Ancient Civilizations
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DDCE/M.A Hist./Paper-1 Ancient Civilizations By Dr. Binod Bihari Satpathy 0 CONTENT Ancient Civilizations Unit. No Chapter Name Page. No. 1. Stages of Human Evolution. 02 -23 Unit-I 2. Origin and growth Human culture and Civilisation-Pre- 24-48 historic culture: Characteristic features of Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. 3. Mesopotamian Civilization: Sumerian, Babylonian and 49-84 Assyrian: Society, Art & Architecture, Religion, Law Codes, Administration, Religion and Education. Unit-II 4. Egyptian Civilization: Political Developments, Art & 85-114 Architecture, Religion. 5. Chinese Civilization: Polity, Society, Science & 115-159 Technological Developments 6. The Aztecs- The Origin, Society, Religion, Cosmology, 160-180 Economy and Decline. Unit-III 7. Maya Civilization: Polity, Society, Art, Religion, decline. 181-206 8. The Incas: Origin, Polity, Religion, Society and Economy, 207-227 Art and Architecture, Decline. 9. Greek Civilization: Athenian Democracy, Society and 228-250 Culture. Unit-IV 10. Roman Civilization: Establishment of Republic, Society and 251-282 Cultures. 11. Persian civilization: Political, Social and Economic 283-318 Conditions. 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is pleasure to be able to complete this compilation work. containing various aspects of ancient history of humanity. This material is prepared with an objective to familiarize the students of M.A History, DDCE Utkal University on the various aspects of world ancient Civilizations. This work would not have been possible without the support of the Directorate of Distance and Continuing Education, Utkal University. I would especially like to thank Prof. Susmita Prasad Pani, the Director, DDCE, Utkal University. As my teacher and mentor, he has taught me more than I could ever give him credit for here. He has shown me, by his example, what a good teacher (and person) should be. The compiler owes many thanks to all the reputed scholars on Ancient World History whose work is being used here for the sake of making the students understand the subject. I have copied, collected, and made use of the scholarly works of great scholars whose work has been mentioned in the further reading section of each chapter. The compiler of the present material claims no authority and originality on any topic of the materials cum textbook. As already been mentioned above the work is a compilation of already existing works of great scholars among whom name of a few have been mentioned at the end of each chapter. Besides the SLM of IGNOU and other Distance Education Institutions have been also consulted and used for preparation of this material for that I duly acknowledge those textbooks. Would be grateful by receiving suggestions and comments to improve this material cum textbook, from the students, teachers and also the practicing professionals. Binod Bihari Satpathy UNIT.1 Chapter-1 HUMAN EVOLUTION Structure 1.1.0. Objective 1.1.1. Introduction 1.1.2. Theory and Fact of Human Evolution 1.1.2.1. Theory of Creationism 1.1.2.2. Theory of Catastrophism 1.1.2.3. Theory of Transformism/Evolution 1.1.3. Our Place Among Primates 1.1.4. Primate Heritage 1.1.5. Trends in Human Evolution 1.1.5.1. Australopithecus 1.1.5.1.1. Other Australopithecus fossils 1.1.5.2. Homo Habilis 1.1.5.2.1. Early Tools 1.1.5.3. Homo Erectus 1.1.5.3.1. The Great Exodus and Aftermath 1.1.5.3.2. Tools of Homo Erectus 1.1.5.3.3. The Big Game Hunting 1.1.5.3.4. Invention of Fire 1.1.5.4. Homo Sapiens 1.1.5.4.1. The Neanderthals 1.1.5.5. Homo Sapiens Sapiens 1.1.6. An overview of Human evolution 1.1.7. Summary 1.1.8. Key Term 1.1.9. Exercise 1.1.10. Further Reading 2 1.1.0. Objectives In this lesson, students investigate hominid evolution. Throughout the chapter, an emphasis will be on the importance of fossil evidence in unraveling the history of our ancestors. After completing this chapter, you will be able to: understand the concept and various theories of human evolution on the earth surface learn about the genetic relationship between humans and our closest living relatives trace the fossil history of the mankind and to Identify major fossil groups: Australopithecus, Homo Habilis, Homo Erectus, Homo-Neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens. discuss that concepts like culture, religion and ethics evolved with humans. 1.1.1. Introduction There are questions that have bothered mankind for ages such as from where did we come from, when did our ancestors appear on earth? And there have been as numerous answers as there are religions in the world. But common to all early ideas was the concept of creation. It was almost universally accepted that the world and all its creations- plants, insects, birds, animals and human beings-were created at the same time by some supernatural being, call it God, or whatever. No wonder, the idea of creation was deep-rooted in almost all religious faiths and humans were considered to be the supreme creation of god. Science, however, looks at things differently. It tries to understand and observed facts on the basis of logical explanations and evidence wherever possible. In this lesson students will subsequently come across various aspects about human evolution such as the concept of evolution, ours primate heritage and phases of human evolution. Before the discussion of human origin, we should know the meaning of the tem evolution. Evolution is defined as the process by which different kinds of living organism developed from earlier forms. In another version it would define as the development of dissimilarities between ancestral and descendant population. In the process of evolution all living organism on this earth surface witnessed certain changes in their morphology through time. Human being, the wisest among the creature passes through several phases of evolution which is regarded as the climax of phylogenic history of organisms. The evolution of man can be studies through its morphology by comparative anatomy of fossils and also by the comparative biochemistry of the present day humans, apes and other primates. The fossil record of the human history, although rudimentary, has been quite helpful in determining largely what we are seeking, namely a sound history and evolution of human species. This observation is obvious if one looks at the fossil history from early primates to the present man. 3 1.1.2. Theory and Fact of Human Evolution Different theories have been given by different scholars, scientist, Anthropologist, religious teachers regarding the origin and evolution of man. During the 18th century, scholars grew increasingly interested in biological diversity and human origins. The following are some of the theories of human evolutions. 1.1.2.1.Theory of creationism Before the scientific discoveries of fossils records, in the theological world the commonly accepted explanation for the origin of species came from Genesis, the first book of the Bible, wherein it is stated that God had created all life during six days of creation and this is known as the theory of creationism. According to creationism, biological similarities and differences originated at the Creation. Characteristics of life forms were seen as absolute; they could not change. Through calculations based on genealogies in the Bible, the biblical scholars James Ussher and John Lightfoot even claimed to trace the creation to a very specific time: October 23, 4004 B.C., at 9 A.M. 1.1.2.2.Theory of Catastrophism Fossil discoveries during the 18th and 19th centuries raised doubts about creationism. In this circumstance a modified explanation combining creationism with catastrophism arose to replace the original doctrine. In this view, fires, floods and other catastrophes, including the biblical flood involving Noah‘s ark, had destroyed ancient species. After each destructive event, God had created again, leading to contemporary species. On this theory critics questioned that how did the catastrophists explain certain clear similarities between fossils and modern animals? And the proposer of this theory argued that some ancient species had managed to survive in isolated areas. For example, after the biblical flood, the progeny of the animals saved on Noah‘s ark spread throughout the world. 1.1.2.3.Theory of Transformism/Evolution The alternative to creationism and catastrophism was transformism, also called evolution. Evolutionists believe that species arise from others through a long and gradual process of transformation, or descent with modification. Charles Darwin became the best known of the evolutionists. However, he was influenced by earlier scholars, including his own grandfather. In a book called Zoonomia published in 1794, Erasmus Darwin had proclaimed the common ancestry of all animal species. In 19th century, Charles Darwin put forward the idea that humans have evolved from apes, in his book The Descent of Man. Darwin based his hypotheses on his wide-ranging studies of plant and animal life, of different continents and island of the world, which he carried out during a five year voyage-from 1831 to 1836 on board the research ship HMS Beagle. On examining the hundreds of species of plants, animals and birds he had seen and collected during 4 his voyage, Darwin could distinguish small changes in characters between similar species inhabiting different ecological niches. He summarized his findings in the book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, published in 1859, in which he described how one species could evolves into another more fit to survive in a changed environment, by a process which he called natural selection. Human beings, Darwin believed, evolved by a similar process. Charles Darwin also was influenced by Sir Charles Lyell, the father of Geology. During his famous voyage to South America aboard the Beagle, Darwin read Lyell‘s influential book Principles of Geology, which exposed him to Lyell‘s principle of uniformitarianism, which states that the present is the key to the past.