Significant People Significant People inAUSTRALIA’S HISTORY Contents in Significant People Significant People in ’s History profiles the people who brought AUSTRALIA’S HISTORY about important events or changes to Australian society through their in History makers 4 knowledge, actions or achievements. Explore the fascinating story of Australia, AUSTRALIA’S HISTORY Indigenous Australia 5 from its ancient Indigenous past to the present day, through the biographies of A snapshot of history 6 The Dreaming 8 these significant people. Ancient and sacred sites 10 Volu Language groups 12 me 1 The Dreaming and the Law 14 Each volume focuses on a particular Special features include: Volume1 Country 16 period in Australia’s history and includes: ‘life facts’ mini timeline Kinship 18 background information about the of each person’s life Life Facts featured time period and achievements 1580 Born in Holland Ceremonies 20 1615 Becomes commander * Indigenous a timeline of main events of the Eendrach Australia Indigenous Communication and trade 24 ‘more about …’ 1616More Lands about on the western... illustrated biographies of a wide range coast of Australia Impact of invasion 26 information boxes Dirk Hartog1618 Island Returns to the Australia Netherlands on the Cultural groups of significant people Hartog had landed in an area that was about related Eendrach home to the Malkana people, near Traditional custodians of Australia’s capital cities 28 a glossary of terms events and places modern-day in Western Australia. The place where Hartog left the metal Barkindji people of the Willandra Lakes 30 a comprehensive index. plate is now called Cape Inscription and ‘see also’ the island is called Dirk Hartog Island. Yorta Yorta people of the Murray River 32 cross-references to Nuenonne people of south-eastern Tasmania 34 The nine volumes in the series are: relevant information Wajuk people of south-western Australia 36 in other entries. people of Arnhem Land 38 people of the Uluru – Kata Tjuta area 40 Kuku-yalanji people of the Daintree 42 Meriam people of the 44 Glossary 47 Index 48 Rees Barrett

Glossary words When a word is written in bold, click on Rees Barrett it to find its meaning. History makers Indigenous Australia

Significant People in Australia’s History is about those men and women who have Volume 1: Indigenous Australia describes the Dreamings, traditions and continuing contributed remarkably to Australia’s identity and heritage. They are significant cultures of Indigenous Australian peoples. have maintained because they were pioneers in their field or because their knowledge, actions or rich and diverse cultures from at least 50 000 years ago to today. These are the oldest achievements brought about important events or changes in Australian society. continuing cultures in the world. All of these cultures are significant to Australia’s They represent the wide range of people who have contributed to the story of history, present and future. Some of these significant cultural groups are described Australia. in this volume. This series describes the history of Australia, from Indigenous beginnings to modern-day Australia, through the life stories of these significant people. Each Spiritual cultures volume consists of biographies of people from a particular period in Australia’s Indigenous Australians are descended from those who lived on this continent history or descriptions of Indigenous Australian cultural groups. more than 50 000 years ago. They are the original inhabitants and traditional custodians of Australia. Indigenous Australians are diverse peoples with many different cultures and languages. Indigenous Australian cultural groups, however, share some things in common, such as a spiritual connection to the land and a very long history of sustainable living in Australia’s natural environments.

Australia’s first peoples have maintained the oldest living cultures in the world.

4 5 A snapshot of history

People migrated from Asia to Australia at least 50 000 years ago. Around 60 000 b c e , the sea level was 30 metres lower than it is today due to an ice age. A lot more of the Earth’s seawater was frozen in ice caps, making the sea level low. The islands of Indonesia and New Guinea and the area that is now called Australia were part of one large landmass. People were able to make short sea crossings and walk The first people came to across the landmass to Australia. Australia when the sea Over many generations, these people moved southwards across the land. Gradually, level was much lower than it is today. the climate got warmer, the ice caps began to melt and the sea rose again. Coastal hills that were once part of the mainland became islands. About 10 000 b c e , the rising seas started to separate Tasmania from the mainland of Australia. About 6500 b c e , New Guinea and the Torres Strait Islands were separated from Australia. The shape of Australia as we know it today was formed by 4000 b c e .

Coastlines about 50000 years ago Coastlines today Possible line of migration of first peoples

At least 50 000 b c e – 1788

At least 50 000 b c e First peoples in Australia 1606 First encounter between Indigenous Australians and European explorers is recorded when a man spears and kills a Dutch 16 000 b c e Sea level is 130 metres lower than it is today sailor attempting to land at Cape York,

10 000 b c e Tasmania is cut off from the Australian mainland by rising Around 1720s First contact between Indonesian Australians and Macassan sea level fishermen from Indonesia is recorded

6500 b c e New Guinea is cut off by rising sea level Late 1700s Britain and France compete to explore the coast of Australia

4000 b c e Sea level is same as it is today 1788 Indigenous Australians are confronted with European invasion when

1500 b c e Dingo brought to Australia by Asian seafarers British settlers arrive at Sydney Cove

1600s Dutch Empire controls trade in the East Indies, the area including South-East Asia and India. Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch navigators search for Terra Australis, the southern land.

6 7 The Dreaming

The Dreaming, or Dreamtime, is the name given to the creation Passing on the Dreaming period when the Ancestral Beings travelled across the land, Ancestral law, values and beliefs that are passed down within a group are also part of the Dreaming. Time in the Dreaming is not measured. It is the past, present shaping its features and forming people, plants and animals, and future all rolled into one. A group may have one particular Dreaming, such as and the relationships between them. Wallaby Dreaming or Shark Dreaming, or a mixture of Dreamings. The animals and plants of their Dreamings are totems. The paths that the Ancestral Beings, also called Creation Spirits, took as they travelled across the land are called Dreaming tracks. These tracks often pass The continuing relationships between the people, the land and the animals are told through the Countries of many different Aboriginal Australian groups. Each group through Dreaming stories that are passed down from one generation to the next. has its own Ancestral Beings and Dreaming stories. The Ancestral Beings took many These stories are told orally and through ceremony, dance, music and painting. different forms, including human and animal forms. The rainbow serpent is Sacred sites one Ancestral Being that is known by The places where Ancestral Beings are many groups. still present in their Country, in the The Ancestral Beings made the features forms that they changed into during of the land, the animals and the people. the Dreaming, are one type of sacred They created the relationships between site. Special places connected with people, animals and the land. They these Ancestral Beings have spiritual also created the relationships between importance to Indigenous Australians, groups of peoples and individuals, called too. These places are also called sacred kinship. sites. Only certain people are allowed to visit these places. They always The Ancestral Beings gave the people approach these special places carefully the stories of the Dreaming, the Law and and respectfully. Individuals of a group ceremonies. Once the Ancestral Beings are often given responsibility to look had created the world, they turned into after these sites. rocks, trees, waterholes and other parts of the land and sky.

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The rainbow serpent The rainbow serpent is a snake-like Ancestral Being that is common to many Aboriginal groups. As it travelled across the land, the rainbow serpent created rivers and hills. It stopped along the way at very sacred places and sang the names of everything it made along its path. The rainbow serpent was given different names by different groups, such as Ngalyod by the people of Arnhem Land and Waugal by the Nyungar A rock painting of a rainbow serpent, nation of south-western Australia. in the , shows its snake-like body.

8 9 Location: , Northern Territory Ancient and sacred sites Sites: The World Heritage Site Kakadu National Park has numerous ancient sites, such as rock art sites, that show that Indigenous Australians have occu- pied this area continuously for over 50 000 years. The traditional owners, called /Mungguy, co- Around Australia, there are many sites that provide evidence manage the National Park. of Indigenous Australian occupation long ago. Over many generations, these sites have been cared for and protected by the traditional owners of the land. Wik and Kokowarra Country, Archaeologists have found evidence that Darwin Aboriginal people have been living on the land Location: Kimberley, Western Australia Sites: Ancient sites that have been for more than 50 000 years. They have found studied show that Indigenous Austra- Kakadu National used pieces of ochre, stone tools and charcoal lians have occupied the area continu- Park ously since at least 37 000 b c e . from cooking fires. Sometimes, middens are Two archaeologists uncover a body, known as found containing shells, bones and other items Mungo Man, at an ancient site at . left behind from meals eaten thousands of years Kimberley region Northern Territory ago. In some places, drawings and carvings Location: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland have been found on the walls of caves and rock Sites: Famous sites are middens at Weipa, in the Burrup Peninsula shelters. Country of the Wik people, and cave paintings Queensland near Laura, in the Country of the Kokowarra Pitjantjatjara and Yankuntjatjara people. These sites provide evidence of occupa- Many ancient and sacred sites were destroyed Country, Central Desert as land was cleared or mined after British tion over the last 37 000 years. settlement. This distressed the individuals and Western Australia groups responsible for the sites. Today, many Location: Central Desert, Northern Territory sacred sites are protected under Australian law. Brisbane Sites: Sites in the World Heritage listed Uluru This map shows some – Kata Tjuta National Park show occupation of Australia’s ancient Koonalda Cave, from at least 20 000 b c e . Evidence of human and sacred sites. Nullarbor Plain occupation from over 35 000 years ago has Wajuk and been found at Puritjarra rock shelter in the Country, south-western Cleland Hills, west of Alice Springs. Perth Western Australia Lake Mungo Location: Burrup Peninsula, Western Australia Sydney Sites: Middens and thousands of ancient Adelaide rock engravings on the Burrup Peninsula, Kow Swamp Location: Lake Mungo, New South Wales also called Murujuga, show occupation from Sites: Lake Mungo is the site of the world’s Victoria Australian Capital at least 30 000 b c e . The Jaburara Aboriginal oldest cremation burial, which is at least Melbourne Group co-manage the site with the Western Territory 40 000 years old. The site is included on the Australian Government. World Heritage List and is co-managed by its traditional owners.

Tasmanian Wilderness Location: South-western Western Australia Tasmania Location: Kow Swamp, Victoria Sites: Ancient camp sites found near the Hobart Sites: Grave sites of the Baraba Baraba people Swan River, just north of Perth, and in lime- at Kow Swamp, near Cohuna in central north- stone caves such as Devil’s Lair, near Cape ern Victoria, provide evidence of occupation Location: Nullarbor Plain, South Australia Location: Tasmanian Wilderness Leeuwin, indicate occupation of the area 15 000 years ago. Other ancient sites are lo- Sites: Koonalda Cave is the most famous of Sites: Sites such as caves, rock shelters and coastal middens since at least 43 000 b c e . Bones of extinct ani- cated along the Murray River valley. several ancient sites on the Nullarbor Plain. It provide evidence of occupation in 34 000 b c e . The most famous mals have also been found at Devil’s Lair. was a quarry for flint tools over 22 000 years site is Kutikina Cave, in which bone tools have been found. This ago. Rock engravings were made on the area is included on the World Heritage List. Descendants of the cave walls deep underground. Lairmairrener people are involved in managing these sites.

10 11 Gunwinggu TIMOR SEA Iwaidja Maung Kalaw Kawaw Ya Amarak Wuningangk Meriam Mir Kundjey’mi Gunbalang ARAFURA SEA Kala Lagaw Ya Gagudju Gunibidji Bukurnidja Muralag Gungurugoni Tjerrratj Konbudj Ngombur Nakara Kuwema Anggamudi Yadhaigana Mbukarla Tiwi Burarra Tappathiggi Maranunggu Luthigh Marrithiyel Limilngan Tjungundji Woolna Yupangathi Ngan’giwumirri Mpalitjanh Larrakia Anguthimri Marramaninjsji Wadyiginy Dangbon Yolngu Awngthim Kuuku-ya’u Ngan’gikurunggurr Rembarnga Mbeiwum Yinwum Marringarr Kungarakany Ngalkbun Winda Winda Murrinh-patha Malak Warray Malak Warnindilyakwa Wik Kuuku-yani Miwa Wagiman Ngalakan Umbindhamu Gamberre Doolboong Nunggubuyu Gulf Bakanh Lamalama Kwini of Mutumui Wunambul Kadjerong Wardaman Mara Yiiji Carpentaria Yir Yoront Kokowarra Yanuwa Kunjen Guugu-Yimidhirr Miriwoong Ngaliwuru Gananggalinda Koko-bera Unggarangi Worora Alawa CORAL SEA Karangpurru Lardil Koknar Kokomini Nimanburu Kuku-yalanji Bardi Umida Kija Gayardilt Bilinara Garawa Djabuganjdji Ngandgi Nyul Nyul Ganggalida Yidinjdji Jabirrjabirr Warwa Jingili Gurindji Mingin Kuthant Mbabaram Ngumbarl Punuba Gunindiri Gunwinggu Djirbalngan Jukun Nyikina Nguburinji IwaidjaWambaya Maung Kalaw Kawaw Ya INDIAN Jaru TIMORWarlmanpa SEA Amarak Wuningangk Mayi- Takalak WargamayganMeriam Mir Kundjey’mi Gunbalang Mayi- Gagudju KutunaARAFURAYapi SEA Kala Lagaw Ya Gunibidji Mayi-Kulan Muralag Nyawaygi OCEAN Bukurnidja Yanga GungurugoniWakabunga Walmatjarri Tjerrratj Konbudj Mayi- Ngawun Gugu-Badhun Bindal Ngombur WakayaNakara Mangala Kuwema Warlpiri Thakurti MbaraAnggamudi Yadhaigana Mbukarla Tiwi Burarra Tappathiggi Yuru Maranunggu Luthigh Language groups MarrithiyelNgartiLimilngan Kaytej Tjungundji Nyangumarda Woolna Kalkadoon Yupangathi Wuthathi Giya KukatjaNgan’giwumirri Wunumara YilbaMpalitjanh Larrakia Bularnu Anguthimri Yirandali Biri PACIFIC Jaburrara Kariyarra Marramaninjsji Wadyiginy Dangbon Yolngu Awngthim Kuuku-ya’u Ngan’gikurunggurr Yalarrnga YinwumYangga Yuwi Yulparitja AlyawarreRembarnga Warluwarra Mbeiwum Marringarr KungarakanyAnmatyerre Yanda UutaalnganuMiyan OCEAN Martuthunira Ngalkbun GuwaWinda Winda Murrinh-patha Malak Warray Andegerebenha Kaantju UmpilaYambina Baradha Yindjibarndi Barna Malak Ngandi Warnindilyakwa Wik Kuuku-yani Guwinmal Jawoyn Wangan Kurrama Palyku Miwa Wagiman Ngalakan Umbindhamu Gamberre Doolboong NunggubuyuPitta-PittaGulf Gabalbara It is estimated that there were between Bakanh Lamalama Pinikura Banjima Mardu Kwini Mangarayi of Thaayorre YagalinguMutumui Wunambul Kadjerong Wardaman Mara Wangkamana Jurruru Yiiji Arrernte Carpentaria Yir Yoront Kokowarra Jiwarli Nungali Yanuwa Gayiri 250 000 and 500 000 Indigenous Purduna Ngarinyin Kunjen Guugu-Yimidhirr Bayali Payungu Yinhawangka Miriwoong Ngaliwuru Yangman Gananggalinda Koko-bera Thiin Unggarangi Worora Alawa Mithaka Kuungkari Wadjigu CORAL SEA Ngalawangka Ngatatjara Karangpurru Lardil Koknar Kokomini Tharrgari Nimanburu PitjantjatjaraNgarinman Binbinga Garingbal Gureng Gureng Australians belonging to nearly BidjaraKuku-yalanji Warriyangga Wawula Bardi Umida Kija Yarluyandi Gayardilt Maya Bilinara Garawa Birria DjabuganjdjiWuli-wuli NgaanyatjarraUnggumi Worla Ngandgi Dharawala Gungabula Nyul Nyul Mudburra Karangura Ganggalida Yidinjdji 600 language groups when British Jabirrjabirr Warwa Jingili Kurtjar Nguri Badtjala Gurindji Ngamini Mingin Kuthant Mbabaram Yiman Waka Yinggarda Ngumbarl Punuba Gunindiri Waka Antakarinja Wangkangurru Yawarawarka Kukatj GunggariAgwamin Djirbalngan Gubbi Gubbi Watjarri Tjupany Nana Jukun MandjindjaNyikina Nguburinji Walangama settlers arrived in Australia in 1788. Jaru Wambaya Margany MalkanaINDIAN Yawuru Gooniyandi Yankuntjatjara Waanyi Wangkumara Takalak MandandanjiWargamaygan Mayi- Mayi- Barunggam Tjalkanti YandruwandhaKutuna Arabana Yapi Mayi-Kulan Nyawaygi The descendants of these peoples OCEAN Karajarri Ngalea Kullilla Kunja Yuggera Kuwarra Dhirari Dieri Wakabunga Yanga Walmatjarri Warumungu Wadigali NgawunBudjari Gugu-BadhunBigambul Nhanta Wakaya Mayi- Bindal Mangala Warlpiri Thakurti MbaraMuruwari Ngarabal maintain the oldest living cultures Pirlatapa Karenggapa Yuru Nyanganyatjara Bundjalung Wangkathaa Ngarti Kokatha Kaytej Kuyani Gunu Ngarla Nyangumarda Kalkadoon Giya Kukatja BandjigaliWunumara Yilba in the world. Bularnu BarranbinyaYirandali Kamilaroi Biri PACIFIC AmanguJaburrara Kariyarra Malyangaba Barundji Kalaamaya Yalarrnga GumbainggirYuwi Ngarluma Nyamal Yulparitja WarluwarraWandjiwalgu Nganyaywana Adnyamathanha Yanda Guwa Miyan OCEAN Martuthunira Wailwan Yambina Wirangu Andegerebenha BaradhaDainggatti Yuat Yindjibarndi Wiljali Barna Nhuwala Pintupi Wongaibon Guwinmal Danggali Wangan DIRECTION BalardungKurrama Palyku Iningai Ngatjumay Banggarla Ngadjuri Pitta-Pitta GeawegalGabalbaraBiripi Malpa Maiawali Yagalingu N Pinikura Banjima Mardu Nukunu Barindji Darumbal ThalanyjiWajuk Jurruru Great Australian Bight Arrernte Wangkamana Wonnarua Worimi Nyaki-Nyaki Luritja Barkindji Gangulu Purduna Jiwarli Nawu DarkinungGayiri Bayali W E Payungu Yinhawangka Pinjarup ThiinWiilman Kaurna KureinjiMithaka Yitha Kuungkari AwabakalWadjigu NgalawangkaWudjari Ngatatjara Madi Yitha Wiradjuri Tharrgari Meru Karuwali Dharug Kuring-gaiGaringbal Gureng Gureng S Pitjantjatjara Narangga Latje Madi Yarluyandi Nari Eora WarriyanggaKaniyang Goreng Wawula Peramangk Latje Dadi Nari Birria WardandiMaya Gundungurra Gungabula Wuli-wuli Dadi Wemba Dharawala NgargadKarangura TharawalNguri Wadi Wemba Ngunawal Yiman Badtjala Bibbulman Minang Ngamini Wadi Waka KEY Yinggarda Waka Antakarinja NgarrindjeriWangkangurru WergaiaYawarawarkaBaraba Yorta Gunggari Gubbi Gubbi Watjarri Tjupany Nana Nakako Baraba Yorta Ngarigo Indigenous Australian language Yankuntjatjara Bindjali Margany Wajuk Malkana NgurraiillamWangkumara Yuin Barunggam Djadjawurung Jaitmatang group name Tjalkanti Yandruwandha Waveroo Arabana Jardwadjali Kuwarra Ngalea Dieri TaungurongKullilla Kunja Kooma Yuggera No data BuandigDhirari Djabwurung Woiworung Budjari Bidwell Wadigali Kurnai Nhanta Badimaya Wathaurong Muruwari Ngarabal GunditjmaraPirlatapa Karenggapa Present-day State/Territory border Nyanganyatjara Bundjalung Wangkathaa SOUTHERN OCEAN Kokatha KuyaniGiraiwurung Boonwurrung Gunu Bandjigali Djargurdwurung Gulidjan Barranbinya Kamilaroi GadubanudMalyangaba Barundji SCALE Kalaamaya TASMAN GumbainggirSEA Bass Strait Adnyamathanha Wandjiwalgu Nganyaywana Kilometres Mirning Wailwan Wirangu Dainggatti 0 150 300 450 Yuat Wiljali Tommeginne Wongaibon DIRECTION Balardung Danggali Ngatjumay Banggarla Ngadjuri Biripi One centimetre on the map measures Malpa Peerapper Pyemmairrener Geawegal N Nukunu Barindji 150 kilometres on the ground Wajuk Great Australian Bight Tyerrernotepanner Wonnarua Worimi Nyaki-Nyaki Barkindji Nawu Lairmairrener Darkinung W E YithaParedarerme Pinjarup Kaurna Kureinji Wiradjuri Awabakal Madi Yitha Kuring-gai Narangga Meru Toogee Dharug S Latje Madi Nari Kaniyang Goreng Peramangk Latje Dadi Nari Eora Wardandi Dadi Nuenonne Gundungurra Ngargad Wemba Wadi Wemba Ngunawal Tharawal KEY Bibbulman Minang Wadi Ngarrindjeri Wergaia Baraba Yorta Baraba Yorta Ngarigo Bindjali Wajuk Indigenous ThisAustralian map languageshows the general Ngurraiillam Yuin Djadjawurung Jaitmatang group namelocations of Indigenous Waveroo Jardwadjali Taungurong No data Australian language groups. Buandig Djabwurung Woiworung Bidwell Wathaurong Kurnai Gunditjmara Present-day State/Territory border SOUTHERN OCEAN Giraiwurung Boonwurrung Djargurdwurung Gulidjan SCALE Gadubanud TASMAN SEA Bass Strait Kilometres 0 150 300 450 Tommeginne

One centimetre on the map measures Peerapper Pyemmairrener 150 kilometres on the ground Tyerrernotepanner Lairmairrener Paredarerme Toogee

Nuenonne 12 13 The Dreaming and the Law

Traditionally, the Dreaming plays a central part in the lives of Traditionally, Indigenous initiation ceremonies mark the change from childhood to adulthood. People are ‘put through the Law’ and learn their responsibilities. They Indigenous Australians. It provides a spiritual connection with the are then seen as adults. People continue to be initiated and learn more of the Law land and connections between people, groups, land, animals and throughout their lives. Under the guidance of Elders, they learn about the rules that plants. It also provides people with the Law, which tells people govern social structure, behaviour, the life cycles of animals and plants, and skills for hunting and gathering food. how to look after the land and the rules for social behaviour. Totems Elders and the Law The connection between an individual or group and their Ancestral Being, the Respected people, called Elders, are the keepers of the Law. Elders are men and women Dreaming and their Country can be seen through totems. Totems are animals, who have learned the Law over many years. They are respected for their knowledge. plants or features of the land that have a special significance or relationship to a Elders pass on the Law to others in the group. The Law is never written down. It is passed person or group. They are the spiritual identity of the person or group. on verbally and through song, dance and painting and to those who are initiated. A person may have many totems, such as an ancestral totem, a family group totem and a birth totem. All members of a group have the same Ancestral Being totem. A birth totem may be chosen after a special sign occurs. If an eagle swoops past a pregnant mother, her child may be seen as linked to Eagle Dreaming. A person holds special relationships with their totem birds, animals, plants or land features. Caring for their totems is an important responsibility. A person will not usually harm, kill or eat their totem. A person’s totem defines their relationships with other people and their totems. It also gives them particular responsibilities. There are special ceremonies related to totems.

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Totems of the Meriam people The Meriam people come from the Murray Islands, a small group of islands in the Torres Strait. The Meriam people often have totems that relate to the sea or to the stars in the sky. Totems of different groups from the Torres Strait Islands are the seagull, tiger shark, whale, manta ray, mangrove, turtle and the Tagai constellation, which relates to an important Dreaming story.

Caring for and repainting ancient rock art, such as these Wandjina figures in the Kimberley, Western Australia, may be part of Dreaming Law. See also The Dreaming, Volume 1 Ceremony (initiation ceremonies), Volume 1 Meriam people (Tagai), Volume 1

14 15 Country

Aboriginal people belong to the Food supply for Indigenous groups was seasonal. Usually men hunted large animals, land of their ancestors, which such as kangaroos and bush turkeys, in more they call their Country or their arid parts of Australia. Women and children ‘Belonging Place’. Their Country, gathered plants and smaller animals. Groups would share the food they gathered with and everything in it, is part of their each other. spiritual identity. Hunting and fishing Looking after Country Indigenous Australians did not hunt or fish Indigenous Australians believe that the too much in one area and animals were not Ancestral Beings created their Country during hunted in their breeding season. The Nyungar the Dreaming and that the Ancestral Beings people of south-western Australia traditionally continue to inhabit it. The people have a avoided hunting in the Kambarang season, from responsibility to manage the land and its October to November, when many animals were resources. Dreaming stories teach people the rearing their young. This ensured that there best ways to do this. This is called ‘looking were enough animals left to breed and continue after Country’. the species. For more than 50 000 years, Indigenous People who lived on the coast and rivers Australians lived in harmony with their managed fish-breeding so that there was a Country. They understood and managed it permanent supply. Long ago, the Karuwali Women from the Luritja language group cook goannas in a campfire in their Country closely. They took only the resources they people of the Lake Eyre region built stone walls near Mount Liebig, Northern Territory. needed from the land. They ensured that across flooded rivers to trap fish.T hey used the land and the environment would not be reeds to make fish pens where they kept the fish Living in Country today Today, traditional custodians of Country often take damaged. Rivers, waterholes and springs were until they grew large enough to eat. part in ‘Welcome to Country’ ceremonies. One also carefully managed to ensure they were not Many Indigenous people continue traditional Nyungar welcome is translated as: hunting, gathering and land-care practices damaged for future generations. ‘We are pleased to welcome you to our Nyungar More about ... today. The Yolngu people of Arnhem Land still Aboriginal people deliberately lit fires in order Country follow rules for gathering turtle eggs and yams. to manage the environment. This is called Travelling with the seasons This is our ancestors’ land from the Dreamtime They always leave some turtle eggs in the nest fire-stick farming.T hey burned undergrowth Indigenous groups often moved around their This is our homeland of history Country to take advantage of seasonal food and leave the tops of yam plants in the ground regularly to reduce the risk of uncontrolled And as one we are proud people of our land supplies. In spring, local groups of people travelled so that they will grow again. bushfires and to encourage the growth of plants. to the eastern highlands, near where Canberra Through history til today, we stand together now stands, to eat the highly nutritious bogong Many Indigenous Australians living in black and white moths. Further north, near where Brisbane now their Country continue to hunt and gather We are, we are one.’ Traditional bush tucker and stands, people would gather when the energy-rich bush medicine nuts of the bunya pine trees were plentiful, which traditional foods as well as buying food from shops. Some use modern fishing equipment or Indigenous Australians depended on the land was usually once every three years during summer. In desert areas, where conditions are harsher, other modern tools, but they often use them in for their food and water. They hunted animals people had to move around more to find food a traditional way. They make sure their children and gathered plants for food. Today, this food is and water. continue to learn the Dreaming knowledge of often called bush tucker. their Country and learn the skills required for See also looking after Country. The Dreaming, Volume 1

16 17 Kinship Great- Great- grandmother grandmother Kinship is the relationship between Today, many Indigenous Australians continue Nyajarri Nakarra to observe kinship laws. For others, these rules relatives, such as brother, sister, may not be as strict as they once were. For all mother, father and grandmother. Indigenous Australians, kinship connections Female child Grandmother Female child Grandmother Cycle 1 Nyawurru Cycle 2 Naminyjili Traditional Indigenous Law has continue to be a very important part of their Nangala Nyawana culture and identity. strict rules about kinship, such as whom a person can marry and how Families and groups Mother Mother people should behave towards other Traditionally, Indigenous Australians lived in Nangari Nampin groups that were mainly made up of family people in the group. members and extended kin relations. Often, In the Kija cultural group, children get their skin names from their mothers. The two cycles Traditionally, Indigenous Australians belonged these family groups joined up for periods of of female names are shown here. If a woman’s skin name is Nangari, her daughter’s skin to a number of social groups, such as a family time, especially around times of seasonal food name will be Nangala. group, skin group and cultural group. There gathering and ceremonies. are many rules that guide the relationships In different parts of Australia, the size of Skin groups Cultural groups are sometimes called the same within and between people in different groups. Indigenous groups would depend on the name as the language used by the group. The Traditionally, one of the social laws passed on In many areas, there are laws that forbid a man availability of resources. In areas that were rich Yolngu cultural group has that name because through the Dreaming was the system of skin from talking directly to his mother-in-law. in resources, groups were often large or many yolngu means ‘person’ in the Yolngu language. Kinship rules have helped to maintain the social groups lived side by side. Arid regions, such as names. Many Indigenous groups were governed order over thousands of years. They let people deserts, were occupied by smaller and by the skin system, where a person’s skin name A cultural group, such as the Bibbulman of know whom they are related to and how they fewer groups. is passed down from one or both parents. There south-western Australia, may also be part of a should behave towards another person. Kinship are strict rules about which skin groups can larger group, made up of neighbouring groups who speak similar languages. These larger rules vary between different cultural groups. Wadjularbinna Doomadgee, a marry each other. The skin system is related Gangalidda leader, described closely to how kinship relations operate. groups are often called nations. The Bibbulman growing up in a skin group: people and its neighbouring language groups The Kija cultural group of the eastern are also known as the Nyungar nation. ‘All people with the same Kimberley, like many others, continues its skin grouping as my mother traditional skin group rules today. There are are my mothers … They 16 skin names, which are separated into two More about ... have the right, same as my groups called cycles. The skin name given to a Belonging to many groups mother, to watch over me, to child depends on his or her mother’s skin name. control what I’m doing, to William Barak was an Indigenous Australian leader Traditionally, a Kija person can only marry who fought for Indigenous rights during the 1800s. make sure that I do the right someone from the other skin cycle. He was from the Wurundjeri-willam group, which thing. It’s an extended family was based around the Yarra River in Victoria. The thing … it’s a wonderful Cultural groups Wurundjeri-willam is part of the Woiworung cultural secure system.’ group. The people who speak the Woiworung A number of groups that spoke the same language call themselves the Wurundjeri people. language formed a language group or cultural Along with four other cultural groups, the Wurundjeri make up the Kulin nation. group. The larger language or cultural group consisted mostly of small kin groups, but Relationships between everyone in the group would meet together See also Indigenous Australians are for special occasions. There could be several Language groups, Volume 1 defined by the kinship rules. hundred people at these gatherings. William Barak, Volume 4

18 19 Ceremonies

Ceremonies are an important part Festive ceremonies Telling Dreaming stories More about ... Sometimes ceremonies celebrate a creation through dance of cultural practice for Indigenous Oral traditions story from the Dreaming. Others are performed Dreaming stories are also told through dance. Australians. Through ceremonies, In oral traditions, information and stories are when food is ripe and all the groups in a wider Sometimes performers are seen as messengers passed on by word of mouth. This means people carry out their responsibilities cultural group meet, such as at the bogong of the Ancestral Beings. The dances have information and stories are passed on through to pass on important information. moth festival in southern New South Wales. complicated steps and movements that need spoken stories or song. Some groups, such as the of the Several hundred people may attend and the to be learned and practised. Often, dances are All Indigenous Australian groups Central Desert, sing a whole Dreaming song over celebration may last several days. based on the movements of animals such as a week, singing one verse each night. It can take perform ceremonies. kangaroos and emus. several months before all the sacred songs are Ceremonies often involve storytelling, song, Smoking ceremonies sung. The stories in the songs are learned by the younger generations as they hear and sing the dance and body decoration. The structure of Many cultural groups use the smoking songs with the group. ceremonies varies between groups, but the ceremony to drive away evil spirits or to cleanse reasons for them are common. Ceremonies pass people or places. Green leaves are held over fire Dreaming knowledge, rules for behaviour and to produce smoke. People used their hands to the Law from one generation to the next. Some ‘bathe’ themselves with the smoke. ceremonies are secret and some ceremonies are open to all. Telling Dreaming stories through song and music Secret ceremonies Songs that pass on Dreaming stories are an Secret ceremonies are held separately for men important part of many ceremonies. There or women. These ceremonies reveal sacred are special songs for occasions such as a birth, information. Elder men lead ceremonies that healing or death, as well as for cultural group pass on ‘men’s business’ for men and boys. gatherings. Songs are part of the oral traditions Elder women lead the secret ‘women’s business’. of Indigenous Australian cultures. Traditional sacred ceremonies continue to be Instruments that accompany singing vary across an important part of life for many Indigenous different cultural groups. Music is made by: Australians today. clapping together carved pieces of wood, Initiation ceremonies called clap sticks, or the tips of two Elders are usually responsible for initiation boomerangs ceremonies. Traditionally, Aboriginal people playing drums made from skins, such as went through several initiation ceremonies those played by peoples on the Cape York throughout their lives. The first ceremony Peninsula marked the move from childhood to adulthood. playing the didjeridu, which is used in In an initiation ceremony, a person receives northern Australia and played by men only secret knowledge and responsibilities. Often body percussion, such as clapping hands these ceremonies take place over a long period together. of time. Some parts of the ceremony are secret Many Indigenous and some non-Indigenous and only certain people can attend. Australians play these instruments today. An initiation ceremony is held in Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. Continued on page 22

20 21 Ceremonies

Telling Dreaming stories Quinkan figures, which were painted by Other art forms through art the Kokowarra people of the Cape York Dreaming symbols and spiritual identity region. They have a human-type form are also represented through many other Dreaming stories are often told visually. Some with long heads and long, skinny bodies. art forms, such as: symbols of the Dreaming are sacred, with strict They are evil spirits. rules about their use. Others are not sacred and stones that are arranged in special Mimi, which were painted by many can be used openly. patterns and used for religious different peoples in northern Australia, ceremonies, such as the stone circles The styles and materials used to depict including around Kakadu and the Cape that were created by the Kalaamaya Dreaming stories vary among cultural York Peninsula. Mimis are mischievous people near Paynes Find, Western groups. Some groups used rock art painting spirits. They are usually shown as Australia or engraving and some used dot and line human-type forms, hunting, dancing or clothing and ornaments that are made paintings. running. from skins, furs, shells and feathers, Traditionally, natural materials were gathered Ancestral Beings often take the form of such as kangaroo skin cloaks and to paint Dreaming symbols. Often these ‘bush animals or birds. Many cultural groups possum fur belts made by the Wajuk materials’ were also considered sacred. Many in Arnhem Land used X-ray art, which people of south-western Australia groups used ochres, which are iron-stained clays shows the anatomy of an animal. Fine wood-carved poles made for funerals, that are red, yellow or orange. Chalky material brushwork is used to paint the skeletons such as the distinctive poles carved by and ash are used to make white pigments. and internal organs of animals such as the Charcoal is used for black. wallabies, turtles and fish. turtle-shell masks, made by the Rock art Dot and line paintings Meriam people of the Torres Strait Many groups painted or engraved sacred images In Indigenous desert cultures, Law Islands, which are used in ceremonies. of Ancestral Beings on rock walls of caves and and other information were often shelters. This rock art has been protected and communicated through dot and line maintained over many generations. Today, painting. These symbols are used in sand Australia has some of the oldest rock art in the drawing, body decoration for ceremonies world. Some famous examples are: and rock art. Traditionally, this was done using ochre, sand or crushed seeds. Wandjina figures, which were painted by An X-ray painting of a turtle in the Worora, Unggumi, Ngarinyin and In the 1970s, Indigenous artists at Papunya Kakadu shows its spine and the Wunambul peoples of the Kimberley region. in central Australia were introduced to parts beneath its shell. Wandjina figures are human-type forms brightly coloured acrylic paints by Geoffrey surrounded by cloud and lightning. They are Bardon, a non-Indigenous art teacher. He the powerful spirit beings that control the encouraged local men to tell their stories monsoons. To paint them, the artist prepares on the wall of the school and on boards. a white background and then applies ochres Today, these paintings are often painted on using hand, finger and brush. Wandjina canvas. They have become a world-famous figures are still painted by modern-day artists style of modern art. This is an example of the Kimberley region. of traditional Indigenous Australian art developing through the use of modern See also materials. Clifford Possum Tjapaltjarri (dot paintings), Volume 9

22 23 Communication and trade

Traditionally, there were many Trade Greenstone Greenstone was highly valued for making People regularly walked long distances along forms of communication and hatchet heads. It was mined in central Victoria established trade routes that criss-crossed trade between different groups of and traded along the Murray and Australia. They passed through Country that valleys. Evidence of this trade has been found as Indigenous Australians. Resources belonged to other groups, with their permission. far east as Broken Hill, New South Wales, and They carefully observed the other groups’ rules. and ideas were exchanged, as far south as the mouth of the Murray River, They exchanged goods that were plentiful in South Australia. resulting in changes in technology their Country for goods they did not have. Some goods that were traded widely across Australia and culture. Shell were pituri, ochre, greenstone and shell. Communicating over Shell ornaments, such as necklaces, have been Pituri found in places far from the sea or rivers. Shell long distances pendants made by people living on the Gulf Pituri is a drug with a high concentration of Indigenous Australians came up with ways of of Carpentaria have been found as far away as nicotine. It is made from native tobacco plants. communicating over long distances, such as by South Australia. Pearl shell from the Kimberley The leaves are dried and crumbled and mixed using smoke signals and message sticks. region has been found 1700 kilometres away. with the ashes of a tree, such as an acacia tree. Smoke signals were used to send short Pituri was chewed on long-distance journeys to messages to another group, such as ‘We are help relieve tiredness and hunger, and during More about ... coming to visit you’. The group lit a fire that ceremonies. The Dieri people, from north of Trade with island peoples cast out smoke that could be seen by other Lake Eyre, traded pituri with groups up to Since at least the early 1700s, Macassan fishermen groups. Different woods made smoke of 1300 kilometres away. Pituri is still used today different colours. from Indonesia visited mainland Australia and by Western Desert groups. traded with the Yolngu people, who lived along Message sticks were pieces of carved or painted the coast of Arnhem Land. Ochre were sea-faring peoples and traded with the wood that were carried by messengers. They people of New Guinea, to the north, and were used to invite other groups to a ceremony Ochre is hardened white, yellow or red clay. It , to the south. or to a fight to settle a dispute.T he message was widely used in ceremonies, for painting and sticks were coated with symbols. The messenger in healing. Major quarries, such as the ones at who carried the stick also gave a spoken Parachilna in South Australia and Wilgie Mia in message. the Western Desert, were developed for mining and trading ochre. Group gatherings People from different groups travelled long distances to attend major meetings, to perform ceremonies and to settle disputes. In some areas, festivals were held when a special resource or food became available. These gatherings provided opportunities to exchange ideas and See also trade goods. Meriam people (trade between Torres Strait A large sculpture of a message stick, with symbols Islanders and New Guineans), Volume 1 carved into it, stands at Birrarung Marr park in Macassan visitors (trade between Yolngu and Melbourne. Macassan fishermen), Volume 2

24 25 Impact of invasion

In 1788, the British arrived, After the invasion On 13 February 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd bringing a new set of laws and Many Indigenous Australians were delivered a national apology to the Stolen ‘rounded up’ and taken to new Generations. This was an important milestone in beliefs. By this time, the Australian the process of reconciliation. The national apology settlements. George Robinson, one began: continent had already been home British religious leader, wanted ‘Today we honour the Indigenous peoples of this Indigenous Australians to learn to more than 2000 generations of land, the oldest continuing cultures in human about Christianity and to act and history. We reflect on their past mistreatment. Indigenous Australians. dress like Europeans. Few of the We reflect in particular on the mistreatment people he took to his settlements Early encounters of those who were Stolen Generations – this survived. They died from disease blemished chapter in our nation’s history. The In 1606, the first recorded encounter between and homesickness. time has now come for the nation to turn a Indigenous Australian and European cultures new page in Australia’s history by righting the took place on the western side of Cape York. Reserves and missions wrongs of the past and so moving forward with A Tjungundji man speared and killed a Dutch In the late 1800s, the colonies confidence to the future.’ sailor who attempted to land in his Country. created new laws and made More encounters followed as Europeans Indigenous Australians move onto explored the coastline of the land they called government reserves or church ‘New Holland’. missions. They were called ‘wards In 1770, on a small island off the tip of Cape of the state’ and their lives were York, Captain Cook ‘took possession’ of the ruled by government-run Protection eastern coast of the land for Britain. Boards. Often, people were taken far away from their own Country. It Invasion by British settlers became very difficult for people to maintain their traditional cultures. British colonisation of Australia began when the First Fleet landed at Sydney Cove in 1788. Many white Australians believed Many Indigenous Australians were killed as Indigenous Australian children the British began to occupy more and more of would have a brighter future if they the land. Some Indigenous people and British were taught British culture and settlers were killed due to misunderstandings. were absorbed into white Australian Many were murdered in disagreements over society. From 1910 to the early 1970s, land and livestock. European diseases such government agencies removed as smallpox and measles also killed tens of an estimated 100 000 children of thousands of Indigenous Australians. mixed racial descent from their See also families. These people became William Jansz (Cape York encounter), Volume 2 Indigenous Australians responded to the British known as the Stolen Generations. Bungaree, Volume 2 settlers in different ways. Leaders such as Arabanoo, Volume 3 Bungaree, Arabanoo and Bennelong cooperated Bennelong, Volume 3 with the settlers. Others, such as Pemulwuy, Some Indigenous Australians were Pemulwuy, Volume 3 Yagan and Jandamarra, resisted occupation and given ‘king plates’ to wear around Yagan, Volume 3 died fighting during the late 1700s through to their necks, marking them as leaders George Robinson, Volume 3 Unaarrimin (Indigenous reserves), Volume 4 the late 1800s. or people who might cooperate with the British. Jandamarra, Volume 4

26 27 Yuggera people Significance: The Larrakia people are traditional custodians of Significance: The Yuggera people are traditional custodi- much of the Darwin area. ans of a large part of the Brisbane area. The group Traditional custodians Traditional culture: Often referred to as ‘saltwater people’, the Lar- of the Yuggera lived in the Brisbane area. rakia lived by hunting, gathering and fishing in their coastal Country Traditional culture: Yuggera Country lies around the waters on the Timor Sea. of the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay. The Yuggera used of Australia’s capital cities Continuing culture: Descendants of the Larrakia people formed heavy nets to harvest fish and other seafood. Each year, the Larrakia Nation Aboriginal Corporation in 1997. The corporation when pine nuts were ready for harvest, the Yuggera joined helps teach the Larrakia language, Law and culture. other groups travelling to the nearby Bunya Mountains. They celebrated together and feasted on the nuts. The traditional custodians of Australia’s capital cities are very Continuing culture: Today, some of the descendants of the significant. Their significance is recognised through cultural Yuggera are involved with the Nunukuk Yuggera Aboriginal Darwin Dancers. They perform Welcome to Country ceremonies, Larrakia heritage centres, as well as through Welcome to Country ceremonies cultural performances and educational talks. performed by Elders and Acknowledgement of Traditional Custodians ceremonies performed at public gatherings. Eora people Significance: The Eora people are the tradi- tional custodians of a large part of central Sydney and the surrounding coastal area. Custodians of the greater Sydney area are Northern Territory Wajuk people Dharug, Kuring-gai and Tharawal peoples. Significance: The Wajuk people, part of the Nyungar na- Traditional culture: The Eora way of life was tion, are traditional custodians of the Perth area. based around the coastal waters and inlets of the Pacific Ocean. Men fished from the Traditional culture: The Wajuk lived on the coastal plains Queensland and along the Swan River. They were known for their rocks with multi-pronged spears. Women fished beautiful clothing and ornaments. In winter, they wore from bark canoes with fishing lines made from kangaroo skins sewn together. hair and plant fibres. Seafood was plentiful so the people moved little. Sacred sites such as Continuing culture: Some of the descendants of the Western Australia caves with ancient paintings and engravings Nyungar have formed the Warrdong group, which is a celebrated the sea. Nyungar dance group that teaches the history of the Yuggera Brisbane people and the language. Continuing culture: Today, some of the de- South Australia scendants of Eora live in Redfern, the oldest urban Indigenous Australian community in Australia. The Eora College in Sydney teaches visual and performing arts to Indigenous Aus- This map shows some of New South Wales Wajuk tralians. the traditional custodians of Perth Kaurna Australia’s capital cities. Eora Adelaide Sydney Ngunnawal Ngunnawal people Canberra Victoria Significance: The Ngunnawal people are Kaurna people Wurundjeri Australian Capital traditional custodians of much of the Can- Significance: The Kaurna people are traditional custo- Melbourne Territory berra area. dians of much of the Adelaide area. Traditional culture: Ngunnawal country is a Traditional culture: Kaurna Country lay along the land of river valleys and rugged mountain Wurundjeri people coastal plains on the eastern side of Gulf St Vincent. ranges. The Ngunnawal kept warm in the Nature provided a bountiful food supply. In addition Significance: The Wurundjeri people are the people of the cold winters by wearing possum skins and to seafood, kangaroo and emu were plentiful. Kaurna Woiworung language group. They belong to the Kulin nation, Tasmania living in bark huts. Eels, fish and yabbies were which is made up of five language groups. The Kulin nation are men set fire to the scrub to encourage grass growth Mouheneener an important part of their diet. In springtime, and attract animals. the traditional custodians of the Melbourne area. Hobart they gathered with neighbouring groups for Continuing culture: Descendants of the Kaurna people Traditional culture: The Wurundjeri enjoyed plentiful food sup- the bogong moth season. established the Living Kaurna Cultural Centre. People plies from the Yarra River and their Country around Port Phillip Continuing culture: Descendants of the can learn about the culture, Dreaming and living history Bay and the Yarra Valley. They used fire to attract animals for Mouheneener people Ngunnawal have created many artworks of the Kaurna. hunting. In winter, they joined possum skins together to make Significance: The Mouheneener people are the traditional custodians of much of the that appear around the city of Canberra. cloaks. Hobart area. Many sites of cultural heritage are protected Continuing culture: Descendants of the Wurundjeri people Traditional culture: The Mouheneener lived along the edges of the Derwent River, in Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve. welcome others to the land of the Wurundjeri. Elder Joy Mur- which they called Teemtoomele Menennye. They were part of the Nuennone group. phy-Wandin performed the Welcome to Country ceremony at Continuing culture: The Mouheneener were moved from the Hobart area to reserves the Melbourne Commonwealth Games in 2006. on islands in Bass Strait. A lot of their language and culture was lost. Descendants of the Mouheneener people have revived some of the language from records made by European explorers in the late 1700s.

28 29 Barkindji people of the Willandra Lakes

The Barkindji people come from Barkindji people today Part of the area is . Those employed in Mungo National Park include The Barkindji people today proudly maintain Country that includes the Willandra descendants of the traditional owners. Lakes World Heritage Site. Recent their cultural heritage. They are represented on the Willandra Lakes Three Traditional Tribal The Barkindji Elders co-manage the Willandra Lakes archaeological discoveries there Groups Elders Council. It plays an important World Heritage Site. They have said: have provided insight into the lives role in the co-management of the Willandra ‘The Barkindji people now feel that they have a Lakes World Heritage Site. of Indigenous Australians long ago. great chance to show the European descendants some of their land-management skills. It is a Willandra Lakes World Heritage Site good place to educate students from schools Language: Barkindji Today, there are 17 dry lakes in the Willandra and universities as well as the general public, Lakes region, including Lake Mungo. The area and shows that we are a thriving and ongoing has a stark, desert landscape. It became a World culture.’ Heritage Site in 1981. The area covered by the World Heritage Site includes the country of the Barkindji, Mutthi Mutthi and Nyiampaa For more than 30 000 years, the Barkindji peoples. people lived, hunted and fished in the Willandra Traditional culture Lakes region. The Barkindji are river people who lived in the The skeleton of Mungo Man was found in of New South Wales 1975. He is more than 40 000 years old. He Members of the Three at least 32 000 years ago. At this time, the lakes was buried in a pit and covered with red ochre. Traditional Tribal Groups Elders Council examine were filled with water and connected by a large The way that Mungo Woman and Mungo Man river that flowed from the Snowy Mountains. 20 000-year-old footprints were found suggests that they were buried at Lake Mungo. Barkindji men used their nets and stone traps to according to some kind of cultural tradition catch cod, perch and yabbies in the lake. They and ceremony. hunted kangaroo and wallaby. Women and Other burial remains have been located in the children gathered mussels along the shoreline. area. Footprints of adults and children from Plants, seeds, emu eggs and reptiles were more than 20 000 years ago were also discovered collected from the surrounding grasslands. recently. Sacred remains In recent times, sacred remains have been More about ... discovered at Lake Mungo. It is considered one Bookamurra, the giant kangaroo of the world’s most significant cremation sites. One of the Barkindji Dreaming stories is about Bookamurra, the giant kangaroo. The Barkindji Mungo Woman was found in 1969. She men tracked and hunted the giant kangaroo for See also was cremated more than 20 000 years ago. days. They killed him at the southern end of the The Dreaming, Volume 1 Descendants now protect her in a keeping lakes. The lakes and the area around them are the remains of Bookamurra. Ancient and sacred sites (Lake Mungo), Volume 1 place in Mungo National Park. Language groups, Volume 1

30 31 Yorta Yorta people of the Murray River

Yorta Yorta people are one of many The Yorta Yorta people were expert swimmers and fishers. Fishing nets were made from flax, cultural groups that lived along the a plant that grew on the riverbanks. Canoes Dhungala, also called the Murray were made from slabs of bark cut from river River. They lived around the area gumtrees. where Echuca now stands. Nets were also used to trap birds. The nets were expertly made. They were up to 90 metres long and 2 metres high. They were stretched across Language: Yorta Yorta the river between trees on each riverbank.

A Yorta Yorta man, Colin Walker, tells one of the Dreaming stories of how Dhungala was created by Biamia: ‘... the old woman who came down through the hills dragging a stick. An old snake was following her and he kept following where she Traditional culture dragged her yam stick and then when she got to Through their Dreaming and the Law, Yorta end of the river system ... down in this land it rained and rained and rained and that’s how the Yorta people are the custodians of the Country river came down through here.’ around the area where Echuca now stands. The river is sacred to the Yorta Yorta. It gave them Young Yorta Yorta people prepare to celebrate the signing of a land rights agreement in 2004. food and water. They settled densely along the river for many thousands of years. Yorta Yorta people today Managing the land and the river More about ... British invasion of Yorta Yorta Country began in The river was the centre of life for Yorta Yorta Dharnya Centre the 1840s. Soon after, an estimated 85 per cent people. There was plenty of food and water, but Dharnya Centre is a cultural centre located in the of the Yorta Yorta people had died. Survivors they were careful not to take more than they Barmah State Park, near Echuca. It is on the site of were rounded up and taken to Cummeragunja a traditional Indigenous meeting area. needed. They were able to build permanent mission. They began a long struggle to keep The Dharnya Centre was started in 1985. It gives villages along the river. Large huts held up to their culture alive and to gain fair treatment. Yorta Yorta people a place to get together and 15 people. Huts were made of tree branches it also builds awareness in the wider community covered with tea-tree bark. The Yorta Yorta Co-operative Management about Yorta Yorta culture. Agreement was made between the Yorta Rich plant and animal life along the river Yorta Nation Aboriginal Corporation and provided many food sources. Women gathered the Victorian Government in 2004. It was food from up to 40 different plant species. In signed on the banks of the Murray River. It summer, grasses were harvested and placed in formally involves the Yorta Yorta people in large piles to dry. The grass seeds were then See also the management of their traditional lands collected and pounded between stones to The Dreaming, Volume 1 and waters. It covers about 50 000 hectares of make flour. Ancient and sacred sites (Kow Swamp), Volume 1 Yorta Yorta dancers perform in a traditional ceremony. Crown land, including Kow Swamp. Language groups, Volume 1

32 33 Nuenonne people of south-eastern Tasmania

The Nuenonne people are Men hunted kangaroos and wallabies. In Seasonal living dry weather, they used fire to burn the During summer, people paddled acknowledged as the traditional undergrowth of thick forests, making it easier to the surrounding islands to catch custodians of south-eastern to find their prey. mutton-birds and seals. They used Tasmania. They were the first The women were excellent divers and a unique raft that was shaped like Indigenous Tasmanians to meet swimmers. They gathered oysters, mussels, a canoe and made of three bundles abalone and scallops. After meals, the shells of paper bark tied together at the Dutch, British and French explorers. from their food were placed on middens that ends. After a few hours at sea, the had been started by earlier ancestors. bark became heavy with water. The Language: Nuenonne raft had to be dried before it could Women wore their hair closely shaved. Some be used again. people wore necklaces made of shell or cord. Men applied a mixture of red ochre and animal In the colder weather, the fat to their hair to make a very distinctive Nuenonne wore animal skins hairstyle. Ochre was obtained through trade thrown over their shoulders. They smeared A traditional custodian of Nuenonne Country passes on stories at Oyster Cove Sacred Site. with people from the north of the island. The animal fat on their bodies to keep warm. men ground it to make paint. It was used on their body, as well as in their hair and beards. More about ... Traditional culture There are now two groups of Indigenous Before colonisation, the Nuenonne lived on Nuenonne Dreaming Tasmanians. The Palawa are descended from The Nuenonne People lived in Country in the coast in the area around Bruny Island, Elders taught Dreaming stories that told how Indigenous Tasmanians who were taken to south-eastern Tasmania (shown here in the ancestors of the Nuenonne came to the live on islands in Bass Strait. The Lia Pootah Tasmania. They lived in huts made of bush Robert Dowling’s painting Group of Natives southern land they called Trowerner. It was much timber, thatched together with reeds and bark. of Tasmania). colder then and ice covered the mountains. are descended from unrecorded Indigenous The ancestors lived in caves. They made sacred Tasmanian women who remained in Tasmania paintings and engravings on cave walls. and partnered with non-Indigenous settlers, soldiers and convicts.

Nuenonne people today Wallantanalinany Lydidder, the Lia Pootah Council of Elders, describe their history: Following British settlement in 1803, many Nuenonne people died from European diseases. ‘Lia Pootah people have continuous unbroken Others were killed when they resisted the ties to Trowerner the land of our ancestors, including continuous unbroken Totemic and invasion of their Country. Some women were Dreamtime ties to the land of our birth. Our kidnapped by sealers and taken away from history flows unbroken from the present their Country. In 1835, the government decided to beyond the beginning of time, when our to ‘round up’ the survivors and take them to Storytellers tell us the sun was born.’ islands in Bass Strait. Many more died from disease and homesickness. See also Today, descendants of the Nuenonne people and The Dreaming, Volume 1 other Tasmanian cultural groups are proud that Language groups, Volume 1 they have survived to continue their cultures. Truganini (Indigenous Tasmanians), Volume 4

34 35 Wajuk people of south-western Australia

Traditional culture These two women The Wajuk people are acknowledged are part of the as the traditional custodians of The Wajuk people have lived on the coastal Nyungar theatre plains for at least 40 000 years. Traditionally, company Yirra much of the area where the city of they were known for their beautiful clothing Yaakin. Perth stands. Early Dutch navigator and ornaments. In winter, they wore kangaroo Willem de Vlamingh sailed up skins sewn together using bone needles. On special occasions, they painted their bodies with Derbal Yaragan, also called the red ochre and patterns of white ochre lines. Swan River, and into Wajuk country in 1627. Managing the land Traditionally, Wajuk men hunted kangaroos, possums and wallabies, but only once the Language: Wajuk animals had matured. They fished the rivers and coastal wetlands using spears and fish traps.T hey made kodj hatchets and taap knives, which were tools that were found nowhere else. Women and

children gathered a range of plant food, making Wajuk people today Shirley Michael is one of a many Nyungar artists sure to take only what they needed. Following British settlement, the Country of the keeping their culture alive through painting: Wajuk people was cleared for farming and they ‘Art is my way of expressing my spiritual beliefs Dreaming stories lost their traditional sources of food. The Wajuk as well as the beliefs of my ancestors. Aboriginal One Wajuk story is about the creation of three people resisted settlement. Many Wajuk people people have a special connection to this land The Wajuk people have many traditional uses for islands that used to be part of the mainland. the grass tree, called balga. died. Eventually survivors were moved onto (Australia). We are the true custodians of this Long ago, the land between reserves, where they struggled to maintain their place and I believe we were chosen to look them was covered with trees. A traditional ways. Strong family ties helped them after it.’ huge fire started. It burned so proudly maintain their cultural heritage. fiercely that the ground split Today, Wajuk people are part of the broader open. The sea rushed in to make Nyungar nation. They live mainly in towns and the islands. cities throughout south-western Australia. Many continue to gather bush tucker and teach their children about the land. Some continue their More about ... cultural traditions through the arts. Waugul, the rainbow serpent Dreaming stories are told about Yirra Yaakin theatre company See also Waugul, the rainbow serpent. It Yirra Yaakin Aboriginal Corporation is an made the Derbal Yaragan, also The Dreaming (the rainbow serpent), Volume 1 called the Swan River. Waugul’s Indigenous theatre company based in Perth. Ancient and sacred sites (south-western Australia), body became the ridge that runs Yirra yaakin is Nyungar for ‘stand tall’. Through Volume 1 along the edge of the coastal its productions, Yirra Yaakin helps build respect Language groups, Volume 1 plain. This is now called the for traditional Nyungar culture as well as Country Darling Range. (Welcome to Country), Volume 1 awareness of the issues Nyungar people face. Traditional custodians (Wajuk people), Volume 1

36 37 Yolngu people of Arnhem Land

The Yolngu people of Arnhem The Dreaming Yolngu Dreaming stories tell how Ancestral Land established good relations Beings made the land and people, such as: with Macassan fishermen from the Waramurungundji, the Great Mother, who islands of Indonesia sometime before came across the sea from the north at the the early 1700s. time of creation Namarrkon, the ancestor responsible for Language: Yolngu thunder, lightning and violent storms Gunbulabula, the ancestor who created the didgeridu. Traditionally, sacred symbols were painted on logs and bark and in body decoration. The Yolngu ancestors made some of the world’s oldest narrative art, which is art that tells stories about events such as ceremonies, hunts and battles. Traditional culture Yolngu Law divides people into the skin groups The Yolngu people are a language group in of Dhuwa and Yirritja. Traditionally, a person Yolngu man Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu is a very successful singer and musician. eastern Arnhem Land. They are part of a larger from one group can only marry someone from group made up of twelve groups that speak the other group. Yolngu people today There are also demonstrations of how to throw similar languages, spears to hunt fish, turtle, dugong, wallaby and Today, the Yolngu proudly maintain their called dialects. Yolngu goanna. traditional culture. They blend it with the ways means ‘person’ in each of the balanda, the Yolngu word for ‘whitefella’, of these dialects. The Yothu Yindi so that they gain from both worlds. Yolngu have main language is called become leaders in the struggle for land rights and Yothu Yindi is a world-famous Indigenous Yolngu Matha. sharing cultures. They have also made Indigenous musical group. Several members of the group Australian art and music famous across the world are Yolngu. They blend traditional and modern through bands such as Yothu Yindi. musical instruments and styles. Yothu yindi means ‘child and mother’ and refers to the Garma Festival kinship connections between the Yolngu people. The annual Garma Festival is a celebration of Yolngu culture. It brings together people with different ideas so that they can learn from each other. Garma attracts people from all over See also Australia. The festival features ceremonies and The Dreaming, Volume 1 traditional bark painting. People go on land Traditionally, Yolngu Language groups, Volume 1 ceremonies bring together and sea expeditions to collect bush tucker, Country (Yolngu people), Volume 1 music, dance and bush medicine and materials for weaving and Kinship (Yolngu people), Volume 1 symbolic body painting. spear-making. Macassan visitors, Volume 2

38 39 Pitjantjatjara people of the Uluru – Kata Tjuta area

The Pitjantjatjara, along with Traditional culture Pitjantjatjara people today The Pitjantjatjara and Yankuntjatjara co-manage the Uluru – Kata Tjuta National Ancestral Beings formed Pitjantjatjara Country During the 1870s, European explorers many other language groups, Park, which was listed as a World Heritage Site during the Dreaming. They travelled across ‘discovered’ Pitjantjatjara Country and opened in 1987. They own the park and lease it to Parks have occupied the fragile desert the unformed land, creating the landforms and it up to pastoralists. They called Kata Tjuta Australia. People from all over the world visit lands of Australia’s red centre over living things that can be seen today. Ancestral ‘The Olgas’ and Uluru ‘Ayers Rock’. the park and share its significance.T he park Beings such as Kuniya, the woma python, still thousands of years. World Heritage In 1920, the area around Uluru and Kata Tjuta contains many sacred sites and Dreaming tracks inhabit the land in sacred sites. Kuniya lives in status of the Uluru – Kata Tjuta was made into an Aboriginal reserve by the protected by the Anangu. the rocks at Uluru where she fought Liru, the government. Tourists began to visit the area in poisonous snake. National Park has increased global the 1940s. At an important ceremony in 1985, The Anangu welcome people to visit the National Park: native title was returned to the traditional understanding of Indigenous Tjukurrpa ‘Pukulngalya yanama, Ananguku Ngurakutu’ Australian cultures. owners, both the Pitjantjatjara people and the (welcome greeting in Yankuntjatjara) Pitjantjatjara and most other desert peoples Yankuntjatjara people. ‘Pukulpa Pitjama, Ananguku Ngurakutu’ use the word Tjukurrpa for the Dreaming. It (welcome greeting in Pitjantjatjara) Language: Pitjantjatjara is their past, present and future told through Today, the Pitjantjatjara people are often known stories. It provides the Law for understanding as Anangu. Anangu means ‘people’ in the We, the traditional land owners of Uluru – Kata the land and everything in it. It shows how the language of the Pitjantjatjara, Yankuntjatjara Tjuta National Park, are direct descendants of connections between the land, plants, animals and other related language groups. Anangu the beings who created our lands during the and people must be maintained in daily life and refers to Indigenous people only. Tjukurrpa (Creation Time). We have always been here. We call ourselves Anangu, and would ceremonies. like you to use that term for us.’ The Lungkata (blue-tongued lizard) Tjukurrpa teaches Pitjantjatjara people how to patch-burn Kata Tjuta is a sacred site for the Pitjantjatjara people. their country. During the cool season, they light small fires in selected areas and make a patchwork of burned and unburned Uluru and Kata Tjuta areas for hunting and food were handed back to gathering. the Pitjantjatjara and Yankuntjatjara peoples Tjukurrpa is passed across in 1985. generations through songs, stories about sacred sites, ritual dances, and art such as rock drawings, sand paintings and body decoration. Some stories are sacred and can only be See also painted by certain people. Ancient and sacred sites (Central Desert), Volume 1 Language groups, Volume 1 The Dreaming, Volume 1

40 41 Kuku-yalanji people of the Daintree

The Kuku-yalanji people are One of the ways in which the Law is kept is through painting. Wuba, or ochre, was ground the traditional custodians of the into fine powder and mixed with a little water. Daintree rainforest area in northern It was used for cave painting. In some sandstone Queensland. caves, the wuba soaked into the rock and made the paintings permanent.

Language: Kuku-Yalanji The Kuku-yalanji people say: ‘We are true rainforest people who live in harmony with our environment. We are part of it and it is part of us. Our culture has always involved a deep respect for nature and an intimate knowledge of its cycles. What we know about the plants of the rainforest we learnt from our elders ... What we know belongs to them, to Traditional culture our culture and our traditions.’ Before colonisation, the Kuku-yalanji people lived in the tropical rainforest on the north-eastern coast of Australia, across the area where Cooktown, Port Douglas and Chillagoe The Kuku-yalanji people made cave paintings in now stand. They lived in semi-permanent Mossman Gorge, Queensland. huts and made weapons such as wooden shields and swords. They A Kuku-yalanji dance group takes part in a cultural festival. gathered food from the forests, rivers, ocean and reefs, taking only Kuku-yalanji people today Most of the land was turned into national parks, what they needed so that there which are managed jointly by the Kuku-yalanji Following British settlement in the 1870s, many would be plenty for the future. and the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. Kuku-yalanji people died. Some survivors were moved by the government to other parts Dreaming Elder Hazel Douglas said about the land rights grant in of Queensland. Some were moved to Mossman In the ancient times that the 2007: Gorge Reserve and to the northern banks of the ‘We see this as a new beginning, and a chance Kuku-yalanji Elders call . Nujakura, the land was created by for the Yalanji and European peoples to live in Ancestral Beings. One Ancestral In 2007, the eastern Kuku-yalanji people were peace ... Now we have control we can look at Being was Kurriyala, the rainbow granted native title to 2300 square kilometres ways to bring jobs and prosperity to this area.’ serpent. The Kuku-yalanji people of land between Mossman and Cooktown. This believe their Ancestral Beings live grant gave the Kuku-yalanji ownership of some in the rainforest. They watch over parts of the land and joint management of other the living and ensure that the Law parts. Most of the land is part of the Wet Tropics See also is kept. World Heritage Site. It includes places such as Language groups, Volume 1 Cape Tribulation and the Daintree River. The Dreaming, Volume 1

42 43 Meriam people of the Torres Strait

Meriam people are seafarers. They Traditional culture are one of four Torres Strait Islander Meriam people have lived on the three small Murray Islands, called Mer, Dauar and Waier, groups who have languages and for about 3000 years. Their culture has strong cultures that are distinctly different links with Papua New Guinea. Their religious from Aboriginal Australians. Torres beliefs provide strong connections with the land and sea. Strait Islanders were among the first Indigenous Australians to encounter Tagai Europeans, when Luis de Torres Tagai provides the spiritual beliefs that unite Meriam people and other Torres Strait Islanders. sailed through the Torres Strait The rules of the Tagai provide order in the in 1606. world and give everything and everyone its place. Many Tagai stories focus on the sea. Language: Meriam Mir The story of the Tagai belongs to all Torres Strait Islander peoples. It tells how the islands of the Torres Strait were formed by sea creatures. The Meriam believe that one of the sea creatures, called Gelam, travelled in the form of Meriam dancers wear dharis during a ceremony. a dugong. Gelam made the rich red soil on Mer and brought coconut palms, yams and other Land and sea ownership They used double-outrigger canoes. These were food plants to the island. He spat out two bean Meriam people inherited land and coastal dugout canoes, crafted from logs, that had floats seeds and these became the two smaller islands waters from their ancestors. A father would tell attached to each side. The floats helped keep the of Dauar and Waier. his son the area that he had inherited. Mounds canoe stable. Another story describes how a god of plants and fish traps on reefs often marked named Malo crossed the Torres boundaries. A man owned the land on behalf Ceremony Strait. He started as a whale but of his living family, his ancestors and future The Meriam perform sacred songs in their took the form of an octopus when generations. People grew yams, sweet potatoes, ceremonies. Songs could also be sung when he arrived at the island of Mer. He coconuts and fruit in the rich volcanic soil. warriors were preparing for battle to defend gave laws to the people that told their territory. Ceremonial dances copy the The sea was important for food and trade. Coral them how to care for their land movements of waves, sea creatures and birds. reefs were rich in fish, dugongs, turtles and and sea. shellfish. Food and cultural objects were traded The Meriam used musical instruments such for ochre and spears from the Aboriginal people as bell-shaped drums, pipes and flutes. People of Cape York, on the Australian mainland. Dried decorated their bodies with ochre and feathers. fish and turtles were traded for food and canoes Meriam people were also great weavers. They from people on the coast of New Guinea. made a headdress used in ceremonies and Mer, or Murray Island, is surrounded battles, called a dhari. by a reef and has two smaller islands, The sea was central to Meriam culture. People Dauar and Waier, close by. had great knowledge of the tides, reefs and winds. Continued on page 46

44 45 Meriam people of the Torres Strait Glossary

Meriam people today This landmark judgement became known as anatomy body parts and structure of plants mixed racial descent coming from a family the Mabo judgement. It led to the recognition of or animals background of different races Like many other Indigenous Australians today, the land rights of other Indigenous Australians. Meriam people maintain their traditional ancestors people from whom others are monsoons seasonal winds that bring the dry The Mabo judgement recognised the intense culture blended with modern ways. People use descended season or the rainy season cultural connection between Indigenous modern technology, such as motorised sea craft, Nyungar nation large group made up of Australians and their ancestral lands. archaeologists people who learn about human but they also make sure that traditional fishing history by studying remains and other things Indigenous Australian language groups who live in the south-western part of Western and farming skills are maintained. Flo Kennedy was one of the Meriam people involved dug from the earth Australia and who speak similar languages in the Mabo case. She said: Christianity religion based on the teachings of Mabo judgement ‘Our lands were given to us by our ancestors and Jesus Christ ochre hardened white, yellow or red clay Meriam people have been leaders in the struggle to us they are still alive. Their spirit still lives colonisation settlement of a group of people in a pastoralists sheep or cattle farmers for Indigenous Australian land rights. Eddie and to the white man he’s dead. He’s finished. To place in order to take control of the land Mabo was a Meriam man who changed the us we still have a responsibility to them. Now pioneers people who lead the way forward for others course of Australian history. Under Australian they’ve told us that the land is ours and we constellation grouping of stars seen from Earth law, Mabo did not own his traditional lands. know it’s ours because they’ve told us that and cremation burning of a dead body, usually after quarry deep pit where stone is taken from The Government owned his land. Mabo was their fathers before them have told them that.’ a ceremony the earth shocked when he learned this and with four reconciliation bringing back a friendly and Crown land land owned by the State or Federal others, he decided to take a case to court. After a respectful relationship between people, Governments ten-year legal battle, Mabo won the case and the See also especially Indigenous and non-Indigenous High Court of Australia awarded the Meriam The Dreaming and the Law (totems of the Meriam didjeridu long, hollow wooden tube that is blown Australians people legal title to their family land. Eddie to make a rhythmic droning sound people), Volume 1 sacred worthy of deep respect Mabo died before the case ended. Eddie Mabo (Mabo judgement), Volume 9 hatchet small axe with a short handle smallpox disease, caused by a virus, that can heritage traditions and objects that have been kill people passed down from previous generations spiritual related to the spirit or soul inhabitants people who live in or occupy a place sustainable able to be maintained at a balance initiated allowed into a group, usually after a ritual and without using up the natural resources or ceremony technology application of scientific knowledge to keeping place place where important heritage practical purposes, such as tool making items and sacred objects are stored totems animals, plants or features of the land that kinship relationships between groups of peoples have a special significance or relationship to a and individuals, based on blood relations and person or group marriage traditional custodians people who have middens mounds of empty shells, bones and other originally looked after something Eddie Mabo and his items from meals of shellfish, which mark undergrowth thick cover of plants close to legal team fought sites where humans have lived the ground an important land rights case during the 1980s and early 1990s.

46 47 Meriam people of the Torres Strait Glossary

Meriam people today This landmark judgement became known as anatomy body parts and structure of plants mixed racial descent coming from a family the Mabo judgement. It led to the recognition of or animals background of different races Like many other Indigenous Australians today, the land rights of other Indigenous Australians. Meriam people maintain their traditional ancestors people from whom others are monsoons seasonal winds that bring the dry The Mabo judgement recognised the intense culture blended with modern ways. People use descended season or the rainy season cultural connection between Indigenous modern technology, such as motorised sea craft, Nyungar nation large group made up of Australians and their ancestral lands. archaeologists people who learn about human but they also make sure that traditional fishing history by studying remains and other things Indigenous Australian language groups who live in the south-western part of Western and farming skills are maintained. Flo Kennedy was one of the Meriam people involved dug from the earth Australia and who speak similar languages in the Mabo case. She said: Christianity religion based on the teachings of Mabo judgement ‘Our lands were given to us by our ancestors and Jesus Christ ochre hardened white, yellow or red clay Meriam people have been leaders in the struggle to us they are still alive. Their spirit still lives colonisation settlement of a group of people in a pastoralists sheep or cattle farmers for Indigenous Australian land rights. Eddie and to the white man he’s dead. He’s finished. To place in order to take control of the land Mabo was a Meriam man who changed the us we still have a responsibility to them. Now pioneers people who lead the way forward for others course of Australian history. Under Australian they’ve told us that the land is ours and we constellation grouping of stars seen from Earth law, Mabo did not own his traditional lands. know it’s ours because they’ve told us that and cremation burning of a dead body, usually after quarry deep pit where stone is taken from The Government owned his land. Mabo was their fathers before them have told them that.’ a ceremony the earth shocked when he learned this and with four reconciliation bringing back a friendly and Crown land land owned by the State or Federal others, he decided to take a case to court. After a respectful relationship between people, Governments ten-year legal battle, Mabo won the case and the See also especially Indigenous and non-Indigenous High Court of Australia awarded the Meriam The Dreaming and the Law (totems of the Meriam didjeridu long, hollow wooden tube that is blown Australians people legal title to their family land. Eddie to make a rhythmic droning sound people), Volume 1 sacred worthy of deep respect Mabo died before the case ended. Eddie Mabo (Mabo judgement), Volume 9 hatchet small axe with a short handle smallpox disease, caused by a virus, that can heritage traditions and objects that have been kill people passed down from previous generations spiritual related to the spirit or soul inhabitants people who live in or occupy a place sustainable able to be maintained at a balance initiated allowed into a group, usually after a ritual and without using up the natural resources or ceremony technology application of scientific knowledge to keeping place place where important heritage practical purposes, such as tool making items and sacred objects are stored totems animals, plants or features of the land that kinship relationships between groups of peoples have a special significance or relationship to a and individuals, based on blood relations and person or group marriage traditional custodians people who have middens mounds of empty shells, bones and other originally looked after something Eddie Mabo and his items from meals of shellfish, which mark undergrowth thick cover of plants close to legal team fought sites where humans have lived the ground an important land rights case during the 1980s and early 1990s.

46 47 Index

A I O Adelaide 28 ice age 6, 7 ochre 10, 22, 23, 25, 30, 34, 36, 42, Ancestral Beings 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 21, Indigenous Australian groups 45 22, 38, 40, 42 (profiled) 28–46 oral traditions 21 ancient sites 10–11 Barkindji 30–1 P Arabanoo 26 Eora 29 painting 9, 22, 23, 25 B Kaurna 28 Papunya artists 22–3 Bennelong 26 Kuku-yalanji 42–3 Pemulwuy 26 body decoration 20, 23, 38, 40 Larrakia 28 Perth 10, 28, 36, 37 Brisbane 16, 29 Meriam 15, 44–6 pituri 25 British settlement 7, 10, 13, 26, 35, Mouheneener 29 poles 23 36, 37, 43 Ngunnawal 29 Nuenonne 34–5 Q Bungaree 26 quarries 10, 25 bush tucker 16, 37, 39 Pitjantjatjara 10, 40–1 Wajuk 23, 28, 36–7 Quinkan figures 22 C Wurundjeri 19, 28 R Canberra 16, 29 Yolngu 17, 19, 24, 38–9 rainbow serpent 8, 36, 42 cave art 10, 11, 22, 29, 34, 42 Yorta Yorta 32–3 reserves 27, 29, 37, 41, 43 clothing 23, 28, 36 Yuggera 29 resistance to settlement 26, 35, 36 communication 24–5 Indonesia 6, 24, 38 Robinson, George 27 cremation sites 11, 30 initiation ceremonies 14, 20 rock art 10, 22 cultural groups 19, 28–46 invasion 7, 26–7, 33, 35 S D J sacred sites 9, 10–11, 29, 40, 41 dance 9, 20, 21, 28, 29, 40, 45 Jandamarra 26 sea levels 6 Darwin 28 seasons 16, 17, 29, 34, 40 diseases 26, 27, 35 K kinship rules 8, 18–19 secret ceremonies 20 dot paintings 22, 23 skin groups 18, 19, 38 Dreaming stories 8, 9, 15, 16, 21, L skin names 19 22, 23, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38 land rights 39, 43, 46 smoke signals 24 E language 5, 12–13, 19 smoking ceremonies 20 Elders 14, 20, 23, 28, 31, 34, 35, 36, line paintings 22, 23 song 9, 20, 21, 40, 45 42 M Stolen Generations 27 European exploration 7, 26, 29, Mabo, Eddie 46 sustainable living 5 41, 4 4 Mabo judgement 46 Sydney 7, 26, 29 F Macassan fishermen 7, 24, 38 T family groups 18 masks 23 totems 9, 15, 18 festive ceremonies 20 Melbourne 29 trade 7, 24, 25, 34, 45 fishing 17, 28, 29, 32, 36, 39, 45, 46 message sticks 24 trade routes 25 middens 10, 11, 34 G Mimi figures 22 W gatherings 21, 24 missions 27, 33 Wandjina figures 22 greenstone 25 Mungo Man 30 Welcome to Country H Mungo Woman 30 ceremonies 17, 28, 29 Hobart 29 music 21, 39, 45 X hunting 14, 16, 17, 18, 22, 28, 29, 30, N X-ray art 22 34, 36, 38, 39 New Guinea 6, 7, 24, 25 Y Nyungar nation 8, 10, 17, 19, 28, 37 Yagan 26

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