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The Incas used to recite and 2. They had a custom where sing the legends about how they the ruler would marry his own sister. began. According to one of these This may have been to keep power legends, a family of four brothers over the tribe within the royal and four sisters came out of a cave family. 15 miles South of Cusco. They were 3. They thought that the best way to led by Manco Capac , and his sister, change their ruler was for him to Mama Ocllo , whom he married. choose his successor from among the They persuaded ten ayullus (small sons of his chief wives. The idea tribes or extended families), who was that he would choose the most emerged from two other caves, to capable of his sons to rule after him. come with them to find somewhere to settle and Each of grow crops. Vilcapampa Lare these things Paucartampu Quechua may have Cotapampa The Incas Chanca Yanahuara Incas helped the eventually Chilque Cavina Incas to arrived in the Sora become Omasayo Kanche Cusco area. Aymara Chumpivilca stronger than They made Kana their neigh- the people Cuntisuyu Azangaro bours. While there accept Colla some of the Parinacocha Collagua them as their Cavana details of the rulers. From Inca legends Ubina time to time Lupaca are disputed they The main tribes near the Incas by historians, attacked the Incas neighbouring tribes, forcing them to must have started somehow, perhaps hand over their wealth. round about 1200 A.D.
The legends do not provide us According to the Inca stories, the with firm facts about how the Incas leaders who followed Manco Capac, began. But they do tell us at least Sinchi Roca and Lloque Yupanqui, three things about how the Incas were not particularly warlike. wanted to remember their rulers: As can be seen from the map, the 1. They admired powerful warriors, Incas were just one of many tribes but knew that cruel ones might lose living in the central Andes. the support of their own people.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 2 A time of tribal warfare
The Incas became more warlike Sapa Inca on the death of under their fourth leader, Mayta Inca Roca. The kidnapping Capac . One reason why the Incas shows that the Incas were not became more aggressive may have at this point any more powerful than been a change in climate resulting in their neighbours. less rainfall. More land was needed to During the reign of Viracocha grow the same amount of food. Inca , in the early 15th century, the Mayta Capac led the Incas in a fight Incas began their permanent with their neighbours over water conquests, at first on a small scale. rights. The Incas won the war, looted Viracocha’s uncles, Vicaquirao and their neighbours’ homes, and took Apo Mayta , were able generals. They over some of their land and water. defeated the Ayarmaca kingdom by attacking it from two directions. But According to some accounts the instead of just helping themselves to fifth leader, Capac plunder they took Yupanqui, was the Chiefdoms the kingdom first one to fight Farmers over. This set a outside the Cusco pattern for future valley. He defeated chimu Inca conquests. two very small tribes, the Virococha was Cuyumarca and chancas now the ruler of a Ancasmarca. His incas powerful state, successor, Inca Coastal one of only 8 Roca , conquered states powerful states in land to the south east the Andes area of colla of Cusco. South America. Lupaca Two of these, the One of Inca Colla and the Roca’s young sons, Hunters Lupaca, lay to the Yahuar Huacac , Farmers south of Inca was kidnapped and territory. The held captive for a Incas became number of years Organisation of states allies of the because of a quarrel and peoples in 1430 Lupaca, so the between two Colla were faced neighbouring tribes, the Ayarmaca by enemies in two directions. But in and the Huayllaca . Yahuar Huacac’s the fighting that followed the Inca mother, Mama Mikaywas , was from army arrived at the scene only to find the Huayllaca tribe. Yahuar Huacac that the Lupaca had already won the was eventually released and became battle!
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 3 A time of tribal warfare
To the West of the Inca many people left the Calca kingdom, the Chancas seemed set to group to join Pachacuti. become the leading power in the Central Andes. They had already Pachacuti had to deal with two conquered the Quechua tribe, and in enemies at the same time, the about 1438 attacked the Incas. Chancas, and his father's forces at Calca. Pachacuti struck eastward, According to one story Viracocha to the edge of the tropical rainforest, Inca and his chosen heir Inca Urcon to add to the territory he controlled, left Cusco. They withdrew some and to hem in Viracocha’s forces at miles to the north to Calca. Calca. However, another son, later to be known as Pachacuti or At this point Viracocha Inca ‘Earthshaker’, remained in Cusco to died, and Inca Urcon was killed defend the city, supported by shortly afterwards in a skirmish . generals Vicaquirao and Apo Mayta. Viracocha’s and Urcon’s followers accepted Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui Pachacuti successfully defended as the new Sapa Inca, and the Inca Cusco. (According to legend, stones nation was reunited. turned into Pachacuti warriors in continued order to fighting the complete the Chancas until Chanca he had defeat!) More completely Inca soldiers subdued joined them. The Pachacuti’s Incas now had army, and he the resources was able to of a large and drive the powerful Chancas away kingdom to from Cusco. add to their own, and in By now Pachacuti there were two they had a Inca states, one in Cusco, led by Sapa Inca who had a vision of what Pachacuti, and the other in Calca, led he could do with that power. He by his father Viracocha Inca. As the believed the gods had given him the power of the Cusco group grew, task of conquering the Andes.
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2 - The conquests of Pachacuti ‘Earthshaker’ Before 1438 the Andes had the same way that Andean villages been occupied by a hundred or so had already done over hundreds of larger tribal groups, and thousands of years. smaller ones. The kingdoms, Pachacuti would then ask the chiefdoms, tribes and lordships of the neighbouring tribe to provide him Andes had many different languages with troops or labourers, in return for and customs. Tribes sometimes the gifts he had given. Overall, traded with one another, but often although both sides in the agreement they fought for did both giving and scarce land and taking, in practice Chiefdoms resources. From the Incas did most the reign of Farmers of the taking! Pachacuti all this Even so, when the changed. chimu Incas later became Thousands of more powerful, they different peoples still had to request chancas became one - ‘The incas help in this way, Land of Four and if the custom Quarters’, Coastal was forgotten it states Tawantinsuyu. In could cause trouble. theory, and some- colla But it was an times in practice, Lupaca effective way of the entire Andes raising very large was at peace. Hunters armies. As the Incas conquered Farmers Pachacuti more tribes, they ‘Earthshaker’ gained more and began this change Organisation of states more goods, which partly through and peoples in 1430 in turn allowed defeating other them to have even tribes and partly through talking to larger armies. them. He made special Give-and- The first important group the Take agreements with neighbouring Incas conquered were the Chancas. tribes, using age-old Andean customs. By using the wealth gained in this ‘Give-and-Take’ meant that the Incas victory, the Incas were able to start exchanged gifts with another tribe, in out on their programme of conquest.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 5 The conquests of Pachacuti ‘Earthshaker’
The Chancas were the first major which the Chancas became tribe to come under Inca control. It the junior partners. happened gradually. Pachacuti With the resources of defeated them in battle on several these two ‘super-tribes’ Pachacuti was occasions. At one point the two tribes able to send Capac Yupanqui on a joint agreed not to attack one another, Inca-Chanca expedition to the north. leaving them both free to gain more He had orders not to go too far north. territory. There was then something Pachacuti probably did not want him to like a competition between the two stir up the powerful northern kingdom tribes to see who could conquer the of Chimu . most land. It turned out that the Chancas did The most of the Chancas’ army fighting. This moved south, made the Incas conquering the look foolish. Colla people in Pachacuti the area of Lake became worried Titicaca. that the Chanca Pachacuti and army would the Incas attack their Inca marched west allies. He sent through an order to Quechua Capc Yupanqui territory to to kill the conquer the Chanca leaders. Vilcas and the Sora tribes. Warned of Pachacuti then this, the Chanca sent his brother The conquests of Pachacuti army fled Capac further to the Yupanqui north east into southwards. He reached as far as the the rainforest. CapacYupanqui tried to Pacific Ocean, and on his return follow them, but eventually gave up. journey to Cusco even captured a few But Capac Yupanqui had now Chanca villages. broken Pachacuti’s orders not to go too Somehow, through threats, far north. He captured the city of bribes and military pressure, the Cajamarca , even though the city was Chancas were forced into a ‘Give-and- an ally of Chimú, and he left an Inca take’ agreement with the Incas, under garrison there before starting the long return journey to Cusco.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 6 3 - The conquests under Pachacuti ‘Earthshaker’
Pachacuti’s general Capac Pachacuti put a younger son, Yupanqui, caused problems for Tupac Inca Yupanqui , in charge of an Pachacuti.by capturing Cajamarca. army to move northwards. Tupac Cajamarca was an ally of the Chimu forced the Chancas and the Quechua Empire , the largest and most powerful to fully accept Inca control. But his state in South America. Pachacuti was main task was to defeat Chimu. Its angry that his brother had disobeyed great capital city of Chan Chan was his orders. He was also afraid that he 600 miles to the North through high might use his victorious army to replace and unfamiliar mountain paths. him as Sapa Inca. Pachacuti ordered him to be killed before he arrived in Tupac Inca’s huge army, which Cusco. included many Inca allies, set off. The smaller tribes they encountered quickly Pachacuti now had to face came to terms with the Incas. The Inca enemies from two army then directions. In the approached the north there was Chimu Empire, Chimu. In the Peru and drove off the south, his Chanca Chimu soldiers allies, smarting who were Cajamarca Brazil from the execution Chimu surrounding the of their generals, empire Inca garrison at rose against the Cajamarca. Chan Chan Inca empire Incas. To face this Pacific Tupac Inca challenge, Ocean Cusco then attacked Pachacuti sent Chimu from armies against several directions. both threats. The The conquests They cut off the Incas had already Of Tupac Inca city’s water defeated the Colla under Pachacuti supply, and in tribe. Now the 1464 the last southern Inca army Chimu Emperor, defeated the Lupaca and their allies, so Minchancaman , was forced to that the Incas controlled all the land surrender. between Cusco and Lake Titicaca.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 7 The conquests under Pachacuti
Tupac Inca had extended the food supply. He reformed Inca Empire far to the north and the panaqas (the royal defeated its most serious rival. He now families who preserved the marched his army back towards home, memory - and the mummies - of all the but along the coast to the south of Inca emperors). He ensured that they Chimu. One by one he defeated many had sufficient land to support his of the rich coastal kingdoms, including mummified ancestors. He began the the city of Pachacamac , with its practice of moving whole tribes from important oracle . The Incas had come one part of the empire to another. to control all the These mitimaes tribes and peoples were then less in the Northern likely to rebel, Andes. There and also played a was now no part in spreading kingdom in the Peru Inca ideas. He entire Andes encouraged a strong enough to state religion challenge them. based on the Chan Chan worship of the creator god Tupac Inca Virococha, while returned to Pacific also allowing all Cusco. Pachacuti Ocean Cusco the peoples he appointed him his conquered to successor, and keep their own while Tupac Inca Inca empire religions. accompanied the After the Northern army, Pachacuti conquests of Pachacuti remained at and Tupac Inca Yupanqui Pachacuti and Cusco. He his son Tupac reformed the government of the Incas Inca worked together, the father so that they could rule ‘The Land of organising the armies and changing the Four Quarters’ that they had system of government, and the son conquered. doing much of the fighting. In 1471 Pachacuti took their partnership a stage He began rebuilding the city of further by abdicating, allowing Tupac Cusco to be a worthy capital. Inca Yupanqui to become the new Sapa Impressive buildings were constructed, Inca. including the massive fortress of Sacsahuaman . He terraced the land around the capital to provide a good
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 8
Tupac Inca’s reign got off to a body in his path, as far as the Maule bad start. He tried to add to Inca lands River (in central Chile). Here the in the northeast. However, this was tough Araucanian tribesmen, and the low-lying tropical rainforest or jungle, much colder climate, brought the Incas not the mountains the Inca armies were to a halt. A number of small civilized used to. The local tribes fought back. and independent lowland states However, the Incas remained on the did take some new Pacific coast, west of land, and trade Ecuador Columbia Cusco. Around 1476 routes were opened Tupac Inca so that the Incas Peru Yupanqui attacked could have tropical Brazil them one by one, products. The local Chan Chan defeating them all tribes also agreed to after heavy fighting. supply archers for Like his father the Inca army. Pachacuti, Tupac Cusco However, the Inca spent the end of hard fighting led to Colla Bolivia his reign changing a rumour that Tupac Lupaca how Tawantinsuyu Inca Yupanqui had The campaigns was governed. He been killed. The of Tupac Inca distributed the land Colla and Lupaca Yupanqui as he had conquered tribes (who lived Inca emperor among his followers; south of Cusco) led he introduced a a rebellion. Tupac Chile system of dividing hurried south, and (Modern states people into labour captured the Colla's and frontiers units ranging from mountaintop shown in grey) 100 to 10,000 men, fortresses one by Argentina to provide manpower one. Then he River Maule - limit of for agricultural attacked the Lupaca, Inca advance projects and the who had regrouped Araucanians army; and he and joined up with introduced the the Pacasa tribe as their ally. The now system where each province provided all-powerful Inca army defeated them. girls to train to become Acclacunas Tupac Inca continued hundreds (Chosen Women). of miles southward, conquering every- He died unexpectedly in about 1493.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 9 Tawantinsuyu - the Inca Empire
After Tupac Inca’s death guards. Huayna Capac different branches, or panaqas , of the continued to push north- Inca royal family, plotted to get their wards. prince made Sapa Inca. The final He also had to face a choice was a young son of Tupac Inca threat from the east. When the called Huayna Capac . He was too powerful Chiriguano tribe raided young to rule on his own, so there was Tawantinsuyu, he sent an army to deal a further quarrel about who should with them. The Chiriguano were hold real power. driven back, and Once he was fortresses were built Pasto old enough to rule Quito along the frontier to in his own right, prevent further Huayna Capac raids. proved a competent
Sapa Inca. By the Chachapoyas Huayna Capac beginning of the himself focused on 16 th century bringing the Tawantinsuyu was northern province nearing its of Quito (the maximum size. In Cusco modern country of fact it was so big Ecuador) under that the main control. problem facing Huayna Capac was Meanwhile it how to hold it was probably the together. To do Chiriguano who this he travelled passed on the around, so that deadliest enemy the people would know Incas were ever to Chiriguano him in each part of 0 200 miles face – European the empire. diseases. Early Despite this, he Campaigns of Spanish explorers still had to put Huayna Capac on the Atlantic down a number of coast of South rebellions. Huayna America were Capac continued to add new carriers of diseases such as measles territories to the empire. He and smallpox which Native Americans conquered Chachapoyas, a had not been exposed to for thousands mountainous area in northeastern Peru. of years. They had no immunity, and Afterwards, these conquered people died in large numbers. provided him with excellent body-
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 10 Tawantinsuyu - the Inca Empire
In 1525 disease struck the area soon afterwards. Tawantinsuyu now of the Inca capital Cusco, killing faced a major crisis. thousands. Huayna Capac returned to deal with the panic - and himself died of the disease. His successor, a young son Ninan Cuyuchi, died very
Chinchaysuyu
0 200 miles Antisuyu
Cuntisuyu Kollasuyu
Tawantinsuyu - The land of Four quarters
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 11
5 - The Civil War After the death of Huayna Different Inca armies chose Capac and his son Ninan Cuyuchi sides, and Huascar and Atalhualpa in 1525, another son, Huascar, was fought an increasingly bitter civil proclaimed Sapa Inca at Cusco. war to decide who would control However, another panaqa - a Tawantisuy u. different branch of the royal family – had other ideas. Atahualpa had Huascar had the bigger been with his father, with the main armies. But Atahualpa had the more Inca army, in the north. Atahualpa’s experienced generals and soldiers. followers claimed that his half- Huascar failed to gain the respect of brother Huascar was not the his nobles, including his own ‘official’ Sapa Inca. They pointed generals. One by one Huascar’s out the proper religious ceremonies armies were defeated by Atalhaulpa, had not been before Huascar performed by (Atahualpa’s finally led out the High Priest. Base) an army Huascar, N QUITO himself. N who ruled from Huascar was Cusco from N 1 - Huascar sent defeated and 1525–1532, N large armies captured in N To attack 1532. treated Atahualpa Atahualpa and 2 - Atahualpa’s his followers armies defeated By now them one by one N with contempt. N the hatred and captured Huascar N between the two Huascar used outside Cusco his immense N sides ran very power to take = Battle in the CUSCO deep. Huascar N (Huascar’s was made to away some of Civil War Base) the wealth of watch hundreds the panaqas for The Civil War of members of himself. This his family being lost him many friends. butchered in front of him on the orders of Atalhualpa’s generals. His Meanwhile the northern Quipucamarocs , who remembered province of Quito became and recited Inca History from the Atalhualpa’s base, almost an point of view of Huascar’s family, independent kingdom. But were also killed. Atahualpa wanted to be Sapa Inca.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 12
6 - The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters Tawantinsuyu had been torn in Pizarro had personal experience of two by the civil war between Huascar this fighting. and Atahualpa. Then it was turned Atahualpa, following his own upside down by forces from outside. armies southwards, had reached the In 1532 the Spanish adventurers, abandoned town of Cajamarca. He Francisco Pizarro and 150 soldiers, had experience of war, but only were moving south from where they according to the rules and customs of had landed at Tumbes . They were the people of the Andes. He and his armed with advisers firearms, seem not to protected by have fully steel armour, understood and mounted what Pizarro on horses. Tumbes was aiming They to do. They also had a certainly clear aim - to underest- seize the vast Cajamarca imated him. amounts of Some of gold and Atahualpa’s silver in the advisers even Inca empire Cusco thought and make Pizarro was themselves a sent by the fortune. god They The Spanish Invasion 1531 - 1533 Viracocha had other and would aims too, to bring a new take the land on behalf of the King of age to Tawantinsuyu, so they prepared Spain, and convert the ‘Indians’ to the to worship the strangers. Others Christian faith. These aims were considered the Spaniards were genuine enough, but in practice not so enemies who should be killed - after important as getting the gold. getting from them the secret of iron- Pizarro and his men had the advantage making. Overall, Atahualpa and his of coming from the Spanish Empire advisers were curious about and had experience of conquering Pizarro and his men when they should people in Europe and America. have been cautious.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 13 The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters
Atahualpa himself seems to By this time the have thought that the strangers would Conquistadors realised they make good allies in his quarrel with needed an emperor that they Huascar. This may be why could control – a ‘puppet’ Sapa Inca. Atalhualpa’s army was not prepared They gave Atahualpa a swift ‘trial’ on for a battle when Atahualpa came to a number of charges, and he was then meet with Pizarro at the plaza in strangled to death. They made Tupac Cajamarca. Hualpa the new emperor (in 1533), After a brief attempt to convert thinking that he would be obeyed by Atahualpa to Christianity failed, the both the supporters of Huascar and Spaniards suddenly attacked. They those of Atahualpa. In fact he was used their cannon and their other part of Huascar’s branch of the Inca superior weapons. They massacred royal family, and so was hated by hundreds of many Incas. He died apparently unarmed shortly afterwards, Inca warriors. Map of conquest perhaps by being Pizarro himself 1536-37 Inca forces poisoned. captured Atahualpa attack Spaniards Manco Inca by pulling him out of (1533-1545), a brother his litter . of Atahualpa, was The Conquistadors appointed the next took Atahualpa Lima Sapa Inca by the Cusco hostage, and marched (new Spanish Conquistadors. At on to Cusco. They Capital) first he submitted to forced Atahualpa to Almagro leads them, because he use his power and Spanish thought they would authority to get them expedition to help him finally end masses of gold and south 1535 the civil war and bring silver from all over Tawantinsuyu back the Inca empire. Almagro returns under his control. In Atahualpa did this, to Cusco and 1535, when he but was fearful that prevents Spanish realised that they were the Conquistadors defeat, 1537 not interested in would hand over his reuniting the Inca empire to Huascar, Spanish invasion and empire, he escaped who was still being Inca resistance from the fortress of held by Atahualpa’s Sacsahuamán in soldiers. So Atahualpa, from his Cusco. prison, gave orders that Huascar By now Manco Inca was should be executed. planning to drive the strangers out of Tawantinsuyu.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006 14 The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters
Once he realised the Spanish (and heavier taxes) of the invaders were a deadly threat Manco Spaniards. Inca organised an army of over The Conquistadors 40,000 men to destroy them. The explored the entire length of Spaniards were now weaker, because Tawantinsuyu, looking for treasure. part of their army had split off to But they fought among themselves, explore the south. and many were killed. They were Manco Inca had the advantage of a replaced by other adventurers from large army, and knew that he was Spain and from the New World . It facing a ruthless enemy. After days was not until the late 1560’s that the of fighting in which the city of Cusco Spaniards set up an effective govern- was destroyed, his siege failed. He ment for the Andes region. It was retreated to a remote area , where with sited at Lima on the coast, where a few loyal followers he set up the ships could keep the Viceroyalty of tiny Inca kingdom of Vilcabamba . Peru in touch with Spain. Tawantinsuyu had collapsed. It Meanwhile all that was left of had depended on Inca rule was a tiny there being one area. From this strong Sapa Inca to mountain ‘kingdom’ give orders - and of Vilcabamba, now there wasn’t Manco Inca carried one. The only Incas on guerrilla with any power were warfare against the the curacas (the Spanish. His Vilcabamba local nobles who Lima successors sometimes had accepted Inca fought the Spanish control.) But they Cusco and sometimes tried soon came to realise to come to an that the Conquista- agreement with them. dors were only The Spanish interested in looting Viceroyalty In 1572 a new all the gold they of Peru Spanish governor could find. So the in 1570 captured the capital curacas stopped of Topa Amaru helping the (1571 – 1572). He Spaniards and had Topa Amaru restricted themselves publicly executed in to following as few Cusco. The remains of their orders as of the mummies of possible. Eventually the Sapa Incas were they had to submit to the heavy rule destroyed.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006