to arise from sleep (Rom 13:11). deserve to see him who has called us to his Let us open our eyes to the light that comes kingdom (1 Thess 2:12). from God, and our ears to the voice from If we wish to dwell in the tent of this heaven that every day calls out this charge: If kingdom, we will never arrive unless we run you hear his voice today, do not harden your there by doing good deeds. But let us ask the hearts (Ps 95:8). And again: You that have Lord with the prophet: Who will dwell in

52 your tent, Lord; who will find rest upon your Brothers, now that we have asked the holy mountain? (Ps 15:1) After this Lord who will dwell in his tent, we have question, brothers, let us listen well to what heard the instruction for dwelling in it, but the Lord says in reply, for he shows us the only if we fulfill the obligations of those who way to his tent. One who walks without live there. We must, then, prepare our hearts blemish, he says, and is just in all his and bodies for the battle of holy obedience to dealings; who speaks the truth from his heart his instructions. What is not possible to us and has not practiced deceit with his tongue; by nature, let us ask the Lord to supply by who has not wronged a fellowman in any the help of his grace. If we wish to reach way, nor listened to slanders against his eternal life, even as we avoid the torments of neighbor (Ps 15:2-3). He has foiled the evil hell, then — while there is still time, while one, the devil, at every turn, flinging both we are in this body and have time to him and his promptings fax from the sight of accomplish all these things by the light of life his heart. While these temptations were still — we must run and do now what will profit young, he caught hold of them and dashed us forever. them against Christ (Ps 15:4; 137:9). These Therefore we intend to establish a school people fear the Lord, and do not become for the Lord's service. In drawing up its elated over their good deeds; they judge it is regulations, we hope to set down nothing the Lord's power, not their own, that brings harsh, nothing burdensome. The good of all about the good in them. They praise (Ps concerned, however, may prompt us to a 15:4) the Lord working in them, and say with little strictness in order to amend faults and the Prophet: Not to us, Lord, not to us give to safeguard love. Do not be daunted the glory, but to your name alone (Ps 115:1). immediately by fear and run away from the In just this way Paul the Apostle refused to road that leads to salvation. It is bound to be take credit for the power of his preaching. narrow at the outset. But as we progress in He declared: By God's grace I am what I am this way of life and in faith, we shall run on (1 Cor 15:10). And again he said: He who the path of God's commandments, our hearts boasts should make his boast in the Lord (2 overflowing with the inexpressible delight of Cor 10:17). That is why the Lord says in the love. Never swerving from his instructions, Gospel: Whoever hears these words of mine then, but faithfully observing his teaching in and does them is like a wise man who built the monastery until death, we shall through his house upon rock; the floods came and the patience share in the sufferings of Christ that winds blew and beat against the house, but it we may deserve also to share in his kingdom. did not fall: it was founded on rock (Mt Amen. 7:24-25). With this conclusion, the Lord waits for CHAPTER 72. THE GOOD ZEAL OF MONKS us daily to translate into action, as we should, Just as there is a wicked zeal of bitterness his holy teachings. Therefore our life span which separates from God and leads to hell, has been lengthened by way of a truce, that so there is a good zeal which separates from we may amend our misdeeds. As the evil and leads to God and everlasting life. Apostle says: Do you not know that the This, then, is the good zeal which monks patience of God is leading you to repent must foster with fervent love: They should (Rom 2:4)? And indeed the Lord assures us each try to be the first to show respect to the in his life: / do not wish the death of the other (Rom 12:10), supporting with the sinner, but that he turn back to me and live greatest patience one another's weaknesses (Ezek 33:11). of body or behavior, and earnestly competing in obedience to one another. No one is to

53 pursue what he judges better for himself, but instead, what he judges better for someone else. To their fellow monks they show the pure love of brothers; to God, loving fear; to their abbot, unfeigned and humble love. Let them prefer nothing whatever to Christ, and may he bring us all together to everlasting life.

CHAPTER 73. THIS RULE ONLY A BEGINNING OF PERFECTION The reason we have written this rule is that, by observing it in monasteries, we can show that we have some degree of virtue and the beginnings of monastic life. But for anyone hastening on to the perfection of monastic life, there are the teaching of the holy Fathers, the observance which will lead him to the very heights of perfection. What page, what passage of the inspired books of the Old and New Testaments is not the truest of guides for human life? What book of the holy catholic Fathers does not resoundingly summon us along the true way to reach the Creator? Then, besides the Conferences of the Fathers, their Institutes and their Lives, there is also the rule of our holy father Basil. For observant and obedient monks, all these are nothing less than tools for the cultivation of virtues; but as for us, they make us blush for shame at being so slothful, so unobservant, so negligent. Are you hastening toward your heavenly home? Then with Christ's help, keep this little rule we have written for beginners. After that, you can set out for the loftier summits of the teaching and virtues we mentioned above, and under God's protection you will reach them. Amen.

54 Unit Two: The Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and Luther

Timeline

AD 500 "Gawain and the Green Knight" (set in 6th century)

The Venerable Bede (673 - 735) Muslims defeated at the Battle of Tours (732) Charlemagne crowned "Emperor of the Romans" (800)

WOO Anselm (1033-1109) 1100 First Crusade (1096 - 1099) Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) 1200 Thomas Aquinas (1224 - 1274)

1300 "Gawain and the Green Knight" (v in 14th century)

Black Death (1347-1351)

The Great Schism (1378 - 1417) 1400 John Hus (d. 1415)

Gutenberg's printing press (ca. 1450) Pico (1463 - 1494) Erasmus (1466?-1536) 1500 Michelangelo (1475-1564) Martin Luther (1483 - 1546) The Diet of Worms (1521) The Peasants' War (1524 - 1526)

Names/titles in bold refer to readings in this packet.

55 "Gawain and the Green Knight" This tale is set in 6th century England, when the legendary King Arthur ruled the Britons. We know nothing about the author, except that he lived in England in the 14th century and was probably a Christian. The tale draws upon ancient (pagan) myths in which the ritual beheading of a green god ensured the return of spring. But it also fuses that ancient folklore with a Christian understanding of grace. Sir Gawain is the most virtuous of King Arthur's knights, but without the Lord's grace, his virtues are useless. The tale is intended to be a fantasy, and is both comic and serious.

Retold by Thomas Becknell.

It was New Year's Eve in Camelot. In one hand he held a branch of holly (the Since Christmas Day, King Arthur and his tree that grows greenest when other trees are lovely, gray-eyed Queen Guinevere, had bare); and the other hand wielded a broad feasted sumptuously with many noble axe, forged of green steel and honed razor- knights of the Round Table and all the fair sharp, a monstrous weapon. ladies of the court. The bountiful splendor of "Who is in charge of this company?" these feasts are simply beyond imagination- the green knight shouted brazenly, riding his great platters of venison, savory stews and all horse right up to the royal dais. "I'd like to sorts of elegant dishes, at least twelve for speak with him." He looked fiercely around each person, and beer and wine flowing him at the trembling knights who sat endlessly. speechless. On this day, King Arthur, as was his And Arthur, who was himself not the custom, refused to eat until he had been told slightest bit afraid, stood and said, "Welcome some marvelous story of adventure,—a tale of to Camelot, sir. I am Arthur and I rule here. combat, perhaps, or of perils, or of strange Please dismount from your horse and join wonders seen by some brave knight in distant our festivities. We can speak later of your lands. And so the king waited, merry and reasons for coming here." expectant, while the trumpets and the But the green knight said loudly, "No, bagpipes announced the beginning of the by God's help. I have no wish to remain New Year's Eve banquet. here. I've heard of your court and the Suddenly, into the banquet hall, courage of your knights. Such tales of your charged an unknown knight on a magnificent knights' bravery and courtesy are told horse, a giant of a man with a proud head, throughout the land, so I came to see if they dressed all in green. His massive limbs and were indeed true. You can see by the branch torso were terrifying, the largest man anyone I hold in my hand that I've come in peace. in that hall had seen; but the most astonishing Had I come for war, I would have worn aspect of his appearance, stunning everyone armor and a helmet. But I intend no war; I into silence, was this: he was entirely green- come in peace. And if you, good King - his face and his hands were all green— his Arthur, are as brave as everyone says, you long flowing hair and his beard, his horse will kindly grant me a favor for the and saddle—all were a brilliant, rich green. Christmas season." And yet, in spite of his formidable visage, he Arthur replied calmly, "Your wish seemed so wonderfully handsome, so full of will be granted. If you have come to fight, life and vitality. And all were filled with we will fight and not run." both fear and wonder. "No, believe me," said the green Yet this strange knight wore no knight. "I've not come for fighting. I see armor, and carried neither shield nor spear. only beardless infants on these benches;

56 they'd be no match for me. No, what I I am to receive a stroke from you, in exactly propose is a game, a sport for the Christmas one year and a day—and only from you! season. Your knights boast of their daring: "Excellent, Sir Gawain, " smiled the is there anyone here bold enough to play this green knight. "You understand our bargain game? I'll offer that knight my sharp axe, well. Only give me your word that you will and allow him to give me a blow with that seek me out, to come to where I am twelve axe, wherever he pleases, as hard as he months and a day from today. desires. I will not resist. But he must agree "But where is your home," asked to accept a blow from me in return—not now, Gawain. "I know neither your name nor your but exactly one year and a day from today." court. Tell me, and I'll swear to come to you Everyone trembled at the green at the appointed time." knight's invitation, and sat stunned, while the "There will be time enough to tell giant turned in his saddle and rolled his eyes that, once you've struck your blow," replied fiercely around the room, stroking his beard the green knight. Or perhaps you'll kill me and waiting for someone to rise to his here, and I'll not need to speak. And challenge. smiling, the green man bowed low, so that "So, are these the mighty knights of his hair fell forward, exposing his neck. the Round Table?" he roared. "You, who "Now, strike hard, but only once." boast of your conquests, sit shaking at my Sir Gawain lifted the axe high and words?" And with that the green knight brought it sharply down so that the blade laughed so loudly that King Arthur rose with sliced cleanly through the skin and bone and shame, and strode angrily from his seat to the bit deeply into the floor where the head, split green knight. "No one here is afraid of your from the body, rolled and was kicked about foolish game," he said "Give me the axe and by the startled knights. Red blood spurted I'll strike the blow you request.' And with from the green body, yet the headless giant that Arthur seized the broad axe, whipping it neither fell nor staggered. He reached out for fiercely around his head. The green knight his head, and snatching it up, held it high. dismounted and bent his head calmly to Then, stepping into the stirrups, he mounted receive the king's determined blow when Sir his horse and sat there headless, calmly Gawain, who was seated near the queen, holding his dreadful head by the hair while spoke out. "Wait, my lord," he cried to blood gushed from the severed stump. Arthur. "Please allow me to accept this "Remember your promise," spoke the challenge in your place, as it was made ghastly head, lifting its eyes and staring at directly to your knights. Besides, this foolish Gawain. "I am the knight of the green game is more befitting to me, the slightest of chapel. Seek me and you will be certain to your knights, than to you, my liege. Please find me. On New Year's Day, one year forgive me if I ask too boldly." hence, come to take what you have given—or All the knights whispered and nodded forever be known as a coward." With that, their approval—the contest, they agreed, was the green knight turned and rushed from the certainly for Gawain. And so Arthur yielded banquet hall, sparks flying from the hooves the axe, warning his young knight to be of his horse. No one saw where he went. careful to strike only once, exactly as he had And Arthur and Gawain laughed asked." And Gawain, holding the axe with heartily, as if this were a great joke which trembling hands, turned to the stranger and neither understood. But Arthur, full of announced, "I am Gawain. You will receive wonder and amazement, turned to his lovely one blow from me. No matter what happens, queen and said gently, "Don't be disturbed. These sorts of wonders are proper and fitting

57 for the Christmas season. And now I can eat; any encounter with wild beasts or dragons. the wonder I wished for has been provided." At last, on Christmas Eve, Gawain found • • • himself before a great castle deep in the The seasons passed by quickly. At wilds. Giving thanks to God for his last, on All Saints' Day, Sir Gawain prepared provision, Gawain made his way to the to depart on his promised quest. The king drawbridge, which was soon let down, and and all his knights gathered around Sir was received with all the courtesy due him. Gawain, embracing him and commending When the Lord of the castle appeared, him to the protection of the Lord Jesus he embraced Gawain, and assured him that Christ. Then Gawain's armor was brought to the Green Chapel he sought was very close him, glittering in the sun, and his helmet, by. "Celebrate the Christmas with us," he decorated with diamonds and fine jewels, urged, and taking Gawain into a richly and his sword and lance. After mounting his furnished room, he instructed his servants to horse, he was given his shield—bright red remove Gawain's armor, to bathe him and to with a gold pentangle star painted upon it. clothe him in the finest robes. The five-pointed star was a perfect Now this Lord of the castle had a emblem for Gawain, and should be beautiful wife who, to Gawain, seemed even explained, though it delay our tale. This star, more graceful and more fair than the lovely with each angle overlapping the other, was Queen Guinevere herself. fashioned by the ancient king Solomon. Its For three days, Gawain feasted with figure is endless, without beginning or end, the lord of the castle and his charming wife, and is known throughout England as "the singing carols and exchanging tales of infinite knot." Its five points and five sides adventure. At last, with an anxious heart, represent five ways in which Gawain was Gawain said that he must be on his way, for virtuous, five times in each way: (1) his five only three days remained to find the elusive senses were pure; (2) his five fingers were Green Chapel. sure; (3) his hope rested in the five wounds The Lord, who begged to know all of Christ, who died on the Cross; (4) in the details of Gawain's quest, again assured battle, he meditated on the five joys which him that the Green Chapel was no farther Mary had of Jesus;* and (5) toward others, than two miles away, and could easily be Gawain demonstrated these five virtues of reached on New Year's Day. conduct: love, generosity, purity, courtesy "You continue your rest," he said, and pity. All these five ways met together in "for the next three days, and allow my lovely one person, each virtue distinct, yet joined wife to entertain you while I hunt in the together in one endless whole, without forest. And," he continued, smiling broadly, beginning or end. For that reason, the star is "to make the time pass more quickly, let us called the holy pentangle. strike a bargain: whatever game I kill in the • • • forest I will give to you when I return each For days Gawain rode through the evening; and whatever you receive in the kingdom of Logres, with only his good horse castle while I am gone, you give me in Gringolet, as a companion. Everywhere exchange." Gawain asked for news of the green knight or Gawain laughed and said he would of the Green Chapel, but no one had heard of agree, for he was sure to have the better end either one. Day after dreary day, the cold of the bargain. and the freezing rain wearied him more than When Gawain awoke at dawn the next morning, the sounds of the lord's * the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Baptism, the hunting party were already fading away into Resurrection, and the Assumption of Jesus.

58 the forest. Gawain lingered in his bed, never have parted from a lady without listening to the distant horns and the baying demanding a kiss." of the hounds. "As you wish," said Gawain Suddenly, he heard the door to his cheerfully. "You need not ask me twice." chamber softly opening, and peering through And so she bent down and put her arms the curtains surrounding his bed, he glimpsed around him and kissed him full upon the lips. the Lord's wife slipping quietly into his And then she left, and Gawain, without room. Not knowing what to do, Gawain delay, leaped from his bed and dressed. closed his eyes and feigned to be asleep, That evening, when the lord returned, while the lady gently sat beside him on the he gathered everyone together in the great bed until Gawain at last stretched himself hall to show off all the deer he had killed and and, opening his eyes, pretended great had prepared. "For you," he said to Gawain, surprise at her presence. "as I promised. Are you pleased?" "Good morning, Gawain," said the "Indeed," said Gawain, gazing at the lady cheerfully. "You are careless indeed to feast before him. "And in keeping with our allow a lady to slip into your bedroom bargain, you shall have what I received today unnoticed! Now, since I've caught you, I within these castle walls." Then Gawain shall imprison you in your bed unless we can threw his arms around his host and kissed make a truce." him as boldly as he could. "I am your prisoner," laughed "Well, this is quite a pleasant Gawain. "And I surrender to you. Only give exchange," laughed the lord. "Tell me, me a moment to dress and make myself where did you win such a prize?" presentable." But Gawain said, "To tell you that "No," said the lady softly. "You are was not part of our contract. You've had to stay in bed. Everyone has heard of how what is due you. Ask me no more." And so wonderful you are with the ladies, and I'd they laughed and joked and dined on like to put your reputation to the test. See, venison; and each one toasted the other's my lord is gone and your door is locked. We success. And both agreed, before retiring, to can spend the day alone together continue this game a second day. undisturbed." The next morning, no sooner had the "Dear lady," said Gawain. "I am lord departed with his hounds and hunters, most undeserving of your kindness and then the lady once again came into Gawain's attention. Any knight would die for such an bedroom. This time she was bolder, urging opportunity as this. And I am deeply him to claim what she had freely offered. honored to be your servant. But surely you And once again, Gawain resisted, though he have already found a better lover than I could was exceedingly tempted by her beauty and ever hope to be." by her charming conversation and by her No, she insisted; she had never found tender caresses. And when she took her a man more to her liking. And so they talked leave, she kissed him twice. throughout the morning—she continuing to Again, that evening when the lord express her desire for him and he resisting returned, he assembled everyone to view his courteously. trophy—an enormous wild boar which he had When at last the lady rose to leave, killed with great difficulty and danger. "The Gawain did not attempt to stop her. And as prize is yours," said the lord to Gawain. she stood, she paused and said, "I wonder "And here are my earnings in return," whether you really are the Gawain of King said Gawain, and kissed his lord twice, once Arthur's court. That knight, I'm told, would on each cheek.

59 "You have certainly discovered great worth much more than what I earned in this fortune," joked the lord. "If you continue at miserable day of hunting—one lousy fox. this rate, you will be rich indeed." And once But did you receive anything else besides again they feasted far into the night, these kisses?" renewing their contract for the following day, And Gawain, not willing to betray the which was New Year's Eve. lady, lied, saying, "No, nothing else." So When the lady reappeared in they joked and drank and feasted, celebrating Gawain's room, dressed only in her the New Year. nightgown, Gawain was this time sound At dawn, Sir Gawain mounted asleep. Pulling aside the curtains, she Gringolet, and directed by his host, struck chided: "Gawain, how can you sleep so late out into the forest to meet his fate. Within on such a gorgeous day?" And Gawain, who minutes he arrived at a desolate, rocky cave had been deeply troubled in his dreams all overgrown with grass and vines. "By Christ, night, immediately awoke and rejoiced to see this is a cursed place!" exclaimed Sir her, looking so fair in the morning sun. But Gawain. "If this be the green chapel, then though she was intent on making love, I'm sure the green knight is the devil, sent to Gawain once again resisted, only by the destroy me. But God's will be done!" And gracious help of Mary. so he out loudly, "I am Gawain. If you want The lady, at last persuaded that me, let's get on with it. Gawain would not consent to be her lover, Immediately, the mighty green knight kissed him three times, and, as she stood, appeared before him, looking wilder and said firmly: "Dearest Gawain, since you will fiercer than before, whirling a wicked battle not accept my love, then please accept a axe above his massive head, which had been token of my love by which you can restored to his shoulders. "You've kept your remember me. And she untied the delicate word, Sir Gawain. Now remove your helmet green silk belt which was fastened around her and prepare to receive the stroke of my axe. waist and offered it to him. Gawain, without Hold still, as I did when you hacked my neck hesitation, refused to take it, saying that until in Arthur's court." his quest was done, he could not take any "By God, I will," said Gawain, and he kind of gold or treasure. bared his neck to take the blow. But just as "You would refuse even this, a the green knight lifted the heavy axe and trifle?" she protested. "It is a magic belt; for began to swing it down, Sir Gawain's anyone who wears this belt cannot be killed courage failed him and he flinched. The nor hurt." And at these words, Gawain's green knight checked his swing and taunted: heart leaped up. If this was true, he could go "You are Gawain? Gawain is never to that chapel, and take that stroke and walk afraid. I have not heard of Gawain the away unharmed. With only a moment's coward, the one who flinches! Did I tremble hesitation, he surrendered, reaching for the at all when you struck me? No, not even silk the way a thief would reach out for a when my head rolled across the floor. And gem. When she had gone, Sir Gawain thrust here you are, already flinching at the mere the belt beneath his clothes where it would sight of my axe!" not be seen. "It will not happen again," said For the third time, the lord returned at Gawain, "though you may be sure my head dusk and called them all into the banquet will not talk as yours did when it falls. But hall. Gawain promptly kissed his host three let's get it over with." And so he bent his times. And the lord replied, "By Christ, head again and waited for the blow. Then you've had a great success! Three kisses are the green knight lifted high his axe and

60 swung it fiercely. And again he checked his that happened, for it was I, the lord of the swing an inch from Gawain's neck; but this castle, who set her up to tempt you; and I time Gawain stood as stone and did not must say that I have not found a more worthy flinch. man than you, Sir Gawain. You only failed a "I see that you are ready now," the little—and that was not for lust, nor even for a green knight laughed. "Let's see if your lovely belt, but only because you loved your noble name can save you now." life—and I cannot really blame you for that." "You talk too much," retorted Sir Gawain stood there silent, Gawain. "Or perhaps you've lost your overwhelmed with shame at his failure and nerve! Now swing your axe!" his betrayal. And he tore the green belt from A third time, the green knight's axe his clothes and threw it on the ground. swung up, then swiftly down—but only "There," he said. "Take back the cursed grazing Gawain's neck so that just a little thing. I was afraid and I was greedy. I, who blood spurted out onto the snow. And when thought myself virtuous, have shown myself Gawain saw that he'd been only nicked, false. I confess this to you, sir. Please tell immediately jumped up, threw on his helmet, me what I can do to earn your good will once and snatched up his sword and shield. again." "Stop," he roared at the green knight. And the green knight laughed and "You've had your turn, and one stroke was said, "You are quite forgiven. You have all we agreed to. If you swing your axe confessed so openly, and have done your again, I'll fight to the death." And Gawain penance at the edge of my axe, that you are stood with his sword drawn, fearless now and now as pure as if you had never sinned. ready for battle. And the green knight was Take this green belt that is mine and wear it pleased by the courage he saw in Gawain. as a token of your adventure at the Green "Calm down," he said, lowering his Chapel." axe. "You have indeed borne my blow, as And Sir Gawain humbly accepted the we agreed. The contract is fulfilled. But I green belt and wore it always as a symbol of could have killed you if I wished. Those first his weakness. And when he returned to two blows were for the kisses you received Camelot, and told his story there, King from my wife. But since you gave them back Arthur comforted him; and all the court to me, I did not wound you, but only agreed to wear a green belt, just like pretended to strike. But you failed to keep Gawain's. your trust the third time, and hence the And may our Lord who wore the wound you received—for that is my green crown of thorns bring us safely to His eternal belt you are wearing beneath your clothes, of home. which you failed to tell me. Yes, I know all

61 Bede's Penitential A manual for priests in the Anglo-Saxon church meant to help them administer the sacrament of Penance - e.g., by suggesting how long one should have to do penance for specific sins. (Note that these penitential requirements did not replace civil punishment - see Spielvogel, pp. 117-18, on civil law in Germanic societies like Anglo-Saxon Britain.)

Written in the 8th century AD, this penitential has traditionally been ascribed to an English monk and church historian known as the Venerable Bede (AD 673-735), who popularized the BCIAD system of dating events, still used in this course. A major theme in Bede's history of the Church is the triumph of Roman Catholic Christianity over pagan religions. In this excerpt, note the attention he pays both to Catholic sacraments and lingering pagan practices in the lives of Anglo-Saxon Christians.

SOURCE: John T. McNeill and Helena M. Gamer, Medieval Handbooks of Penance (1938; reprint, Octagon Books, 1965), 217-33.

These few things which follow concerning nuns; the weak, the sick, the well. He shall the remedies of sins we have extracted from make a distinction for the character of the the works of our predecessors, in which we sins or of the men: a continent person or one used not the authority of a censor but rather who is incontinent willfully or by accident; the counsel of a fellow sufferer; seriously [whether the sin is committed] in public or in urging every learned priest of Christ that in secret; with what degree of compunction he everything which he finds here he shall [the culprit] makes amends by necessity or carefully distinguish the sex, the age, the by intention; the places and times [of condition, the status, even the very heart of offenses].... the penitent and shall judge accordingly each [offense] one by one as seems best to him. I. Of Fornications and Penances for Them For [proper penance consists], for some 37. A parent whose child dies unbaptized people, in abstaining from foods; for others, because of negligence, one year [of penance], in giving alms; for some, in frequent bending and never without some penance. of the knees in prayer or in standing in cross- vigil1 or in doing something else of this sort 38. A priest whose duty it is [to baptize], has which belongs to the purgation of sins. By been called and [if he] neglects to come, he many, all of these things are to be done. It is shall himself be punished for the damnation necessary to correct the faults, all of which of a soul according to the judgment of his must be weighed in the examination of a bishop. discriminating judge.... //. Of Slaughter ...not all are to be weighed in one and the 1. He who slays a monk or a cleric shall lay same balance, although they be associated in aside his weapons and serve God or do one fault, but there shall be discrimination penance for seven years. for each of these, that is: between rich and 2. He who slays a layman with malice poor; freeman, slave; little child, boy, youth, aforethought or for the possession of his young man, old man; stupid, intelligent; inheritance, four years. layman, cleric, monk; bishop, presbyter, deacon, subdeacon, reader, canoness, or 4. He who slays through sudden anger and a quarrel, three years. 1 This Irish tradition required the penitent to stand with arms extended (in the form of a cross) while 6. He who slays in public warfare, forty days. singing Psalm 119 (!) two, four, or even up to seven times.

62 7. He who slays at the command of his 14. Those who conjure up storms shall do master, if he is a slave, forty days; he who, penance for seven years. being a freeman, at the command of his superior slays an innocent person, one year X. Of Auguries or Divinations 3 and for the two [years] following... three 1. He who observes auguries or the oracles 4 forty-day periods and the appointed days.2 which are falsely called "sortes sanctorum," or divinations, or utters things to come by 11. A mother who kills her child before the looking at some sort of writings, or takes a fortieth day [after conception] shall do vow on a tree or on anything, except at a penance for one year. If it is after the child church, if clerics or laymen do this they shall has become alive, [she shall do penance] as a be excommunicated from the Church; or else, murderess. But it makes a great difference a cleric shall do penance for three years, whether a poor woman does it on account of laymen two, or one and one-half. the difficulty of supporting [the child] or a harlot for the sake of concealing her 2. If a woman places her child upon a roof or wickedness. in an oven in order to cure a fever, she shall do penance for five years. V. Of the Capital Sins 1. Now therefore I shall explain the capital XIII. Of Drunkenness offenses according to the canons. First pride, 10. Those who are drunk against the envy, fornication, vainglory, anger of long command of the Lord, if they have the vow standing, worldly sadness, avarice, gluttony; of holiness—this is drunkenness, when it and Augustine adds sacrilege, that is, the changes the state of the mind, and [when] the theft of sacred things (and this is a very great tongue babbles and the eyes are wild and theft) or else a serving of things offered to there is dizziness and distention of the idols... then adultery, false witness, theft, stomach and pain follows—shall do penance robbery, continual drunkenness, idolatry, [as follows]: a cleric for seven days; a monk, effeminacy, sodomy, evil speaking, perjury. fourteen; a deacon, three weeks; a presbyter, These are capital offenses as St. Paul and four [weeks]; a bishop, five [weeks]; laymen, Augustine and other saints have reckoned three days, without wine and flesh. them. For these, liberal alms are to be given and protracted fasting is to be kept... laymen, XIV. Of the Eucharist three years; clerics, five years; subdeacons, 1. If anyone loses the Eucharist on account of six years; deacons, seven years; presbyters, negligence, he shall do penance for one ten years; bishops, twelve years. If it was year... habitual: bishops, fourteen years; presbyters, twelve years; deacons, ten years; subdeacons, 2. If on account of negligence the host falls nine years; clerics, seven years; laymen, five on the ground, [the offender] shall sing fifty years. psalms.

VI. Of Greed and Other Vices 12. Those who sacrifice to demons in great 3 Fortune-telling; in ancient Rome, an "augur" foretold matters, if it is habitual, shall do penance for the future based on the singing, flight, feeding, or ten years; in small matters, one year. entrails of birds. This is also the root of the English word "inauguration." 4 The practice of opening to a random page of Scripture and treating the first passage read as a divine 2 Wednesdays and Fridays were days of fasting in the oracle (also condemned by Augustine and Celtic and Anglo-Saxon churches. Charlemagne).

63 Hildegard of Bingen

Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) was the tenth child born to her parents, and they "tithed" her to the church. She experienced spiritual visions even as a child but did not share or write about this gift for many years. As an abbess of the Benedictine community in Bingen, she was a spiritual leader, and was consulted by bishops, popes, and kings. She contributed to the scientific knowledge of the twelfth century by writing about medicine and plants, and she also composed music.

"These Are True Visions..." Hildegard started writing down her spiritual visions at age 43, and these writings are still important to many Christians today. This reading, taken from her mystical writings, shows how medieval spirituality was not only scholastic, but also mystical and heart-felt. It also shows a medieval Christian's view of Church and sacraments.

SOURCE: Hildegard of Bingen, "Declaration: These Are True Visions Flowing From God." and "Vision Three; The Church, Bride of Christ and Mother of the Faithful." In Hildegard of Bingen Scivias, tr. Mother Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, (Mahwah, N.J., 1990) pp. 59-61,169-171.

And behold! In the forty-third year of my according to that will, vision and instruction. earthly course, as I was gazing with great fear Thus therefore, O human, speak these things and trembling attention at a heavenly vision, I that you see and hear. And write them not by saw great splendor in which resounded a voice yourself or any other human being, but by the from Heaven, saying to me, will of Him Who knows, sees and disposes all "O fragile human, ashes of ashes, and things in the secrets of His mysteries." filth of filth! Say and write what you see and And again I heard the voice from Heaven hear. But since you are timid in speaking, and saying to me, "Speak therefore of these simple in expounding, and untaught in writing, wonders, and, being taught, write them and speak and write these things not by a human speak." mouth, and not by the understanding of human It happened that, in the eleven hundred invention, and not by the requirements of and forty-first year of the Incarnation of the human composition, but as you see and hear Son of God, Jesus Christ, when I was forty- them on high in the heavenly places in the two years and seven months old, Heaven was wonders of God. Explain these things in such a opened and a fiery light of exceeding way that the hearer, receiving the words of his brilliance came and permeated my whole instructor, may expound them in those words, brain, and inflamed my whole heart and my

64 whole breast, not like a burning but like a vainglory, but may feel fear and grief rather warming flame, as the sun warms anything its than joy and wantonness. Hence in My love rays touch. And immediately I knew the she searched in her mind as to where she meaning of the exposition of the Scriptures, could find someone who would run in the namely the Psalter, the Gospel and the other path of salvation. And she found such a one catholic volumes of both the Old and the New and loved him [the monk Volmar of Testaments, though I did not have the Disibodenberg], knowing that he was a interpretation of the words of their texts of the faithful man, working like herself on another division of the syllables or the knowledge of part of the work that leads to Me. And cases or tenses. But I had sensed in myself holding fast to him, she worked with him in wonderfully the power and mystery of secret great zeal so that My hidden miracles might and admirable visions from my childhood— be revealed. And she did not seek to exalt that is, from the age of five—up to that time, as herself above herself but with many sighs I do now. This, however, I showed to no one bowed to him whom she found in the ascent except a few religious persons who were living of humility and the intention of good will. in the same manner as I; but meanwhile, until "O human, who receives these things the time when God by His grace wished it to be meant to manifest what is hidden not in the manifested, I concealed it in quiet silence. But disquiet of deception but in the purity of the visions I saw I did not perceive in dreams, simplicity, write, therefore, the things you see or sleep, or delirium, or by the eyes of the and hear." body, or by the ears of the outer self, or in But I, though I saw and heard these hidden places; but I received them while awake things, refused to write for a long time and seeing with a pure mind and the eyes and through doubt and bad opinion and the ears of the inner self, in open places, as God diversity of human words, not with willed it. How this might be is hard for mortal stubbornness but in the exercise of humility, flesh to understand. until, laid low by the scourge of God, I fell But when I passed out of childhood and had upon a bed of sickness; then, compelled at last reached the age of full maturity mentioned by many illnesses, and by the witness of a above, I heard a voice from Heaven saying, "I certain noble maiden of good conduct [the am the Living Light, Who illuminates the nun Richardis of Stade] and of that man darkness. The person [Hildegard] whom I have whom I had secretly sought and found, as chosen and whom I have miraculously stricken mentioned above, I set my hand to the as I willed, I have placed among great wonders, writing. While I was doing it, as I mentioned beyond the measure of the ancient people who before, the deep profundity of scriptural saw in Me many secrets; but I have laid her exposition; and, raising myself from illness by low on the earth, that she might not set herself the strength I received, I brought this work to up in arrogance of mind. The world has had in a close—though just barely—in ten years. her no joy or lewdness or use in worldly things, These visions took place and these words for I have withdrawn her from impudent were written in the days of Henry, boldness, and she feels fear and is timid in her Archbishop of Mainz, and of Conrad, King of words. For she suffers in her inmost being and the Romans, and of Cuno, Abbot of in the veins of her flesh; she is distressed in Disibodenberg, under Pope Eugenius. mind and sense and endures great pain of body, And I spoke and wrote these things not by because no security has dwelt in her, but in all the invention of my heart or that of any other her undertakings she has judged herself guilty. person, but as by the secret mysteries of God I For I have closed up the cracks in her heart that heard and received them in the heavenly her mind may not exalt itself in pride or places.

65 And again I heard a voice from Heaven "Cast off the old injustice, and put on the saying to me, "Cry out therefore, and write new sanctity. For the gate of your inheritance thus! is unlocked for you. Consider, therefore, how you have been taught, that you may know • • • your Father Whom you have confessed. I have received you, and you have confessed Me. Now, therefore, behold the paths, one to Vision Three the East and the other to the North. If you will The Church, Bride of Christ diligently contemplate Me with your inner and Mother of the Faithful vision, as in faith you have been taught, I will receive you into My kingdom. And if you After this I saw the image of a woman as large love Me rightly, I will do whatever you shall as a great city, with a wonderful crown on her wish. But if you despise Me and turn away head and arms from which a splendor hung like from Me, looking backward and not seeking sleeves, shining from Heaven to earth. Her to know or understand Me, Who am recalling womb was pierced like a net with many you by pure penitence though you are filthy openings, with a huge multitude of people with sin, and if you run back to the Devil as to running in and out. She had no legs or feet, but your father, then perdition will take you; for stood balanced on her womb in front of the you will be judge according to your works, altar that stands before the eyes of God, since when I gave you the good you did not embracing it with her outstretched hands and choose to know Me." gazing sharply with her eyes throughout all of But the children who had passed through Heaven. I could not make out her attire, except the womb of the image walked in the splendor that she was arrayed in great splendor and that surrounded her. And she, benignly gleaned with lucid serenity, and on her breasts gazing on them, said in a sad voice, "These shone a red glow like the dawn; and I heard a children of mine will return again to dust, I sound of all kinds of music singing about her, conceive and bear many who oppress me, "Like the dawn, greatly sparkling." their mother, by heretical, schismatic and And that image spreads out its splendor useless battles, by robberies and murders, by like a garment, saying, "I must conceive and adultery and fornication, and by many such give birth!" And at once, like lightning, there errors. Many of the these rise again in true hastened to her a multitude of angels, making penitence to eternal life, but many fall in false steps and seats within her for people, by whom obduracy to eternal death." the image was to be perfected. And again I heard the voice from Heaven Then I saw blackened children moving in saying to me: "The great edifice of living the air near the ground like fishes in water, and souls, which is constructed in Heaven from they entered the womb of the image through the living stones, is adorned with the immense openings that pierced it. But she groaned, beauty of its children's virtues, encircling drawing them upward to her head, and they them as a great city encircles its immense went out by her mouth, while she remained throngs of people, or as a wide net does a untouched. And behold, that serene light with multitude of fishes; and however much the the figure of a man in it, blazing with a glowing work of the faithful thrives in the Christian fire, which I had seen in my previous vision, name, by so much does it blossom with again appeared to me, and stripped the celestial virtues." blackened skin off each of them and threw it away; and it clothed each of them in a pure 1 The building of the Church, who redeems white garment and opened to them the serene her children by Spirit and water light, saying to them one by one:

66 Wherefore now you see the image of a woman apostles and martyrs, and thus betrothed with as large as a great city; this designates the true betrothal to My Son, since in His blood Bride of My Son, who always bears her she faithfully formed herself into a firm children by regeneration in the Spirit and in edifice of holy souls. water, for the strong Warrior founded her on a 3 The Church is adorned by the priesthood wide base of virtue, that she might hold and and almsgiving perfect the great crowd of His elect; and no And from her arms a splendor hangs like enemy can conquer or storm her. She expels sleeves, shining from Heaven to earth. This is unbelief and expands belief, by which it should the work of power done by priests, who with be understood that in the mortal world each of purity of heart and hands and in the strength the faithful is an example to his neighbor, and of good works offer the holiest of sacrifices so they do great works of virtue in Heaven. upon the holy alter in the sacrament of the And when the just, one by one, shall come to body and blood of their Savior, And the most join the children of light, the good they have glorious of their works is to show mercy, worked will appear in them, which cannot be always offering generous help for every grief seen here among mortal ashes, concealed as it and distributing alms to the poor with a gentle is by the shadow of trouble. heart while saying with their whole soul, 2 The Church in her origin was adorned by "This is not my property, but that of Him apostles and martyrs Who created me." And this work, inspired by She has a wonderful crown on her head; for at God, is before his eyes in Heaven, when by her origin, when she was raised up by the blood the teaching of the Church it is done among of the Lamb, she was fittingly adorned with the faithful on earth.

67 Anselm St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) was the first in a long line of medieval thinkers who could bear comparison with the classic philosophers, as the Church and society emerged from several centuries of decline around the turn of the new millenium. He entered the Abbey of Bee in Normandy when he was 26, and was elected abbot twenty years later. In 1093 William II of England appointed him Archbishop of Canterbury, though the relationship between them was often stormy. Anselm was noted for his piety as well as his intellectual acumen.

"The Ontological Argument" In his Pro slog ion, a work on logic, Anselm attempted to prove the existence of God by what philosophers call the "ontological argument." He was contemplating the fool in Psalm 14 who said, "There is no God," and he wondered if it were possible for something to exist in the mind and not also in reality. The fool must have had the idea of God in mind in order to deny God's existence. And if God existed in the mind of even this fool, must not God exist in reality too?

Note that while this is an early example of scholastic philosophy, it is written as a prayer.

SOURCE: Anselm of Canterbury, Proslogion, in Pumam 's Dark and Middle Ages Reader, ed. Henry E. Wedeck (NY: Capricorn, 1965), p. 220.

Lord... give me to understand, as far as you finished the painting, he has it in his mind and can explain, that you exist as we believe. And, also understands that what he has done exists. indeed, we believe that you are the greatest Therefore, even the fool is convinced that thing imaginable. Or is there some other there is something in the mind, than which nature? For the fool has said in his heart: nothing greater is imaginable, because he "There is no God" [Ps 14:1]. But surely that understands this, when he hears it, and very same fool, hearing what I say: "the whatever is understood is in the mind. And greatest thing imaginable," understands what surely the greatest thing imaginable cannot be he hears and what he understands is in his in the mind only, or that very thing, than which mind, even if he does not understand that it nothing greater can be conceived, is a thing exists. For the existence of the thing in the than which a greater can be conceived. But mind, and understanding that the thing exists, that is impossible. There exists, therefore, are two different concepts. For when an artist without question, something than which a plans what he is going to do, he has it in his greater is inconceivable, both in the mind and mind, but he does not yet understand what he in reality. has not yet consummated. But when he has

68 Thomas Aquinas St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) is one of the most important philosophers and theologians in the Christian church. Shy and heavy, he was known as the "Dumb Ox" while a student. Aquinas' Summa Theologica. from which the following selections are taken, is a comprehensive effort to use faith and reason together to encompass all human knowledge. Aquinas' writings represent the highest achievement of Medieval scholastic thought, an impressive synthesis of philosophical reasoning and Christian revelation. The Summa takes a form characteristic of medieval analyses: Thomas first presents arguments or authorities against his position, then cites an authority in support of his view, states his own position, and finally answers objections. Aristotelian logic, formal reasoning through syllogisms, is the framework behind the whole system of scholasticism.

"Thomas Responds to Anselm" In this excerpt from the Summa. Thomas Aquinas responds to the previous reading from Anselm of Canterbury, rejecting the latter's "ontological argument." Instead, Aquinas offers a "cosmological argument" for the existence of God - that is, an argument that starts from what can be observed ("evident to the senses") in the world. As you contrast Anselm and Aquinas, you might think back to the debate between Plato and Aristotle over whether the Forms can be found in the physical world.

SOURCE: Anton C. Pegis, An Introduction to St. Thomas Aquinas (NY: Random House, Modern Library, 1945), pp. 22-27

[Thomas responds to Anselm.] If the existence of God were Perhaps not everyone who hears this demonstrated, this could only be from His name God understands it to signify something effects. But his effects are not proportioned to than which nothing greater can be thought, him, since he is infinite and his effects are seeing that some have believed God to be a finite, and between the infinite and the finite body. Yet, granted that everyone understands there is no proportion. Therefore, since a cause by this name God is signified something than cannot be demonstrated by an effect not which nothing greater can be thought, proportioned to it, it seems that the existence nevertheless, it does not therefore follow that of God cannot be demonstrated. he understands that what the name signifies exists actually, but only that it exists mentally. [Through abstruse logical reasoning, Thomas Nor can it be argued that it actually exists, refutes this objection, thus proving that God unless it be admitted that there actually exists does exist, and then he turns to another something than which nothing greater can be argument.] thought; and this precisely is not admitted by It seems that God does not exist; those who hold that God does not exist because if one of two contraries be infinite, the other would be altogether destroyed. But the [Then Thomas takes another approach] name of God means that he is infinite It seems that the existence of God goodness. If, therefore, God existed, there cannot be demonstrated. For it is an article of would be no evil discoverable; but there is evil faith that God exists. But what is of faith in the world. Therefore God does not exist. cannot be demonstrated, because a I answer that the existence of God can demonstration produces scientific knowledge, be proved in five ways. The first and most whereas faith is of the unseen. Therefore it manifest way is the argument from motion. It cannot be demonstrated that God exists. is certain, and evident to our senses, that in the world some things are in motion. Now [To this Thomas poses several objections.] whatever is moved is moved by another.... Therefore, it is necessary to arrive at a prime

69 mover, moved by no other. The second way is have begun to exist; and thus even now from the nature of efficient cause. There is no nothing would be in existence—which is case known in which a thing is found to be the absurd. Therefore, not all beings are merely efficient cause of itself; for so it would be prior possible, but there must exist something the to itself which is impossible. Therefore it is existence of which is necessary. This all men necessary to admit a first efficient cause, to speak of as God. [He continues with ways four which everyone gives the name of God. The and five and then turns to detailed explanations third way is from possibility and necessity. If of all five.] at one time there was nothing in existence, it would have been impossible for anything to

"On divine, natural, and human law" In the following reading from another part of the Summa. Aquinas addresses issues of law and morality. Remember that Martin Luther King Jr., referred to Thomas Aquinas' definition of just and unjust laws in his "Letter from a Birmingham Jail." But consider whether Aquinas would have approved of King's goal of creating tension: Does Aquinas believe that Christians should disobey unjust laws in all circumstances?

SOURCE: Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Translated by David Burr, [[email protected]]. The following sections are reproduced here in streamlined form, with only the responsio sections included and with some articles omitted entirely.

Whether law is always ordered to the Whether there is an eternal law common good A law is nothing more than a dictate of the ...The final end of human life is happiness or practical reason emanating from a ruler who beatitude. Thus law necessarily concerns itself governs some perfect community. Assuming primarily with the order directing us toward that the world is ruled by divine providence, beatitude. however, it is clear that the whole community of the universe is governed by divine reason. Furthermore, since each part is ordered to the Thus the very idea of the governance of all whole as imperfect to perfect, and since each things by God, the ruler of the universe, single man is a part of the perfect community, conforms to the definition of a law. And since, law necessarily concerns itself particularly with as we read in Proverbs [8:23], the divine communal happiness. Thus Aristotle, in reason's conception of things is eternal and not defining legal matters, mentions both happiness subject to time, a law of this sort can be called and the political community, saying, "We term eternal. 'just' those legal acts which produce and preserve happiness and its components within Whether there is a natural law in us the political community." For the state is a Since law is a rule or measure, it can be in perfect community, as he says in his Politics.... something in two ways: As that which regulates and measures, or as that which is We arrive at a definition of law: Law is nothing regulated and measured, for insofar as other than a certain ordinance of reason for the something participates in a rule or measure it is common good, promulgated by him who has itself regulated and measured. Since everything care of the community. subjected to divine providence is regulated and measured by eternal law, it is clear that

70 everything participates in the eternal law in These particular determinations devised by some way. That is, everything inclines to its human reason are called "human laws," own proper acts and ends because such an provided that all the other conditions included inclination is impressed on it through eternal in the definition of "law" are observed. Thus law. Tully says that "justice took its start from nature, then certain things became customary The rational creature is subject to divine because of their usefulness. Later the things providence in a more excellent way than other which started in nature and were approved by beings, however, for he is a participant in custom were sanctioned by fear and reverence providence, providing both for himself and for for the law." others. Thus he is a participant in that eternal reason through which he has a natural Whether it was necessary that there should inclination to his proper act and end, and this be a divine law participation of the rational creature in eternal It was necessary for the direction of human life law is called "natural law." that, beyond natural and human law, there should be a divine law. There are four reasons Thus the psalmist says, "Offer a sacrifice of for this need. justice" and then, as if someone were asking him what the works of justice are, he adds, First, it is through law that man is directed to "Many say, 'Who shows us good things?'" He the acts which are proper to him in view of his replies, "The light of your countenance is ultimate end. If man were ordered only to an impressed upon us, Lord" [Ps 4:5-6], thus end which did not exceed his natural faculties, implying that the light of natural reason, by it would not be necessary for him to have any which we discern what is good and bad (which rational direction beyond natural law and that is the function of natural law), is nothing else human law derived from it. Since, however, than an impression of the divine light upon us. man is ordered to the end of eternal beatitude, which exceeds natural human faculties, it was w^-yThus it is clear that natural law is nothing other necessary that he be directed to this end by ^/fhan the rational creature's participation in the divinely-given law in addition to natural and Ve.ternal law. human law.

Whether there is a human law Second, due to the uncertainty of human Law is a certain dictate of practical reason. The judgment, particularly regarding contingent and process is the same in the case of practical and particular things, there tend to be differing speculative reason. Each proceeds from certain judgments regarding human acts, from which premises to certain conclusions. Accordingly it proceed diverse and contrary laws. Therefore, must be said that, just as in speculative reason in order for man to be secure in the knowledge we draw from naturally known, in of what should be done and what avoided, it demonstrable principles the conclusions of was necessary that his acts be directed by a various sciences, and these conclusions are not divinely-given law which cannot err. imparted to us by nature but discovered by the work of reason, so it is that human reason starts Third, man can make laws in those areas where from the precepts of natural law as from certain he is competent to judge. His judgment does common and in demonstrable premises, not extend to interior acts which lie hidden, proceeding from them to more particular however, but only to exterior acts which are determinations of certain matters. apparent. Nevertheless, perfect virtue involves righteousness in both. Thus human law was

71 unable to curb and direct internal acts from eternal law insofar as they participate in sufficiently, and it was necessary that divine right reason. That is why Augustine says that law supervene in this task. "in temporal law nothing is just and legitimate which men have not derived from eternal law." Fourth, as Augustine says, human law cannot punish or prohibit all things that are evil, for in Whether all human affairs are subject to the process of removing evil it would also eternal law eliminate much that is good and impede the A thing can be subject to eternal law in two advancement of the common good, thus ways: First, insofar as it participates in the hurting society. Thus, in order to leave no evil divine law by way of knowledge; second, unprohibited and unpunished, a divine law, through acting and being acted upon, insofar as through which all sins are punished, had to it participates in the divine law as an interior intervene. motive principle. Irrational creatures are subject to eternal law in this second way, as These four causes are touched upon in the was said above. Psalm, where it is said, "The law of the Lord is unspotted" (that is, permitting no foulness of Since a rational creature, in addition to what it sin), "converting souls" (because it directs not shares in common with all creatures, has some only exterior but also interior acts), "the special characteristics precisely because it is testimony of the Lord is sure" (due to certainty rational, it is subject to the eternal law in both of truth and rectitude), "giving wisdom to little ways. It has some knowledge of the eternal ones" (insofar as it orders man to a supernatural law, yet at the same time there is implanted in and divine end) (Ps 18:8). every rational creature a natural inclination to that which is consonant with eternal law. As Whether all law is derived from the eternal Aristotle says, "We are naturally adapted to law receive the virtues." Law is a certain plan directing acts to their end. Wherever movers are ordered to one another, Each manner of participating in the eternal law the power of the second mover must be derived is imperfect and corrupted in the wicked, for in from that of the first, since the second mover them the natural inclination to virtue is operates only insofar as it is moved by the first. corrupted by vicious habits and the natural We see the same thing in all governors. The knowledge of good is overshadowed by plan of government is derived by the secondary passions and sinful habits. Each manner is governors from the primary governor, just as found in a more perfect condition in the good, the plan of what is to be done in a state derives for in them natural understanding of the good is from the king through his command to lesser supplemented by knowledge through faith and administrators. It is the same in construction, wisdom, while natural inclination toward good where building plans descend from the is supplemented by the inner power of grace architect to the lesser craftsmen who work with and virtue. their hands. Thus the good are perfectly subject to eternal Therefore, since the eternal law is a plan of law in the sense that they always act according government in the supreme governor, all plans to it. The evil are also subject to eternal law. of government in lesser governors must be They are imperfectly subject to it as far as their derived from eternal law. All laws besides the own actions are concerned, since they [that] eternal law are plans of this sort devised by know the good imperfectly are imperfectly inferior governors. Thus all laws are derived inclined to it. Nevertheless, this deficiency in

72 their action is made up by the way they are rational. For example, he has a natural acted upon, for they suffer the penalty decreed inclination to know the truth about God and to by the eternal law for those who do not fulfill live in society. Inclinations of this sort also its commandments. pertain to natural law, and thus it is part of natural law that man should shun ignorance, Whether natural law contains many avoid offending those with whom he has to precepts or only one live, etc. For every agent pursues an end which is perceived as good. Thus the first principle for Whether it was useful for human laws to be practical reason is a definition of the good, made by man namely that "the good is that which all men There is a certain aptitude for virtue in man, but seek after." Thus the first precept of the law is the perfection of that virtue must be achieved that "good is to be pursued and performed, evil through training. In the same way we see that avoided." On this principle is founded all industry aids man in achieving necessities like others in natural law. Thus whatever practical food and clothing; for he has the beginnings of reason recognizes to be good for man pertains these things from nature - that is, nature gives to the precepts of natural law. him reason and a pair of hands - but not the complete product, as is the case with other Since from this perspective the good is defined animals to whom natures gives food and as an end to be pursued, while evil is defined as clothing. It is hard for a single man to gain such what is contrary to that end, reason naturally training by himself, for the perfection of virtue sees as good and therefore to be pursued all consists in withdrawing from undue pleasures, those things to which man has a natural to which men are particularly prone. This is inclination, while it sees the contraries of these particularly true of the young, who are also things as evil and therefore to be avoided. more easily trained. Thus the training through which men come to virtue needs to be received Thus the order of precepts in natural law from someone else. follows the order of natural inclinations. First of all, within man there is an inclination to In the case of those young people who are good according to the nature he shares in inclined to acts of virtue by natural disposition, common with all substances. Every substance by habit, or by divine gift, paternal discipline in seeks to preserve its own being according to its the form of friendly reminders will be nature. Because of this inclination, all the sufficient. Nevertheless, since some are not things through which man's life is preserved easily moved by words because they are belong to natural law. depraved and inclined to vice, it is necessary for such to be restrained from evil by force and Second, within man there is an inclination to fear, so that they will at least stop their evil- certain more special things according to the doing and leave others in peace, or perhaps nature he has in common with other animals. eventually, by force of habit, be brought to do Because of this inclination, those things which willingly what they formerly did through fear, nature has taught to all animals are said to be thus becoming virtuous. This kind of training, part of natural law. This would include sexual which compels through fear of punishment, is intercourse, education of offspring, and the the training of laws. like. Thus it was necessary for peace and virtue that Third, within man there is an inclination to there be laws. As Aristotle says, "If man is good according to his own particular nature as perfected by virtue, he is the best animal. If he

73 is separated from law and justice, he is the Laws are said to be just either because of their worst." Such is the case because man can use end, when they are ordained to the common the weapons of reason, which other animals good; or because of their author, when the law lack, to satisfy his lust and rage. does not exceed the power of the lawmaker; or because of their form, when burdens are Whether every human law is derived from distributed equitably among subjects for the natural law common good. For since a man is part of the As Augustine says, "There never seems to have multitude, whatever he is or has belongs to the been a law that was not just." Thus it has the multitude as a part belongs to the whole. Thus force of law insofar as it is just. In human nature inflicts harm on a part in order to save affairs, something is said to be just insofar as it the whole. Accordingly laws which inflict is right according to the rule of reason. The burdens equitably are just, bind the conscience, first rule of reason is, however, natural law. and are legal laws. Thus every human law has the nature of a law insofar as it is derived from natural law. If it Laws are unjust in two ways: First, they may conflicts with natural law in any way, then it is be such because they oppose human good by not law but a corruption of law. denying the three criteria just mentioned. This can occur because of their end, when a ruler Whatever is directed to an end should be imposes burdens with an eye, not to the proportioned to that end. The end of law is the common good, but to his own enrichment or common good, because, as Isidore says, "Law glory; because of their author, when someone should be written, not for private gain, but for imposes laws beyond the scope of his the general welfare of the citizens." Thus laws authority; or because of their form, when should be proportioned to the common good. burdens are inequitably distributed, even if they are ordered to the common good. Such decrees This good is comprised of many things, and are not so much laws as acts of violence, thus law should take many different persons, because, as Augustine says, "An unjust law occupations and situations into account. A does not seem to be a law at all." Such laws do political community is composed of many not bind the conscience, except perhaps to people and its good is secured through many avoid scandal or disturbance, on account of actions. Nor is it created to last a short time, which one should yield his right. As Christ but for a very long time and through says, "If someone forces you to go a mile, go generations of citizens, as Augustine says. another two with him; and if he takes your tunic, give him your pallium" (Mt 5:40f.). Whether human law binds a man's conscience Second, laws may be unjust because they are Human laws are either just or unjust. If they are opposed to the divine good, as when the laws just, they have the power to bind our of tyrants lead men to idolatry or to something conscience because of the eternal law from else contrary to divine law. Such laws must which they are derived. As Proverbs says, never be observed, because "one must obey "Through me kings reign and lawmakers God rather than men" (Acts 5:29). decree just laws" (Prov 8:15).

74 Renaissance Humanists on Free Will Seeking to return to the sources of the ancient world, Renaissance humanists promoted study of the liberal arts, perceiving them to be "the key to true freedom, enabling individuals to reach their full potential." (Spielvogel, p. 224) In the following excerpts, two famous humanists debate the question of human freedom.

Pico, Oration on the Dignity of Man See Spielvogel, p. 224, for background on Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) and this famous treatise, which Spielvogel rightly describes as a "ringing statement of unlimited human potential."

Why are humans the most marvelous thing determine for yourself your own nature, in in the universe? Because God, taking man accordance with your own free will, in whose as a creature of undetermined nature, and hand I have placed you. I have set you at the placing him in the middle of the universe, center of the world, so that from there you said this to him: "Neither an established may more easily survey whatever is in the place, nor a form belonging to you alone, world. We have made you neither heavenly nor any special function have We given to nor earthly, neither mortal nor immortal, so you, O Adam, and for this reason, that you that, more freely and more honorably the may have and possess, according to your molder and maker of yourself, you may desire and judgment, whatever place, fashion yourself in whatever form you shall whatever form and whatever functions you prefer. You shall be able to descend among shall desire. The nature of other creatures, the lower forms of being, which are brute which has been determined, is confined beasts; you shall be able to be reborn out of within the bounds prescribed by Us. You, the judgment of your own soul into the higher who are confined by no limits, shall being, which are divine."

Erasmus, On Free Will For background on Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466?-1536), see Spielvogel, pp. 238-39, and the introduction to the next reading in this packet. His treatise On Free Will actually appeared during the Reformation, in 1524, when Erasmus agreed to challenge Luther's belief that salvation is entirely a work of God. However, it may also be read as a retort to Pico's even more optimistic view of human freedom.

[In discussing the question of whether act: namely, the grace of God and the will of humans have free will, I argue] for the man. Grace is the principal cause, and the doctrine which attributes entirely to grace will is the secondary cause, which can do the first impulse which stimulates the soul, nothing without the principal cause.... By but which leaves to the human will, when it reason of this working together, man owes all does not lack divine grace, a certain place in his salvation to the reception of .. .the grace of the unfolding of the act. Since all things God, who in the beginning created the free have three parts, a beginning, a will, and then delivered it, and restored it to development, and a completion, those who health.... I prefer the doctrine of those who hold this doctrine ascribe the two extremes allow something to free will, and at the same to grace, and admit that free will does time acknowledge the greater share of grace. something only in the development. But For it does no good to avoid the Scylla of even this it does in such a way that two pride in order to fall into the Charybidis of causes work together in the same individual despair or indifference.

75 Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) was perhaps the most important and influential Christian humanist of the Northern Renaissance. (He was called the "Prince of the Humanists.") His concern for Christian piety and his commitment to education and learning in its service have made him an important role model for educated Christians through the ages.

A Weapon for the Christian Warrior, or The Handbook of the Christian Knight Published in 1503, Erasmus' Enchiridion militis christiani was one of his most popular and influential works. While it appeared years before Luther came on the scene and Erasmus never did support the Reformation, its encouragement of personal piety and scriptural study would have been familiar to Protestants.

The Greek word enchiridion refers both to a weapon (a dagger) and to a handbook or manual. Both meanings fit this work, since Erasmus uses the imagery of spiritual warfare and offers practical advice rather than systematic theology.

SOURCE: Erasmus of Rotterdam, Enchiridion Militis Christiani, translated by Wynkyn de Woorde, 1533. Translation paraphrased and edited for modern readers by N. Lettinga, 1992.

You asked me, dear brother in Christ, to give the grass, coiled up to watch and wait for the you a guide for living virtuously, so that you chance to bite us on the heel, the sensual Eve might become a true Christian. You say that in each of us, tempting us and drawing our you have grown tired of fast living and wish to minds towards deadly pleasures. Our greatest escape the vices and pleasures of the world. peril comes from this enemy, the earthly old My friend, I am delighted that God has stirred Adam within us, whom we cannot expel by up this purpose in you, and I pray that he will force of arms, nor hold off with castle walls fill my mind with the right ideas and make and fortifications. We can only watch with a them work effectively for you. hundred eyes lest he open the door for devils to enter in. Since we are surrounded by such In this life we must constantly be on guard. fierce enemies who conspire to plot our death, First, we must remember that our life ought we not to arm ourselves against them, on earth is a constant war. Most people are and take weapons in our hands? fooled into believing that they can live at But we, as though we were at peace peace and enjoy themselves, as if they had with everyone, snore quietly and give our already conquered all their enemies. It is a selves to idle pleasure, as though our lives strange thing to see how carelessly we live, were a party and not a war. For whoever lives how peacefully we sleep, lying on our sides, at peace with their vices has broken the then rolling over to the other side, while we agreement made with God at baptism. You are surrounded by a great troop of armed vices lunatic, you cry 'Peace, Peace,' when God, sneaking up on us, lying in wait to trap and who is the only true peace, is your enemy, and overcome us. Overhead sleepless demons plot shouts at you, through the mouths of the our destruction armed with a thousand prophets, that there is no peace for sinners or deceptions, a thousand poisonous weapons to wicked people who do not love God. There is infect our minds. Only the shield of faith can no other way to have peace unless we fight turn these darts aside. The world attacks us against the vices with all our strength and in from the front and from the rear, from the right deadly hatred of evil. and from the left, sometimes openly, but at If we are at peace with our vices, we other times seducing us with lying promises or shall have God as a double enemy, both creeping up to catch us in an idle or careless because we stand opposed to him — for how moment and undermine our faith. Satan, that far can light live with darkness? — and because slimy serpent, the Father of Lies, lies hidden in we spurn the promises we made to him.

76 Oh Christian, remember that you were words come out of your heart, a dead soul lies consecrated by God at your baptism, and buried in your body. agreed to be a faithful soldier to Christ your But God can restore a dead soul to life. captain, to whom you owe your life twice Therefore, however dangerous our battle is, over. He gave it to you at your birth, and however dull, foolish and forgetful our minds restored it to you at your salvation. Do you not may be, we ought not lose courage. If you owe him more than you can ever repay? You think about how strong your adversary is, would be ashamed to abandon your earthly remember how near your help is. If kings and lords, why then do you so lightly innumerable temptations attack you, remember abandon Christ your captain, neither fearing that Jesus, all by himself, is stronger than all of him because he is God, nor loving him because them put together. If God is on our side, what he was made human for your sake? Why do does it matter who is against us [Rom 8:31]. If you abandon him and join the forces of his God supports you, who will be able to throw enemy, from whom he has redeemed you by you down? But you have to want the victory shedding his own blood? Why do you fly the with all year heart and brain. Remember that flag of the enemy? As he says, whoever is not you are not fighting against a fresh soldier and with him is against him, and whoever does not a new enemy, but rather against him who was gather with him, scatters [Mt 12:30]. overthrown and defeated many years ago. You fight against Christ, not only for Remember that you are a part of the Body of wretched reasons, but for a miserable reward. Christ, and can do all things in the power of Don't you know what the rewards are for your Head [Phil 4:13]. In yourself you are fighting on the world's side? Paul, Christ's weak, in him you are valiant, and there is flag-bearer answers you. The wages of sin is nothing that you cannot do. death [Rom 6:23]. A soldier who takes up The ultimate outcome is not in any arms to fight for a just cause might die, but doubt, because your victory does not depend only in body. You take up arms in an unjust on luck, it is entirely in God's hands, and by cause, and will earn the death of your soul. God placed in our hands. There is no-one that Do you want me to show you how to has not overcome except the one who did not tell if your soul is sick or dead? If you deceive want to overcome. The kindness of our a friend, or commit adultery your soul has protector has never failed anyone. If you make received a deadly wound: if you do not grieve, sure that you do your part, you can be sure of if you enjoy your sin or boast of it, your soul is the victory, for Christ will fight for you and surely dead. Your body is not alive if you with you, and his generosity will be counted cannot feel the pricking of a pin, your soul is for your merit. You must thank him for the not alive if you do not feel the wounds caused victory which he first won all by himself, by sin. If you hear a smutty conversation, being pure and clear of all sin. But this victory someone backbiting or raging furiously against will not come if you are not watchful and another, you see a rotting and stinking carcass diligent. He that said "Take heart, I have that infects everyone that comes near it. Jesus overcome the world" [Jn 16:33], wants you to called the Pharisees painted tombs [Mt 23:27]. be comforted, but not careless or negligent. Why? Because they carry dead souls around Therefore we have to steer the middle course, with them. King David said the throats of the between Scylla and Charybidis, neither wicked were open graves [Ps 5:9]. The bodies trusting recklessly or carelessly on God's of holy people are temples of the Holy Ghost, grace, nor cowering and mistrustful, fearing but the bodies of lewd people are the tombs of dead corpses, the graves of souls. When dead

77 the difficulties of our war and losing our And just as knowledge should be useful, courage, boldness and confidence.1 prayer should avoid being faint, slack, cowardly, or slow. Moses fought his enemies The Weapons of the Christian Warrior. with the power of such prayer, lifting up his There is nothing so important to this hands to heaven. When his hands dropped, the warfare than to know your armor and your Israelites began to fail in the battle [Ex 17:11]. weapons, and to know the enemies you will You may think that you pray a great encounter. You must also keep your weapons deal, with your church prayers and dinner ready at hand, lest the enemy sneak up on you prayers, but listen to Christ's words when he asleep, unarmed, and unawares. We must says "When you pray, do not keep on babbling stand before our tents and keep watch, for the like pagans, for they think they will be heard enemy is never idle: when he seems the because of their many words" [Mt 6:7]. And calmest and quietest, when he pretends to flee Paul in his letter to the Corinthians would or call a cease fire, then he is the most rather speak five intelligible words to instruct dangerous. You have least to fear when he others than to babble ten thousand words [1 attacks you openly. Therefore keep your mind Cor 14:19]. Moses didn't open his lips, and armed. yet God said to him "Why are you crying out Anyone who wants to fight against the to me?" [Ex 14:15]. It is not the flapping of army of vices must be armed with two your lips that matters, but the fervent desires of weapons in particular. These weapons are your heart beating on the ear of God. prayer and knowledge. Paul wants us to be Let it become a habit that as soon as armed at all times when he tells us to pray the enemy begins to rise up against you, and continually [1 Thess 5:17]. Pure and perfect the vices which you have forsaken begin to prayer lifts us up to heaven, and builds a tower trouble you, immediately lift up your mind and beyond the enemy's reach. Learning, or your hands to heaven in the sure confidence knowledge arms the mind with sound ideas and trust that God will help you. and honest opinions. The two depend on each Do not despise the help of knowledge. other, and stick together like best friends, each Consider dear friend, that there is no enemy needing the help of the other. The one attack, no temptation so great that fervent intercedes while the other shows us what to study of the holy scripture cannot turn it away. pray for. Learning and sound doctrine teach For all of the holy scriptures came by divine you how to pray in the name of Jesus; to desire inspiration and from God the author. what is good for your soul. Didn't Christ say to Therefore if you dedicate yourself wholly to the sons of Zebedee, "You don't know what the study of the bible, no fear shall trouble you are asking" [Mk 10:38]? Sound teaching is you, either by day or by night, because you necessary so that you can talk to God on will be armed against all the assaults of the familiar terms, the best kind of prayer. enemy. As you flee from fast living, your Nor do I think it a bad thing if you Egypt, you will run into great trouble if you practice up with the works of the pagan poets don't have the help of a Moses and an Aaron; or the philosophers, as an introduction to more Aaron the priest symbolizing prayer and perfect knowledge, though not so as to spend Moses the lawgiver symbolizing knowledge. your whole life bound up with them, as if you were tied to the rocks of the Sirens. Basil,

1 Augustine, Jerome and Cyprian all read pagan As in the previous reading on free will, Erasmus poets and encouraged others to as well. But do borrows Homer's story of Scylla and Charybidis to argue for a "middle course" between trusting solely in not suck in their vices as you read. If you can one's own abilities and relying entirely on God's grace. avoid that you will find many things that can

78 help you to virtuous living. You should not can only be found in the holy scripture, where refuse good advice from anyone, not even a our captain David found all his armor and pagan. The pagan authors sharpen your mind, weapons against the Philistines. From the bank and will help you understand scripture, which of the biblical stream we, too, can gather five takes preparation. The bible is not very smooth stones [1 Sam 17:40] (which may be fruitful if you stick only to the simplest literal Paul's five intelligible words). Then take a sense of it, you need to understand the sling in your right hand, and with that weapon allegorical sense as well, in which the pagan overthrow Satan the great enemy and the poets will help you. father of pride. Did Christ not strike Satan on As for poets who write smutty things, the forehead with words of scripture [Lk 4:1- my advice is not to touch them, or at least not 13]? to dwell on them, except insofar as they Do you wish to hear about Christian describe vices which you can then avoid, and artillery? Zeal is your belt, justice your by comparison love honest things more breastplate, and salvation your helmet. Take fervently. Of the philosophers I would suggest on a shield of impenetrable righteousness and the Platonists, for in many of their opinions sharpen your anger into a spear. In Isaiah you and in their style of writing they come close to read that God's warrior is armed with justice the patterns of the prophets and the Gospels. and covered with a cloak of zeal [Isa 59:17]. To sum up, it is profitable to taste the Now if you go to Paul's storehouse you will learning of the pagans, if done with caution certainly find weapons able to destroy the and discretion, and in the manner of one who fortresses of the enemy and the armor of God, is merely traveling through, and does not by which you can resist the enemy. You will intend to settle down and live among them, find the breastplate of righteousness, the belt and, most important of all, if everything is of truth, and the shield of faith with which you applied and referred to Christ. can quench the hot and fiery weapons of your As you study the scriptures further, cruel adversary. You will find the helmet of turn to the interpretations of the Fathers of the salvation and the sword of the Spirit, which is Church, whose godliness and holy life is well the Word of God [Eph 6:14-17]. When these known, whose love of God is to be examined, protect you on all sides, you may boldly claim whose learning is wise and plentiful, and the saying of Paul, "Who shall separate us whose writing is elegant and appropriate to the from the love of Christ? Shall trouble or mysteries of the Gospel. hardship or persecution or famine or Well, I did not intend to spend this nakedness or danger or sword?" [Rom 8:35] much time on learning rather than living, but I Look how he overturns even the mightiest got sidetracked describing the shop where you enemies. [Paul adds,] "But in all things we ought to get new armor to fight the new war. have overcome with the help of the one who So, pick and choose among the writings of the loved us. For I am convinced that neither pagan authors, following the example of the death nor life, neither angels nor demons, bee, who flies around in the garden of secular neither the present nor the future, neither learning and sucks out that which is useful and height nor depth nor anything else in all wholesome and leaves the poison behind, then creation will be able to separate us from the your mind will be well armored. For the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord" secular authors provide weapons and armor [Rom 8:37-39]. What a happy trust we can put which you should not despise. But remember in the weapons of light. The scriptures will that whatever you find that is honest and true give you an abundance of such armor, if you belongs to Christ. And the hardest and the best study it. armor, which no hostile weapons can pierce,

79 There, now I have forged for you a little weapon, a dagger in this little book called the Enchiridion. Use it well, don't leave it aside, not even when you eat or sleep. And when you go somewhere and cannot carry a copy of the whole and complete armor of the Bible with you, do not then allow the adversary to waylay you, but use this little dagger. Do not be ashamed to carry it with you, for, although it is a small weapon it can, if used along with the shield of faith, turn aside the attacks of the adversary and thus prevent a deadly wound. I promise you that if you train yourself diligently in these weapons, our captain, Jesus Christ, will transfer you in triumph from this little garrison to the city of Jerusalem, where there will be no more war, but everlasting peace. Meanwhile, place your hope in your armor and your weapons.

80 Michelangelo Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564) was a powerful artist, architect and sculptor of the High Renaissance. In his youth he studied in the household of the wealthy Medici family and was much influenced by the ancient sculptures they owned and the neoplatonic philosophy they encouraged. See Spielvogel, pp. 227-29 for more information.

" If my rough hammer..." In addition to being a brilliant painter, sculptor, and architect, Michelangelo was a writer. (Remember: the Renaissance ideal is l'uomo universale, the complete man.) Most of his surviving poems come from later in his long life, and many are intensely religious in tone. While Michelangelo epitomized the individualistic values of the Renaissance (e.g., by signing his name to the famous Pietd statue), this poem shows him reflecting on his need for God's grace.

SOURCE : The Complete Poems of Michelangelo, translated by Joseph Tusiani (New York, 1960).

If my rough hammer gives a human face To this or that of all hard blocks that wait, It is another smith makes me create, Controlling each my motion, each my pace But that high hammer beyond stars and space Makes self, and others, with each stroke, more great And bright; and since the first must generate All hammers, that gives life to all, always.

And since the most effective is that blow Which falls from highest in the smith, mine Shall fall no more—my hammer having flown. Now here am I, unskilled, and do not know How to go on, unless the smith divine Teaches me how, who am on earth alone.

81 Martin Luther Martin Luther (1483-1546) started the Protestant Reformation. His basic conviction that "by grace and sheer mercy God justifies sinners [i.e., makes them righteous] through faith" challenged the traditional medieval conviction that God's grace was channeled through the sacraments and that Christians could co-operate with God in choosing to believe and be obedient.

"Preface to Paul's Letter to the Romans" In addition to his other accomplishments, Luther translated the Bible into German. (His version is as important in German literature as the King James Bible is in English.) He completed the New Testament first, in 1522.

What follows is his preface to the Book of Romans. Note how highly Luther praises this epistle, which played such a crucial role in his life. (Luther claimed that reading Rom 1:17 was a turning point in his life, and chapter 3 helped shape his ideas of sola gratia and sola fides.) In the preface Luther defines (or re-defines) some crucial words, and points out how the medieval church had (in his opinion) misunderstood them.

SOURCE: Martin Luther, Preface to Paul's Letter to the Romans, translated by Charles E. Hay (Philadelphia: Lutheran Publication Society, 1903). Translation edited and revised by N. Lettinga, 1992.

This letter is truly the heart of the New requires the whole heart, and is not satisfied Testament and the purest Gospel. All with mere outward works. On the contrary it Christians should know it word for word, and condemns works done without the whole feed on it every day, as the daily bread for heart as lies and hypocrisy. Therefore, all are their souls. You cannot read it too often or called liars (Ps 116:11) because no one keeps study it too deeply; the more you study it, the the law of God, or can keep it with their sweeter it tastes. whole heart. We all find in ourselves an I will do everything in the power God aversion to what is good and an inclination to has given me to prepare the way with this what is evil. If we do not freely choose good, little Preface, so that everyone will come to our hearts are not fully devoted to God, we understand this letter correctly. Up to now it sin, and incur the wrath of God, even though has been miserably obscured by we may appear to do many virtuous works interpretations and all kinds of idle talk, and live an honorable life. though it is a shining light, almost enough to Therefore Paul concludes in the illuminate every part of the Holy Scriptures. second chapter (vv 12 & 13) that the Jews are In the first place, we must learn to all sinners, and says that only those who keep understand the language which it uses, and the law are righteous before God. By this he must know what St. Paul means by the words means to say that no one can keep the law by Law, Sin, Grace, Faith, Righteousness, Flesh, works, but he says on the contrary (v 22) that Spirit, and the like. Otherwise, all our reading 'You teach us not to commit adultery, but you of the Letter will be useless. commit adultery yourselves," and again The little word LAW, is not to be "When you judge another, you condemn understood in its ordinary sense, as teaching yourself, since you do what you condemn in what things are to be done, and what things others." It was as though he would say "You are not to be done, as in the case of human live very well in the outward works of the law laws, whose demands are met by outward and judge those who do not live this way, and works, and which don't need to have anything you know how to teach everyone. You see to do with the heart. God judges according to the splinter in the other person's eye, but don't the depths of the heart. His law, therefore, take any notice of the beam in your own eye.

82 Although you keep the law outwardly chapter 3[:20] "By the works of the law no for fear of punishment or hope of reward, you one becomes righteous before God." do it without freely choosing to, loving the You can see from this that the law, but rather hating the law and under Medieval theologians deceive you when they constraint. You would rather do otherwise. It teach that we can prepare ourselves for grace follows from this that you are at heart an through our works. How can any of us enemy of the law. What good does it do then prepare ourselves for that which is good if we that you teach others not to steal, while at do all good things unwillingly and reluctantly. heart you are yourself a thief and would How can the work that comes out of an gladly steal outwardly if you were not afraid? unwilling and reluctant heart please God? Though such hypocrites rarely manage to do But to fulfill the law we must do the outward works for very long. So, you teach works that the law requires willingly and with others, but do not teach yourself, and have love; leading an upright and godly life, freely never rightly understood the law. Yes, and without the pressure of the law, as if there indeed, the law simply increases sin, as the were no law and no penalty for disobedience. apostle says in chapter 5 (v 20) because we But such willingness and free love for the law just grow more hostile to the law as it requires is placed in our hearts by the Holy Spirit, as more of us. the apostle says in the fifth chapter (v 5). But Therefore Paul says in the seventh the Spirit is not given, as he says in the chapter (v 14) that the law is spiritual. What introduction to the letter, except in, with and does this mean? If the law were earthly then through faith in Jesus Christ. So in the same we could satisfy the law with our works. But way faith does not come except through the now, since it is spiritual, no one can meet its Word of God or the Gospel, which preaches requirements, unless everything we do comes Christ, teaching that he is the Son of God and out of the depths of our heart. But no one can the Son of Man, slain and risen from the dead give us such a heart except the Spirit of God, for our sakes. This is declared in chapter who makes us conform to the law, so that we 3[:25] "Whom God has set forth to be a love the law and therefore do everything that propitiation through faith in his blood," in the law asks, not out of fear or compulsion, 4[:25] "Who was delivered for our offenses but willingly. It is this way that the law is and was raised again for our justification;" spiritual, because the law must be loved and and in 10[:9]: "And that if you confess with obeyed by such a spiritual heart and requires your mouth the Lord Jesus and believe in such a spirit. When this spirit does not live in your heart that God has raised him from the the heart, sin remains, and with it hostility to dead, you will be saved. " the law, though the law is good and just and Therefore faith alone makes us holy. righteous and fulfills the law, for it brings the Get used to the thought therefore, that Spirit through the merits of Christ. But the it is one thing to do the works required by the Spirit makes the heart free and willing, as the law, and quite another thing to fulfill the law. law requires; and then good works naturally The works of the law consist in everything flow out of our faith. This is what he means in that we do, or can do to conform to the law by chapter 3, where, after having entirely our own will and in our own strength. But rejected the works of the law, it sounds as since, along with these works we remain though he would abolish the law itself hostile to the law in our hearts and submit through faith. No, he says, we establish the reluctantly, such works do not do any good. law through faith; that is, we fulfill it through This is what Paul means when he says in faith.

83 The word SIN is applied in the Bible, divided and broken into parts, as are his gifts, not only to outward bodily actions, but to all but takes us wholly and entirely under its the inner impulses and emotions connected to protection, for the sake of Christ our advocate the outward acts. Therefore committing sin and mediator, and because the gifts have means that our whole nature plunges into sin, begun in us. for we cannot commit an outwardly sinful act So you can understand how Paul can unless our whole selves, body and soul, are in chapter 7, condemn himself as still a thrown into that act. The Scriptures look sinner, while in 8[:1] declare that there is no upon the heart. Unbelief, in the depths of the condemnation to those who are in Christ Jesus heart is the root and fountain of all sin. due to the imperfection of their gifts and their Therefore, just as faith alone makes us spiritual life. We are still sinners because of righteous bringing the Spirit and the desire to our uncrucified flesh; but because we believe perform outwardly good works, so unbelief in Christ and have the beginning of the Spirit, alone sins, making us wish to perform God is so kind and gracious to us that he will outwardly evil works. not regard nor condemn the sin remaining, but Therefore Christ singles out unbelief deal with us according to our faith in Christ as sin when he says (Jn 16:8,9) that the Spirit until sin is utterly destroyed. will judge the world "with regard to sin, FAITH is not the human illusion or because they do not believe in me." Therefore dream which some people mistake for faith. good or evil works are the good or evil fruits When these people, though they talk about of life, flowing out of faith or unbelief as the "faith" a great deal, see that it is not followed root, the sap, and the driving power of all sin. by good works, they fall into error and say For this reason the Scriptures calls it the head that faith is not enough, but that we have to do of the serpent, or of the old dragon, which good works in order to be pious and gain Christ, the descendant of the woman, must salvation. Therefore, when they hear the crush, as was promised to Adam. (Gen 3:15) Gospel they, by their own strength, create a The difference between GRACE and notion in their hearts which they call "I GIFT is as follows: Grace properly refers to believe." They consider this to be true faith. the good will or favor of God, which he holds But since it is a human invention and idea, in his heart towards us, and by which he is which does not involve the depths of the willing to give us Christ and the Holy Spirit heart, it accomplishes nothing and no along with the gifts of the Holy Spirit — as we improvement in life follows. can see from chapter 5[:15], where Paul says: Faith is God's work in us, which "God's grace and the gift that came by the transforms us and by which we are reborn grace of the one man, Jesus Christ overflows from God (Jn 1:13). By faith the Old Adam is to the many." Now, although the gifts and the crucified. Faith makes us entirely different in Spirit increase in us daily they are not yet heart, in temper, in disposition and in all of complete, so that evil desires and sin still our powers, and brings with it the Holy Spirit. remain in us, fighting against the Spirit (as the This faith is a living, busy, active, powerful apostle says in 7[:14] and Galatians 5[:17] thing! It cannot do anything except good. It and as was prophesied already in Genesis does not even ask which good works ought to 3[:15] when the enmity between the be done; even before the question can be descendant of the woman and the descendant asked it has done them and is constantly at of the serpent was foretold). Grace work doing good. The person who is not nevertheless accomplishes this much, that we doing good works is a person without faith. are accounted entirely and completely That person gropes to find faith and good righteous before God. For his grace is not work, not knowing what either of them are,

84 and still babbles endlessly about faith and false, is hypocrisy and sin (14:23) no matter good works. how much it glitters. Faith is a living, well-founded The word FLESH should not be confidence in the grace of God, so perfectly understood as though it referred to impurity, certain that it would die a thousand deaths nor should the word SPIRIT refer only to the rather than surrender its conviction. Such emotions of the heart. Paul, like Christ (Jn confidence and personal knowledge of divine 3:6) calls everything born of the flesh, flesh; grace makes it possessor joyful, bold and full that is, the whole person, body and soul, with of warm affection towards God and all the reason and all the senses — because created things — all of which the Holy Spirit everything about that person is concerned for works in faith. Therefore, the person of faith the flesh. He would call the person who, becomes willing and eager to do good to without grace, talks a lot about high spiritual everyone, to serve everyone, and to suffer all things, fleshly. (As you can see from the kinds of ill-treatment in order to please and to works of the flesh mentioned in Galatians glorify God, who has shown such grace. It is 5[:20], where he calls heresy and hatred therefore impossible to separate works from works of the flesh, and from Romans 8[:3] faith, just like it is impossible to separate light where he says the law is made weak through and heat in a fire. Therefore be on your guard the flesh. He says this with reference not just against your own false ideas and unprofitable to impurity but to all sins, and primarily to babblings, you who want to be so wise in unbelief, which is the most spiritual of all your opinions about faith and good works, vices) On the other hand Paul would call the even though you are the greatest fools. Pray to one who is engaged in the most external kinds God that he may work faith in you; otherwise of works, like Christ washing the disciples you will be without faith forever, whatever feet, or Peter piloting his boat and fishing, illusions you invent and whatever good works spiritual. In this way he teaches that the one you may perform. who lives inwardly and acts outwardly in such This kind of faith is also called a way as to promote the welfare of the flesh RIGHTEOUSNESS, "the righteousness of and this worldly life, flesh; and the one who God" or the righteousness which counts lives inwardly and acts outwardly in such a before God. God gives it to us and accounts it way a to promote the welfare of the Spirit and as righteousness for the sake of Christ our the future life, spirit. mediator. Righteousness drives the one who If you do not understand these words possesses it to give everyone what they in this way, you will never correctly deserve. For through faith we come to be understand this letter of Paul, nor any book of without sin and learn to delight in God's the Holy Scriptures. Be on guard, therefore, commandments, thereby giving God the glory against all those teachers who use these words and giving him what we owe to him. We then differently — even if they were as great as also serve our neighbors in every way Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose, or Origen. possible, thereby giving each person what is This letter presents those things which their due. This kind of righteousness can not a Christian ought to know, namely what the be gotten through our nature, our free will or Law, the Gospel, sin, punishment, grace, our own powers. For just as no-one can give faith, righteousness, Christ, God, good works, themselves faith, so no one can take away love, hope, and crosses are, and how we their own unbelief. How can we take away should conduct ourselves toward everyone, even the smallest sin? Therefore everything saint or sinner, strong or weak, friend or which is done outside of faith or in unbelief is enemy, and toward our own selves — and all of this, moreover, proven from the Scriptures,

85 and confirmed by examples the apostle has the whole Old Testament: for without a doubt chosen from the profit, so that nothing is anyone who treasures this letter in their heart lacking. It seems, therefore, as though St. has all the light and power of the Old Paul wished to arrange the entire doctrine of Testament. Let every Christian, therefore, the Gospel and of Christianity in a brief form know it intimately and practice it continually. in this letter, and to prepare an introduction to To this end may God grant his grace. Amen.

•

Secular Authority In this 1523 work, Luther considered the extent to which Christians ought to obey secular authorities. Once again, Paul's letter to the Romans was a critical biblical source for Luther, particularly chapter 13. What does Paul mean when he writes, "Let every person be subject to the governing authorities; for there is no authority except from God, and those authorities that exist have been instituted by God" (Rom 13:1, NRSV)? His response to this question is to formulate his famous "two kingdoms" model. (You might hear echoes of Augustine's "city of God" and "city of man" here...) Note that Luther is suspicious both of Christians who think they can control culture, and of those who would reject the world entirely, not even taking up the sword to defend against invaders.

SOURCE: Translated by J.J. Schindel, in The Works of Martin Luther: The Philadelphia Edition, Vol. 3, (Philadelphia, 1943), pp. 234-39, 241-42.

Now observe, these people [belonging to the need any teaching or law to bear good fruit, kingdom of God] need no secular sword or its nature causes it to bear according to its law. And if all the world were composed of kind without any law and teaching (Mt 7:18). real Christians, that is, true believers, no A man would be a fool to make a book of prince, king, lord, sword, or law would be laws and statutes telling an apple tree how to needed. For what were the use of them, bear apples and not thorns, when it is able by since Christians have in their hearts the Holy its own nature to do this better than man with Spirit, who instructs them and causes them all his books can define and direct. Just so, by to wrong no one, to love every one, the Spirit and by faith all Christians are willingly and cheerfully to suffer injustice throughout inclined to do well and keep the and even death from every one. Where every law, much more than any one can teach them wrong is suffered and every right is done, no with all the laws, and need so far as they are quarrel, strife, trial, judge, penalty, law or concerned no commandments nor law.... sword is needed. Therefore, it is not possible for the secular sword and law to find any All who are not Christians belong to the work to do among Christians, since of kingdom of the world and are under the law. themselves they do much more than its laws Since few believe and still fewer live a and doctrines can demand. Just as Paul says Christian life, do not resist the evil, and in 1 Timothy 1[:9], "The law is not given for themselves do no evil, God has provided for thelrighteous, but for the unrighteous." non-Christians a different government outside the Christian estate and God's kingdom, and Why is this? Because the righteous does of has subjected them to the sword, so that, even himself all and more than all that the laws though they would do so, they cannot practice demand. But the unrighteous do nothing that their wickedness, and that, if they do, they the law demands, therefore they need the may not do it without fear nor in peace and law to instruct, constrain, and compel them prosperity. Even so a wild, savage beast is to do what is good. A good tree does not fastened with chains and bands, so that it

86 cannot bite and tear as is its wont, although Christians before ruling it in a Christian and it gladly would do so; whereas a tame and evangelical manner. This you will never gentle beast does not require this, but accomplish; for the world and the masses are without any chains and bands is nevertheless and always will be unchristian, although they harmless. If it were not so, seeing that the are all baptized and are nominally Christian. whole world is evil and that among Christians, however, are few and far between, thousands there is scarcely one true as the saying is. Therefore it is out of the Christian, men would devour one another, question that there should be a common and no one could preserve wife and child, Christian government over the whole world, support himself and serve God; and thus the nay even over one land or company of people, world would be reduced to chaos. For this since the wicked always outnumber the good. reason God has ordained the two Hence a man who would venture to govern an governments; the spiritual, which by the entire country or the world with the Gospel Holy Spirit under Christ makes Christians would be like a shepherd who should place in and pious people, and the secular, which one fold wolves, lions, eagles, and sheep restrains the unchristian and wicked so that together and let them freely mingle with one they must needs keep the peace outwardly, another and say, Help yourselves, and be even against their will. So Paul interprets the good and peaceful among yourselves; the fold secular sword, Romans 13[:3], and says it is is open, there is plenty of food; have no fear not a terror to good works, but to the evil. of dogs and clubs. The sheep, forsooth, would And Peter says it is for the punishment of keep the peace and would allow themselves to evil doers (1 Pet 2:14). be fed and governed in peace, but they would not live long; nor would any beast keep from If any one attempted to rule the world by the molesting another. Gospel, and put aside all secular law and the secular sword, on the plea that all are For this reason these two kingdoms must be baptized and Christian, and that according to sharply distinguished, and both be permitted the Gospel, there is to be among them to remain; the one to produce piety, the other neither law nor sword, nor necessity for Jo bring about external peace and prevent evil either, pray, what would happen? He would deeds; neither is sufficient in the _world loose the bands and chains of the wild and without the other. For no one can become savage beasts, and let them tear and mangle pious before God by means of the secular every one, and at the same time say they government, without Christ's spiritual rule. were quite tame and gentle creatures; but I Hence Christ's rule does not extend over all, would have the proof in my wounds. Just so but Christians are always in the minority and would the wicked under the name of are in the midst of non-Christians. Where Christian abuse this freedom of the Gospel, there is only secular rule or law, there, of carry on their knavery, and say that they necessity, is sheer hypocrisy, though the were Christians subject neither to law nor commandments be God's very own. Without sword, as some are already raving and the Holy Spirit in the heart no one becomes ranting. really pious, he may do as fine works as he will. Where, on the other hand, the spiritual To such an one we must say, It is indeed government rules alone over land and people, true that Christians, so far as they there evil is given free rein and the door is themselves are concerned, are subject to opened for every kind of knavery; for the neither law nor sword and need neither; but natural world cannot receive or comprehend first take heed and fill the world with real spiritual things....

87 case you would enter entirely into the service You ask whether a Christian, also, may bear and work of others, which benefited neither the secular sword and punish the wicked, yourself nor your property nor your character, since Christ's words, "Thou shalt not resist but only your neighbor and others; and you the evil," are so clear and definite that the would do it not to avenge yourself or to sophists have had to make a counsel of recompense evil for evil, but for the good of them. I answer, You have now heard two your neighbor and for the maintenance of the propositions. The one is, that the sword can safety and peace of others. As concerns have no place among Christians, therefore yourself, you would abide by the Gospel and you cannot bear it among and against govern yourself according to Christ's word, Christians, who do not need it. The question, gladly turning the other cheek and letting the therefore, must be directed to the other side, mantle go with the coat (Mt 5:39-40), when to the non-Christians, whether as a Christian the matter concerned you and your cause. In you may there bear it. Here the other this way, then, things are well balanced, and proposition applies, that you are under you satisfy at the same time God's kingdom obligation to serve and further the sword by inwardly and the kingdom of the world whatever means you can, with body, soul, outwardly, at the same time suffer evil and honor or goods. For it is nothing that you injustice and yet punish evil and injustice, at need, but something quite useful and the same time do not resist evil and yet resist profitable for the whole world and for your it. For in the one case you consider yourself neighbor. Therefore, should you see that and what is yours, in the other you consider there is a lack of hangmen, beadles, judges, your neighbor and what is his. In what lords, or princes, and find that you are concerns you and yours, you govern yourself qualified, you should offer your services and by the Gospel and suffer injustice for yourself seek the place, that necessary government as a true Christian; in what concerns others may by no means be despised and become and belongs to them, you govern yourself inefficient or perish. For the world cannot according to love and suffer no injustice for and dare not dispense with it. your neighbor's sake; this the Gospel does not forbid, but rather commands in another The reason you should do this is, that in this place....

88 Christians & Culture: Debating the Peasants' War In 1524 peasants, artisans, and other ordinary Germans took up arms against the landlords and princes of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning what has been called the Peasants' War. Many of the rebels were led by Lutheran pastors and claimed to be inspired by Luther's Reformation; but other Lutheran leaders condemned the peasants for unlawfully rebelling against their rightful authorities. In the following two readings, we see first the peasant perspective, and then Luther's response.

SOURCE (both): Translated by Charles M. Jacobs, in The Works of Martin Luther: The Philadelphia Edition, vol. 4 (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1931), pp. 210-13, 216, 224-25, 226-27, 228-29. "The Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants" This famous manifesto (1525) sought to explain and defend the goals of the peasant rebellion. The articles included social and economic changes as well as religious reforms typical of the Lutheran Reformation. Note how the authors of the Twelve Articles justified their goals according to Luther's formula o/sola scriptura.

The fundamental and true chief articles of all Second, It follows evidently that the the peasants and subjects of spiritual and peasants, desiring in their articles this Gospel temporal lords, concerning the things in for doctrine and life, cannot be called which they feel themselves aggrieved. disobedient and rebellious; but if it be the will of God to hear the peasants, earnestly To the Christian reader peace, and the grace crying to live according to His Word, who of God through Christ. will blame the will of God? Who will meddle in His judgment? Nay, who will resist His There are many antichristians who have majesty? Did He not hear the children of lately taken occasion of the assembling of the Israel, crying to Him, and release them out of peasants to cast scorn upon the Gospel, the hand of Pharaoh; and can He not today saying, Is this the fruit of the new Gospel? Is deliver His own? Yea, He will deliver them, no one to be obedient, but are all to rebel and and that quickly! Therefore, Christian reader, balk, to run together with force and gather in read the following articles with care and crowds in order to reform, to overthrow, or afterwards judge.... (Rom 11; Isa 40; Rom 8; perhaps slay the spiritual and temporal Ex 3; Ex 14; Lk 18) authorities? To all these godless and wicked critics the following articles make answer, in First, It is our humble petition and request, as order, first, to remove this reproach from the also the will and intention of all of us, that in Word of God, and second, to justify in a the future we should have authority and Christian way the disobedience, nay, the power so that a whole community should rebellion of the peasants. choose and appoint a pastor, and also have the right to depose him, if he should conduct First, the Gospel is not a cause rebellion and himself improperly. The pastor thus chosen disturbance, because it is a message about should preach to us the Holy Gospel purely Christ, the promised Messiah, whose words and clearly, without human addition, and life teach nothing but love, peace, doctrine, or commandment; for to proclaim patience, and unity; and all who believe in to us continually the true faith gives us cause this Christ become loving, peaceful, patient, to pray to God for His grace to instill and and harmonious. This is the foundation of all confirm this true faith within us, and if His the articles of the peasants (as will clearly grace is not instilled in us, we always remain appear), and they are directed to the hearing flesh and blood, which availeth nothing, of the Word of God and to life in accordance since it stands clearly in the Scriptures that with it.... (Rom 1) only through true faith can we come to God, and only through His mercy can we be saved. Therefore we need a leader and pastor; and

89 thus our demand is grounded on the Thus to our chosen and appointed rulers Scriptures. (1 Tim 3; Tit 1; Acts 14; Deut 17; (appointed for us by God) we are willingly Ex 31; Deut 10; Jn 6; Gal 2) obedient in all proper and Christian matters, and we have no doubt that, as true and Second, Since the tithe [a tax to support the genuine Christians, they will gladly release parish priest] is appointed in the Old us from serfdom, or show us in the Gospel Testament and fulfilled in the New, we will that we are serfs.... (Isa 53; 1 Pet 1; 1 Cor 7; none the less gladly pay the just tithe of Rom 13; Wis 6; 1 Pet 2; Deut 6; Mt 4; Lk 4; grain, but in a proper way.... that out of [the Mt 5; Jn 13; Acts 5) tithe] there shall be given to the pastor, who shall be chosen by an entire community, a [Articles 4-11 address specific grievances modest, sufficient maintenance for him and against the feudal system: e.g., who gets to his; that the remainder shall be distributed to cut wood in forests; how much free labor the poor and needy who are in the same peasants owe to their landlords; unfair rent, village, according to the circumstances and taxes, and laws; use of common fields.] with the consent of the community.... (Hebrews; Deut 25; 1 Tim 5; Mt 10; 1 Cor 9) Twelfth, It is our conclusion and final opinion that, if one or more of the articles Third, It has been the custom hitherto for here set forth were not to be in agreement men to hold us as their own property; and with the Word of God (though we think this this is pitiable, seeing that Christ has not the case), these articles, when they are redeemed and bought us all with the precious shown to us by the Word of God to be shedding of His blood, the lowly as well as improper, we will recede from, if this is the great, excepting no one. Therefore, it explained to us by arguments of Scripture. If agrees with Scripture that we be free and will some of the articles were conceded to us, and to be so. Not that we would be entirely free; it were afterwards found that they were God does not teach us that we should desire unjust, they shall be from that hour null and no rulers. We are to live in the void, and have no more force; likewise, if in commandments, not in the free self-will of the Scriptures, with the truth, more things the flesh; but we are to love God, recognize were discovered that were against God and Him in our neighbor as our Lord [did], and injurious to our neighbor [they will be added do all (as we gladly would do) that God has to these articles]... we will, and we have commanded in the Lord's Supper; therefore, determined to, use forbearance and practice we ought to live according to His and exercise ourselves in all Christian commandment. This commandment does not doctrine. Therefore we will pray to God the teach us that we are not to be obedient to the Lord, for He, and none other can give us this. rulers, but we are to humble ourselves, not The peace of Christ be with us all. before the rulers only, but before everyone.

• • •

90 Luther, "An Admonition to Peace" The Peasants' War deeply troubled Martin Luther, who finally decided to write an open letter to both sides in the spring of 1525. This "Admonition to Peace" begins with criticism of the powerful for oppressing the poor, but then (in the following excerpt) Luther dismisses the "Twelve Articles " and condemns the peasants for taking up arms against the lawful authorities.

He closed this letter by asking both sides to seek peace as fellow Christians, but before it could be published, the fighting intensified. Luther chose to side with the landlords, writing a pamphlet "Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants " and encouraging the rulers of Germany to "smite, slay, and stab " the rebels. By the time the Peasants' War concluded, in 1526, approximately 100,000people had died.

TO THE PEASANTS the sword shall perish by the sword" (Mt 26:52). That means nothing else than that no So far, dear friends, you have learned only one, by his own violence, shall arrogate that I admit it to be (sad to say!) all too true authority to himself; but as Paul says, "Let and certain that the princes and lords, who every person be subject to the higher powers forbid the preaching of the Gospel and with fear and reverence" (Rom 13:1). oppress the people so unbearably, are worthy, and have well deserved, that God put How can you get around these sayings and them down from their seats (Lk 1:52), as laws of God, when you boast that you are men who have sinned deeply against God acting according to divine law, and yet take and man. And they have no excuse. the sword in your own hands, and revolt Nevertheless, you, too, must have a care that against the "higher powers" that are ordained you take up your cause with a good of God? Do you not think that Paul's conscience and with justice. If you have a judgment in Romans 13 will strike you, "He good conscience, you have the comforting that withstands the ordinance of God shall advantage that God will be with you, and receive condemnation" (v 2)? That is will help you through. Even though you were "bearing God's name in vain"; alleging God's worsted for a while, and though you suffered law and withstanding God's law, under His death, you would win in the end, and would name. O have a care, dear sirs! It will not preserve your soul eternally with all the turn out that way in the end. saints. But if you have not justice and a good conscience, you will be worsted; and even In the third place, you say that the rulers are though you were to win for a while, and were wicked and intolerable, for they will not to slay all the princes, yet in the end you allow us the Gospel, and they oppress us too would be lost eternally, body and soul. This hard by the burdens they lay on our temporal is, therefore, no joking matter for you; it goods, and they are ruining us body and soul. concerns your body and soul eternally. The I answer: The fact that the rulers are wicked thing that is most necessary to consider and and unjust does not excuse tumult and that must be most seriously regarded, is not rebellion, for to punish wickedness does not how strong you are and how completely belong to everybody, but to the worldly wrong [the princes] are, but whether you rulers who bear the sword. Thus Paul says in have justice and a good conscience on your Romans 13[:4], and Peter, in I Peter 3 [sic; side.... 2:14], that they are ordained of God for the punishment of the wicked. Then, too, there is ...it is easy to prove that you are bearing the natural law of all the world, which says God's name in vain and putting it to shame; that no one may be judge in his own case or nor is it to be doubted that you will, in the take his own revenge. The proverb is true, end, encounter all misfortune, unless God is "He who resists is wrong," and the other untrue. For here stands God's Word, and says proverb, "He who resists makes strife." The through the mouth of Christ, "He who take divine law agrees with this, and says, in

91 Deuteronomy 32[:35], "Vengeance is mine, I Listen, then, dear Christians, to your will repay, saith the Lord." Now you cannot Christian law! Your Supreme Lord Christ, deny that your rebellion proceeds in such a whose name you bear, says, in Matthew 6 way that you make yourselves your own [sic, 5:39-41], "Ye shall not resist evil, but if judges, and avenge yourselves, and are anyone compels you to go one mile, go with unwilling to suffer any wrong. That is him two miles, and if anyone takes your contrary not only to Christian law and the cloak, let him have your coat, too; and if Gospel, but also to natural law and all anyone smites you on one cheek, offer him equity.... the other also." Do you hear, "Christian assembly"? How does your understanding Can you not imagine it, or figure it out, dear agree with this law? You will not endure it friends? If your enterprise were right, then when anyone does you ill or wrong, but will any man might become judge over another, be free, and suffer nothing but good and and there would remain in the world neither right; and Christ says that we are not to resist authority, nor government, nor order, nor any evil or wrong, but always yield, suffer it, land, but there would be only murder and and let things be taken from us. If you will bloodshed; for as soon as anyone saw that not bear this law, then put off the name of someone was wronging him, he would turn Christian, and boast of another name that to judge and punish him. Now if that is accords with your actions, or else Christ unjust and intolerable when done by an Himself will tear His name from off you, and individual, neither can it be endured when that will be too hard for you.... done by a band or a crowd....

Now, all this has been said concerning the common, divine, and natural law which even heathen, Turks, and Jews have to keep, if there is to be any peace or order in the world. Even though you were to keep this whole law, you would do no better and no more than heathen and Turks. For not to be one's own judge and avenger, but to leave this to the authorities and rulers, makes no man a Christian; it is a thing that must eventually be done whether willingly or not. But because you are acting against this law, you see plainly that you are worse than heathen or Turks, to say nothing of the fact that you are not Christians. What do you think that Christ will say to this? You bear His name, and call yourselves a "Christian assembly," and yet you are so far from Christian, and your actions and lives are so horribly contrary to His law, that you are not worthy to be called even heathen or Turks, but are much worse than these, because you rage and struggle against the divine and natural law, which all the heathen keep....

92 Unit Three: The Reformations and the Age of Reason

Timeline

AD 1500 The 95 Theses (1517) Michael Sattler (d. 1527) Ignatius Loyola founds the Jesuits (1534) John Calvin publishes The Institutes (Latin ed., 1536) Copernicus (d. 1543) 1550 Council of Trent (1545-1563) Thomas Cranmer (d. 1556)

1600 Galileo writes to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615) Thirty Years War begins (1618)

Peace of Westphalia (1648) 1650 Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan (1651) Blaise Pascal (d. 1662)

Isaac Newton publishes his Principia (1687) John Locke publishes his Second Treatise on Government (1690) 1700 Voltaire (1694-1778) Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Baron d'Holbach (1723-1789) 1750 The Declaration of Independence (1776) The French Revolution begins (1789) Mary Wollstonecraft publishes her Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) 1800

Names/titles in bold refer to readings in this packet.

93 The Reformers and the Anabaptists The Spielvogel section on the Anabaptists (p. 246) is rather brief. It leaves out some background and a couple of interesting stories. This reading is intended to be CWC's supplement to your text and the lecture.

Luther was not the only Protestant Partly because of their conflict with the reformer. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) was a Zurich government, though ultimately in Swiss priest who came to accept Luther's response to widespread persecution arguments for salvation by grace alone. An throughout Europe, they became convinced Erasmian humanist, Zwingli arrived at his that the ideals of the true church were Protestant convictions from his critical and radically different from and entirely opposed careful reading of Scripture. In 1519 he to those of the state. announced that he would no longer preach These more radical reformers from the passages the Church had set, but symbolized their separation from lukewarm would preach through the entire book of and ungodly state churches (including the Matthew with the Greek text open in front of new Protestant churches) by practicing him. This caused considerably more believer's baptism—baptizing adult believers excitement in the city of Zurich than the rather than infants. Since they had already news that an Italian named Columbus had been baptized as infants, they were called discovered America. Anabaptists ("re-baptizers") by those who In Lent of 1522 Zwingli broke with disapproved of them. The practice of the Roman Catholic Church; the Church believer's baptism symbolized a new, strictly forbade eating meat during Lent, but exclusive understanding of the church as a Zwingli permitted some men who were small fellowship of heartfelt believers rather printing a Swiss-German translation of the than an institution serving the spiritual needs Bible to eat sausages to keep up their of a nation. strength. The Zurich town council supported The Anabaptists (who spread from their radical priest's stance; Zwingli's Switzerland to other parts of Europe) preaching was spiritually renewing, modeled themselves directly after the New intellectually rigorous, and suited the Testament Church which they saw as a small political mood of Swiss independence and band of the persecuted faithful, and followed nationalism. Christ's words, especially those of the Zwingli was very much a reformer— Sermon on the Mount [Mt 5-7] to the letter. deeply committed to the authority of the As one Anabaptist put it, "No one can truly scripture, to the priesthood of believers and know Christ unless he follow him in life." to salvation through grace by faith alone. He Following Christ in life, as was also a Swiss patriot and a careful scholar understood through the Sermon on the but his reforms were implemented with more Mount, had some momentous consequences. thought and at a slower pace than some of his The Anabaptists absolutely refused to swear followers wished. oaths because Christ had told his disciples to In 1524 a group of Zwingli's "let your yea be yea and your nay be nay" followers became so disenchanted with the [Mt 5:37]. In sixteenth century society, the slow pace of his reforms that they rejected judicial oath functioned the way the signature Zwingli and the state church in Zurich. on a contract does today; without it, (When the town council sided with Zwingli, commitments weren't considered legal and that had made the whole town Protestant). binding. It served as society's "glue" in both

94 economic and social commitments. view of the state was an inclination towards However, since Jesus had told the millenarianism. This view held that the Anabaptists not to swear oaths, they set world was bad and becoming steadily worse. themselves outside of the fabric of society. However, there was hope, for at the point at This led to immediate and widespread which the evil was worst, a good king would persecution since the Anabaptists were come to conquer the forces of evil and perceived as dangerous anarchists for establish true peace and prosperity. For most refusing to swear oaths. In many countries, Christian millenarians, including the simply admitting to being an Anabaptist was Anabaptists, Jesus would be that king, and sufficient grounds for execution. would reign on earth as a literal king, though In 1527, Felix Manz, one of Zwingli's the saints could prepare the way for his former students, became the first Anabaptist return. Millenarianism was, in fact, a to be martyred. He was found guilty of political solution to political injustice, and sectarianism and denouncing capital appealed particularly to those who were punishment by the Zurich town council. His oppressed. sentence read in part: Anabaptist millenarianism led to a Manz shall be delivered to the executioner, lurid episode which discredited the entire who shall tie his hands, put him into a boat, movement in the eyes of respectable strap his bound hands down over his knees, place a stick between his knees and his arms Christians, and continued to symbolize and thus push him into the water. Anabaptism for generations. In 1534 a number of Anabaptists took over the city of His executioners were pleased with Muenster in western Germany, exiling and the poetic justice of his death. Although confiscating the property of any who Manz was the first Anabaptist martyr, he was opposed them. When the bishop had who hardly the last, and in Protestant countries the ruled the city brought his army to take the preferred method continued to be drowning, city back, the Anabaptists took up arms and, since it conveniently symbolized yet another fueled by their leaders' prophetic claims, "rebaptism." pronounced themselves the New Israel Persecution reinforced the Anabaptist preparing the way for the return of King belief that the church and the state were Jesus. Jan van Leiden, one of the Anabaptist entirely opposed to each other. In the leaders, was crowned King David and Anabaptists' view governmental authority gathered a harem of beautiful young women was ordained by God, but only for round himself. The bishop's army starved the unbelievers, to maintain order in a fallen Muenster fanatics into submission, but not world full of sinful behavior. The state before the townspeople were desperate therefore did not involve the community of enough to eat grass, rats, and each other. saints, who did no evil. In fact, according to The Muenster episode ran entirely most Anabaptists, the state itself was under counter to the Anabaptist principle that the control of Satan, which was why it Christians were to avoid government. Jan persecuted true Christians. The kingdom of van Leiden and the other Muenster leaders God had to be built without the help of the had drifted from Anabaptism into state. The Anabaptists had a very optimistic Spiritualism, and relied on the direct view of the Christian community and revelations of the Holy Spirit to guide their believed that Christians could be truly acts, which accounts for their willingness to virtuous disciples of Christ. be involved in the government of the city of One result of the Anabaptists' Muenster. However, most Europeans optimistic view of the church and pessimistic believed that Muenster represented the

95 hidden potential in all Anabaptism, and the episode permanently tainted the movement and justified the continuing persecution of Anabaptists. Six Anabaptist refugees fleeing the Bishop's wrath in Muenster converted a Lutheran and former Catholic priest by the name of Menno Simons in the far northern part of the Netherlands. Menno, who founded the Mennonites, developed a pacifist version of Anabaptism, interpreting Jesus' injunction to love your neighbor as yourself as refusing all violence, including military service, entirely dissociating himself from Muenster. Menno wrote: The regenerated do not go to war, nor engage in strife. They are the children of peace who have beaten their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks and know of no war. .. .Since we are to be conformed to the image of Christ, how can we then fight our enemies with the sword? In Moravia, to the east, other Anabaptists began to form economic communities in which they held all their possessions in common, following the example of the Church in Acts. These Hutterite communities proved successful and stable. Together with the Mennonites, the Amish, and the "Brethren" of Switzerland and south Germany, the Hutterites have survived into the twenty-first century.

96 "The Schleitheim Confession" With several of their leaders executed, imprisoned, or exiled, the original Swiss Anabaptists gathered on February 24, 1527 in the canton of Schqffhausen. For the meeting, Anabaptist leader Michael Sattler [of whom you'll learn more in the next reading] prepared a statement of the group's basic beliefs, a document that has been passed down as the "The Schleitheim Confession." It not only defends the Anabaptist's understanding of "believer's baptism," but calls for a radical separation from the culture. Note that Anabaptists are not only to avoid warfare and politics, but all Catholic and Protestant churches.

SOURCE: The Schleitheim Confession, transcribed by Dick Sullivan (Rod & Staff Publishers, 1985), http://www.anabaptists.org/history/schleith.html.

A Brotherly Union of a Number of Children shall be admonished twice in secret and the of God concerning Seven Articles. third time openly disciplined or banned according to the command of Christ (Mt 18). The articles which we discussed and on But this shall be done according to the which we were of one mind are these: regulation of the Spirit (Mt 5) before the breaking of bread, so that we may break and 1. Baptism; eat one bread, with one mind and in one love, 2. The Ban (Excommunication); and may drink of one cup. 3. Breaking of Bread; 4. Separation from the Abomination; III. In the breaking of bread we are of one 5. Pastors in the Church; mind and are agreed [as follows]: All those 6. The Sword; who wish to break one bread in remembrance 7. The Oath. of the broken body of Christ, and all who wish to drink of one drink as a remembrance I. Observe concerning baptism: Baptism shall of the shed blood of Christ, shall be united be given to all those who have learned beforehand by baptism in one body of Christ repentance and amendment of life, and who which is the church of God and whose Head believe truly that their sins are taken away by is Christ. For as Paul points out, we cannot at Christ, and to all those who walk in the the same time drink the cup of the Lord and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and wish to be the cup of the devil [1 Cor 10:21]. That is, all buried with Him in death, so that they may those who have fellowship with the dead be resurrected with Him and to all those who works of darkness have no part in the light. with this significance request it [baptism] of Therefore all who follow the devil and the us and demand it for themselves. This world have no part with those who are called excludes all infant baptism, the highest and unto God out of the world. All who lie in evil chief abomination of the Pope. In this you have no part in the good. have the foundation and testimony of the apostles. (Aft 28; Mk 16; Acts 2, 8, 16, 19). Therefore it is and must be [thus]: Whoever This we wish to hold simply, yet firmly and has not been called by one God to one faith, with assurance. to one baptism, to one Spirit, to one body, with all the children of God's church, cannot II. We are agreed as follows on the ban: The be made [into] one bread with them, as ban shall be employed with all those who indeed must be done if one is truly to break have given themselves to the Lord, to walk in bread according to the command of Christ. His commandments, and with all those who are baptized into the one body of Christ and IV. We are agreed [as follows] on separation: who are called brethren or sisters, and yet A separation shall be made from the evil and who slip sometimes and fall into error and from the wickedness which the devil planted sin, being inadvertently overtaken. The same in the world; in this manner, simply that we

97 shall not have fellowship with them [the force - such as sword, armor and the like, and wicked] and not run with them in the all their use [either] for friends or against multitude of their abominations. This is the one's enemies - by virtue of the Word of way it is: Since all who do not walk in the Christ. Resist not [him that is] evil [Mt 5:39]. obedience of faith, and have not united themselves with God so that they wish to do V. We are agreed as follows on pastors in the His will, are a great abomination before God, church of God: The pastor in the church of it is not possible for anything to grow or God shall, as Paul has prescribed, be one issue from them except abominable things. who out-and-out has a good report of those For truly all creatures are in but two classes, who are outside the faith [1 Tim 3:7]. This good and bad, believing and unbelieving, office shall be to read, to admonish and darkness and light, the world and those who teach, to warn, to discipline, to ban in the [have come] out of the world, God's temple church, to lead out in prayer for the and idols, Christ and Belial; and none can advancement of all the brethren and sisters, have part with the other. to lift up the bread when it is to be broken, and in all things to see to the care of the body To us then the command of the Lord is clear of Christ, in order that it may be built up and when He calls upon us to be separate from developed, and the mouth of the slanderer be the evil and thus He will be our God and we stopped. shall be His sons and daughters. This one moreover shall be supported of the He further admonishes us to withdraw from church which has chosen him, wherein he Babylon and earthly Egypt that we may not may be in need, so that he who serves the be partakers of the pain and suffering which Gospel may live of the Gospel as the Lord the Lord will bring upon them. has ordained. But if a pastor should do something requiring discipline, he shall not From this we should learn that everything be dealt with except [on the testimony of] which is not united with our God and Christ two or three witnesses. And when they sin cannot be other than an abomination which they shall be disciplined before all in order we should shun and flee from. By this is that the others may fear. meant all Catholic and Protestant works and church services, meetings and church But should it happen that through the cross attendance, drinking houses, civic affairs, the this pastor should be banished or led to the oaths sworn in unbelief and other things of Lord [through martyrdom] another shall be that kind, which are highly regarded by the ordained in his place in the same hour so that world and yet are carried on in flat God's little flock and people may not be contradiction to the command of God, in destroyed. accordance with all the unrighteousness which is in the world. From all these things VI. We are agreed as follows concerning the we shall be separated and have no part with sword: The sword is ordained of God outside them for they are nothing but an the perfection of Christ. It punishes and puts abomination, and they are the cause of our to death the wicked, and guards and protects being hated before our Christ Jesus, Who has the good. In the Law the sword was ordained set us free from the slavery of the flesh and for the punishment of the wicked and for fitted us for the service of God through the their death, and the same [sword] is [now] Spirit Whom He has given us. ordained to be used by the worldly magistrates [Rom 13:4]. Therefore there will also unquestionably fall from us the unchristian, devilish weapons of

98 In the perfection of Christ, however, only the force of the sword saying, The worldly I ban is used for a warning and for the princes lord it over them, etc., but not so I excommunication of the one who has sinned, shall it be with you [Mt 20:25-26]. Further, without putting the flesh to death - simply the Paul says, Whom God did foreknow He also warning and the command to sin no more. did predestinate to be conformed to the image of His Son, etc. [Rom 8:29]. Also Now it will be asked by many who do not Peter says, Christ has suffered (not ruled) and recognize [this as] the will of Christ for us, left us an example, that ye should follow His whether a Christian may or should employ steps [1 Pet 2:21]. the sword against the wicked for the defense and protection of the good, or for the sake of Finally it will be observed that it is not love. appropriate for a Christian to serve as a magistrate because of these points: The Our reply is unanimously as follows: Christ government magistracy is according to the teaches and commands us to learn of Him, flesh, but the Christian's is according to the for He is meek and lowly in heart and so Spirit; their houses and dwelling remain in shall we find rest to our souls [Mt 11:29]. this world, but the Christian's are in heaven; Also Christ says to the heathenish woman their citizenship is in this world, but the who was taken in adultery, not that one Christian's citizenship is in heaven; the should stone her according to the Law of His weapons of their conflict and war are carnal Father [and yet He says, As the Father has and against the flesh only, but the Christian's commanded me, thus I do], but in mercy and weapons are spiritual, against the forgiveness and warning, to sin no more [Jn fortification of the devil. The worldlings are 8:1-11]. Such [an attitude] we also ought to armed with steel and iron, but the Christians take completely according to the rule of the are armed with the armor of God, with truth, ban. righteousness, peace, faith, salvation and the Word of God. In brief, as in the mind of God Secondly, it will be asked concerning the toward us, so shall the mind of the members sword, whether a Christian shall pass of the body of Christ be through Him in all sentence in worldly disputes and strife such things, that there may be no schism in the as unbelievers have with one another. This is body through which it would be destroyed. our united answer. Christ did not wish to For every kingdom divided against itself will decide or pass judgment between brother and be destroyed [Mt 12:25]. Now since Christ is brother in the case of the inheritance, but as it is written of Him, His members must refused to do so [Lk 12:13-15]. Therefore we also be the same, that His body may remain should do likewise. complete and united to its own advancement and upbuilding. Thirdly, it will be asked concerning the sword, Shall one be a magistrate if one VII. We are agreed as follows concerning the should be chosen as such? The answer is as oath: The oath is a confirmation among those follows: They wished to make Christ king, who are quarreling or making promises. In but He fled and did not view it as the the Law it is commanded to be performed in arrangement of His Father [Jn 6:15]. Thus God's Name, but only in truth, not falsely shall we do as He did, and follow Him, and [Num 30:2]. Christ, who teaches the so shall we not walk in darkness. For He perfection of the Law, prohibits all swearing Himself says, He who wishes to come after to His [followers], whether true or false - Me, let him deny himself and take up his neither by heaven, nor by the earth, nor by cross and follow Me [Mk 8:34]. Also, He Jerusalem, nor by our head - and that for the Himself forbids the [employment of] the reason He shortly thereafter gives, For you

99 are not able to make one hair white or black Further some say, Because evil is now [in the [Mt 5:33-37]. So you see it is for this reason world, and] because man needs God for [the that all swearing is forbidden: we cannot establishment of] the truth, so did the fulfill that which we promise when we swear, apostles Peter and Paul also swear. Answer: for we cannot change [even] the very least Peter and Paul only testify of that which God thing on us. promised to Abraham with the oath. They themselves promise nothing, as the example Now there are some who do not give indicates clearly. Testifying and swearing are credence to the simple command of God, but two different things. For when a person object with this question: Well now, did not swears he is in the first place promising God swear to Abraham by Himself (since He future things, as Christ was promised to was God) when He promised him that He Abraham. Whom we a long time afterwards would be with him and that He would be his received. But when a person bears testimony God if he would keep His commandments he is testifying about the present, whether it [Gen 22:15-18] - why then should I not also is good or evil, as Simeon spoke to Mary swear when I promise to someone? Answer: about Christ and testified, Behold this [child] Hear what the Scripture says: God, since He is set for the fall and rising of many in Israel, wished more abundantly to show unto the and for a sign which shall be spoken against heirs the immutability of His counsel, [Lk2:34]. inserted an oath, that by two immutable things (in which it is impossible for God to Christ also taught us along the same line lie) we might have a strong consolation [Heb when He said, Let your communication be 6:17-18]. Observe the meaning of this Yea, yea; Nay, nay; for whatsoever is more Scripture: What God forbids you to do, He than these cometh of evil [Mt 5:37]. He says, has power to do, for everything is possible Your speech or word shall be yea and nay. for Him [Mk 10:27]. God swore an oath to [However] when one does not wish to Abraham, says the Scripture, so that He understand, he remains closed to the might show that His counsel is immutable. meaning. Christ is simply Yea and Nay, and That is, no one can withstand nor thwart His all those who seek Him simply will will; therefore He can keep His oath. But we understand His Word. Amen. can do nothing, as is said above by Christ, to keep or perform [our oaths]: therefore we shall not swear at all [nichts schweren].

Then others further say as follows: It is not forbidden of God to swear in the New Testament, when it is actually commanded in the Old, but it is forbidden only to swear by heaven, earth, Jerusalem and our head. Answer: Hear the Scripture, He who swears by heaven swears by God's throne and by Him who sitteth thereon [Mt 23:22]. Observe: it is forbidden to swear by heaven, which is only the throne of God: how much more is it forbidden [to swear] by God Himself! Ye fools and blind, which is greater, the throne or Him that sitteth thereon?

100 "The Martyrdom Of Michael Sattler" Michael Sattler (ca. 1495-1527) was an important Swiss Anabaptist who was put on trial and executed for his beliefs. He had been a monk, but through his studies of the Scriptures decided to leave the monastery, get married, and minister as an Anabaptist. This excerpt from The Martyr's Mirror (an Anabaptist collection of martyrdom accounts going back to the Early Church) describes his trial in 1527, and the execution of both him and his wife Margaretha. It shows how the basic Anabaptist beliefs outlined in "The Schleitheim Confession" (written just three months before) were interpreted as legally and socially offensive by his accusers. It also shows the strength of Sattler's convictions, through both his words and actions in a dire situation.

SOURCE: Thieleman J. van Braght, The Martyr's Mirror, translated by Joseph M. Sohm (Herald Press, 1987), http://www.anabaptists.org/history/sattler.html

After a long trial on the day of his departure Secondly, he has taught, held and believed from this world, the articles [against him] that the body and blood of Christ are not being many, Michael Sattler requested that present in the sacrament. they would be read to him again and that he Thirdly, he has taught and believed that should have another hearing. This the bailiff, infant baptism does not conduce to salvation. as the governor of his lord, opposed and Fourthly, they have rejected the sacrament would not consent to it. of extreme unction [the Last Rites]. Fifthly, they have despised and condemned Michael Sattler then requested permission to the mother of God and the saints. speak. After a consultation, the judges Sixthly, he has declared that men are not to returned as their answer, that if his swear before the authorities. opponents would allow it, they (the judges) Seventhly, he has commenced a new an would consent. Thereupon the town clerk of unheard of custom in regard to the Lord's Ensisheim, as the attorney of said Governor Supper, placing the bread and wine on a spoke thus: "Prudent, honorable and wise plate, and eating and drinking the same. Sirs, He has boasted of the Holy Ghost. Eighthly, he has left the order, and married a Now, if his boast is true, it seems to me, it is wife. unnecessary to grant him this; for if he has Ninthly, he has said that if the Turks should the Holy Ghost, as he boasts, the same will invade the country, no resistance ought to be tell him what has been done here." To this offered them; and if it were right to wage Michael Sattler replied: "Ye servants of God, war, he would rather take the field against the I hope my request will not be denied; for said Christians than against the Turks; and it is articles are as yet unknown to me." The town certainly a great matter, to set the greatest clerk responded: "Prudent, honorable and enemies of our holy faith against us. wise Sirs, Though we are not bound to do this, yet in order to give satisfaction, we will SATTLERS DEFENSE grant him his request that it may not be thought that injustice is done him in his Thereupon Michael Sattler requested heresy, or that we desire to wrong him; permission to confer with his brethren and hence let the articles be read to him." sisters, which was granted him. Having conferred with them for a little while, he ARTICLES OR CHARGES AGAINST began and undauntingly answered thus: "In MICHAEL SATTLER regard to the articles relating to me and my brethren and sisters, hear this brief answer: First, that he and his adherents have acted "First, That we have acted contrary to contrary to the mandate of the Emperor. the imperial mandate, we do not admit; for

101 the same says that the Lutheran doctrine and in other places where he always writes: To delusion is not to be adhered to, but only the the beloved saints. Hence we that believe are Gospel and Word of God. This we have kept; the saints; but those who have died in faith for I am not aware that we have acted we regard as the blessed. (Lk 1:28; Mt 1:21; contrary to the Gospel and the Word of God; 1 Tim 2:5; 1 Cor 1:2; Eph 1:1; Rev 14:13) I appeal to the words of Christ. "Sixthly, We hold, that we are not to "Secondly, That the real body of swear before the authorities: For the Lord Christ the Lord is not present in the says: Swear not; but let your communication sacrament, we admit; for the Scripture says: be, Yea, yea; Nay, nay. (Mt 5:34; Jas 5:12) Christ ascended into heaven and, sitteth on "Seventhly, When God called me to the right hand of His heavenly Father testify of His Word, and I had read Paul, and whence He shall come to judge the quick and also considered the unchristian and perilous the dead; from which it follows, that if He is state in which I was; beholding the pomp, in heaven, and not in the bread, He may not pride, usury, and great whoredom of the be eaten bodily. (Mk 16:19; Acts 1:9; Col monks and priests, I went and took unto me a 3:1; Acts 10:42; 2 Tim 4:1) wife, according to the command of God; for "Thirdly, As to baptism we say: Paul well prophesies concerning this to Infant baptism is of no avail to salvation; for Timothy: In the latter time it shall come to it is written that we live by faith alone. pass that men shall forbid to marry, and Again: He that believeth and is baptized shall command to abstain from meats which God be saved. Peter likewise says: The like figure hath created to be received with whereunto even baptism doth also now save thanksgiving. (1 Cor 7:2; 1 Tim 4:3) us (not the putting away of the filth of the "Eighthly, If the Turks should come, flesh, but the answer of a good conscience we ought not to resist them; for it is written: toward God), by the resurrection of Jesus Thou shalt not kill. We must not defend Christ. (Rom 1:17; Mk 16:16; 1 Pet 3:21) ourselves against the Turks and others of our "Fourthly, We have not rejected the persecutors, but are to beseech God with oil; for it is a creature of God, and what God earnest prayer to repel and resist them. But has made is good and not to be refused; but that I said, that if warring were right, I would that the pope, the bishops, monks and priests rather take the field against the so-called can make it better, we do not believe; for the Christians, who persecute, apprehend and kill pope never made anything good. That of pious Christians, than against the Turks, was which the epistle of James speaks is not the for this reason: The Turk is a true Turk, pope's oil. (Gen 1:11; 1 Tim 4:4; Jas 5:14) knows nothing of the Christian faith; and is a "Fifthly, We have not condemned the Turk after the flesh; but you, who would be mother of God and the saints; for the mother Christians, and who make your boast of of Christ is to be blessed among all women; Christ, persecute the pious witnesses of for to her was accorded the favor of giving Christ, and are Turks after the spirit. birth to the Saviour of the whole world. But "In conclusion: Ye ministers of God, I that she is a mediatress and advocatess, of admonish you to consider the end for which this the Scriptures know nothing; for she God has appointed you, to punish the evil, must with us await the judgment. Paul said to and to defend and protect the pious. Whereas, Timothy: Christ is our Mediator and then, we have not acted contrary to God and Advocate with God. As regards the saints; the Gospel, you will find that neither I nor we say that we who live and believe are the my brethren and sisters have offended in saints; which I prove by the epistles of Paul word or deed against any authority. to the Romans, Corinthians, Ephesians; and Therefore, ye ministers of God, if ye have not

102 heard or read the Word of God, send for the with the sentence; I will commit it to the most learned, and for the sacred books of the law." Bible, of whatsoever language they may be, The judge asked Michael Sattler and let them confer with us in the Word of whether he also committed it to the law. God; and if they prove to us with the Holy He [Sattler] replied: "Ye ministers of Scriptures, that we err and are in the wrong, God, I am not sent to judge the Word of God; we will gladly desist and recant and also we are sent to bear witness of it, and, hence, willingly suffer the sentence and punishment cannot consent to any law, since we have no for that of which we have been accused, but command from God concerning it; but if we if no error is proven to us, I hope to God, that can not be discharged from the law, we are you will be converted, and receive ready to suffer for the Word of God whatever instruction." (Wis 6:4; Acts 25:8; Rom 13:4; sufferings are, or may be imposed upon us all Acts 25:11) for the sake of the faith in Christ Jesus our Saviour, as long as we have breath within us; unless we be dissuaded from it by the THE DEBATE Scriptures." The town clerk said: "The hangman Upon this speech the judges laughed and put shall convince you; he shall dispute with you, their heads together, and the town clerk of arch-heretic." Ensisheim said: Michael: "I appeal to the Scriptures." "O you infamous, desperate villain and monk, shall we dispute with you? The hangman shall dispute with you, I assure THE CONCLUSION you." Michael said: "God's will be done." Then the judges arose, and went into another The town clerk said: "It were well if room, where they remained for an hour and a you had never been born." half, and determined on the sentence. (Mt Michael replied: "God knows what is 6:10; Jn 16:2; I Cor 4:5; Jn 1:8; Job 27:3; good." Acts 25:11) Town Clerk: "You arch-heretic, you In the meantime, some in the room have seduced the pious; if they would only treated Michael Sattler most unmercifully, now forsake their error, and accept grace." heaping reproach upon him. One of them Michael: "Grace is with God alone." said: "What have you in expectation for One of the prisoners also said: "We must not yourself and the others, that you have so depart from the truth." seduced them?" With this, he also drew forth Town Clerk: "You desperate villain a sword which lay upon the table, saying: and arch-heretic, I tell you if there were no "See, with this shall they dispute with thee." hangman here, I would hang you myself, and But Michael did not answer upon a single think that I had done God service." word concerning his person, but willingly Michael: "God will judge aright." endured it all. One of the prisoners said: "We Thereupon the town clerk said a few must not cast pearls before swine." (Mt words to him in Latin, what we do not know. 27:14; 7:6) Michael Sattler answered him Judica. Being also asked, why he had not The town clerk then admonished the remained a lord in the convent, Michael judges and said: "He will not cease from this answered: "According to the flesh I was a talk today; therefore my Lord Judge, proceed lord; but it is better so."

103 He did not say more than what is without the gate, he shall be pinched five recorded here, and this he spoke fearlessly. times in the same manner." The judges having returned to the After this had been done in the room, the sentence was read. It was as manner prescribed, he was burned to ashes as follows: "In the case of the Governor of his a heretic. His fellow brethren were executed Imperial Majesty versus Michael Sattler, with the sword, and the sisters drowned. His judgment is passed, that Michael Sattler shall wife, also, after being subjected to many be delivered to the executioner, who shall entreaties, admonitions and threats, under lead him to the place of execution, and cut which she remained very steadfast, was out his tongue; then throw him upon a drowned a few days afterwards. Done the wagon, and there tear his body twice with 21st day of May, A. D. 1527. red hot tongs; and after he has been brought

104 John Calvin A generation younger than Luther, John Calvin (1509-1564) was the great system-builder of the Protestant Reformation. Although "Calvin was one of the most prolific authors in the history of the Church, comparable in productivity to Augustine, Aquinas and Luther.... Yet in a special sense Calvin was a man of one book; his remarkable Institutes of the Christian Religion is a systematic presentation of Christian theology which he constantly improved and enlarged from the first edition in 1536 to the last edition which left his hand in the late summer of 1559." (Lewis W. Spitz, Introduction to "Calvin: The Institutes," The Protestant Reformation, p. 129.)

The Golden Booklet of the True Christian Life Calvin originally published The Golden Booklet (1550) as part of The Institutes, but its straightforward and devotional style soon earned it an independent publishing.

SOURCE: Translated from the French and Latin by Henry J. Van Andel (Grand Rapids, Baker Book House, 1952). Paraphrased into contemporary English by Virginia Lettinga, 2002.

Chapter 2: Self Denial

We Belong to God. We are not our own: and everything that is ours. Instead, we therefore neither our minds nor our wills belong to God: let us therefore live for him should direct our plans and deeds. We are and die for him. We belong to God: let his not our own: let us therefore no longer make wisdom and will therefore rule all our it our goal to seek what is useful for us actions. We belong to God: let all the parts according to the flesh. We are not our own: of our life strive toward him as our only in as far as we can, let us forget ourselves appropriate goal.

Chapter 5: The Right Use of the Present Life

Let us avoid extremes. we did not belong to it and to buy possessions with the same attitude as when 1. Not only does Scripture point us to heaven we sell them [1 Cor 7:30-31]. as our goal, it also fully instructs us how to treat earthly blessings, and this should not be 3. We run the danger of making two opposite overlooked in a discussion of how to live. mistakes, so let's try to walk on safe ground, For since we are alive, we must use the avoiding each of the extremes. For there things that sustain life. We can't, in fact, have been some people, otherwise good and even avoid things which serve our pleasures holy, who saw that materialism and rather than our needs. But in order to use intemperance have, again and again, driven them with a clean conscience, we should people to reject all limits until they are only practice moderation in everything. stopped in extremely painful ways. And in their desire to correct such a dangerous 2. In his Word, the Lord teaches us that life mistake, they have adopted the only method for his servants is like a pilgrimage in which they thought workable: they only permit we travel towards the heavenly kingdom. earthly blessings in as far as they are Even if earth is only the hallway, we absolutely necessary. These actions show the undoubtedly should use its blessings so that best of intentions, but it is far too rigid. They we are assisted rather than delayed on our are ready, in fact, to commit a very journey. We can, therefore, understand the dangerous mistake, that is to impose on the Apostle Paul's advice to use this world as if conscience of others rules that are stricter

105 than those laid down in the Word of the Psalmist wouldn't have counted among God's Lord. By limiting people to the demands of blessings "the wine that makes glad the heart what is necessary, they mean them to abstain of man and the oil that makes his face to from everything possible. For such people, shine" [Ps 104:15]. Nor would Scripture eating and drinking anything more than bread declare everywhere that God has given all and pure water would hardly be permitted.... these things to humans so that we might praise his goodness. 4. On the other hand, there are many today who are only looking for an excuse to justify any kind of enjoyment and any amount of True gratitude will restrain us from abuse money spent on themselves. Such people take for granted that liberty should be 1. Let us discard, therefore, the inhuman without any limits, though that claim is philosophy which would deny us the use of unbearable. They argue that all choices creation unless it was absolutely necessary. should be left to the individual conscience Such a poisonous idea would steal from us a and each must do as he believes appropriate. lawful enjoyment of God's kindness.... On the other hand, we must fight with equal 5. We bluntly state that neither such extreme enthusiasm the "lusts of the flesh," for if they liberty is right, nor is it possible to bind the aren't held in check, they will carry us conscience of others with hard and fast rules. beyond God's limits. As we have observed, However, since Scripture lays down some extreme and individualistic liberty has its general principles for the lawful use of advocates: there are people who under the earthly things, we certainly ought to follow pretext of a free conscience will stop short of these guidelines in our actions. (1 Cor 7:30- nothing. 31) 2. First of all, if we want to curb our desires Earthly things are gifts of God and greed we must remember that all things are made for us with the purpose that we may 1. The first principle we should recognize is know and acknowledge their Maker. We that the use of the gifts of God cannot be should praise God's kindness towards us in wrong, as long as they are used the way that earthly matters by giving him thanks. But the Creator intended. For he has made how do thanks rank if we indulge in earthly blessings for our benefit, and not for conspicuous consumption, pleasure and our harm. No one, therefore, will observe a alcohol in such a way that we are too numb, more appropriate rule than one who faithful drunk or fat to carry out the duties of our observes this principle. Christian lives or our business?

2. For example, if we study why God has Where is our acknowledgment of God, if the created such a variety of foods, we shall excesses of pleasure drive us to pollute our conclude that it was his intention not only to bodies and infect our minds with impurity, provide for our needs, but also for our that that we can no longer tell the difference pleasure and our delight. In clothing too, he between right and wrong? Where is our did not only remember our needs, but also gratitude towards God for clothing, if we decency and appropriateness. In plants and admire ourselves and despairs others because trees, he not only made them practical, but of what we wear? If we are preparing also beautiful to us with elegant shapes and ourselves for sexual games and unchaste pleasant smells. If this weren't true, then the flirtations, do we pretend to thank the Lord

106 for our sexy clothes? Where is our clothing, home or possessions. In ancient acknowledgment of God if our thoughts are times the Roman philosopher Cato noted that fixed on how good we look? there is great concern about the appearance of the body, but great carelessness about 3. Many so steadily pursue personal virtue. There is also an old proverb that happiness and entertainment that their minds those who pay much attention to the body become enslaved to it. Many are so generally neglect the soul. delighted with the things they wear that they become like lifeless mannequins. They are, 3. Therefore, though the liberty of believers in fact, drained of real life and begin to cannot be restricted by hard and fast rules, resemble colorful statues. The flavor of surely it is subject to this guideline: that they foods and the sounds of music make some should indulge themselves little and seldom. people so stupid that they no longer have any On the other hand, we would be wise to appetite for spiritual things. And this holds resolutely shun everything that is for the abuse of all other natural matters as superfluous, and avoid all displays of well. conspicuous consumption. We should enthusiastically watch out so that nothing Therefore, it is clear that the principle of that the Lord gave us to enrich life becomes a gratitude should curb our desire to abuse the stumbling block. (1 Cor 7: 29-31) blessings God has put on earth. This principle confirms the rule of the Apostle Be faithful in your divine calling Paul that we may "not make provision after the flesh to fulfil its lusts" [Rom 13:14]. For 1. Finally we should note that the Lord if we give our natural desires free rein, they commands every one of us in all the actions will pass all bounds of temperance and of our life, to be faithful to our calling. For moderation. he knows that the human mind burns with restlessness, that it easily slides here and Let us life with moderation there, and that it loves to jump from thing to thing. 1. There is no surer and shorter way to gratitude than to turn our eyes away from this Therefore, to prevent general confusion present life, and to think about eternal life. being produced by our foolish boldness, God From this flow two important principles: has appointed to everyone his particular First, "let those that have wives be as though duties in the different spheres of life.... Each they had none; and they that buy as though individual's sphere of life is a post assigned they possessed not; and they that use this him by God that he may not wander about in world as not abusing it" [1 Cor 7:29-31]. uncertainty all the days of his life. In God's Second, we should learn to bear poverty sight, all our actions are measured by our quietly and patiently, and to enjoy plenty calling and his judgment is often very with moderation. different from the judgment of human reason. 2. The Lord who commands us to use this world as though we weren't using it, forbids 2. There is no greater heroism even among not only excess in eating and drinking, but pagan philosophers than to deliver one's also in every thing that could drag down our country from tyranny. But the voice of the spiritual level or destroy our devotion: heavenly Judge openly condemns the private pleasure, ambition, pride, care for our man who kills a tyrant. Clearly... the

107 principle and basis of right conduct in every civil case is our calling by the Lord. ...Sometimes a man may perhaps succeed in doing something that appears praiseworthy, but however good it may look in the eyes of many, before the throne of God it will not be acceptable.

3. Our present life, therefore, will be best regulated if we always keep our calling in mind. No one will then be tempted by his own boldness to dare to undertake what is not fitting with his calling, because he will know that it is wrong to go beyond his limits. Those who are not born to a public life should be content to live a private life, and should not desert the place where the Lord has placed them. It is a great comfort to know that whatever the labors, troubles and burdens, God is our guide. Those in government will, therefore, fulfil their offices with greater willingness. The father of a family will, therefore, perform his duties with more courage. And everyone in his or her own sphere of life will show more patience, will overcome more difficulties, and will more cheerfully shoulder cares, miseries and anxieties because they are confident that their tasks are laid upon their shoulders by God.

If we follow our divine calling we shall receive this special comfort: there is no job so simple, dull, or dirty that God does not consider it truly respectable and highly important! (Coram Deo!1) (Gen 1:28, Col l:lff)

"Before the face of God" 108 The Westminster Shorter Catechism Although the Puritans (Calvinists within the Church of England) had been a "loyal if dissatisfied minority" under Queen Elizabeth, under her successors—James I and Charles I— they grew numerous and eventually rebellious. The Westminster Shorter Catechism (ratified November 5, 1647) is one of several theological documents created by the Puritan parliament between 1643 and 1658. It represents the thinking of the second generation of Calvinists and was carried to North America as the basic creed of both the Pilgrims and New England Puritans.

SOURCE: http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html

Ql What is the chief end of man? Q14 What is sin? A Man's chief end is to glorify God and A Sin is any want of conformity unto, or to enjoy him forever. transgression of, the law of God.

Q2 What rule hath God given to direct Q 16 Did all mankind fall in Adam's first us how we may glorify and enjoy transgression? him? A The covenant being made with Adam, The word of God, which is contained not only for himself, but for his in the Scriptures of the Old and New posterity, all mankind, descending Testament, is the only rule to direct from him by ordinary generation, us how we may glorify and enjoy sinned in him and fell with him in his him. first transgression.

Q4 What is God? Q 19 What is the misery of that estate A God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and whereinto man fell? unchangeable in his being, wisdom, A All mankind, by their fall, lost power, holiness, justice, goodness communion with God, are under his and truth. wrath and curse, and so made liable to all miseries in this life, to death Q12 What special act of providence did itself, and to the pains of hell forever. God exercise toward man, in the estate wherein he was created? Q 20 Did God leave all mankind to When God had created man, he perish in the estate of sin and entered into a covenant of life with misery? him, upon condition of perfect A God having, out of his mere good obedience, forbidding him to eat of pleasure, from all eternity, elected the tree of the knowledge of good and some to everlasting life, did enter into evil, upon the pain of death. a covenant of grace, to deliver them out of the estate of sin and misery, Q13 Did our first parents continue in and to bring them into an estate of the estate wherein they were salvation, by a Redeemer. created? Our first parents, being left to the Q 21 Who is the Redeemer of God's freedom of their own will, fell from elect? the estate wherein they were created, A The only Redeemer of God's elect is by sinning against God. the Lord Jesus Christ, who, being the eternal Son of God, became man, and so was, and continueth to be, God and

109 man, in two distinct natures, and one Q 85 What doth God require of us, that person, forever. we may escape his wrath and curse, due to us for sin? Q29 How are we made partakers of the A To escape the wrath and curse of redemption purchased by Christ? God, due to us for sin, God requireth A We are made partakers of the of us faith in Jesus Christ, repentance redemption purchased by Christ, by unto life, with the diligent use of all the effectual application of it to us by the outward means whereby Christ his Holy Spirit. communicateth to us the benefits of redemption. Q30 How doth the Spirit apply to us the redemption purchased by Christ? Q 89 How is the word made effectual for A The Spirit applieth to us the salvation? redemption purchased by Christ, by A The Spirit of God makefh the reading, working faith in us, and thereby but especially the preaching, of the uniting us to Christ in our effectual word an effectual means of calling. convincing and converting sinners and of building them up in holiness Q31 What is effectual calling? and comfort through faith unto A Effectual calling is the work of God's salvation. Spirit, whereby convincing us of our sin and misery, enlightening our Q 90 How is the word to be read and minds in the knowledge of Christ, heard, that it may become effectual and renewing our wills, he doth to salvation? persuade and enable us to embrace A That the word may become effectual Jesus Christ freely offered to us in the to salvation, we must attend thereunto gospel. with diligence, preparation, and prayer; receive it with faith and love, Q39 What is the duty which God lay it up in our hearts, and practice it requireth of man? with our lives. A The duty which God requireth of man is, obedience to his revealed will. Q 91 How do the sacraments become effectual means of salvation? Q82 Is any man able to perfectly keep A The sacraments become effectual the commandments of God? means of salvation, not from any A No mere man, since the fall, is able in virtue in them, or in him that doth this life, perfectly to keep the administer them; but only by the commandments of God; but doth blessing of Christ, and the working of daily break them in thought, word, his Spirit in them that by faith receive and deed. them.

110 "Homily on Obedience" The Church of England published a set of twelve homilies, or sermons, which all pastors who did not have graduate degrees were required to read "every Sunday in the year... in the order in which they stand in the book." When they were finished with the whole set (thirty-one weeks, unless a licensed preacher came to town or they read two or three segments on one Sunday), they were to start over again. This version is from the reign of Edward VI (r. 1547-1553).

SOURCE: An Exhortation concernyng Good Ordre and Obedience to Rulers and Magistrates, parts I-II (reprint, London: Richard Grafton, 1647). Updated by Neil Lettinga, 1993.

Almighty God has created and of souls, bodies, goods and communities will appointed all things in heaven, earth and the follow. waters in a most excellent and perfect order. In But blessed be God, we in this realm of heaven, he has appointed distinct orders and England do not suffer the horrible calamities, states of archangels and angels. On earth he miseries and wretchedness felt by those who has assigned kings and princes, with other lack such godly order. God be praised, we governors under them, all in good and know the great benefit that God has shown us necessary order. The water is kept above the in this regard. God has sent us his high gift, earth and rains down in due time and season. our most dear sovereign lord, King Edward the The sun, moon, stars, rainbows, thunder, Sixth, with godly, wise and honorable counsel lightning, clouds and all the birds of the air along with other superiors and inferiors in a keep their order, as winter, summer, months, beautiful order. Therefore let us subjects do nights and days, continue in their order. All our duty, heartily thanking God and praying for kinds of fish in the sea, rivers and, springs, the preservation of this godly order. Let us indeed the seas themselves, keep their course obey all good laws, statutes, proclamations and and order. And man himself also has all his injunctions, from the bottom of our hearts. parts, both within and without, such as soul, The Scriptures, inspired by the Holy Ghost, heart, mind, memory, understanding, reason, persuade and command us all obediently to be speech, and all the members of his body, in an subject, first and foremost to the King, supreme appropriate, necessary and pleasing order. All head over all, and next to his honorable persons, in their vocation, calling, and office, counsel, and to all other noblemen, magistrates have their duty and order. Some are high, some and officers, who are placed and ordered by low, some are kings and princes, some are God's goodness. For only Almighty God subjects, some priests and some laymen, provides good order, as it is written by God in masters and servants, fathers and children, the book of Proverbs: "By me kings do reign; husbands and wives, rich and poor. Every one and rulers make laws that are just; by me needs the others so God's good order is to be princes govern and all nobles who rule on earth praised. Without it no household, no city, no execute judgment: I love those who love me" community can continue and endure. For [Prov 8:15-17]. where there is no right order all abuse, carnal Here let us remember that the high liberty, enormity, sin and babylonical confusion power and authority of kings along with reigns. Without kings, princes, rulers, making of laws, judgments and officers are the magistrates, and judges, no man shall ride or ordinance, not of man, but of God, and travel along the highways unrobbed, no man therefore this word "through me" is repeated so shall sleep in his own house or bed unkilled, no often. We ought also to remember that this man shall keep his wife, children and good order is appointed by God's wisdom, possessions in peace; all things shall be favor and love, especially for those who love common, and all mischief and destruction, both God. Therefore he says "I love those who love

111 me." In the book of Wisdom we may also learn and they will praise you, for they are God's that a king's power, authority and strength is a ministers for your good. But if you do that great benefit given by God, given by his great which is evil, then fear, for they do not bear the mercy to comfort us in our great misery. For sword for nothing; they are God's ministers to we read there, spoken to kings: "Listen then take vengeance on those who do evil. kings, and understand, rulers of remotest lands, Therefore you must obey, not only for fear of take warning, hear this you who have punishment, but also out of conscience, and for thousands under your rule. For power is a gift the same reason you must pay taxes, for they to you from the Lord, sovereignty is from the are God's ministers" [Rom 13:1-6]. Most High" [Wis 6:2-3]. Let us learn here by Here let us all learn from St Paul, the God's infallible Word that kings and other elect vessel of God, that all persons who have supreme and higher officers are ordained by souls—Paul, according to St. Chrysostom, God, who is the highest, and therefore they are allows no exceptions, neither priests, nor taught diligently to apply themselves to the apostles nor prophets—owe by bounden duty knowledge and wisdom needed to order God's and in conscience, obedience, submission and people, who are committed to their trust. And subjection to the high powers, which are they are also taught by Almighty God that they constituted in authority by God, forasmuch as should acknowledge themselves to have their they are God's lieutenants, God's presidents, power and strength not from the pope in Rome, God's officers, God's commissioners, God's but directly from God. judges, ordained by God himself, from whom We read in the book of Deuteronomy only they have all their power and all their that all punishment comes from God: "It is authority. And the same St Paul threatens no mine to avenge, and I will repay" [Deut 32:35]. less than everlasting damnation to all But we must understand that this verse also disobedient persons, to all who resist authority, applies to the magistrates who exercise God's forasmuch as they do not resist men, but God; authority in judgment and punishment through not men's devices and inventions, but God's good and godly laws here on earth. And the wisdom, God's order, power and authority. places of Scripture which appear to forbid Christian men from judging, punishing or PartH killing, ought to be understood as meaning that [to be read the Sunday following the reading of no man, through his own private authority, may the First Part] be a judge over another, or may punish, or may Forasmuch as God has created and kill. But each of us must refer all judging to disposed all things in good order, we have been kings and rulers, and judges under them, who taught in the first part of this homily, are God's officers to execute justice, and by concerning good order and obedience, that we plain words of Scripture have their authority ought also in all communities to observe and and the use of the sword granted by God. As keep a due order, and to be obedient to the we are taught by St. Paul, the dear and elect powers, their ordinances and laws, that all apostle of our saviour Christ, whom we ought rulers are appointed by God for a godly order to to obey even as we would obey our saviour be kept in the world, and also how the Christ, if he were present, writing to the magistrates ought to learn how to rule and Romans: "Let every soul submit himself unto govern according to God's laws. All subjects the authority of the higher powers, for there is are bound to obey them as God's ministers, no power but of God. The powers that exist are even if they are evil; not only out of fear, but ordained by God; whoever therefore resists also for conscience's sake. these powers, resists the ordinance of God, and And here, good people, let us all note those who resist shall receive damnation, for that it is not lawful for inferiors and subjects in rulers are not terrifying to those who do good, any case to resist the superior powers. St Paul's but to those who do evil. Do you wish not to words are plain, whoever resists shall suffer be afraid of those in power? Do well then, damnation, for whoever resists, resists the 112 ordinance of God. Our saviour Christ himself leaving you an example, that you should follow and his apostles received many different in his steps" [1 Pet 2:18-21]. injuries from the unfaithful and wicked men in David also teaches us a good lesson in authority, yet we never read that they, or any of this regard. He was most cruelly and them, caused any sedition or rebellion against wrongfully persecuted by King Saul. His life the authorities. We often read that they was often in danger, but he never resisted, nor patiently suffered all troubles, vexations, used any force or violence against king Saul, slanders, pains and death itself obediently, his mortal enemy, but always gave his liege without tumult or resistance. They committed lord and master, King Saul, his most true and their cause to him who judges righteously and diligent and faithful service. Even when the prayed for their enemies heartily and earnestly. Lord God had given King Saul into David's They knew that the authority of the powers hand in his own cave, he would not hurt him, came from God, and therefore, both in their when he might without endangering himself words and deeds, they taught obedience to it easily have killed him; nor would he allow any and never taught, or did the contrary. The of his servants to lay their hands on King Saul, wicked judge, Pilate, said to Christ, "Don't you but prayed: "The Lord forbid that I should do know that I have the power to crucify you and such a thing to my master, the Lord's anointed, also have the power to release you?" Jesus or lift my hand against him; for he is the answered, "You could have no power at all anointed of the Lord.... As surely as the Lord against me, except it were given to you from lives, the Lord himself will strike him; either above" [Jn 19:10-11]. Thereby Christ taught us his time will come and he will die, or he will go plainly that even the wicked rulers have their into battle and perish" [1 Sam 24:6, 25:10]. power and authority from God. And therefore And we can see in the first book of Kings [1 it is not lawful for their subjects to resist them Sam 24:4], that David could have killed his by force, even though they abuse their power. enemy King Saul when David cut the corner of Much less, then, is it lawful for subjects to Saul's garment and also by Saul's own resist their godly and Christian princes who do admission. Another time, recorded in the same not abuse their authority but use it to God's book, when the most unmerciful and unkind glory and to the profit and comfort of God's King Saul persecuted poor David, God again people. gave King Saul into David's hand by casting The holy apostle St Peter commands King Saul and his whole army into a dead servants to be obedient to their masters, not sleep, so that David along with one Abishai only if they are good and gentle, but also if they came into Saul's army at night, while Saul lay are evil and cruel, affirming that the vocation sleeping, his spear stuck into the ground at his and calling of God's people is to be patient. He head. Then Abishai said to David, "Today God brings in the patience of our savior Christ to has delivered your enemy into your hands. persuade obedience to governors, even if they Now let me pin him to the ground with one are wicked and wrongdoers. The words of St thrust of my spear; I won't strike him twice," Peter are the best guide our conscience. He meaning that he would kill him in a single says in his first Epistle: "Slaves, submit stroke. But David answered Abishai, "Don't yourselves to your masters with all respect, not destroy him, for who can lay a hand on the only to those who are good and considerate, but Lord's anointed and be guiltless?" And David also to those who are harsh. For it is said further: "As surely as the Lord lives, the commendable if a man bears up under the pain Lord himself will strike him; either his time of unjust suffering because he is conscious of will come and he will die, or he will go into God. But how is it to your credit if you receive battle and perish. Now get the spear and the a beating for doing wrong and endure it? But if water jug that are near his head, and let's go" [1 you suffer for doing good and you endure it, Sam 26:8-11], and so he did. this is commendable before God. To this you Here it is evident that we may not resist, were called, because Christ suffered for you, nor in any way hurt an anointed king, who is 113 God's lieutenant, vicegerent and prime minister ordained and appointed by God's goodness for in the country in which he is king. Some, their own prosperity, peace and quietness. perhaps, would argue that David might have Yet, let us certainly add, good Christian lawfully and with a clear conscience killed Saul people, that we may not obey king, magistrates, in self-defense. But David knew that he could or any other, though they be our own fathers, if not in any way resist, hurt or kill his sovereign they would command us to do anything lord and king; he knew that he was Saul's contrary to God's commandments. In those subject, even though he was in great favor with cases, we ought to say with the apostles, we God and his enemy Saul was in disfavor with must obey God rather than man. But God. Even though he was very much nevertheless in those cases, we may not in any provoked, he utterly refused to hurt the Lord's way resist violently or rebel against our rulers, anointed. Because of his office, only God or participate in insurrection, sedition or could punish or judge him. Therefore, David tumults, either by force of arms or in any other often and earnestly prayed that he would not way, against the anointed of the Lord or any of lay his hands on the Lord's anointed. And by his appointed officers. But we must in these these two examples David, being named in the cases patiently suffer all injustices and injuries, Bible a man after God's own heart, gives a referring the judgment of our case~entirely_to general rule and lesson to all subjects in the God. Let us fear the terrible punishment of world not to resist their liege lord and king, nor God against traitors or rebellious persons as in to take a sword by their own private authority fhecase of Korah, Dathan and Abiram, who against the king, God's anointed. The king is rose up against God's magistrates and officers. the only one who bears the sword by God's The earth opened, and swallowed them up authority for the maintenance of the good and alive. Others, for their wicked murmuring and the punishment of evil. By God's law only the rebellion, were utterly consumed by a sudden king has the use of the sword and all power, fire sent by God. Still others for their insolent jurisdiction, and coercion as the supreme behavior to their rulers and governors, God's governor of all his realms and dominions. ministers, were suddenly stricken with leprosy, Yet another notable story and doctrine singed to death with strange fiery serpents, or is in the second book of the Kings [2 Sam 1]. were stricken with plague, so that 14,700 An Amalekite killed king Saul at his own people were killed in one day for rebelling request and command. The Amalekite ran to against those whom God had appointed to be in David in great haste, bringing with him King authority [Num 16]. Absalom was also Saul's crown and the bracelet which had been punished with a strange and notable death for on his arm as proof that he had indeed done the rebelling against his father David [2 Sam 18]... deed, and expecting David to thank and reward him. But godly David was so far from rejoicing (There is a third part of this homily—omitted at the news that he tore his clothes, mourned for space—that continues the argument...) and wept and asked the messenger why he had not been afraid to lay his hands on the Lord's anointed? And David commanded one of his servants to kill the messenger, saying that his blood had been on his own head, for with his own mouth he had testified against himself, saying that he had killed the Lord's anointed. These examples are so clear and evident that it is an intolerable ignorance, madness and wickedness for subjects to murmur, rebel, resist, or cause a commotion or insurrection against their most dear sovereign lord and king,

114 Thomas Cranmer Cranmer was one of the Lutheran-leaning scholars at Cambridge in the 1520s. He came to the attention of King Henry VIII for his suggestion that the debate over the King's divorce of Catherine of Aragon be judged by the Universities of Europe. Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, Cranmer was deeply committed to the authority of the Bible over spiritual life and secular authority above the pope. He promoted an official English Bible before Henry legalized the English translations, and under Henry's son, King Edward VI, Cranmer played a leading role in creating a Protestant core to the Church of England through his Book of Common Prayer.

Pardoned for treason by Edward's sister Queen Mary I, Cranmer was spared only to be tried for heresy. Sentenced to death and publicly mocked, Cranmer for a time recanted almost his whole Protestant position, affirming transubstantiation and the supreme authority of the Pope in the English Church. Nonetheless, he was sentenced to death.

"The Last Words of Thomas Cranmer, 21 March 1556" What follows is the statement he made at his execution. At the end, he renounced his recantations and his cowardice, holding the hand with which he had signed the documents of his recantation into the flames.

SOURCE: The Canterbury Project (Columbia University); transcribed by Jack Lynch.

All men desire, good people, at the time of then- as strangers and mortal enemies. But I pray you deaths, to give some good exhortation that learn and bear well away this one lesson, To do others may remember after their deaths, and be good to all men as much as in you lieth, and to the better thereby. So I beseech God grant me hurt no man, no more than you would hurt your grace that I may speak something, at this my own natural and loving brother or sister. For departing, whereby God may be glorified and this you may be sure of, that whosoever hateth you edified. any person, and goeth about maliciously to hinder or hurt him, surely, and without all First, it is an heavy case to see that many folks doubt, God is not with that man, although he be so much doted upon the love of this false think himself never so much in God's favour. world, and so careful for it, that for the love of God, or the love of the world to come, they The fourth exhortation shall be to them that seem to care very little or nothing therefor. This have great substance and riches of this world, shall be my first exhortation. That you set not that they will well consider and weigh those overmuch by this false glozing world, but upon sayings of the Scripture. One is of our Saviour God and the world to come; and learn to know Christ; himself, who sayeth, "It is hard for a what this lesson meaneth, which St John rich man to enter into heaven" [Mt 19:23]; a teacheth, that the love of this world is hatred sore saying, and yet spoken by him that knew against God [1 Jn2:15]. the truth. The second is of St John, whose saying is this, "He that hath the substance of The second exhortation is that next unto God this world and seeth his brother in necessity, you obey your King and Queen willingly and and shutteth up his mercy from him, how can gladly, without murmur and grudging, and not he say he loveth God?" [1 Jn 3:17] Much more for fear of them only, but much more for the might I speak of every part; but time sufficeth fear of God knowing that they be God's not. I do but put you in remembrance of these ministers; appointed by God to rule and govern things. Let all them that be rich ponder well you. And therefore whoso resisteth them, those sentences; for if ever they had any resisteth God's ordinance [Rom 13:1-2]. occasion to show their charity they have now at this present, the poor people being so many, The third exhortation is, That you love and victuals so dear. For though I have been altogether like brethren and sisters. For, alas! long in prison, yet I have heard of the great pity it is to see what contention and hatred one penury of the poor. Consider that which is Christian man hath toward another; not taking given to the poor is given to God; whom we each other as sisters and brothers, but rather 115 have not otherwise present corporally with us, thing that ever I said or did in my life; and that but in the poor. is, the setting abroad of writings contrary to the truth. Which here now I renounce and refuse, And now, for so much as I am come to the last as things written with my hand, contrary to the end of my life, whereupon hangeth all my life truth which I thought in my heart, and writ for passed and my life to come, either to live with fear of death, and to save my life, if it might be; my Saviour Christ in heaven in joy, or else to and that is, all such bills, which I have written be in pain ever with wicked devils in hell; and I or signed with mine own hand since my see before mine eyes presently either heaven degradation, wherein I have written many ready to receive me, or hell ready to swallow things untrue. And forasmuch as my hand me up; I shall therefore declare unto you my offended in writing contrary to my heart, very faith, how I believe, without colour or therefore my hand shall be punished; for if I dissimulation; for now is no time to dissemble, may come to the fire it shall be first burned. whatsoever I have written in times past. And as for the Pope, I refuse him as Christ's enemy and Anti-christ with all his false First, I believe in God the Father Almighty, doctrine. Maker of heaven and earth, and every article of the catholic faith, every word and sentence taught by our Saviour Christ, His Apostles and As the fire was put to him, Cranmer stretched Prophets, in the Old and New Testaments. out his right hand and thrust it into the flame crying with a loud voice, "This hand hath And now I come to the great thing that offended." troubleth my conscience, more than any other

116 Ignatius Loyola • Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), an order marked by great discipline, a commitment to purify the Catholic Church, and uncompromising loyalty to the Pope.

SOURCE (both): Ignatius Loyola, The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, translated by Louis J. Puhl (Chicago, IL: Loyola University Press, 1951).

The Spiritual Exercises The Spiritual Exercises were written by St. Ignatius to guide participants in spiritual retreats with the goal of purification of heart and will and the focus of their lives on God alone. A classic of Christian spirituality, The Spiritual Exercises are still used today, and even Protestants go on "Ignatian retreats." What follows are excerpts, designed to give you a taste of the "exercises."

CONTENTS of Spiritual Exercises Presupposition include... To assure better cooperation between the one • Presuppostition/Preface who is giving the Exercises and the one who • The First Week's Exercise is receiving them, and more beneficial results Examination of the Conscience, Confession of Sins, for both, it is necessary to suppose that every Meditation on Hell. good Christian is more ready to put a good • The Second Week's Exercise interpretation on another's statements than to Focus on the birth and life of Christ condemn it as false. If an orthodox Directions to making a choice of a Way of Life construction cannot be put on a proposition, Directions for the Reformation of Life The Third Week's Exercise the one who made it should be asked how he Focus on the "passion week," Christ's death and understands it. If he is in error, he should be resurrection corrected with all kindness. If this does not ' Rules suffice, all appropriate means should be used • Rules for Perceiving Movements Caused in the Soul to bring him to a correct interpretation, and • Rules for Distributing Alms • Notes on Scruples and Persuasions of the Enemy so defend the proposition from error. • Rules to have the True Sentiment in the Church

The First Week's PRINCIPLE AND FOUNDATION

• Man is created to praise, reverence, and • For this it is necessary to make ourselves serve God our Lord, and by this means to indifferent to all created things in all that is save his soul. allowed to the choice of our free will and is • And the other things on the face of the not prohibited to it; so that, on our part, we earth are created for man and that they may want not health rather than sickness, riches help him in prosecuting the end for which rather than poverty, honor rather than he is created. dishonor, long rather than short life, and so in • From this it follows that man is to use all the rest; desiring and choosing only what is them as much as they help him on to his most conducive for us to the end for which we end, and ought to rid himself of them so far are created. as they hinder him as to it.

117 Colloquy [Prayer] Imagining Christ our • Likewise, looking at myself, what I have Lord present and placed on the Cross, let done for Christ, what I am doing for Christ, me make a Colloquy, how from Creator He what I ought to do for Christ. is come to making Himself man, and from • And so, seeing Him such, and so nailed on life eternal is come to temporal death, and the Cross, to go over that which will present so to die for my sins. itself.

• •

"Rules for Thinking with the Church" At the conclusion of the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius included the following rules for Jesuits. He wrote that the "following rules should be observed to foster the true attitude of mind we ought to have in the church militant."

1. We must put aside all judgment of our own, and keep the mind ever ready and 6. We should show our esteem for the relics prompt to obey in all things the true Spouse of the saints by venerating them and praying of Christ our Lord, our holy Mother, the to the saints. We should praise visits to the hierarchical Church. Station Churches, pilgrimages, indulgences, jubilees, crusade intuits, and the lighting of 2. We should praise sacramental confession, candles in churches. the yearly reception of the Most Blessed Sacrament, and praise more highly monthly 7. We must praise the regulations of the reception, and still more weekly Church with regard to fast and abstinence, Communion, provided requisite and proper for example, in Lent, on Ember Days, Vigils, dispositions are present. Fridays, and Saturdays. We should praise works of penance, not only those that are 3. We ought to praise the frequent hearing of interior but also those that are exterior. Mass, the singing of hymns, psalmody, and 8. We ought to praise not only the building long prayers whether in the church or and adornment of churches, but also images outside; likewise, the hours arranged at fixed and veneration of them according to the times for the whole Divine Office, for every subject they represent. kind of prayer, and for the canonical hours. 9. Finally, we must praise all the 4. We must praise highly religious life, commandments of the Church, and be on the virginity, and contingency; and matrimony alert to find reasons to defend them, and by ought not be praised as much as any of these. no means in order to criticize them.

5. We should praise vows of religion, 10. We should be more ready to approve and obedience, poverty, chastity, and vows to praise the orders, recommendations, and way perform other works of supererogation of acting of our superiors than to find fault conducive to perfection. However, it must be with them. Though some of the orders, etc., remembered that a vow deals with matters may not have been praiseworthy, yet to speak that lead us closer to evangelical perfection. against them, either when preaching in public Hence, whatever tends to withdraw one from or in speaking before the people, would perfection may not be made the object of a rather be the cause of murmuring and scandal vow, for example, a business career, the than of profit. As a consequence, the people married state, and so forth. would become angry with their superiors,

118 whether secular or spiritual. But while it does salvation of souls. For it is by the same Spirit harm in the absence of our superiors to speak and Lord who gave the Ten Commandments evil of them before the people, it may be that our holy Mother Church is ruled and profitable to discuss their bad conduct with governed. those who can apply a remedy. 14. Granted that it be very true that no one 11. We should praise both positive theology can be saved without being predestined and and that of the Scholastics. It is characteristic without having faith and grace, still we must of the positive doctors, such as St. Augustine, be very cautious about the way in which we St. Jerome, St. Gregory, and others, to rouse speak of all these things and discuss them the affections so that we are moved to love with others. and serve God our Lord in all things. On the other hand, it is more characteristic of the 15. We should not make it a habit of scholastic doctors, such as St. Thomas, St. speaking much of predestination. If somehow Bonaventure, the Master of the Sentences, at times it comes to be spoken of, it must be and others, to define and state clearly, done in such a way that the people are not led according to the needs of our times, the into any error. They are at times misled, so doctrines that are necessary for eternal that they say: " Whether I shall be saved or salvation, and that more efficaciously help to lost, has already been determined, and this refute all errors and expose all fallacies. cannot be changed whether my actions are Further, just because scholastic good or bad." So they become indolent and doctors belong to more recent times, they not neglect the works that are conducive to the only have the advantage of correct salvation and spiritual progress of their souls. understanding of Holy Scripture and of the teaching of the saints and positive doctors, 16. In the same way, much caution is but, enlightened by the grace of God, they necessary, lest by much talk about faith, and also make use of the decisions of the much insistence on it without any Councils and of the definitions and decrees distinctions or explanations, occasion be of our holy Mother Church. given to the people, whether before or after they have faith informed by charity, to 12. We must be on our guard against making become slothful and lazy in good works. comparisons between those who are still living and the saints who have gone before 17. Likewise we ought not to speak of grace us, for no small error is committed if we say: at such length and with such emphasis that "This man is wiser than St. Augustine," " He the poison of doing away with human is another St. Francis or even greater," "He is freedom is engendered. equal to St. Paul in goodness and sanctity," Hence, as far as is possible with the and so on. help of God, one may speak of faith and grace that the Divine Majesty may be 13. If we wish to proceed securely in all praised. But let it not be done in such a way things, we must hold fast to the following above all not in times which are as dangerous principle: What seems to me white, I will as ours, that works and free will suffer harm, believe black if the hierarchical Church so or that they are considered of no value. defines. For I must be convinced that in Christ our Lord, the bridegroom, and in His 18. Though the zealous service of God our spouse the Church, only one Spirit holds Lord out of pure love should be esteemed sway, which governs and rules for the above all, we ought also to praise highly the

119 fear of the Divine Majesty For not only filial one may easily advance to filial fear, which fear but also servile fear is pious and very is wholly pleasing and agreeable to God our holy. When nothing higher or more useful is Lord since it is inseparably associated with attained, it is very helpful for rising from the love of Him. mortal sin, and once this is accomplished,

120 Galileo Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was one of the great scientists of the seventeenth century. He contributed a great deal to the formulation of the law of inertia, and used the newly invented telescope to observe the skies.

"Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" Galileo was attacked by a number of churchmen who felt that his observations conflicted with the Biblical account of the structure of the universe. This 1615 letter is his response (addressed to his patron). Pay particular attention to Galileo's understanding of God's Word, both in Creation and in the Bible.

SOURCE: Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo, edited by Stillman Drake. Copyright 1957 by Stillman Drake. Reprinted by permission of Doubleday, a division of Bantam, Doubleday, Dell Publishing Group, Inc. Revised by Neil Lettinga, 1990

Some years ago, Your Serene Well, the passage of time has Highness, I discovered in the heavens many revealed to everyone the truths that I had set things that had not been seen before. These forth. These men know that I believe the sun discoveries and their consequences, which is motionless in the center of the orbits of the contradicted the beliefs of academic heavenly bodies while the earth rotates on its philosophers, stirred up many against me — axis and revolves about the sun. They know as if I had placed these things in the sky with also that I support this position not only by my own hands in order to upset nature and refuting the arguments of Ptolemy and overturn the sciences. They seemed to forget Aristotle, but by showing many counter- that the increase of known truths helps effects which cannot be explained in any science, it does not diminish or destroy other way. Possibly because they are science. worried because other non-traditional Showing a greater fondness for their propositions of mine have now been accepted own opinions than for truth, they tried to and therefore mistrusting their philosophical deny and disprove the new things which, if defense, these men have turned to pretended they had cared to look for themselves, their religion and the authority of the Bible to own senses would have shown them. To this fabricate a shield for their errors. They then end they hurled charges and published use these, with little judgment, to attack numerous writings filled with vain arguments that they do not understand and arguments, and they made the grave mistake have not even listened to. of sprinkling these with passages taken from The holy Bible can never speak places in the Bible which they had failed to untruth—whenever its true meaning is understand properly, and which were ill understood. But it is often very difficult to suited to their purposes. understand, and may say things which are These men might not have fallen into quite different from what its bare words such error if they had paid attention to St. signify. Hence in expounding the Bible if Augustine. Speaking of a certain physical one were always to confine oneself to the conclusion about the heavenly bodies, he literal meaning, one might fall into error. wrote: "Maintaining our respect for The Bible would then contradict itself, make moderation in piety, we ought not to believe false statements and support heresies and dubious things too quickly, in case we folly. It would be necessary to believe that become prejudiced against something that is God has feet, hands, and eyes, as well as later found out not to contradict the sacred human emotions such as anger, repentance, books of the Old or the New Testament." hatred; that He forgets things past and does not know things to come. The Holy Ghost

121 set down these statements, through the sacred the Bible is not chained to conditions as strict writers, so that the common people, who are as those which govern all physical effects; rude and unlearned could understand them. nor is God revealed any less by Nature's Wise expositors should explain the true actions than by the statements of the Bible. meaning of such passages, and why they Perhaps this is what Tertullian meant by were set down in these words. these words: "We conclude that God is I think that I may reasonably known first through Nature, and then again, conclude that whenever the Bible speaks of more particularly, by doctrine; by Nature in physical things (especially those which are His works, and by doctrine in His revealed hard to understand), it avoids confusing the word." If I may speak my opinion freely, I common people, since that could make them should say further that it would fit in better reject the higher mysteries. Now the Bible, with the majesty of the sacred writings to to help ordinary people understand it, has not prevent every shallow and vulgar writer from hesitated to attribute to God himself some giving his ideas (often based upon foolish qualities extremely remote from (and even fancies) an air of authority by using Bible contrary to) His essence. Who, then, would passages, interpreted (or rather distorted) in claim that this principle has been set aside, ways far from the right meaning of Scripture. and the Bible has confined itself rigorously Many examples of such abuses might be to the literal meaning of its words, when produced, but for the present I shall confine casually mentioning earth, water, the sun, or myself to two: The first concerns those any other created thing? Especially since writings which were published against the these things do not concern the primary existence of the moons of Saturn recently purpose of the sacred writings, which is the discovered by me, which cited many service of God and the salvation of souls- passages of holy Scripture. Now that matters infinitely beyond the understanding everyone has seen these planets, I should like of the common people. to know how these men have changed their This being granted, I think that in interpretations to excuse their foolishness. discussions of physical problems we ought to My other example is that of a man who has begin not from the authority of scriptural lately published, in defiance of astronomers passages, but from sense-experiences and and philosophers, the opinion that the moon experiments; for the holy Bible and the laws does not receive its light from the sun but of nature are both derived from God's Word: shines all by itself. He supports this fancy the Bible as inspired by the Holy Ghost and (or rather thinks he does) by various texts of nature as obedient to God's commands. The Scripture which he believes cannot be Bible, in order to be understood by everyone, explained unless his theory is true; yet that must speak many things which appear to the moon is inherently dark is surely as plain differ from the absolute truth so far as the as daylight. literal meaning of the words is concerned. It is obvious that such authors, not Nature, on the other hand, never disobeys the having understood the true senses of the laws imposed upon her, or cares a whit Scripture, would force others to accept whether anyone understands her reasons and conclusions that are against reason and sense, methods of operation. Therefore nothing if they had any authority to do so. God physical which our senses show us, or which forbid that this sort of abuse should gain science proves, ought to be questioned acceptance, for then in a short time it would (much less condemned) upon the testimony be necessary to stop doing science. Those of biblical passages which may have some who are able to understand both the Bible different meaning beneath their words. For and the sciences perfectly are far

122 outnumbered by those who cannot. The and not to supernatural things which are latter, glancing superficially through the matters of faith. Bible, take on themselves the authority to I beg the leaders of the Church to decide upon every question of physics consider with great care the difference because of some word which they have between doctrines subject to proof and those misunderstood, and which was used by the subject to opinion. It is not in scientists' sacred authors for some different purpose. power to change their opinions at will. There Let us therefore give thanks to Almighty is a great difference between commanding a God, who in His goodness protects us from mathematician or a philosopher and this danger by keeping such persons from influencing a lawyer or a merchant, for authority, resting the power to decide on such demonstrated conclusions about things in important matters in the tradition of the nature or in the heavens cannot be changed Church under the guidance of the Holy as easily as opinions about what is or is not Ghost. lawful in a contract, bargain, or bill of Let us grant that theology is the exchange. This may be found in the words highest of the sciences. But if theology does of St. Augustine: "It is to be held as an not concern itself with the subject-matter of unquestionable truth that whatever the wise the subordinate sciences because they do not men of this world have demonstrated deal with blessedness, then theologians concerning physical matters is in no way should not take upon themselves the contrary to our Bibles; hence whatever the authority to decide controversies over issues wise men teach in their books that is contrary which they have not studied. Why, this to the holy Scriptures may be concluded would be as if an absolute king, being neither without any hesitation to be quite false. And a doctor nor an architect but knowing himself according to our ability let us make this free to command, should undertake to evident, and let us keep the faith of our Lord, administer medicines and design buildings as in whom are hidden all the treasures of he sees fit—at grave peril of his patients' wisdom, so that we neither become seduced lives, and the speedy collapse of his towers. by the verbiage of false philosophy nor Again, for the Church to command frightened by the superstition of counterfeit astronomers to refute their own observations religion." and proofs is to enjoin something that lies From the above words I deduce this beyond any possibility of accomplishment. doctrine: That in the books of the wise men For this would amount to commanding them of this world there are contained some not to see what they see and not to physical truths which are soundly proven, understand what they know, and in searching and others that are merely stated. Christian to find the opposite of what they actually thinkers must show that proven truths do not encounter. Before this could be done they contradict the holy Scriptures. As for ideas would have to be taught how to make their which are stated but not rigorously proven, will and imagination command their intellect. anything they say contrary to the Bible must I am referring only to physical propositions, be held undoubtedly false and should be proved so by every possible means.

123 Blaise Pascal Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) was an influential seventeenth century scientist and perhaps an even more influential Christian. Strongly influenced by Jansenism (a Catholic movement that had an Augustinian view of grace and salvation), Pascal is one of the finest examples of a Pietist writer, stressing a personal relationship with Jesus, the emotional and experiential content of faith, and the transformed life that comes from choosing Christ. Most churches in his day taught Christianity as theological orthodoxy with a primarily rational content.

Pensees Though his Christianity is dominated by the emotional and experiential, Pascal does not deny the place of reason, and this selection from his Pensees (French for "thoughts") shows him to be a strong intellectual and a scientist, as well as a strong Christian. For Pascal, the two are different, yet complementary.

Pascal died before he could complete the Pensees: they were published several years after his death.

SOURC: Translated by Peter Karman, Bethel College, Class of 1994; selections marked with an asterisk (*) translated by A.J. Krailsheimer (New York: Penguin Books, 1966).

245 There are three ways of believing: surpass it. The reason is weak if it does not reason, tradition, and inspiration. The go so far as to realize that. Christian religion, which alone has And if it is true that natural things surpass inspiration, does not claim as its true children the reason, then what of supernatural things? those who believe without inspiration; it is not that Christianity excludes reason and 268 Submission: We must learn when it is tradition—on the contrary, it is necessary to right to doubt, when it is right to affirm, and open her spirit to the evidence, which is when it is right to submit. Whoever does not confirmed through tradition—but want to learn this difference has misjudged Christianity subjugates them to inspiration, the significance of reason. Those sort of which alone can have its true and beneficial people who ignore these three principles effect: unless the cross of Christ is made either: affirm everything can be proven void. (showing that they misunderstand proof), or doubt everything (showing that they do not 253 There are two excesses: to exclude know when to submit), or submit to reason, or to admit nothing but reason. everything (showing that they do not know when it is right to show discernment). 257 There are three kinds of people: those Skeptic, mathematician, Christian; doubt, who serve God because they have found him; affirmation, submission. those who are searching for him but have not found him; and those who live without *273 If we submit everything to reason our searching or finding. The first kind are religion will be left with nothing mysterious happy and reasonable; the third kind are or supernatural. unhappy and foolish; and the middle sort are If we offend the principles of reason our unhappy, but reasonable. religion will be absurd and ridiculous.

265 Faith proclaims what the senses do not, 275 People often mistake their imaginations but it is not against what they see. Faith is for their hearts; and they believe they are over the senses, not against them. converted as soon as they imagine themselves to be converted. 267 The last step of the reason is knowing that there are an infinity of things which

124 277 The heart has its reasons, which the The powerlessness of reason must there reason does not know what to make of; we fore humiliate it, since it would like to judge can see this in a thousand ways. I say that everything. But the same powerlessness the heart loves naturally the universal Being, should not undermine our certainty, as if the or itself, depending on which one it commits reason had nothing to teach us. On the to; then the heart hardens against the other, contrary, if only God had created us to know depending on his choice. You reject one and everything through instinct and feeling! But save the other: is it through the reason that nature refuses us that blessing; she gives us you love yourself? instead the little knowledge of that kind that we cannot acquire through reason. 278 It is the heart which feels God, and not And that is why those people whom God the reason. That is the essence of faith: God has given faith through the feeling of the felt through the heart, not the reason. heart are happy and legitimately persuaded. But for those people who do not have it, we 280 What a long way it is from knowing God can only give it to them through reason, until to loving him! God gives it through the feeling of the heart, without which faith is nothing but a human 282 We know the truth, not only through the construction and useless for salvation. reason but also through the heart; it is through the latter way that we know first 397 The greatness of a person consists in the principles, with which the reason (which fact that he knows his own misery. A tree knows nothing of them) struggles in vain. does not know it is miserable. Skeptics, who struggle this way, are It is therefore miserable to know we are hopelessly tormented. We know that we are miserable, but this knowledge is a sign of our not dreaming at all, even if we are powerless greatness as well. to prove it rationally, but our powerlessness proves only that reason is weak—not that our 427 A person doesn't know where to go. He knowledge is uncertain, as the skeptics is obviously lost, and unable to regain his would like to claim it is. For our knowledge true place. He searches everywhere, restless of first principles (like space and time and and without success, in the impenetrable movement, fore example) is as firm as any of gloom. the knowledge we gain through reason. It is on this foundational knowledge of the heart 586 If obscurity didn't exist, a person would and the instinct that the reason builds all its not know the significance of corruption; if knowledge and discussion. (The heart feels not for a single point of light, a person could that there are three dimensions in space, and not hope for healing. Thus it is not only fair, that there are infinite quantity of numbers; but also useful for us that God agreed to be and then reason shows that there are no two partly seen and partly hidden, since it would squared numbers, one of which is double the be equally dangerous for a person to know other. Principles are felt, propositions are God without knowing his own misery as it proven; and both are done with certain, would be to know his misery without although in different ways.) It is as useless knowing God. and futile for the reason to demand evidence from the heart of the heart's first principles, *527 Knowing God without knowing our as it would be for the heart to refuse to accept own wretchedness makes for pride. the proven propositions of the reason unless Knowing our own wretchedness without the reason could give its evidence. knowing God makes for despair.

125 Knowing Jesus Christ strikes the balance dangerous for a person to know God without because he shows us both God and our own knowing the Redeemer who brings healing. wretchedness Without both of these truths, a person would either fall into the arrogance of the *543 Preface. The metaphysical proofs for philosophers, who know about God without the existence of God are so remote from knowing their misery, or into the despair of human reasoning and so involved that they the atheists, who know their misery without make little impact, and, even if they did help knowing the Redeemer. some people, it would only be for the The God of Christians is not a God who moment during which they watched the is simply the author of mathematical truths demonstration, because an hour later they and the table of elements; that is the would be afraid they had made a mistake. argument of the pagans and the Epicureans. What they gained by curiosity they lost The Christian God is not a God who only through pride. practices his providence over people's lives That is the result of knowing God for their good, who gives a happy life to without Christ, in other words those who love him; that is the argument of communicating without a mediator with a the Jews. But the God of Abraham, the God God known without a mediator. of Isaac, of Jacob and of the Christians, is a Whereas those who have known God God of love and consolation, a God who fills through a mediator know their own the heart and soul of those whom he wretchedness. possesses; he is a God who makes people feel inwardly their own misery and his own *549 It is not only impossible but useless to infinite mercy; who unites himself to the know God without Christ. They are drawn bottom of a person's soul; who fills him with closer to him, not further away. They are not humility and joy and confidence and love; humbled but... The better one is the worse who makes it impossible for him to find any one becomes if one ascribes this excellence other end except in God. to oneself. Everyone who seeks God outside of Jesus Christ, or who seeks only within nature, 544 The Christian's God is a God who makes either will never find any light to satisfy him, the soul aware that he is its sole good: that in or will try to know and serve a God without a him alone can it find peace; that only in Mediator. There he will fall, either into loving him can it find joy: and who at the atheism or into deism, which are the two same time fills it with loathing for the choices Christianity hates equally as much.... obstacles which hold it back and prevent it All things are marked neither by a total from loving God with all its might. Self-love absence, nor by a present manifestation of and concupiscence, which hold it back, are divinity, but instead by the presence of a intolerable. This God makes the soul aware hidden God. Everything bears that mark.... of this underlying self-love which is It isn't that people must not see anything destroying it, and which he alone can cure. at all; it isn't that they should see enough to think they possess the truth; but instead they 556 Christianity teaches people two should see just enough to know corruption. inseparable truths: there is a God of whom Because knowing he is corrupt, a person people are capable, and there is also a must see and not see. For that is precisely corruption within nature, which leaves them the condition of nature.... incapable. It is equally important for people to know both of these truths; and it is equally

126 Baron d'Holbach Paul-Henri Thiry, baron d'Holbach (1723-1789) was a famous French Enlightenment philosopher. Like many of his peers, he was staunchly opposed to religion (one of his most famous works was entitled Christianity Unveiled) and confident in scientific progress. Good Sense This 1753 work was banned by the parlement of Paris and publicly burned, but then published in England in 1772. Holbach's view on religion and science is reflected in the following quotation: "If the ignorance of nature gave birth to gods, the knowledge of nature is calculated to destroy them."

SOURCE: http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/347hol.html

The Author's Preface foundation; that religion is a mere castle in WHEN we coolly examine the opinions the air. Theology is but the ignorance of of men, we are surprised to find, that even in natural causes reduced to a system; a long those opinions, which they regard as the tissue of fallacies and contradictions. In every most essential, nothing is more uncommon country, it presents us with romances void of than common sense; or, in other words, probability, the hero of which is himself nothing is more uncommon, than a degree of composed of qualities impossible to combine. judgment sufficient to discover the most His name, exciting in all hearts respect and simple truths, or reject the most striking fear, is only a vague word, which men have absurdities, and to be shocked with palpable continually in their mouths, without being contradictions. We have an example of it in able to affix to it ideas or qualities, which are Theology; a science revered in all times and not contradicted by facts, or evidently countries, by the greatest number of men; an inconsistent with one another. object regarded by them the most important, Our notions of this being (of whom we the most useful, and the most indispensable have no idea), or rather the word by which he to the happiness of society. An examination, is designated, would be a matter of however slight, of the principles upon which indifference, if it did not cause innumerable this pretended science is founded, forces us ravages in the world. Pre-possessed with the to acknowledge, that these principles, opinion that this phantom is a reality of the formerly judged incontestable, are only greatest interest to them, men, instead of hazardous suppositions, imagined by concluding wisely from its ignorance, propagated by enthusiasm or incomprehensibility, that they are not bound knavery, adopted by timid credulity, to regard it, infer on the contrary, that they preserved by custom which never reasons, cannot sufficiently meditate upon it, that they and revered solely because not understood. must contemplate it, and reason upon it, "Some," says Montaigne, "make the world without ceasing, and never lose sight of it. think, that they believe what they do not; Their invincible ignorance, upon this subject, others, in greater number, make themselves far from discouraging them, irritates their think, that they believe what they do not, not curiosity; instead of putting them upon guard knowing what belief is." (Essays, B. 2, ch against their imagination, this ignorance 12.) In a word, whoever will deign to renders them decisive, dogmatical, imperious, consult common sense upon religious and even exasperates them against all who opinions, and will bestow on this inquiry the oppose doubts to the reveries which their attention that is commonly given to any brains have begotten. objects we presume interesting will easily What perplexity arises, when it is required perceive that those opinions have no to solve an insolvable problem! Unceasing

127 meditation upon an object, impossible to all possible injury, and inflict on themselves, understand, but in which however he thinks for his honor, the most exquisite torments. himself much concerned, cannot but excite The gloomy ideas more usually formed of the man to be ill-humored, and produce a fever Deity, far from consoling them under the evils in his brain. Let interest, vanity and of life, have everywhere disquieted their ambition, co-operate ever so little with this minds, and produced follies destructive to unfortunate turn of mind, and society must their happiness. necessarily be disturbed. This is the reason How could the human mind make any that so many nations have often been the considerable progress, while tormented with scene of the extravagances of senseless frightful phantoms, and guided by men, visionaries, who, believing their empty interested in perpetuating its ignorance and speculations to be eternal truths, and fears? Man has been forced to vegetate in his publishing them as such, have kindled the primitive stupidity; he has been taught zeal of princes and their subjects, and made nothing but stories about invisible powers them take up arms for opinions, represented upon whom his happiness was supposed to to diem as essential to the glory of the Deity, depend. Occupied solely by his fears, and by and to the happiness of empires. In all parts unintelligible reveries, he has always been at of our globe, fanatics have cut other's the mercy of his priests, who have reserved to throats, publicly burnt each other, themselves the right of thinking for him, and committed without a scruple and even as a directing his actions. Thus man has remained duty, the greatest crimes, and shed torrents a child without experience, a slave without of blood. For what to strengthen, support, or courage, fearing to reason, and unable to propagate the impertinent conjectures of extricate himself from the labyrinth, in which some enthusiasts, or to give validity to the ho has so long been wandering. He believes cheats of some impostors, in the name and himself forced to bend under the yoke of his behalf of a being, who exists only in their gods, known to him only by tine fabulous imagination, and who has made himself accounts given by his ministers, who, after known only by the ravages, disputes and binding each unhappy mortal in the chains of follies he has caused upon the earth. prejudice, remain his masters, or else abandon Savage and furious nations, perpetually him defenceless to the absolute power of at war, adore, under divers names, some tyrants, 110 less terrible than the gods, of God, conformable to their ideas, that is to whom they are the representatives upon earth. say, cruel, carnivorous, selfish, blood Oppressed by the double yoke of spiritual thirsty. We find, in all the religious of the and temporal power, it has been impossible earth, "a God of armies," a "jealous God," an for the people to know and pursue their "avenging God," a "destroying God," a happiness. As Religion, so Politics and "God" who is pleased with carnage, and Morality became sacred things, which the whom his worshippers consider it as a duty profane were not permitted to handle. Men to serve to his taste. Lambs, bulls, children, have had no other Morality than what their men, heretics, infidels, king; whole nations legislators and priests brought down from the are sacrificed to him. Do not the zealous unknown regions of heaven. The human servants of this barbarous God think mind, confused by its theological opinions, themselves obliged even to offer up ceased to know its own powers, mistrusted themselves as a sacrifice to him ? Madmen experience, feared truth and disdained reason, may every-where be seen, who, after in order to follow authority. Man has been a meditating upon their terrible God, imagine mere machine in the hands of tyrants and that to please him they must do themselves priests, who alone have had the right of

128 directing his, actions. Always treated as a ceremonies, are too fatiguing to be any longer slave, he has contracted the vices of a slave. endured. Let the human mind apply itself to Such are the true causes of the what is natural, to intelligible objects, sensible corruption of morals, to which Religion truths, and useful knowledge. Let vain opposes only ideal and ineffectual barriers. chimeras be banished, and reasonable Ignorance servitude are calculated to make opinions will of their own accord enter into men wicked and unhappy. Knowledge, heads, thought to be destined to perpetual Reason, and Liberty, can alone reform them, error. Does it not suffice to annihilate or and make them happier. But everything shake religious prejudice, to show, that what conspires to blind them, and to confirm them is inconceivable to man, cannot be made for in their errors. Priests cheat them, tyrants him? Does it require anything, but plain corrupt, the better to enslave them. Tyranny common sense, to perceive, that a being ever was, and ever will be, the true cause of incompatible with the most evident notions— man's depravity, and also of his habitual -that a cause continually opposed to the calamities. Almost always fascinated by effects which we attribute to it-that a being, of religious fiction, poor mortals turn not their whom we can say nothing, without falling eyes to the natural and obvious causes of into contradiction-that a being, who, far from their misery; but attribute their vices to the explaining the enigmas of the universe, only imperfection of their natures, and their makes them more inexplicable—that a being unhappiness to the anger of the gods. They whom for so many ages men have so vainly offer up to heaven vows, sacrifices, and addressed to obtain their happiness, and the presents, to obtain the end of their end of their sufferings—does it require, I say, sufferings, which in reality, are attributable anything but plain, common sense, to only to the negligence, ignorance, and perceive—that the idea of such a being is an perversity of their guides, to the folly of idea without model , and that he himself is their customs, to the unreasonableness of merely a phantom of the imagination? Is any their laws, and above all, to the general want thing necessary but common sense to of knowledge. Let men's minds be filled perceive, at least, that it is folly and madness with true ideas; let their reason be for men to hate and torment one another about cultivated; let justice govern them; and there unintelligible opinions concerning a being of will be no need of opposing to the passions, this kind? In short, does not every thing such a feeble barrier, as the fear of the gods. prove, that Morality and Virtue are totally Men will be good, when they are well incompatible with the notions of a God, instructed, well governed, and when they are whom his ministers and interpreters have punished or despised for the evil, and justly described, in every country, as the most rewarded for the good, which they do to capricious, unjust, and cruel of tyrants, whose their fellow citizens. pretended will, however, must serve as law In vain should we attempt to cure men of and rule to the inhabitants of the earth? their vices, unless we begin by curing them To discover the true principles of of their prejudices. It is only by showing morality, men have no need of theology, of them the truth) that they will perceive their revelation, or of gods. They have need only of true interests, and the real motives that ought common sense. They have only to commune to incline them to do good. Instructors have with themselves, to reflect upon their own long enough fixed men's eyes upon heaven; nature, to consult their visible interests, to let them now turn them upon earth. An consider the objects of society, and of the incomprehensible theology, ridiculous individuals who compose it; and they will fables, impenetrable mysteries, puerile easily perceive, that virtue is advantageous,

129 and vice disadvantageous to such beings as By what fatality then, have the first themselves. Let us persuade men to be just, founders of all sects given to their gods beneficent, moderate, sociable; not because ferocious characters, at which nature revolts? such conduct is demanded by the gods, but, Can we imagine a conduct more abominable, because it is pleasure to men. Let us advise than that which Moses tells us his God them to abstain from vice and crime; not showed towards the Egyptians, where that because they will be punished in the other assassin proceeds boldly to declare, in the world, but because they will suffer for it in name and by the order of his God, that Egypt this. There are, says a great man, means to shall be afflicted with the greatest calamities prevent crimes, and these means are that can happen to man? Of all the different punishments; there are means to reform ideas, which they wish to give us of a manners, and these means are good supreme being, of a God, creator and examples. Truth is simple; error is complex, preserver of mankind, there are none more uncertain, and circuitous. The voice of horrible, than those of the impostor, who nature is intelligible; that of falsehood is represented themselves as inspired by a divine ambiguous, enigmatical, mysterious. The spirit. way of truth is straight; that of imposture is Why, O theologians! do you presume to crooked and dark. Truth, forever necessary inquire into the impenetrable mysteries of a to man, must necessarily be felt by all great being, whom you consider upright minds; the lessons of reason are inconceivable to the human mind ? You are formed to be followed by all honest men. the first blasphemers, when you imagine that Men are unhappy, only because they are a being, perfect according to you, could guilty ignorant; they are ignorant, only because of such cruelty towards creatures whom he everything conspires to prevent their being has made of nothing. Confess, with us, your enlightened; they are wicked, only because ignorance of a creating God; and forbear, in their reason is not sufficiently developed. your turn, to meddle with mysteries, which seems unworthy of knowing.

130 Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin, born in the British colony of Massachusetts in 1706, died an American citizen in 1790. He was a very complex man. He is famous as an inventor, scientist, statesman, philosopher, printer and economist. Franklin's "ideas and visions helped to lay the foundation for the United States of America as we know it today. He had a clear vision of the way America should be and he spent time helping to make sure that it would." (Franklin Website: franklin:!Isln.fi.edulfranklinl)

The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin One of the great memoirs in American history, Franklin's autobiography was originally published in Paris a year after his death. It only covers the first fifty years or so of his life, but he does address his religious beliefs, which epitomized Enlightenment Deism. The following excerpt also includes his "Virtues Experiment," which reflects his desire to attain "moralperfection" by self-improvement.

SOURCE: Benjamin Franklin, Autobiography, http; //www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography, pp. 37-41.

ON PUBLIC WORSHIP my mite for such purpose, whatever might be I had been religiously educated as a the sect, was never refused. Presbyterian; and tho' some of the dogmas of Tho' I seldom attended any public the persuasion, such as the eternal decrees of worship, I had still an opinion of its propriety God, election, reprobation, etc., appeared to and of its utility when rightly conducted, and me unintelligible, others doubtful, and I early I regularly paid my annual subscription for absented myself from the public assemblies the support of the only Presbyterian minister of the sect, Sunday being my studying-day, I or meeting we had in Philadelphia. He used never was without some religious principles. to visit me sometimes as a friend and I never doubted, for instance, the existence of admonish me not to avoid his the Deity, that he made the world and administrations, and I was now and then governed it by his providence, that the most prevailed on to do so, once for five Sundays acceptable service of God was the doing successively. Had he been, in my opinion, a good to man, that our souls are immortal, and good preacher, perhaps I might have that all crime will be punished and virtue continued, notwithstanding the occasion I rewarded either here or hereafter. These I had for the Sunday's leisure in my course of esteemed the essentials of every religion, and study; but his discourses were chiefly either being to be found in all the religions we had polemic arguments or explications of the in our country, I respected them all, tho' with peculiar doctrines of our sect, and were all to different degrees of respect as I found them me very dry, uninteresting, and unedifying more or less mixed with other articles which since not a single moral principle was without any tendency to inspire, promote, or inculcated or enforced, their aim seeming to confirm morality, served principally to divide be rather to make us Presbyterians than good us and make us unfriendly to one another. citizens.... This respect to all, with an opinion that the worst had some good effects, induced me to THE VIRTUES EXPERIMENT avoid all discourse that might tend to lessen It was about this time I conceived the the good opinion that the worst might have bold and arduous project of arriving at moral of his own religion; and as our province perfection. I wished to live without increased in people and new places of committing any fault at any time; I would worship were continually wanted and conquer all that either natural inclination, generally erected by voluntary contribution, custom, or company might lead me into. As I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and

131 wrong, I did not see why I might not always Let all your things have their places. Let each do the one and avoid the other. But I soon part of your business have its time. found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty than I had imagined. While my 4. Resolution attention was taken up and care employed in Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform guarding against one fault, I was often without fail what you resolve. surprized by another. Habit took the advantage of inattention. Inclination was 5. Frugality sometimes too strong for reason. I concluded Make no expense but to do good to others or at length that the mere speculative conviction yourself; i.e., waste nothing. that it was our interest to be completely virtuous was not sufficient to prevent our 6. Industry slipping, and that the contrary habits must be Lose no time. Be always employed in broken and good ones acquired and something useful. Cut off all unnecessary established before we can have any actions. dependence on a steady, uniform rectitude of conduct. For this purpose I therefore 7. Sincerity contrived the following method. Use no hurtful deceit. Think innocently and In the various enumerations of the moral justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly. virtues I had met with in my reading, I found the catalogue more or less numerous, as 8. Justice different writers included more or fewer Wrong none by doing injuries or omitting the ideas under the same name. Temperance, for benefits that are your duty. example, was by some confined to eating and drinking, while by others it was extended to 9. Moderation mean the moderating every other pleasure, Avoid extremes. Forbear resenting injuries so appetite, inclination, or passion—bodily or much as you think they deserve. mental, even to our avarice and ambition. I proposed to myself, for the sake of clearness, 10. Cleanliness to use rather more names with fewer ideas Tolerate no uncleanness in body, clothes or annexed to each than few names with more habitation. ideas; and I included under thirteen names of virtues all that at that time occurred to me as necessary or desirable, and annexed to each a 11. Tranquility short precept which fully expressed the Be not disturbed at trifles or at accidents extent I gave to its meaning. common or unavoidable. These names of virtues with their precepts were 12. Chastity Rarely use venery but for health or offspring- 1. Temperance -never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of Eat not to dullness. Drink not to elevation. your own or another's peace or reputation.

2. Silence 13. Humility Speak not but what may benefit others or Imitate Jesus and Socrates. yourself., Avoid trifling conversation. My intention being to acquire the 3. Order habitude of all these virtues, I judged it

132 would be well not to distract my attention by every fault upon examination to have been attempting the whole at once but to fix it on committed respecting that virtue upon that one of them at a time, and when I should be day. master of that, then to proceed to another, I determined to give a week's strict and so on till I should have gone thro' the attention to each of the virtues successively. thirteen. And as the previous acquisition of Thus in the first week my great guard was to some might facilitate the acquisition of avoid even the least offense against certain others, I arranged them with that view temperance, leaving the other virtues to their as they stand above. Temperance first, as it ordinary chance, only marking every evening tends to procure that coolness and clearness the faults of the day. Thus if in the first week of head which is so necessary where constant I could keep my first line marked "T." clear vigilance was to be kept up, and guard of spots, I suppose the habit of that virtue so maintained, against the unremitting attraction much strengthened and its opposite of ancient habits, and the force of perpetual weakened that I might venture extending my temptations. This being acquired and attention to include the next, and for the established, Silence would be more easy, and following week keep both lines clear of my desire being to gain knowledge at the spots. Proceeding thus to the last, I could go same time that I improved in virtue, and thro' a course complete in thirteen weeks, considering that in conversation it was and four courses in a year. And like him obtained rather by the use of the ear than of who, having a garden to weed, does not the tongue, and therefore wishing to break a attempt to eradicate all the bad herbs at once, habit I was getting into of prattling, punning, which would exceed his reach and his and joking, which only made me acceptable strength, but works on one of the beds at a to trifling company, I gave Silence the time, and having accomplished the first, second place. This and the next, Order, I proceeds to a second; so I should have (I expected would allow me more time for hoped) the encouraging pleasure of seeing on attending to my project and my studies. my pages the progress I made in virtue by Resolution, once become habitual, would clearing successively my lines of their spots, keep me firm in my endeavors to obtain all till in the end by a number of courses, I the subsequent virtues; Frugality and should be happy in viewing a clean book Industry, freeing me from my remaining debt after a thirteen weeks' daily examination. and, producing affluence and independence, This my little book had for its motto would make more easy the practice of these lines from Addison's Cato; Sincerity and Justice, etc., etc. Conceiving then that agreeable to the advice of Here will I hold: if there is a power above us, Pythagoras in his golden verses, daily (And that there is, all Nature cries aloud examination would be necessary, I contrived Thro' all her works) he must delight in virtue, the following method for conducting that And that which he delights in must be happy. examination. Another from Cicero, I made a little book in which I allotted a page for each of the virtues. I ruled each page A vitae philosphia dux! O virtutum indagatrix, with red ink so as to have seven columns, expultrixque vitiorum! Unus dies bene et ex one for each day of the week, marking each preceptis tuis actus, peccanti immortalitati est column with thirteen red lines, marking the anteponendus* beginning of each line with the first letter of one of the virtues on which line in its proper *"Philosophy! The guide of our lives, the column I might mark by a little black spot explorer of all that is good in us, exterminator of all evil! [...] One day well spent in obeying your 133 Another from the proverbs of Solomon I was surprised to find myself so much fuller speaking of wisdom or virtue; of faults than I had imagined, but I had the satisfaction of seeing them diminish. To Length of days is in her right hand, and in her avoid the trouble of renewing now and then left hand riches and honours; her ways are my little book, which by scrapping out the ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are marks on the paper of old faults to make peace (Prov 3:16-17). room for new ones in a new course became full of holes. I transferred my tables and And conceiving God to be the fountain of precepts to the ivory leaves of a wisdom, I thought it right and necessary to memorandum book on which the lines were solicit his assistance for obtaining it; to this drawn with red ink that made a durable stain, end I formed the following little prayer, and on those lines I marked my faults with a which was prefixed to my tables of black lead pencil, which marks I could easily examination, for daily use. wipe out with a wet sponge. After a while I went thro' one course only in a year, and O powerful Goodness, bountiful Father, merciful Guide! Increase in me that wisdom afterwards only one in several years, till at which discovers my truest interests; strengthen length I omitted them entirely, being my resolutions to perform what that wisdom employed in voyages and business abroad dictates. Accept my kind offices to thy other with a multiplicity of affairs that interfered; children, as the only return in my power for thy but I always carried my little book with me. continual favours to me. My scheme of Order gave me the most trouble, and I found that tho' it might be I used also sometimes a little prayer which I practicable where a man's business was such took from Thomson's Poems; viz., as to leave him the disposition of his time, that of a journeyman printer for instance, it Father of light and life, thou Good supreme, was not impossible to be exactly observed by Oh, teach me what is good, teach me thy self! Save me from folly, vanity and vice, a master, who must mix with the world and From every low pursuit, and fill my soul often receive people of business at their own With knowledge, conscious peace, and virtue hours. Order, too, with regard to places for Father of light and life, thou Good supreme, things, papers, etc., I found extremely Oh, teach me what is good, teach me thy self! difficult to acquire. I had not been early Save me from folly, vanity and vice, accustomed to method, and having an From every low pursuit, and fill my soul exceeding good memory, I was not so With knowledge, conscious peace, and virtue pure, sensible of the inconvenience attending want Sacred, substantial, never-fading bliss! of method. This article therefore cost me so The precept of Order requiring that much, and I made so little progress in every part of my business should have its amendment and had such frequent relapses, allotted time, one page in my little book that I was almost ready to give up the attempt contained the following scheme of and content myself with a faulty character in employment for the twenty-four hours of a that respect. Like the man who in buying an natural day. ax of a smith my neighbour, desired to have I entered upon the execution of this the whole of its surface as bright got him is plan for self-examination and continued it he would turn the wheel. He turned while the with occasional intermissions for some time. smith pressed the broad face of the ax hard and heavily on the stone, which made that rules is better than an eternity of error." turning of it very fatiguing. The man came Discussions at Tusculum, V, 2 every now and then from the wheel to see

134 how the work went on; and at length would foppery in morals, which if it were known take his ax as it was, without further would make me ridiculous; that a perfect grinding. "No," says the smith, "turn on, turn character might be attended with the on; we shall have it bright by and by; as yet inconvenience of being envied and hated; 'tis only speckled." "Yes," says the man, and that a benevolent man should allow a "but I think I like a speckled ax best." And I few faults in himself, to keep his friends in believe this may have been the case with countenance. In truth, I found myself many who having, for want of some such incorrigible with respect to Order, and now I means as I employed, found the difficulty of am old and my memory bad, I feel very obtaining good and breaking bad habits in sensibly the want of it. But on the whole, other points of vice and virtue, have given up tho' I never arrived at the perfection I had the struggle and concluded that "a speckled been so ambitious of obtaining but fell far ax was best." For something that pretended short of it, yet I was by the endeavour a to be reason was every now and then better and a happier man than I otherwise suggesting to me that such extreme nicety as should have been if I had not attempted it... I exacted of myself might be a kind of

135 '

TEMPERANCE

Eat not to dullness Drink not to elevation

S M T w T F S

T S vv V V V O V V V V V V R V V F V V I V S J M CI T Ch H

136 Morning question, 5 Rise, wash, and address Powerful What good shall I 6 Goodness; contrive day's business and do this day? 7 take the resolution of the day: prosecute 8 the present study; and breakfast. 9 10 Work. 11 12 Read or overlook my accounts 1 and dine. 2 3 Work. 4 5 6 Put things in their places, supper, 7 or music, or diversions, or conversation; 8 examination of the day. Evening question, 9 What good have I 10 done today? 11 12 1 Sleep. 2 3 4

137 Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679) was an important philosopher who lived during the English Civil War. For more on that war and on Hobbes, see Spielvogel, pp. 292-94, 296.

Leviathan Hobbes' famous work, Leviathan (1651), addresses the political instability of his time and suggests that peace is to be found by submitting one's rights to an absolute sovereign ruler for protection and security.

SOURCE: Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, edited by Edward White, http://www.fullbooks.com/Leviathanl.html. Revised by Sara Shady, 2006.

CHAPTER XIII: OF THE NATURAL themselves: For they see their own wit at CONDITION OF MANKIND. AS hand, and other men's at a distance. But this CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND proves rather that men are in that point equal, MISERY than unequal. For there is not ordinarily a greater sign of the equal distribution of any Nature has made men so equal, in the thing, than that every man is contented with faculties of body, and mind; as that though his share. there be found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker From this equality of ability, arises equality mind then another; yet when all is reckoned of hope in the attaining of our Ends. And together, the difference between man, and therefore if any two men desire the same man, is not so considerable, as that one man thing, which nevertheless they cannot both can thereupon claim to himself any benefit, enjoy, they become enemies; and in the way to which another may not pretend, as well as to their End, (which is principally their own he. For as to the strength of body, the conservation, and sometimes their delectation weakest has strength enough to kill the only), endeavor to destroy, or subdue one strongest, either by secret machination, or by another. And from hence it comes to pass, confederacy with others, that are in the same that where an Invader hath no more to fear, danger with himself. than another man's single power; if one plant, sow, build, or possess a convenient And as to the faculties of the mind... Seat, others may probably be expected to I find yet a greater equality amongst men, come prepared with forces united, to than that of strength. For Prudence, is but dispossess, and deprive him, not only of the Experience; which equal time, equally fruit of his labor, but also of his life, or bestows on all men, in those things they liberty. And the Invader again is in the like equally apply themselves unto. That which danger of another. may perhaps make such equality incredible, is but a vain conceit of one's own wisdom, And from this diffidence of one another, which almost all men think they have in a there is no way for any man to secure greater degree, than the Vulgar; that is, than himself, so reasonable, as Anticipation; that all men but themselves, and a few others, is, by force, or wiles, to master the persons of whom by Fame, or for concurring with all men he can, so long, till he see no other themselves, they approve. For such is the power great enough to endanger him: And nature of men, that howsoever they may this is no more than his own conservation acknowledge many others to be more witty, requires, and is generally allowed. Also or more eloquent, or more learned; Yet they because there be some, that taking pleasure will hardly believe there be many so wise as in contemplating their own power in the acts

138 of conquest, which they pursue farther than consists not in Battle only, or the act of their security requires; if others, that fighting; but in a tract of time, wherein the otherwise would be glad to be at ease within Will to contend by Battle is sufficiently modest bounds, should not by invasion known ... So the nature of War, consists not increase their power, they would not be able, in actual fighting; but in the known long time, by standing only on their defense, disposition thereto, during all the time there to subsist. And by consequence, such is no assurance to the contrary. augmentation of dominion over men, being All other time is PEACE. necessary to a man's conservation, it ought to be allowed him. Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of War, where every man is Enemy to every Again, men have no pleasure, (but on the man; the same is consequent to the time, contrary a great deal of grief) in keeping wherein men live without other security, than company, where there is no power able to what their own strength, and their own over-awe them all. For every man looks that invention shall furnish them with all. In such his companion should value him, at the same condition, there is no place for Industry; rate he sets upon himself: And upon all signs because the fruit thereof is uncertain; and of contempt, or undervaluing, naturally consequently no Culture of the Earth; no endeavors, as far as he dares (which amongst Navigation, nor use of the commodities that them that have no common power, to keep may be imported by Sea; no commodious them in quiet, is far enough to make them Building; no Instruments of moving, and destroy each other,) to extort a greater value removing such things as require much force; from his contemners, by damage; and from no Knowledge of the face of the Earth; no others, by the example. account of Time; no Arts; no Letters; no Society; and which is worst of all, continual So that in the nature of man, we find three fear, and danger of violent death; And the principal causes of quarrel. First, life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and Competition; Secondly, Diffidence; Thirdly, short... Glory.

The first, makes men invade for Gain; the CHAPTER XIV: OF THE FIRST AND second, for Safety; and the third, for SECOND NATURALL LAWS, AND OF Reputation. The first use Violence, to make CONTRACTS themselves Masters of other men's persons, wives, children, and cattle; the second, to ...A LAW OF NATURE (LexNaturalis) is a defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word, Precept, or general Rule, found out by a smile, a different opinion, and any other Reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, sign of undervalue, either direct in their that, which is destructive of his life, or takes Persons, or by reflexion in their Kindred, away the means of preserving the same; and their Friends, their Nation, their Profession, to omit, that, by which he thinks it may be or their Name. best preserved...

Hereby it is manifest, that during the time And because the condition of Man, (as hath men live without a common Power to keep been declared in the precedent Chapter) is a them all in awe, they are in that condition condition of War of every one against every which is called War; and such a war, as is of one; in which case every one is governed by every man, against every man. For WAR, his own Reason; and there is nothing he can

139 make use of, that may not be a help unto him, is a voluntary act: and of the voluntary acts in preserving his life against his enemies; It of every man, the object is some Good To follows, that in such a condition, every man Himself... the motive, and end for which this has a Right to every thing; even to one renouncing, and transferring or Right is another's body. And therefore, as long as introduced, is nothing else but the security of this natural Right of every man to every thing a man's person, in his life, and in the means endures, there can be no security to any man, of so preserving life, as not to be weary of (how strong or wise he be,) of living out the it... time, which Nature ordinarily allows men to live. The mutual transferring of Right, is that which men call CONTRACT. And consequently it is a precept, or general rule of Reason, "That every man, ought to endeavor Peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of War." The first branch, of which Rule, contains the first, and Fundamental Law of Nature; which is, "To seek Peace, and follow it." The Second, the sum of the Right of Nature; which is, "By all means we can, to defend our selves."

From this Fundamental Law of Nature, by which men are commanded to endeavor Peace, is derived this second Law; "That a man be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth, as for Peace, and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself." For as long as every man holds this Right, of doing any thing he likes; so long are all men in the condition of War. But if other men will not lay down their Right, as well as he; then there is no Reason for any one, to devest himself of his: For that were to expose himself to Prey, (which no man is bound to) rather than to dispose himself to Peace. This is that Law of the Gospel; "Whatsoever you require that others should do to you, that do ye to them." Whenever a man Transfers his Right, or Renounces it; it is either in consideration of some Right reciprocally transferred to himself; or for some other good he hopes for thereby. For it

140 7

John Locke John Locke (1632-1704) is one of the dominant Enlightenment thinkers. An Englishman, he studied philosophy and medicine, as well as political theory and economics. Locke's Christianity was unconventional for his day, and he made an early argument for religious toleration. His Second Treatise Of Government (1690), from which this passage is taken, defended the Glorious Revolution, in which King James II was forced into exile and replaced by William and Mary, who had to agree to accept a "Bill of Rights." Thomas Jefferson and other leaders of the American Revolution were influenced by the ideas Locke discusses here. Perhaps due to repercussions from this work in his lifetime, Locke never admitted being the author.

The Second Treatise of Government

SOURCE: John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True, Original, Extent and End of Civil Government (London, 1690).

Chapter V. Of Property are produced by the spontaneous hand of Nature, and nobody has originally a private 25. Whether we consider natural reason, dominion exclusive of the rest of mankind in which tells us that men, being once born, any of them, as they are thus in their natural have a right to their preservation, and state, yet being given for the use of men, consequently to meat and drink and such there must of necessity be a means to other things as Nature affords for their appropriate them some way or other before subsistence, or "revelation," which gives us they can be of any use, or at all beneficial, to an account of those grants God made of the any particular men. The fruit or venison world to Adam, and to Noah and his sons, it which nourishes the wild Indian, who knows is very clear that God, as King David says, no enclosure, and is still a tenant in common, "has given the earth to the children of men" must be his, and so his—i.e., a part of him, [Ps 115:16], given it to mankind in common. that another can no longer have any right to it But, this being supposed, it seems to some a before it can do him any good for the support very great difficulty how any one should ever of his life. come to have a property in anything, I will 27. Though the earth and all inferior not content myself to answer, that, if it be creatures be common to all men, yet every difficult to make out "property" upon a man has a "property" in his own "person." supposition that God gave the world to Adam This nobody has any right to but himself. and his heirs in succession, exclusive of all The "labour" of his body and the "work" of the rest of his posterity; but I shall endeavour his hands, we may say, are properly his. to show how men might come to have a Whatsoever, then, he removes out of the state property in several parts of that which God that Nature hath provided and left it in, he gave to mankind in common, and that hath mixed his labour with it, and joined to it without any express compact of all the something that is his own, and thereby makes commoners. it his property. It being by him removed 26. God, who hath given the world to from the common state Nature placed it in, it men in common, hath also given them reason hath by this labour something annexed to it to make use of it to the best advantage of life that excludes the common right of other men. and convenience. The earth and all that is For this "labour" being the unquestionable therein is given to men for the support and property of the labourer, no man but he can comfort of their being. And though all the have a right to what that is once joined to, at fruits it naturally produces, and beasts it least where there is enough, and as good left feeds, belong to mankind in common, as they in common for others.

141 Chapter IX. Of the Ends of Political according to the established law. For every Society and Government one in that state being both judge and executioner of the law of Nature, men being 123. If man in the state of Nature be so partial to themselves, passion and revenge is free as has been said, if he be absolute lord of very apt to carry them too far, and with too his own person and possessions, equal to the much heat in their own cases, as well as greatest and subject to nobody, why will he negligence and unconcernedness, make them part with his freedom, this empire, and too remiss in other men's. subject himself to the dominion and control 126. Thirdly, in the state of Nature there of any other power? To which it is obvious to often wants power to back and support the answer, that though in the state of Nature he sentence when right, and to give it due hath such a right, yet the enjoyment of it is execution. They who by any injustice very uncertain and constantly exposed to the offended will seldom fail where they are able invasion of others; for all being kings as by force to make good their injustice. Such much as he, every man his equal, and the resistance many times makes the punishment greater part no strict observers of equity and dangerous, and frequently destructive to justice, the enjoyment of the property he has those who attempt it. in this state is very unsafe, very insecure. 127. Thus mankind, notwithstanding all This makes him willing to quit this condition the privileges of the state of Nature, being which, however free, is full of fears and but in an ill condition while they remain in it continual dangers; and it is not without are quickly driven into society. Hence it reason that he seeks out and is willing to join comes to pass, that we seldom find any in society with others who are already united, number of men live any time together in this or have a mind to unite for the mutual state. The inconveniences that they are preservation of their lives, liberties and therein exposed to by the irregular and estates, which I call by the general name- uncertain exercise of the power every man property. has of punishing the transgressions of others, 124. The great and chief end, therefore, of make them take sanctuary under the men uniting into commonwealths, and established laws of government, and therein putting themselves under government, is the seek the preservation of their property. It is preservation of their property; to which in the this makes them so willingly give up every state of Nature there are many things one his single power of punishing to be wanting. exercised by such alone as shall be appointed Firstly, there wants an established, to it amongst them, and by such rules as the settled, known law, received and allowed by community, or those authorized by them to common consent to be the standard of right that purpose, shall agree on. And in this we and wrong, and the common measure to have the original right and rise of both the decide all controversies between them. For legislative and executive power as well as of though the law of Nature be plain and the governments and societies themselves. intelligible to all rational creatures, yet men, 128. For in the state of Nature to omit the being biased by their interest, as well as liberty he has of innocent delights, a man has ignorant for want of study of it, are not apt to two powers. The first is to do whatsoever he allow of it as a law binding to them in the thinks fit for the preservation of himself and application of it to their particular cases. others within the permission of the law of 125. Secondly, in the state of Nature there Nature; by which law, common to them all, wants a known and indifferent judge, with he and all the rest of mankind are one authority to determine all differences community, make up one society distinct

142 from all other creatures, and were it not for require, which is not only necessary but just, the corruption and viciousness of degenerate since the other members of the society do the men, there would be no need of any other, no like. necessity that men should separate from this 131. But though men when they enter into great and natural community, and associate society give up the equality, liberty, and into lesser combinations. The other power a executive power they had in the state of man has in the state of Nature is the power to Nature into the hands of the society, to be so punish the crimes committed against that far disposed of by the legislative as the good law. Both these he gives up when he joins in of the society shall require, yet it being only a private, if I may so call it, or particular with an intention in every one the better to political society, and incorporates into any preserve himself, his liberty and property (for commonwealth separate from the rest of no rational creature can be supposed to mankind. change his condition with an intention to be 129. The first power—viz., of doing worse), the power of the society or legislative whatsoever he thought fit for the preservation constituted by them can never be supposed to of himself and the rest of mankind, he gives extend farther than the common good, but is up to be regulated by laws made by the obliged to secure every one's property by society, so far forth as the preservation of providing against those three defects above himself and the rest of that society shall mentioned that made the state of Nature so require; which laws of the society in many unsafe and uneasy. And so, whoever has the things confine the liberty he had by the law legislative or supreme power of any of Nature. commonwealth, is bound to govern by 130. Secondly, the power of punishing he established standing laws, promulgated and wholly gives up, and engages his natural known to the people, and now by force, which he might before employ in the extemporary decrees, by indifferent and execution of the law of Nature, by his own upright judges, who are to decide single authority, as he thought fit, to assist controversies by those laws; and to employ the executive power of the society as the law the force of the community at home only in thereof shall require. For being now in a new the execution of such laws, or abroad to state, wherein he is to enjoy many prevent or redress foreign injuries and secure conveniences from the labour, assistance, and the community from inroads and invasion. society of others in the same community, as And all this to be directed to no other end but well as protection from its whole strength, he the peace, safety, and public good of the is to part also with as much of his natural people. liberty, in providing for himself, as the good, prosperity, and safety of the society shall

143 Thomas Jefferson The Declaration of Independence, which launched the United States of America into being, was written in 1776, largely by Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). It reflects the Enlightenment and Deist principles of its time, and through it the Enlightenment and Deism have entered into the American cultural vocabulary.

The Declaration of Independence

When in the Course of human events it sufference of these Colonies; and such is becomes necessary for one people to now the necessity which constrains them to dissolve the political bands which have alter their former Systems of Government. connected them with another, and to assume The history of the present King of Great among the Powers of the earth, the separate Britain is a history of repeated injuries and and equal station to which the Laws of usurpations, all having in direct object the Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a establishment of an absolute Tyranny over decent respect to the opinions of mankind these States. To prove this, let Facts be requires that they should declare the causes submitted to a candid world. which impel them to the separation. He has refused his Assent to Laws, We hold these truths to be self- the most wholesome and necessary for the evident, that all men are created equal, that public good. they are endowed by their Creator with He has forbidden his Governors to certain unalienable Rights, that among these pass Laws of immediate and pressing are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of importance, unless suspended in their Happiness. That to secure these rights, operation till his Assent should be obtained; Governments are instituted among Men, and when so suspended, he has utterly deriving their just Powers from the consent neglected to attend to them. of the governed. That whenever any Form of He has refused to pass other Laws for Government becomes destructive of these the accommodation of large districts of ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or people, unless those people would relinquish to abolish it and to institute new the right of Representation in the Legislature, Government, laying its foundation on such a right inestimable to them and formidable to principles and organizing its Powers in such tyrants only. form, as to them shall seem most likely to He has called together legislative effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and indeed, will dictate that Governments long distant from the depository of their Public established should not be changed for light Records, for the sole Purpose of fatiguing and transient causes; and accordingly all them into compliance with his measures. experience hath shewn, that mankind are He has dissolved Representative more disposed to suffer, while evils are Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly sufferable, than to right themselves by firmness his invasions on the rights of the abolishing the forms to which they are People. accustomed. But when a long train of abuses He has refused for a long time, after and usurpations, pursuing invariably the such dissolutions, to cause others to be same Object evinces a design to reduce them elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it incapable of Annihilation, have returned to is their duty, to throw off such Government, the People at large for their exercise; the and to provide new Guards for their future State remaining in the mean time exposed to security. Such has been the patient

144 all the dangers of invasion from without, and government, and enlarging its Boundaries so convulsions within. as to render it at once an example and fit He has endeavoured to prevent the instrument for introducing the same absolute Population of these States; for that purpose rule into these Colonies: obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of For taking away our Charters, Foreigners; refusing to pass others to abolishing our most valuable Laws, and encourage their migrations hither, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our raising the conditions of new Appropriations Governments: of Lands. For suspending our own Legislatures, He has obstructed the Administration and declaring themselves invested with of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for Power to legislate for us in all cases establishing Judiciary Powers. whatsoever. He has made Judges dependent on his He has abdicated Government here, Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and by declaring us out of his Protection, and the amount and payment of their salaries. waging War against us. He has erected a multitude of New He has plundered our seas, ravaged Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed to harrass our People, and eat out their the lives of our people. substance. He is at this time transporting large He has kept among us, in times of Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat peace, Standing Armies without the Consent the works of death, desolation and tyranny, of our legislatures. already begun with circumstances of Cruelty He has affected to render the Military and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most independent of and superior to the Civil barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Power. Head of a civilized nation. He has combined with others to He has constrained our fellow subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to constitution, and unacknowledged by our bear Arms against their Country, to become laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of the executioners of their friends and pretended Legislation: Brethren, or to fall themselves by their For Quartering large bodies of armed Hands. troops among us: He has excited domestic insurrections For protecting them, by a mock Trial, amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on from Punishment for any Murders which the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless they should commit on the inhabitants of Indian Savages, whose known rule of these States: warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of For cutting off our Trade with all all ages, sexes and conditions. parts of the world: In every stage of these Oppressions For imposing Taxes on us without We have Petitioned for Redress in the most our Consent: humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have For depriving us in many cases, of been answered only by repeated injury. A the benefits of Trial by Jury: Prince, whose character is thus marked by For transporting us beyond Seas to be every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit tried for pretended offences: to be the ruler of a free People. For abolishing the free System of Nor have We been wanting in English Laws in a neighboring Province, attentions to our British brethren. We have establishing therein an Arbitrary warned them from time to time of attempts

145 by their legislature to extend an intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have of the good People of these Colonies, reminded them of the circumstances of our solemnly publish and declare, That these emigration and settlement here. We have United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be appealed to their native justice and FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that magnanimity, and we have conjured them by they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the the ties of our common kindred to disavow British Crown, and that all political these usurpations, which, would inevitably connection between them and the State of interrupt our connections and Great Britain, is and ought to be totally correspondence. They too have been deaf to dissolved; and that, as Free and Independent the voice of justice and of consanguinity. States, they have full Power to levy War, We must, therefore, acquiesce in the conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish necessity, which denounces our Separation, Commerce, and to do all other Acts and and hold them, as we hold the rest of Things which Independent States may of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. right do. And for the support of this WE, THEREFORE, the Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Representatives of the UNITED STATES protection of divine Providence, we mutually OF AMERICA, in General Congress, pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge and our sacred Honor. of the world for the rectitude of our

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