University of South Wales Bound by Abbey Bookbinding Co. 2059386 116 Cathays Terrace, Cardiff CF24 4HY South Wales, U.K. Tel: (029) 2039S882 WELSH MEDIUM EDUCATION IN SOUTH EAST WALES 1949-1962: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPMENT RfflANNON AJ.PACKER A submission presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Glamorgan/Prifysgol Morgannwg for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 1998 CYDNABYDDIAETH Hoffwn gydnabod y cymorth a'r cyngor a roed i mi gan Dr David Adamson a'r Athro David Dunkerley. Yn fwy na heb, roedd eu ffydd ynof, nid yn unig i ymgymryd a swmp y gwaith, ond i'w cwblhau, yn sbardun mawr imi. Yr wyf yn gwerthfawrogi cyngor amgen a pharodrwydd cyson yr Athro Colin H.Williams i drafod fy ngwaith. Mawr yw fy nyled i'm teulu a'm ffrindiau am eu hamynedd dihafal a'u cefnogaeth frwd. Yn arbennig, i Dr Val Rees - un a'm hysbardunodd yn ystod yr oriau tywyll. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr. David Adamson and Professor David Dunkerley for their guidance, advice and faith in my ability to undertake, and more importantly, complete this thesis. I am grateful to Professor Colin H.Williams for his erudite advice and willingness to- discuss my work. I am indebted to my family and friends for their constant patience and encouragement. To Dr Val Rees - for her timely advice and consistent support. Abstract Concern for the maintenance of the Welsh language has increased since the middle years of the twentieth century and the demand for educational provision is a reflection of this. The use of education as a means to promote the status of a minority language in a bilingual community is a social phenomenon which is paralleled in other places and has considerable research interest. Minority groups often invoke the development of schools which work in the medium of their local language. Such programmes attempt to reverse language shifts which affect the status of minority groups adversely. They have a significant cultural and political dimension as the resulting schools offer a protected linguistic domain for children and young people and tend in consequence to increase the vitality of the given language. These matters have been widely researched in Wales and elsewhere, though few studies of the educational and social development of the bilingual child have considered the contribution of these programmes to the sociological status of the language concerned even though it is recognised that increased use of a minority language in natural daily communication is an effective empowerment of its users in the surrounding community. This study begins to address this omission. It examines a critical phase in the emergence of Welsh medium schools in the anglicised region of south eastern Wales between 1949 and, when the first Welsh medium schools was established in the old county of Glamorgan, and 1962, when the first secondary school was established. The establishment of the schools is discussed in relation to concurrent economic, social, and educational developments and the linguistic trends which permeated the local environment. The study considers the first stages of development in south eastern Wales which reflects aspects of a developing consciousness of the language issue which has become a significant feature of public debate some forty years later. It is noted that the movement began at a late stage of a complex historical process in the attempt to preserve the immediate family and cultural values and that it has since expanded to a wider section of the community. The eventual success of the Welsh medium school movement has contributed to subsequent changes in official and public attitudes to the Welsh language. While the political and legal changes embodied in the Welsh Language Act of 1994 lie well beyond the scope of this discussion, its argument suggests that the early phase of the schools movement embedded a factor which has contributed critically to the shaping of contemporary Welsh awareness. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Minority Language Education: The Quest for an Educational Autonomy in Wales Emanating Demands for Minority Language Education 1 Problems of a Minority Language Education Movement 7 The Emergence of a Welsh Medium Education System 10 Language and Society in Wales 12 The Focus of the Study 14 Chapter 2: Evaluating Theories concerning Bilingual Education Investigating Bilingual Education Theories: An Introduction 24 The Argument for Bilingual Education Provision 26 Empowering Minority Language Use 36 Shifting Perspectives: Attitudinal Change and Consequence 39 The Utilitarian/Instrumental Function 40 The Ego-defensive Function 42 The Value Expressive Function and the Knowledge Function 43 The Success of Bilingual Education Programmes 44 Promoting Linguistic Competencies 46 Bilingual and Biliteracy Attainment: Initial Findings 49 Reasserting Evidence regarding Bilingual Achievement 52 The Emergence of Successful Bilingual Education Programmes 54 Minority Language Education: A Welsh Perspective 57 Chapter 3: Social and Political Developments in Wales: A Background to Change Establishing Identities: The Notion of Ethnic Separatism 60 Social Structure and Political Background: South East Wales during the Nineteenth Century 62 Emerging Industrialisation 70 The Politicisation of Religion, and the Growth of Liberalism in Wales 76 A Growing Assertion of Difference 78 The Origins of Cymru Fydd and Changing Ideologies 85 Politics, economy and manifestations of national identity in Wales: The Growth of Socialism in South Wales 88 The Emergence of a Welsh Nationalist Party 96 Post-War Developments, and Growth in Nationalist Consciousness 104 Chapter 4: Historical Background Educational Provision in Wales: Implications 109 Education System in Wales up to 1847 110 The Emergence of Charity Schools 111 The Sunday Schools of Thomas Charles 114 A Populist Education 116 The Introduction of a State Education 118 The Place of the Welsh Language in Education 119 Educational Reforms and Subsequent Implications 123 The Implications of the 1847 Commissioners Report 127 General Attitudes towards the Welsh language 131 The Effects of Educational Legislation 134 Trend Reversal and Influences Promoting the Welsh language 137 Instigators of Bilingual Education: Dan Isaac Davies 140 Owen M.Edwards 143 Initial Arguments - Educational Bodies in Wales 147 The Case for Teaching through the Medium of Welsh 152 The Emergence of Welsh Medium Schools 156 Chapter 5: A Review of the Literature regarding Welsh Language Research Investigations into Bilingualism: Suppositions and Limitations 158 The Argument for Bilingual Education 161 Early Reflections on the Development of the Bilingual Child 163 A Re-analysis of Research Findings 165 Changes in Public Opinion and Administrative Attitude towards the Welsh Language 169 School Influence on Attitude towards the Welsh Language 172 Reversing Negative Trends: Policy and Practice 175 Sustaining Welsh Language Use 179 An Evaluation of Research into Welsh Medium Education 181 Language Interference: Maintaining the Status Quo 183 Examining the Linguistic Ability of Bilingual Pupils 186 Parental Motivation in School Selection 188 Assertions of Welsh Medium Education 189 Chapter 6: Methodology Background to the Investigation 192 Aims and Objectives 193 Difficulties of Interpretation 196 Research Strategies and Methodological Problems 200 Section 1: Administration 206 Section 2: Institutions 209 Section 3: Individuals 212 Section 4: Public Sources 218 Conclusion 219 Chapter 7: Resolving a Problem Initial Impetus 221 The Origins of Ysgol Gymraeg Aberystwyth 225 Opposition to the School 229 Children from Non-Welsh Speaking Backgrounds 233 The Success and Development of the School 236 The Influence of the Aberystwyth Venture 239 Opening Welsh Medium Schools in Wales 243 Social Status of the Welsh Language 245 Religious Influences on Welsh Medium Education 251 The Struggle to Open Welsh Medium Schools 255 The Influence of the Welsh Schools on the Chapels 260 Opening the First Schools 263 Education Authority Reaction 266 Petitioning Parents 267 Reaction to Petitions 269 Establishing Voluntary Schools 273 Individuals with a Vision 276 Chapter 8: School Maintenance; The Growth and Management of the Welsh medium schools between 1947 and 1963 Difficulties Encountered: An Introduction 282 Administration Problems 287 School Accommodation 288 The Welsh 'School' 291 The Welsh 'Unit' 295 Transport Arrangements 297 Educational Problems 302 Pupil Admittance Regulations 303 Appointing Teachers 312 Preparation of Teaching Resources 314 The Eleven Plus Examination 320 The Influence of the Welsh Schools 322 Social Attitudes 327 Reversing Negative Trends 331 Chapter 9: Ddoe, Heddiw ac Yforv (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow) Welsh Medium Education: Conclusions of a Critical Analysis 335 Education as a Means for Language Revival 339 The Political Nature of the Educational Demand 341 Societal Attitudes: Establishing Functional Values 343 The Development of a 'Comprehensive' Educational Provision 347 Nursery Schooling 349 Secondary Education Provision 351 Schooling, Language and Nationalism 354 Developments from 1963 to Present Day 357 Creating New Domains for Welsh Language Use 363 Complexity of Interpretation 367 Welsh Medium Education - Implications of Research and Future Developments 371 Appendices Bibliography 378 List of Tables. Figures and Maps Chapter 1 Map The Location of Welsh Medium Schools in South East Wales 19 1:1 Welsh Medium Schools opened in South East Wales (South