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Green Space Planning and Land Use: an Assessment of Urban Regional and Green Structure Planning in Greater Copenhagen

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Green Space Planning and Land Use: an Assessment of Urban Regional and Green Structure Planning in Greater Copenhagen Green space planning and land use: An assessment of urban regional and green structure planning in Greater Copenhagen Ole H. Caspersen, Cecil C. Konijnendijk & Anton S. Olafsson Abstract In its Regional Plan of 2005, The Greater Copenhagen Authority ent municipalities will comply to objectives of the Regional Plan (abbreviated as “HUR” in Danish) places special emphasis on the 2005. future recreational values associated with the regional green struc- ture. In this paper, the development of the urban green structure in Keywords Greater Copenhagen is elaborated upon, focusing on land use Green structure, land cover, landscape change, recreational areas, changes and the effectiveness of regionally coordinated planning regional planning measures. EU MOLAND data are used to analyse the development of the region’s green structure during the period 1954 to 1998. Ole H. Caspersen Analysis of two “green wedges” within the green structure illus- Senior Adviser MSc, PhD. Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape trates that the development of the green recreational areas is the re- and Planning, KVL Dept. of Urban and Landscape Studies. sult of both formal and more informal planning initiatives. Devel- Email: [email protected] opment has shown equal phases that correspond to the applied re- gional planning measures and the general economic conditions. Cecil C. Konijnendijk However, local preferences in the involved municipalities likewise woodSCAPE consult, Rytterager 74, 2791, Dragoer, Denmark. have played an important role and have resulted in different urban- Email: [email protected] isation pressure within the two wedges. Land use has transformed from an agricultural to a primarily recreational landscape. In some Anton S. Olafsson areas, however, urbanisation pressure has resulted in residential Department of Geography, University of Copenhagen, Øster and green industrial areas instead of the planned recreational land Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K. use. Based on its historical development it is concluded that future preservation and development of the green structure in Greater Copenhagen requires regional planning measures to be incorpo- Geografisk Tidsskrift rated into municipal plans. In this way the increasingly independ- Danish Journal of Geography 106(2): 7-20, 2006 It is well established that urban green areas provide a wide and children’s playgrounds, for example, was a main rea- range of social, aesthetic, environmental and economic son for people moving out from the city of Leuven, Bel- benefits (e.g. NUFU, 2005; Tyrväinen, et al., 2005). The gium (Van Herzele & Wiedemann, 2003). In Helsinki, importance of urban green spaces has been known for more than 80% of the inhabitants stated the role of green decades; however the relationship between urban live- areas in contributing to the quality of their living environ- ability and green areas as incorporated in overall urban ment as very important (Tyrväinen et al., 2004). Residents green structures has become the focus of international of Barcelona recognize the importance of green spaces for studies especially during the last 10 to 15 years. the quality of life in the city; tranquillity and contact with Forests, parks and other open spaces in and near cities nature are seen as major advantages (Priestley et al., offer attractive settings for outdoor recreation, both for 2004). Most urban inhabitants in the Netherlands have daily (short-term) and longer-term use. Studies have good access to green space, as a modelling study by Zoest found that living in a ‘green’ environment and/or close to and Vries (2004) has shown. Two-thirds of all urban resi- accessible green spaces is important for residents’ satis- dents have good access to the nearest green space on foot, faction with their living environment. Lack of green space while 83% has good access by bicycle. Countries such as Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography 106(2) 7 the Netherlands have recognized the importance of green ral and agricultural land was noted for the period 1954 to space for the quality of urban life and developed policies 1998 (EEA, 2002). As Schrijnen (2000) states for agricul- to cater for residents’ demands for ‘green living’. tural land as example of open space: “The economic basic Research has documented that access to green areas for agriculture is weaker than the investment power of in- has a positive influence on visitors’ wellbeing and can re- dustrial and urban sectors”. Hence city patterns that en- duce stress-related illness such as mental fatigue and able a good accessibility to green areas also depend upon headaches, and additionally also can have a restitution ef- powerful planning measures to counterbalance economic fect (Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2003; Kaplan & Kaplan, driving forces. Planning measures are required to prevent 1989). A recent Danish study confirms these results sprawl activities (here defined as non-intended urbanisa- (Hansen & Nielsen, 2005). It also concludes that the rela- tion) and to coordinate the development of infrastructure. tionship between green areas and stress reduction is espe- Based on the recognition that green areas are impor- cially prominent for the inhabitants in a larger metropolis. tant for residents of larger city regions this article focuses Combined, dense population, traffic noise and pollution on the transformation of Greater Copenhagen from a rela- create an environment in which inhabitants are severely tively compact city to a star city during the past 60 years. exposed to stress inducing factors. Hence the demand for Greater Copenhagen is characterized by a radial structure accessibility to green areas is enlarged in an urban envi- of conurbation separated by five green wedges that, to ronment characterized by an intense lifestyle and high ex- some extent, have restrained sprawl (see Figure 1). The posure to environmental pollution and other stress induc- background for analysis is the new Danish planning re- ers. Demands for green space should first of all be met in form that in 2007 will transfer planning authority from a terms of number, size and quality of green areas inside regional body to the individual municipalities. The degree cities and towns (VROM, 2000). Green structures around to which different planning measures have succeeded in and between cities, however, are very important and need supporting a land use development that secured a sound to be taken into account as well. Often these can be char- green structure can be analysed by a study of land use acterized in terms of specific types such as greenbelts, changes as compared with planning measures taken over green ‘hearts’, green wedges or more diffuse recre- time. The presented analysis includes an assessment of ational/green areas. While parks and other green areas in- how perceived regulations and ‘loose’ guidelines may side the city are usually used for shorter visits, the nearby have had significant impact on land use decision making larger green areas at the urban fringe are used for leisure and, in turn, on land dynamics and trends. Study findings and other activities that typically have a longer duration can provide inputs to the ongoing debate on future plan- (e.g., Arnberger, 2006). In other words, these findings ning measures in Greater Copenhagen. support hierarchic approaches to green space systems that The landscape between the ‘urban fingers’ in Greater incorporate a continuum from smaller, local parks close Copenhagen has mainly been developed as “green to people’s homes to larger parks and open spaces at the wedges” to comply with recreational needs. In order to urban fringe. analyse this development, this paper first provides an Antrop (2000) states that urbanisation often leads to analysis of the regional coordination and the strength of urban and industrial areas that form star shaped patterns. implemented planning measures with regards to green and This development can be recognized in the case of recreational areas over time. Next, a GIS (geographical in- Greater Copenhagen, Denmark, where infrastructure and formation system) based analysis of land use changes is urbanisation extend out from the central compact city. introduced and applied to two of the region’s green However, Schrijnen (2000) considers this only as one wedges for the period from 1954 to 1998. Finally, links stage in the development of a city complex. He argues between land use changes and development of the plan- that cities grow in circles, first along the radial infrastruc- ning institutions and measures at regional and local level ture lines and later between them. During the interaction are discussed. between urbanisation and the hinterland, green spaces and other recreational areas often come under pressure. In some cases the loss of green and agricultural land can be significant, as indicated in the European Environment Agency’s MOLAND land use statistics for 25 European cities (EEA, 2002). For Copenhagen, a 19% loss of natu- 8 Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography 106(2) Historical development of green structure planning would create traffic congestion. Likewise it was men- in Greater Copenhagen tioned that an ever increasing number of Copenhagen in- habitants would experience a decreasing accessibility to Emergence of a green structure green areas. In particular, visits to the outdoor recreation The development of the green structure of Greater Copen- and leisure areas would be more time consuming due to hagen was initiated in the 19th century when the defence the increasing distance between the centre and these areas. ring consisting of forts and moats around Copenhagen In the proposal for a new master plan a star city region was abandoned. This former defence ring was developed characterized by a compact centre and an urbanising and became the first “green ring” of Copenhagen. Later process along radial rail-based corridors was proposed as other areas such as “Damhussøen” and “Utterslev Mose” overall concept for the development of Greater Copen- used by the Copenhagen water department formed the ba- hagen. The proposed master plan, published in 1947, be- sis of a second green ring.
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