Index

Note: Page numbers in italic refer to fi gures; those in bold to tables.

abandonment, 111, 142, 158, 159, 161, average recurrence interval (ARI), 60 point, 133, 143, 148, 151, 152, 165 162, 210, 218 Avon , NSW, 64 scroll, 143, 165 of channels, 76, 161, 163, 172, 189, 220 avulsion, 74, 161, 163, 186–187, 208 transverse, 141 abrasion, 33, 95, 115 unit, 151 abstraction, water, 272, 275 b-axis, 81 basefl ow, 48, 56 accommodation space, 34 backswamps, 14, 105, 112, 155, 170, 171, analysis, 58–59 accretion 188, 200, 221 basins abandoned channel, 158 formation of, 111, 170, 218 endorheic, 31, 255 counterpoint, 159, 159 backwater pool, 136 exorheic, 31 lateral, 156–157, 157, 258 badlands, 36, 38 zero-order, 51 oblique, 157 Bagnold criterion, 88 bedform, 115 vertical, 157–158, 158, 258 Bagnold equation, 91 confi gurations, 97, 100 accumulation zones, 108 banks deposition, 104 adjustment erosion of, 117–124 generation, 95–98 lateral, 186 processes, 117–124, 118 and bedload movement, 98–101 natural capacity for, 21, 223–224, 288 exposures, 112 bedload, 81–84 and river evolution, 255–261 forming, and bed degradation, 121 deposits, 156

pathways of, 225–227, 228 height of, factor of safety (FSh), 120 movement, 95–98 components, 226 mass failure of, 118 and bedform generation, 98–101 afforestation, 270, 273–274, 291, 296 morphology of, 120–123, 122 sheets, 98 Africa, rift valley, 240 processes, 117–124 transport, 29, 97 aggradation, 31, 38, 53, 117, 117, 208, protection of, 279 bedrock, 179 210 retreat cycle, 119 erodibility, 38 alluvium, 33, 33, 54 shear, factor of safety (FSτ), 120 steps, 31, 38, 136 removal of, 161 stability of, 120 beds see also ridges, alluvial strength of, 74, 197 degradation of, and bank forming Amazon Basin, 310, 313 Barnard River, NSW, 64 processes, 121 analogy, reasoning by, 265 barriers, 299, 303, 304, 307–308, 308 material, 33 analysis, basin-wide, 112 bars, 98, 133, 141, 149 downstream gradation in, 96 Andes, 240 bank-attached, 153 properties of, 202 annual exceedence probability, 60 COPYRIGHTEDbedrock core, 142, 143 MATERIALsize of, 201 antidunes, 97–98, 115 channel junction, 148 processes, 117–124 aquifers, 49 compound, 151, 152 and channel shape, 117 areas, variable source, 50–51 diagonal, 141 Bega catchment, NSW, 41, 42, 292, 300, armouring, 86, 92–93, 94, 103, 278, 287, expansion of, 141 312–315 305 forced, 143, 149, 152 Bega River, NSW, 99 associations, process–form, 231, 257, 265, lateral, 142, 148 behaviour, and change, 21–22, 21 293, 305 linguoid, 141 Bellinger catchment, NSW, 41–42, 42 auger holes, 112–113 longitudinal, 141, 151 benches, 123, 126, 143, 148 , 314 mid-channel, 151–152 concave bank, 143, 148, 165

Geomorphic Analysis of River Systems: An Approach to Reading the Landscape, First Edition. Kirstie A. Fryirs and Gary J. Brierley. © 2013 Kirstie A. Fryirs and Gary J. Brierley. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 336 Index bend rotation, 184 relief of (H), 36 initiation of, 51–52 berms, 149 response gradients of, 26 irregular, 127, 127 boulder, 148, 187 runoff from, 50–51 laterally stable, 184 bifurcation ratio (Rb), 40 shape of, 34–35, 34, 43, 56 migration billabongs, 14, 158, 161, 188, 200–201 synthesising controls in, 305–309 lateral, 159, 161, 160, 208 biophysical processes, linkages of, 320 topography of, 57 rates of, 123 biostabilisation, 87 cavitation, 85, 136 zones, 321 bioturbation, 105, 170 celerity, 23, 72 morphology of, and hydraulic blankets, 303, 304, 307–308, 308 chain-of-ponds see ponds, chain of geometry, 127–131 blockages, 17, 39, 95, 303, 305, 307–308, change number of, 183–184, 184 318–319 and behaviour, 21–23, 21 planform, 179, 184–186, 201–202, boosters, 307 irreversible, 292 204 boundary conditions levels of, 237 measurement, 183, 196–197, 198 altered, 246–255, 266 reversible, 292 relationships, 111 fl ux, 7, 12–14, 13, 27, 223–224, 257 Channel Country, Australia, 192, 242, resistance, 67 predicting river responses to, 245 resisting forces in, 70–72 229–230, 238 Channel Scablands, Washington State, roughness of, 70, 70, 294 imposed, 7, 12–14, 13, 27, 37, 43, 206, 251 sand-bed, 97 222, 238, 302 channelisation, 277, 279 sediment entrainment in, 86–87 boundary resistance, 67 geomorphic effects of, 279, 280, 289 sediment transport in, 87–94 Brahmaputra, India, 310 channels, 248 shape of, 117–127, 125, 127 braided channels see channels, braided abandoned, 74, 158, 161, 162, 173, and bank processes in, 126 braided index (Bi), 184 189, 221 and bed processes, 117, 126 braiding, 184, 185, 196–197, 229 adjustment of infl uences on, 117–124 braidplains, 163, 210, 235, 251 lateral, 208 sinuosity, 183 bridge crossings, 279 vertical, 208 slope of, 31, 54 Bridge River, British Columbia, 245 wholesale, 208 stabilisation of, 279 British Columbia, 219 asymmetrical, 126, 127 supply-limited, 101 Bu Boys equation, 91 avulsion, 74, 161, 163, 208 symmetrical, 126, 127 Budderoo National Park, NSW, 175 base level cut of, 31 transport-limited, 101 buffering capacity, 25 boundary condition classifi cation, vertical adjustment in, 117 buffers, 303, 304, 307–308, 308 124 width of, 54 braided, 158, 159 Chezy coeffi cient, 75 Canadian Shield, 245 capacity-limited, 101 Chezy equation, 71 canals, 128, 197, 233, 271, 289 chute, 151 Chironomidae, 87 Cann River, Victoria, 281, 288 competence-limited, 101 chronology, 111 canopy drip, 46 compound, 126, 127 chutes, 98 capacity, 90 contraction of, 187, 208 channels, 151 cascades, 137, 180 coupled, 303 cut-offs, 151, 170 catastrophism, 24, 212 crevasse, 170 and pool trains, 98 catchments, 10, 12, 28, 42, 264 cross-sections of, 54 circularity ratio (Rc), 34 accumulation zone of, 79 decoupled, 303 Clarence River, NSW, 175, 216 area of (A), 34 deposition in, 65–67 clay, 84–85, 108 effective, 308 depth of, 54 climate, 236, 241–244, 266 area–discharge relationships, 59 discontinuous, 189–190, 221–222, change, 244, 275 confi guration infl uence, 41–42 221 river responses to, 250–255 defi nition of, 29 entrenchment of, 274 contemporary, 246 elements of, 30 erosion in, 65–67 imprint of past conditions, 244–246 human impacts on, 293–295 expansion of, 187, 208 regions, 311 hydrology of, 44–64 formation of, 52, 55 variability, 267

knowledge of, 322–323 geometry of, 74, 110, 116–131, 197, coeffi cient of variation (Cv), 62, 64, linkages in, 14–17 198, 201–202, 294 312 morphometrics of, 34–37 grain interactions in, 93–95 colluvium, 52, 300 as nested hierarchies, 9–12 gravel-bed, 130 colonisation, vegetative, 74, 123 position in, 124 impelling forces in, 68–70 Colorado River, USA, 278, 313 process zones in, 29–31, 30, 33, 306 incised, 117 Columbia River, USA, 251 relationships, 202–203 development of, 54 complex response, 24, 26, 28, 206 Index 337 component technique, 75 cut-offs, 161, 162, 170 and river fl ow, 54–56 condensation nuclei, 45 chute, 161, 162 sediment (Qs), 92–93 confi guration, 2–3, 7, 21, 25, 26–27, 79, neck, 161, 162 disconnectivity, 14–17 206, 233 cyclones, 250, 266 discontinuities, 264 bed, 71, 97, 137, 177 discriminant analysis, 195 of catchment, 31, 38–39, 41–42 dams, 249, 250, 271, 277–278, 304 disequilibrium, 20 channel, 71, 76, 210, 220, 259 as barriers, 303 distal fi ning, 157 plan view, 174, 183 geomorphic impacts of, 278, 287 disturbance events, 22–23 spatial, 9–12 ice, 251 press, 22 valley, 179 landslide, 305, 307 pulsed, 22 confi ned , 34, 174, 175, 179–181, transverse clast, 99 ramp, 23 181, 195, 316 Darcy–Weisbach coeffi cient (ff), 75, responses to, 237 bedrock, 32, 77, 215 95 system responses to, 23 geomorphic adjustment in, 257 Darcy–Weisbach equation, 71 diversity, respect for, 321 and sediment transfer, 305 Darcy’s law, 48 drag, 87 sinuosity in, 183 Dart Brook, NSW, 182 fl uid, 85 width/depth ratio in, 125 dating tools, 264 drainage confi ned valleys, 29, 32, 108, 179–181, Davis, William Morris, 17 area, 34 181, 203–204, 233, 264, 315–316 defl ation, 273 basins, 7, 29 bankfull stage in, 55 degradation, 117, 208 see also catchments

boulder mounds in, 142 pathway, 290 density (Dd), 36, 57 channel shape in, 127 dells, 190 network evolutionary pathways in, 237 deposition, 7, 84, 113 composition, 29 fl oodplains in, 156, 193, 201, 203 history of, 264 evolution, 36 forced features in, 137 in river systems, 103–104, 108–109 extension, 36, 36 river behaviour in, 214, 216 deposits pattern, 36–37 confi nement see valley confi nement bedload, 165 annular, 37 confl uence density, 38 bottom stratum, 165 contorted, 37 connectivity, 14–17, 319 overbank, 165 dendritic, 36–38 channel–fl oodplain, 170 supraplatform, 151 geologic controls on, 37–41, 37 and dams, 277 suspended-load, 156, 164 multi-basinal, 37 landscape, 7, 27, 302–304 tephra, 249 parallel, 37 spatial and temporal, 17 top stratum, 165 radial, 37 variability in, 16 valley fi ll, 171 rectangular, 37–38 conservation of energy principle, 65 wake, 99 trellis, 37–38 context within-channel, 165 dredging, 279 geologic/tectonic and climatic, 266 depth, 54, 116, 128 drill holes, 112–113 spatial and temporal, 3, 17, 26 description, 7 dunes, 97 continuity equation, 54, 128 desertifi cation, 273 fl attened, 98 controls desiccation, 117 point, 143, 149 antecedent, 24 desnagging, 271, 279 sand, 252 catchment-scale, 29–43 detachment, 85 dynamics, non-linear, 27 Coon Creek, USA, 300 digital elevation models (DEMs), 34 Cooper Creek, Australia, 149, 175, discharge (Q), 33, 33, 54, 64, 116, 197 earthquakes, 250, 306 220 bankfull, 55 ecological resilience, 320 corrasion, 85, 136 conditions, 123 ecosystem engineers, 243 corrosion, 136 dominant formative, 211 eddying, 85 cosmogenic dating, 264 effective, 211 El Capitan, NSW, 249 coupling, 14, 298, 302, 305, 310, 312 equation, 128 Eldorado Dredge, 283 creation, 23 generation models, 50–51 electromagnetic sensors, 92

pathway, 290 global variability in, 309, 310 elongation ratio (Er), 34–35 crevasse splays, 170, 170 measurement of, 56, 59–60 embedding, 94, 93 critical bank height, 120 in the fi eld, 59 energy, 65, 60, 77, 79 cross-sectional area, 116 slope–area method, 59 conditions, 202 cultivation, 273 morphological response to changes in, kinetic, 65 culverts, 279 129 potential, 12, 65 cut and fi ll cycles, 52–53 regime, 232 spectra of fl oodplains, 171–172 338 Index

Engelund–Hansen equation, 91 fi re, 243 Missoula, 251 engineering timeframes, 18 and water repellency, 49 overbank stage, 57, 216 entrainment, 84–85, 114 fl ocs, 101–103, 115 pockets, 254 fl uvial, 118 fl ood events see fl oods probable maximum, 61 in river channels, 85–87 fl oodchannels, 164, 165, 170, 170 pulses of, 56 equal mobility hypothesis, 101 fl oodouts, 52, 171, 189–190, 220 rising stage, 56, 89 equifi nality, 25, 26, 265 fl oodplains, 33–34, 109, 114, 173, 200 sequencing of, 58 equilibrium, 20, 20 and climatic memory, 246 stages of, 56–57, 234 profi les, 31 discontinuous, 175 waning (falling) stage, 57, 164 static, 20 bedrock-controlled, 181, 182 fl oodwalls, 279 steady-state, 20 planform-controlled, 182, 181–183 fl ow, 7, 41–42, 202, 206 erasure, 25, 266 distal, 155 bankfull, 212–216 ergodic reasoning, 261, 265 distribution of, 156 channelised, 53 erodible corridors, 321 drainage of, 289 critical, 72 erosion, 7, 117 energy spectra of, 171–172 duration, 59, 62 bank, 116 formation processes, 156–159, 173 curve, 63 by interrill fl ow, 51 forms and processes of, 155–173 fl ood, retrospective analysis of, 60 catastrophic, 62 geomorphic units of, 133, 156, fl uid, 67–68 of cohesive sediment, 87 164–171, 166–169, 173 mechanics of, 67–68 Davisian cycle of, 19–20, 19 high-energy non-cohesive, 172 frequency, 54–56, 60–61, 64 and forest clearance, 273 history of, 266 groundwater, 49 history of, 264 lateral migration of, 159–161 helicoidal, 68, 69 human impact on, 124 levee–fl oodchannel, 162, 165 high, 137, 143, 151, 161, 215, 221 mass, 87 low-energy cohesive, 171–172 interrill, 49, 51 maximum rates, 124 medium-energy non-cohesive, 172 laminar, 67, 67, 79 sidewall, 53 migration, lateral, 159–161, 160 low, 213–214 wind, 273 mining of, 282 magnitude, 55–56 erosional strength, 87 patterns along longitudinal profi les, overbank, 212–214 eustasy, 255, 256 172 overland evaporation, 45 pocket-to-pocket variability in, 172, infi ltration-excess (Hortonian/ evapotranspiration, 45 179 unsaturated), 47, 48, 49 event stratigraphy, 112 pockets of, 179, 181, 303 saturation-excess, 47, 48, 49 evolution, understanding of, 321–322 proximal, 155 rate (Q), 48 exfi ltration, 49 relationships, 111 regimes, 53, 225, 250–255 Exner equation, 66, 79, 103 reworking processes, 159–164, 173 and human impacts, 270 explanation, 7 scour, 161–164 resistance, 67 sheets, 304 forms of, 70 facies, 104, 115, 133 stripping, 161–164, 164, 208, 226 return, 49, 275 bedform-scale, 114 fl oodponds, 170 forms of, 50 coding scheme, 108, 107 fl oodrunners, 170 rill, 49, 51 fall, 119 fl oods, 22–23, 28, 233–234, 251 seasonal, 311 fans bankfull stage, 24, 55, 56–57, 71–72, sheet, 51 alluvial, 304 116, 123, 157, 212–216 stage–discharge relationships, 59 terminal, 190 control, 271 stages of, 234 Faulkenhagen Creek, NSW, 143, couplets, 143 structure, 73 148–149 upward-fi ning, 157–158 subcritical (tranquil), 72 fault displacement, 247 debris, 60 surface type classifi cation, 73 river responses to, 246–247 defence, 271 turbulent, 67, 67 features, landform-scale, 12 falling stage see waning stage variability, 61–62 feedback fl ash, 46, 57 analysis, 64 negative, 20 frequency curves, 61 velocity (v), 59, 71 positive, 22 geomorphic effectiveness of, 24 fl ume studies, 265 fi eld analyses, 264 high-fl ow stage, 137, 143, 151, 161, forces fi eld capacity, 47 215, 222 balance of, 77–80 fi eld texture grades, 82 low-fl ow stage, 213–214 impelling, 65–66 fi eldwork, 64, 81, 112, 174, 200, 300–301 magnitude indices, 212 impelling and resisting, 65–80 fi nes, 304 major, 212 resisting, 65–67 fi ning, 95 management, 271 viscous, 72 Index 339 forests fl oodplain, 133, 156, 164–171, mining, 283 clearance of, 276 166–169, 173, 201 sheet, 142 and sediment yields, 274 forced, 151–152, 154 grazing, 275 human changes to, 273 generic linking of, 133 Great Escarpment, Australia, 240, form factor (Rf), 35 identifi cation of, 133–134 242 France, prealpine rivers, 291 instream, 116, 132–154, 217 Greendale Creek, NSW, 102 Franklin River, Tasmania, 175 process–form associations of, ground cover, 250–255 freeze–thaw processes, 117 134–151 changes to, 272–275 friction, 65, 67, 85 mid-channel depositional, 133, groundwater, 44 factor (ff), 71 137–142, 138–141, 143 abstraction, 275 Frogs Hollow Creek, NSW, 221 morphology of, 133 fl ows, 49 Froude number (Fr), 12, 71–72, 73, 98 position of, 133 gullies, 51, 53 full bed mobility, 101 and process–form associations, formation of, 51–53 305 Gumbel analysis, 60 geographic information systems (GIS), range of, 294 34, 299–300 sculpted/erosional, 133–137, 134–136, Haizi Shan plateau, 245 geologic conditions, imprint of, 148, 149, 150 Hawkesbury–, NSW, 261 244–246 sediment storage, 315 headcuts, 177, 208, 222, 273, 279, 282, geologic controls, 244, 266 and sediment supply, 153 309, 317 and river evolution, 239–241 transition of, 153, 153 primary, 52 geologic memory, 245 geomorphic work, 24, 28 secondary, 53, 52 geologic setting, 267 geomorphology, 1, 7 headwater, steep, 179 geologic timeframes, 18 concepts in, 1–28 heterogeneity paradigm, 14 geomorphic effectiveness, 24 riverine, 29–43 hiding, 94, 93 of fl oods, 24 as a template, 2 hillslopes, 250, 302 geomorphic impacts, of gravel mining, use of, 2–3, 320–323 (de)coupling of, 303 283 glacial–interglacial cycles, 243–244, 244, instability of, 249, 273 geomorphic interpretation, 114 250–255 Himalayas, 188, 240 geomorphic process zones, 29–31, 30 , NSW, 287 Hjulström diagram, 84–85, 84, 88, 93, geomorphic processes, measurement of, glides, 137 102 264 global warming, 255, 252 hollows, colluvial, 51 geomorphic relationships, at catchment Google Earth, as a resource, 264 Hoover Dam, Colorado, 278 scale, 7 Goosenecks State Park, Utah, 242 human impacts geomorphic responses Gordon River, Tasmania, 304 historical overview, 270–272 to human disturbances, 291 gorges, 175, 179–180, 180, 209–210, 257, interpretation of, 293, 295 to land use changes, 273, 276 257 Hunter catchment, NSW, 99, 284, to vegetation/wood removal, 281 Goulburn River, Victoria, 191 312–313, 316 geomorphic river condition gradation, of bed material, 94 Hunter River, NSW, 61, 63, 287 assessment of, 290–293 gradient, 31 hydraulic action, 118 defi nition of, 290 gradualism, 24 hydraulic conductivity, 48 geomorphic river recovery, defi nition of, grain hydraulic geometry, 116 290 density, 85 at-a-station, 128 geomorphic scales, hierarchy of, 11 diameter (D), 81 and channel morphology, 127–131 geomorphic timeframes, 18 forces acting on, 85 downstream, 129, 130 geomorphic transitions, 32–34 grading classifi cation, 106 hydraulic gradient, 48 geomorphic units, 3, 12, 108, 151, 153, mineralogy, 104 hydraulic jumps, 72, 98 199–201, 233 roughness, 87 hydraulic radius (R), 56 assemblages of, 108, 266 shape, 103 hydraulic sorting, 94 bank-attached depositional, 133, size, 81–84, 82, 86, 104 hydraulic units, 12 142–148, 144–149 change in, 95 hydraulics, 44, 79 bedrock, 133–137 charts, 81 hydrographs, 56–57, 64 boulder, 134–137 distribution curve, 83 fl ow stages on, 57 bounding surfaces of, 133 sorting classifi cation, 105 magnitude of, 58 categories of, 133–134 grain-by-grain interactions, 93–94 peakedness, 58 channel, 202 Grand Canyon, USA, 175 shape analysis, 58–59, 58 compound, 151, 154 gravel, 304 hydrologic cycle, 44, 64 continuum of, 153, 153 bedforms, 98 operation of, 45–47 fi ne-grained, 133 extraction of, 282 hydrology, 44, 62 340 Index hypsometric interval (HI), 36, 35 evolutionary history of, 5 Latrobe River, Victoria, 102 hysteresis, 89, 89, 90 heterogeneity of, 14 Launceston, Tasmania, 215 homogeneity of, 14 Laursen equation, 91 Iceland, 242 humid, 49 ledges, 148, 148 identifi cation, 7 incomplete records of, 264 Lerida Creek, NSW, 148 ignimbrite, 249 memory, 245, 302 levees, 133, 164, 201, 279 imbrication, 93, 93 and river evolution, 244–246 artifi cial, 271 incision, 117, 208 non-glaciated, 254 construction of, 170 infi ltration, 45–46, 47 pattern of, 27 lift, 87 capacity, 46 reading, 3–8, 4–5, 104–114, 201–203, vertical, 85 Innaminka, SW Queensland, 192 212–214, 321 light detection and ranging (LiDAR), 300 input, 55 interpreting river evolution from, limiting factors, 290 interactions, faunal, 243 261–265 linkages interannual variability, 62 in practice, 320–323 lateral, 14 interception, 45, 46 principles of, 109–112 longitudinal, 14 loss, 46 tips for, 231–233, 265–267, 293–295, vertical, 14 storage, 46 315–318 liquefaction, 119 Ishikari River, Japan, 280, 289 sediment sequences in, 109, 111–112 lithology, 32, 104 islands, 142, 143, 151 sensitivity of, 25 load isovels, 68 settings, 33, 109–110, 264, 302 bed see bedload patterns of, 69 spatial confi guration of, 9–12 bed material, 83 units of, 12, 30 fl oodplain material, 83 Jiuzhai Creek, China, 250 landslides, 249, 250, 274 mixed, 81–84 jokulhlaups, 251 and valley fl oors, 305, 307 suspended, 81–84 Jones Creek, Victoria, 121 Lane’s balance, 65–67, 66, 78–79, 81, 103, deposits, 156 131 wash, 83 Kangaroo River, NSW, 149, 180, 215 laterally unconfi ned rivers, 125, 157, 170, locks, 279 keystones, 99, 136 175, 179, 233, 237, 316 log jams, 75, 152, 161, 287 King River, Tasmania, 304 bedrock-based, 227 log Pearson III (LP3) distribution, 61, 61 knickpoints, 31, 32, 52, 179, 248, 249 high-energy, 217–218, 218 loggers, 92 retreat of, 247 low-energy, 220–221, 220 Luangwa River, Zambia, 148 Kruger National Park, South Africa, with discontinuous channels, 143 221–222, 221 Macdonald River, NSW, 304 kurtosis, 58 medium-energy, 219–220, 219 Machu Pichu, Peru, 181 laterally unconfi ned valleys, 32–34, 43, , NSW, 216 lag time, 23 132, 170, 233, 259, 260, 316 Macquarie Marshes, Australia, 175 lahars, 248, 249 alluvial, 176, 179, 189, 193, 200, , Australia, 245 lakes, 170, 248, 249, 250, 271 202–204, 211 macroslugs, 98 ice-dammed, 251 anastomosing rivers in, 192, 210 Manning Catchment, NSW, 64 oxbow, 158, 161 bedload-dominated rivers in, 194 , NSW, 152 land systems see landscape, units of boulder-bed rivers in, 188 Manning’s n, 80 land use, changes in, 272–273, 275, 273 braided rivers in, 189, 210, 259, derivation of, 77 landforms 261–262 equation, 59 alluvial, 114, 298, 299 channel planform in, 201 as roughness parameter, 75–77 at the reach scale, 4–5 cut-and-fi ll rivers in, 193, 210 visual estimates of, 78 colluvial, 298, 299 fl oodplains in, 109, 155, 156, 171, 179, maps, as resource, 264 controls on, 5, 7 199–201, 203, 213 mass failure, 118–119 identifi cation of, 3, 201, 231, 265, 293, gravel-bed rivers in, 190, 210, 261–262 material 315 meandering rivers in, 191, 210, 227, cohesiveness of, and sediment landscapes 259 movement, 101, 103–104 behaviour of, 27 mixed-load rivers in, 260 properties of, 123 connectivity of, 7, 28, 302–304 and river energy conditions, 229 reworking of, 306 contingency of, 27 river evolution in, 237–239, 255, 260 maximum annual fl ood series, 60 coupled, 306, 319 diagrams of, 258, 260, 262 mean annual discharge (Q), 61 desert, 49 sand-bed rivers in, 227, 261 meanders disconnected, 52 and sediment deposition, 173, 183 belt, 170 emergence of, 27 suspended-load rivers in, 260 cut-offs, 170 Index 341

extension, 184 palaeochannels, 170, 252–253, 265 principle of convergence, 265 growth and shift, 184 palaeohydrology, 60 process zones, 29–31, 30, 33, 306 loops, 171 paraglacial interval, 250 processes, human impacts on, 269 tortuous, 183 parallel slide, 119 profi le concavity index, 32 trains, 171 partial area model, 50, 51 profi les, longitudinal, 77–79 translation, 184 partial mobility theory, 100 measurement techniques, for bedload partly confi ned rivers, 174, 175, 180–183, Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, 240, 242 transport, 92 182, 183, 195, 316 quickfl ow, 59 megaslugs, 98 evolution in, 237 memory, 24, 255 diagrams of, 258, 257–261 races, 142 anthropogenic, 271 sinuosity in, 183 radionuclides, 301 Meyer–Peter–Müller equation, 91 width/depth ratio in, 125 rain, 45 microbial mat, 87 partly confi ned valleys, 32–34, 108–109, splash, 46 migration, lateral, 159–161, 160, 208 164, 178, 181–183, 204, 210, storm pathways, 57 Minamurra River, NSW, 130 257–261, 315–316 raindrop impact, 51 mining, 275–276 evolutionary pathways in, 237, 238 rainfall, 47 alluvial, 279 fl oodplains in, 156, 171, 201, 204, Rakaia River, New Zealand, 218 fl oodplain, 282 212–213, 224, 237 ramps, 151 Mississippi River, USA, 256, 300, 313 river behaviour in, 216–218, 216 rapids, 137, 180 mobility see equal mobility; full bed sediment storage in, 155, 176 rating curves, 61–62 mobility; partial mobility pavement, 94, 94 reaches, 4–5, 203, 264 modelling, 265 pea gravel, 95 boundaries of, 176–177, 200 models peak stage, 57 defi nition of, 177, 201 partial area, 50, 51 pebble clusters, 99 river, 12 rainfall–runoff, 50 peds, 117 sediment fl ux in, 317 morphoclimatic regions, 241, 243, 243, percolation, 46 sensitivity of, 305, 306 267 permafrost, 255 transfer, 78 morphodynamics, 132 persistence, 24 reaction time, 23 morphostratigraphy, 133 photography, aerial, 300–301 recession constant (k), 59 mounds, boulder, 142 physical template, integrative, 320 recovery potential, 290–295

Mount St Helens, USA, 248 pinch points, 307 recurrence interval (ri), 60 mud, 83 Pine River, Canada, 96 Reedy Creek, Victoria, 283 drapes, 60, 143 pipefl ow, 47–49, 48 reforestation, 274 Mulloon Creek, NSW, 254, 262 pits, 112–113 regime theory, 19, 127–128 Mulwaree Ponds, NSW, 193 plains, alluvial, 304 rehabilitation, 2, 124, 271–273, 320, , NSW, 221 plane bed, 97 322 , Australia, 191, 300 with movement, 98 impacts of, 275, 279–282 , NSW, 253, 260, plateau, 180 legacy, 296 300 plots, time-series, 62, 63 practice, 284, 320–322 pollutants, 84, 275 relationships network composition, laws of, 40, 41 ponds, 171 catchment-scale, 232, 266–267, New Zealand, 149, 175, 314 chain-of, 175, 190, 221 295–296 Ngaruouro River, New Zealand, 94 pool–riffl e patterns, 142, 142 magnitude–frequency, 3, 5, 23–25, 64, non-equilibrium, 20 pools, 137, 142, 148–151 211–212, 255, 264 North Coast, NSW, 304 bluff, 137 morphodynamic, 3 forced, 152 process–form, 3, 5, 24, 29, 108, 171, Oligochaeta, 87 lateral, 137 172 organic matter, 81 plunge, 136, 180 source-to-sink, 7, 297–318 organisms, burrowing, 87 scour, 148 surface–subsurface, 94 ostler lenses, 99–100 step, 137 tributary–trunk, 29, 38–39, 39 output, 55 sequences of, 136 relaxation time, 23 Ovens River, Victoria, 283 potholes, 136 relief overprinting, 265 pre-wetting, 117 inverted, 249, 249

precipitation, 44–46, 64 ratio (Rh), 36 packing, 87, 93 preconditioning, 123 variability, 32 arrangements, 115 prediction, 7 remote sensing imagery, 264, 299 , NSW, 182 pressures, 290 resectioning, 279 342 Index reservoirs, 277–279 for partly confi ned rivers, 258, bedrock, 34, 178–179, 227 residence time of, 44, 45 257–259 controlled, 78, 181–183, 182, 215 residence time, 25, 44, 45 of vegetation removal and wood behaviour of, 21–22, 21, 27–28, 34–41, sediment, 298, 299 clearance, 288 77, 133, 176–177, 232–233 resilience, ecological, 320 River Indus, 313 analysis of, 222–229 resistance River Nile, Africa, 252, 313 at bankfull stage, 213–218, 221–222, boundary, 71 river recovery diagram, 290, 292–293, 231–232 channel-scale, 71 293–294 at low-fl ow stage, 213, 217–222, elements, and human impacts, River Rhine, Germany, 89 231 270 river science, integrative, 320 at overbank stage, 213–216, 218, fl uid, 71–72 River Styles framework, 199–201, 204 222, 231 free-surface, 72 procedures, 200 at reach scale, 293–294 frictional, 34 river systems bedrock-controlled, 257–258 internal, 71 catchment-specifi c analysis of, 26–27 and catchment-scale relationships, valley-scale, 70–71 constructivist approach to, 133 232–233 resnagging, 272 cut-and-fi ll, 183 in confi ned valleys, 214, 216 restoration pathway, 290 deposition in, 102–104 contemporary, 227, 229 restoration trajectories, 23 equilibrium in, 20, 20 controls and impacts on, 232 return period see average recurrence fl ow in, 54–56 defi nition, 206 interval (ARI) geomorphic analysis of, 3–7 determination, 208 revetments, 271 human impacts on interpretation, 205–234, 265–267 Reynolds number (Re), 12, 71–72, 86 direct, 275–281 laterally unconfi ned, 217–222, 218,

particle (Rep), 86, 88 historical overview of, 270–272 219, 221 rhythmites, 165 indirect, 272–275 in partly confi ned valleys, 216–218, ridge and swale topography, 165 interpretation of, 293–295 216 ridges, 133, 143, 151, 157, 159 impelling and resisting forces in, range, 5 alluvial ridges, 170, 170 65–80 and river type, 214–222 longitudinal class, 100 mixed-load, 100 versus change, 206–207, 207, 321 riffl es, 137 path dependency of, 27 boulder-bed, 188 alluvial, 142 resistance elements in, 72–75 braided, 175, 187, 189, 197, 210, 218, rills, 51, 53, 248 sediment movement and deposition 226–227, 242, 248 ripples, 95, 97 in, 81–115 capture of, 247 river beds suspended-load, 100–102 chain-of-ponds, 189, 193 armoured, 94, 94 River Zambezi, Africa, 313 changes in, 21–22, 21, 267 downstream gradation in, 94–95 rivers, 7–8 at reach scale, 265 paved, 94, 94 adjustment of, 28, 205–206, 233 controls and impacts on, 265–266 river evolution diagram, 222–229, 222, capacity for, 206–207, 231, 233 sources of evidence for, 263 232, 234, 255, 268, 296 controls on, 210–212 versus behaviour, 206–207, 207, adding human disturbance responses dimensions of, 207–208 321 to, 282–290, 286 fl ow stage, 214, 216 character of, 34–41, 176–177 adding river change to, 255–261 lateral, 208, 209 at reach scale, 293–294 for braided/meandering transition, natural capacity for, 209–210 condition of, 290–293, 292, 295–296 259, 258–261 timescales of, 236–237 confi ned see confi ned rivers for channelisation, 286, 289 vertical, 207–208, 209 contemporary, 295–296 components of, 223 wholesale, 209 cut-and-fi ll, 189–190, 193, 210, 227, and dam construction, 287 alluvial, 34, 83, 114, 127, 183–187, 238 examples of, 229, 230 197–198, 204, 227, 279, 282 degrees of freedom in, 21 for fl oodplain drainage, 289 primary variants of, 187–192 discriminating among, 192–199 for a gorge, 257, 257 and altered boundary conditions, diversity of, 174–204 for gravel-bed braided/fi ne-grained 246–255 and catchment relationships, discontinuous transition, 262, anabranching, 189, 220 202–203 261 analysis of, timeframes of, 17–19 controls on, 201–202 for gravel/sand bed transition, anastomosing, 175, 188–189, 192, 210, interpretation, 201–203 260–261, 258, 261 220, 242 longitudinal continuum, 194, 203 of human disturbances, 291 as assemblages of cross-scalar features, reach-scale analysis, 201 for mixed/suspended load transition, 176 diversity spectrum of, 178–192 260, 258, 260 bedload, 83, 108–109 ephemeral, 53–54, 55 Index 343 evolution of, 235–268, 253–254 to valley setting changes, 247 construction techniques, 298–302 and adjustment capacity, 255–261 to volcanic activity, 248–249, 248 fl ow chart of tasks in, 301 and catchment-scale relationships, sand-bed, 95–98, 196, 227, 279, 288 fl ow diagrams, 298, 300, 318 266–267 scales calibre of, 37–38, 81–84 climatic infl uences on, 241–244 of depositional features, 104–108 cascades, 297, 302, 307, 319 in confi ned valleys, 237 of sediment analysis, 106 changes, seasonal, 299 and fi eld analysis, 264 of structure, 10 channel bank, 114 geologic controls on, 239–241 sensitivity of, 25–26, 210–211, 233 chronology of, 264 interpretation of, 261–265 solution-load, 38 cohesive, 81, 83–84 and landscape memory, 244–246 steep headwater, 179 delivery ratio, 298 in partly confi ned valleys, 237 suspended-load, 38, 83, 108–109, 130 deposition of, 81–115 pathways and rates of, 237–239 system history, 224 fl ux, 41–42 in unconfi ned settings, 237–239 in tectonic settings, 242 analysis of, 309–315 with fl oodplain pockets, 180–181, 181 unconfi ned see unconfi ned rivers at catchment scale, 297–319 form continuum of, 177–178 wandering, 197 at global scale, 309–310 geomorphology of, 1–28 gravel-bed, 187, 190 at reach scale, 317 gravel-bed, 93–94, 98–100, 210 rolling, 90 conceptualisation of, 297–298 heterogeneity of, 15 rotational slip, 119 controls and impacts on, 317 homogeneity of, 15 roughness controls upon, 302–309, 302 human impacts on, 269–296 bed-bank, 71 (dis)connectivity in, 314 direct and indirect, 272–282, 272, channel, 69, 69 human impacts on, 309, 312–316 295–296 forms of, 71, 77 interpretation of, 315–318 humid-temperate, 241 grain, 71 in tectonic settings, 310–312 intermittent, 53–54, 55 measure of, 75–77 variability in, 305–309 key transitions in, 178 planform, 71 generation, timescales of, 299 landforms of, 114 Rouse number (P), 90 lithologic controls on, 37–38 laterally unconfi ned see laterally Rouse profi le, 90 load changes, morphological response unconfi ned rivers runoff, 47, 64, 309 to, 129 longitudinal profi les of, 31–34, 32, catchment-scale, 50–51 major inputs of, 248–250 42–43, 203 fl ash, 275 mix, 110 management, 271–272 generation, 47–51, 51–52 movement of, 81–115, 299, 302 schemes for, 282 global, 45 and material cohesiveness, 101–102 meandering, 187–188, 191, 196, 197, ratio, 47 phases of, 84–85 210, 219, 227 types of, 47 non-cohesive, 84 anabranching, 175, 242 runs, 137, 148, 180 pulses in, 307 mixed-load, 38, 83, 108–109, 115 rating curves, 92 morphology of Sabie River, South Africa, 175 regime, 202, 232 discrimination, 195, 195 saltation, 90 and human impacts, 270 forced, 127 samplers, 92 residence time, 298, 299, 318 multichannel, 196 San Andreas Fault, USA, 240, 247 sand-sized, 103 partly confi ned see partly confi ned sand scales rivers extraction of, 282 of analysis, 105, 106 pathways of adjustment for, 228 sheet, 142 of depositional features, 104–109 perennial, 53–54, 55 waves, 98 sequence interpretation, 104–114 post-glacial, 251–252 Sangainotaki River, Japan, 102, 215 sinks, 298, 318 recovery satellite imagery, 301 size, 81 potential of, 290–293, 292, 295–296 Schoklitsch equation, 91 slugs, 98, 99, 283, 304, 308 time of, 23 scour, toe, 123 sources, 29–31, 298–299, 318 rehabilitation of, 282, 284 sea level change, 255 storage, 298–299, 318 resilience of, 25, 210–211, 257 seasonal variability, 62 supply, 101 responses sediment and geomorphic units, 153–154 conceptualisation of, 282–290 accumulation, 29–31 limited systems, 102 to climate change, 250–252, 255 analysis, 115, 133, 202 suspended to fault displacement, 246–247 practical approach to, 112–114 closed response in, 90 to sea level changes, 256 procedures for, 113 global distribution of, 313 to sediment inputs, 248–250 blockages see blockages load variability of, 89 to tectonic uplift, 246–247 budgets, 297–298, 318 measurement of, 90 344 Index

transport rate of, 88 stability, lateral, 184–187 thalweg, 68, 143, 184 variation in, 89–90 statistical bankfull discharge (Q), 61 dredging of, 279–280 transfer, 7, 29–31 steep headwater, 175 shift, 159, 184–187, 208 transport, 298, 319 stemfl ow, 46, 46 Three Gorges Dam, China, 277 in channels, 88–93 steps, 180 thresholds, 22, 22 limited systems, 102 see also pools, step extrinsic, 22 in mixed-load rivers, 100 Stokes’ law, 95, 103 intrinsic, 22 tributary, 95 stone cells, 100 throughfall, 46, 46 variability in, 224 stopbanks, 279 throughfl ow, 47–48, 48 volume, 37–38 storms, tracking of, 58 throughput, 55 yields, 298, 319 streams Thurra River, Victoria, 287 and forest clearance, 274 boulder-bed, 187 time human impact on, 313 channelised (entrenched), 52 conceptualisation of, 17–20 to ocean, 309 ephemeral, 62 graded, 18 and urbanisation, 275 graded, 31 static, 18 sedimentology, 104, 115 gravel-bed, 83, 100 timescales, effective, 307 seepage, 117 humid, 62 Toffaleti equation, 92 force, 104 and landslides, 305, 307 topography, ridge and swale, 218 segments, defi nition of, 177 length (L), 34 total suspended solids (TSS), 90 sensitivity analysis, 210–211 order, 39–41, 43 tracers, 92 shear stress, 67, 79 Horton–Strahler approach to, 40, trampling, 275 bed, 86 40 transition

critical (τc), 70, 86 power, 33, 67 climate induced, 252

mean boundary (τ0), 68 critical, 68 zones, 195 sheets, 142, 170 hump, 33–34 transpiration, 45 diffuse gravel, 151 specifi c/unit (ω), 68 transport, 84, 114–115 fl oodplain, 304 total (Ω), 68, 79 bedload, 89–93, 91, 115 wash, 51 power of, 222 variability in, 92 Shields diagram, 87 sand-bed, 83 capacity, 91 Shields equation, 86 trunk, 38, 307 dissolved-load, 88 Shields number/parameter (τ*), 86–87 superslugs, 98 suspended-load, 88–90

critical (τ*c), 86 surface detention, 49 transverse ribs, 99 Sichuan Province, China, 250 swales, 133, 143, 157, 159 traps/pits, 92 silt, 84–85, 108 swamps tree scars, 60 sinuosity, 159, 183, 185 upland, 175, 190 tributaries, 38 site selection, 112 valley-bottom, 304 confl uence zones of, 307 slab failures, 119 system dynamics, understanding of, fi ll in, 304 slackwater deposits, 60 321–322 geomorphically signifi cant, 38 slaking, 117 troughs, glacial, 245 sliding, 90 Tachia River, Taiwan, 247 turbidity, 84, 88, 90 slopes, 33, 34, 54, 116, 197 Tanana River, Alaska, 143 turbulence, 51, 83, 88 lee, 97 Tangjiashan quake lake, China, 250 , NSW, 149, 258 stoss, 97–98 Tarndale Gully, New Zealand, 117 Twin Streams catchment, New Zealand, threshold (S), 196 Taupo River, New Zealand, 248 312–314 wash, 51 techniques, seismic, 113 Tyrol Mountains, Austria, 179 sloughing, 119 tectonic activity, 239 soil tectonic context, 266 unconfi ned rivers, 175 moisture, 46, 46–47, 119 tectonic plates, 179, 240–241, 250 see also laterally unconfi ned rivers antecedent, 50, 57, 58 tectonic settings, 17, 32, 236, 245 unconfi ned settings, 170 pipes, 48 primary, 239 unconfi ned valleys, 33, 109, 188–193, saturation, 46 rivers in, 242 210 type, 46, 47 sediment fl ux in, 309, 310–312, 318 evolutionary pathways in, 237–239, South Island, New Zealand, 245 tectonic uplift, river responses to, 238 space for time substitution, 265 246–247 see also laterally unconfi ned valleys space to move, 321 templates, geomorphic, 2 unconformities, 108, 264 sphericity, 103 terraces, 111, 155, 179, 248, 255, 265 undercutting, 118–119 springs, 49 relationships, 111 uplift, tectonic, 32 Index 345

Upper Hunter catchment, NSW, 311–313 unconfi ned see unconfi ned valleys hungry, 277 urbanisation, 275–276 width, 34 infi ltrated, 45 variability movements of, 44 valley confi nement, 12, 13, 18, 32, 70, 80, natural range of, 232 storage of, 44, 64 164, 202, 254 potential range of, 222, 224 table, 49, 114 adjustment in, 132, 137, 155, 171–172, vegetation vapour, 45 177 cover, 124 viscosity, 88 and energy conditions, 222 instream, 71 watercourses, discontinuous, 175 and fl oodplains, 213–214 as resistance element, 72–75 waterfalls, 136, 179, 180, 249 and river morphology, 229, 233 riparian, 224 watersheds see catchments and sediment deposition, 177–178 clearance of, 281, 288 waves valley sandar see braidplains removal of, 282 boat-induced, 275 valley setting, 7, 30, 32, 33, 178–179, succession, 165 gravity, 72 202–204, 208, 223, 233, 238 types of, 74 standing, 72, 98 confi ned, 179, 179, 229 velocity, 91, 128 wedges, 170 determination of, 12, 37 critical, 71 weirs, 279 and fl oodplains, 159, 246 equation, 75 Wentworth scale, 81, 82

laterally unconfi ned, 188–193, 201, fall (V0), 103, 103 wetness, 123 227, 229, 258–260, 261, 316 profi les, 67, 68 width, 54, 116, 128 partly confi ned, 257–261 reversal hypothesis, 142 width/depth ratio, 54–55, 109, 110, river responses to changes in, 248 settling, 97, 103 124–125, 125 river styles for, 199 wave, 24 Williams River, Alaska, 219 valleys volcanic events, 248, 248, 249 Williams River, NSW, 175 confi ned see confi ned valleys wilting point, 47 fi ll, 189 Waiapu River, New Zealand, 102, 304, Wingecarribee swamp, NSW, 304 analyses, 112 313 winnowing, 93, 94, 95, 99 sequences, 108 Waiau River, New Zealand, 190 wood, 71, 224 intact fl oor, 54 Waimakariri River, New Zealand, 189, removal of, 282, 283, 287 laterally unconfi ned see laterally 242 as resistance element, 72–75 unconfi ned valleys Waipaoa catchment, New Zealand, 117 types of structure, 76 margins of, 210 Walther’s law, 108 partly confi ned see partly confi ned Washington State, USA, 148–149 X-ray technology, 301 valleys water pinch points in, 307 abstraction of, 275 Yang equation, 92 setting see valley setting atmospheric, 45 Yangtze River, China, 277, 313 slope, 31 global distribution of, 45 Yellow River, China, 89, 175–176, 242, 313