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Home , Geography of Nigeria, Shifting cultivation

The Study of Shifting Cultivation Author(s): Harold C. Conklin Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Feb., 1961), pp. 27-61 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2739597 . Accessed: 15/01/2015 04:27

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This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The Studyof ShiftingCultivation1

byHarold C. Conklin

This paper consistsof a briefdiscussion of problemsinvolved in thestudy of shiftingcultivation, a topical outline forfurther research, and an extensive but selected and geographically-indexedbibliography of world literature.

SINCE THE NEOLITHIC, extensive areas of forestland stood. The specificform that a systemof swidden agri- have been farmedevery year under conditionsof shift- culturemay exhibitwithin a givengeographical or cul- ing cultivation(which can be definedminimally as any turalprovince depends on the extentof available land, continuingagricultural system in which impermanent labor, and capital; the local settlementpattern; the de- clearingsare cropped forshorter periods in yearsthan gree of social and political integrationwith other seg- they are fallowed). Today, the total area of such mentsof the largersociety; and on a large numberof swidden farminghas been estimated at 14 million more specificallyagronomic variables, such as the kinds square miles (36 million square kilometers),inhabited of principal cropsraised (grains,root crops,etc.), types by 200 million people (FAO staff1957: 9). In vast trop- of crop associationsand successions,crop-fallow time ical and subtropicalregions of ,Asia, and the ratios,the dispersal of swiddens,the presenceof live- New World, shifting-fieldcultivation is coextensive stock,the use of specifiedtools and techniquesinclud- withagriculture. In SoutheastAsia, forexample, Dobby ing special methodsof treatment,the vegetational estimatesthat it accountsfor one thirdof the total land cover of land cleared,, soil conditions,and to- area used foragricultural purposes (1954: 349). And in pography(Conklin 1957b: 2). some regions,it has been estimatedthat the practiceof Apart fromour minimalcharacterization of shifting- this formof agricultureis more common at present fieldagriculture, it is difficultto give a list of elements than it was a centuryago (Leach 1959: 64). universallyassociated with this typeof economy.Swid- Despite the apparentlywidespread character of this den soil mayor maynot be workedwith hoes and other typeof land use, the associatedcritical limits and sig- bladed implements; swiddens may or may not be nificantrelations of time, space, technique,and local fenced; swidden farmersmay live in isolated and very ecologyhave rarelybeen stated explicitly;the varying temporarydwellings or in sedentaryvillages; etc. In methodsand consequencesof shiftingcultivation-for areas where light scrub and grasslandare cleared, ex- man, plants,and -are only beginningto be under- clusivelyhoe-and-burn (de Schlippe 1955c: 119),rather than slash-and-burn,clearing techniques may be ob- served.Unwanted vegetation is usuallyburned offafter HAROLD C. CONKLIN is Associate Professor of Anthropology, De- it has been cut,but in the continually-drenchedjungle partment of Anthropology,Columbia University(New York, of the Colombian Choco, theslash-mulch cultivation of N.Y., U.S.A.) Born in 1926, he was educated at the University of California, Berkeley (A.B., 1950) and at Yale University a special varietyof maize excludes the use of fire(West (Ph.D., 1955). 1957). And on Mentawei. in another troDical area of CONKLINhas done ethnographicand linguisticfield work in the , in other parts of , and in Cen- The researchon which this paper (including the Topical Out- tral and North America. He has been concernedwith problems line and Bibliography) is based has been generouslysupported by of ethnoscienceand cultural ecology,especially with regard to grants from the National Science Foundation and the Columbia varying cultural adaptations to tropical environments.Much University Council for Research in the Social Sciences. Many of his recent field research in the Philippines (1952-54, 1955, individuals have provided helpful criticism and suggestions at 1957-58) has been directed toward the analysis of systemsof various stages. Those to whom I am particularlygrateful for spe- shifting cultivation. His monograph, Hanunoo cificcomments include Barbara Adams, Richard N. Adams, Edgar (1957) provided a summaryof this work up through 1955. Anderson,the late H. H. Bartlett,Robert L. Carneiro, Francis P. Before the present paper was submitted to CURRENTANTHRO- Conant, Ursula M. Cowgill, Charles 0. Frake, J. Derek Freeman, POLOGY, CONKLIN had sent earlier drafts of its several sections Robert F. Heizer, Felix M. Keesing, Frederic K. Lehman, Karl J, to a number of interestedcolleagues forcomment and criticism. Pelzer, Hugh Popenoe, Joseph E. Spencer, William C. Sturtevant,, The response was encouraging.Wherever possible, correspond- Andrew P. Vayda, Charles Wagley, Philip L. Wagner and R. F. ents' suggestionsand additions have been incorporatedin the Watters. Numerous additions to my original bibliography were presentversion. provided by many of those just mentioned, as well as by Nancy

Vol. 2 * No. 1 * February1961 27

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions well-distributed,heavy rainfall, a similarpractice asso- workingin an ethnographiccontext. Among the more ciated with taro cultivationhas been reported(Maass completepublished reportson specificsystems of shift- 1902: 150). In general,the range of variation,even in ing cultivationare monographsby Izikowitz(1951) for such mattersas the minimumduration of fallows,is the Lamet of , de Schlippe (1955c) for the Azande expanded in those parts of the tropicswhere unusual in Africa(cf. Tondeur and Bergeroo-Campagne1956), conditionsof precipitationand moistureprevail. In the Freeman (1955) for the Iban of Sarawak, Condominas low-rainfall,grass-fallow swidden and grazingarea of (1957) for the Mnong Gar of , and Conklin upland Uganda, forexample, there is oftenlittle differ- (1957b) for the Hanunoo of the Philippines. No de- ence in the lengthof the croppingperiods and of the tailed study,however, has yetbeen based on more than timeintervals between them (Tothill 1940: 42-46). The one or two consecutiveyears of actual observationde- factof greatvariability from one systemof shiftingcul- spite the factthat, with field- rotation, the agricul- tivation to another is well documented,although its tural cycle for any given swidden site is rarelycom- significancehas not yetbeen fullyestablished. pleted in less thaneight to tenyears. With thesefactors in mind,it is evidentthat the study In tallyingthe numerousissues discussed and written and analysisof the complex relationsin shiftingcul- about by studentsof shiftingcultivation, I findthat al- tivation can profitgreatly from a combined ethno- mostall the questionsthat have been raised eventually graphicand ecological approach. In recentlypublished convergeon the same problemarea, withinwhich two surveys,cultural geographers have stronglyemphasized principal topics-population and productivity-areof thisview (Pelzer 1958a; Simoons 1958; Watters1960a); primaryinterest. This is well illustratedby the exten- and, withrespect to a numberof specificproblems, the sive literatureon pre-Columbian and contemporary same point has been underscored anthropologically Mayan agriculture.In almostevery report or interpre- (e.g., Conklin 1959a; Leach 1959; Scott 1958). The spe- tivediscussion, there are lengthysections devoted to one cial complexitiesof agriculturein tropical environ- or both of these central topics (e.g., Altschuler1958; mentsand the pitfallsof temperatezone ethnocentrism Bullard 1960; Bushnell 1958; M. D. Coe 1957; W. R. have been pointed out by Anderson (1952: 84), Bates Coe 1957; Cowgill 1960; Emerson 1953; Hester 1954; (1952: 271-72), Tempany and Grist(1958), and others. Kempton 1935; Lundell 1933; Meggers 1954; Palerm An importantintroduction to thegeneral potentialities and Wolf 1957; Perez Toro 1946; Popenoe 1960; San- and limitationsof swidden farminghas been outlined ders 1957; and Stadelman 1940). Considerablecontro- and revisedby Pelzer (1945, 1958a), and these factors versyoften accompanies the discussionof these issues, have been delineatedmore specifically for particular re- partlybecause accurateestimates of the desiredquanta gions by such writersas van Beukering (1947) for In- are neithereasily made nor readilyverified. donesia, Kolb (1942: 105-40) for northernMalaysia, Some of the specificdifficulties encountered in field and de Schlippe (1955c) forcentral Africa. In assessing researchdesigned to investigateswidden productivity these systems,Leach (1949; 1959) has stressedthe im- in termsof crop yieldsand labor efficiencyinclude: (1) portanceof estimatingtotal yield per unit of labor,and extensiveintercropping; (2) the usual lack of cadastral of expressingeconomic advantage in termsof available surveysand census or agronomicdata in swidden re- capital and other resources.General problems of de- gions; (3) the commonnecessity of checkingall siteson mography,burning, soils, and cropshave been discussed foot, making even simple periodic checks extremely by Gourou (1956: 336-49), Bartlett (1956: 692-720), time-consumingand sometimes impossible; (4) the Pendleton (1954), and Masefield (1951) respectively. widespread disinclinationof swidden farmersto di- The frequentlyignored but widespreadpractice of ex- vulge preciseor even approximatefigures as to the ex- tensiveintercropping has been documentedby Ander- tent of theirown recentplantings or harvests;and (5) son (1953: 84), Conklin (1957b: 73L86), Merrill (1909: theprevalence of ritual tabooswhich prevent the chart- 179-80),Segawa (1953), Skutch(1959), and R. C. ing or measurementof plots containingsacred crops. (1934). Major requirementsfor the studyof ecological On theother hand, where intimate contact with swid- changes related to shiftingcultivation have been dis- den cultivatorshas already been established,valuable cussedwith respectto climax forestand second-growth field investigationof factors determiningcosts and vegetation (Richards 1952; Symington1933), specific yields is possible,and adequate techniquesof indirect crops and crop successions(Burkill 1935; Grist 1955), as well as directchecking can be devised. The oppor- tropicalsoils (Popenoe 1959; Trapnell 1953),and criti- tunityto carryout this type of continuous,first-hand cal carryingcapacities (Allan 1949; Carneiro 1960; studyof swidden farmingeconomy frequently falls to Conklin 1969b; van Klaveren 1953). the anthropologist. This samplingof the literatureindicates a cumula- Under such conditions,field research is facilitatedby tiveawareness of some of themore interesting problems, an awareness of the ecological and cultural matrix but relativelyfew of these have yet been dealt with withinwhich swiddenactivities take place, and by the thoroughlyby ecologically-orientedfield investigators recognitionof as wide a range as possible of problems Bowers,H. C. Brookfield,Hugh Cutler, H. Th. Fischer,Michael J. faced by swidden cultivatorsat each stage in the agri- Harner, R. B. Lane, Donald W. Lathrap, D. J. Maltha, F. A. Mc- cultural cycle. Clure, J. R. McEwan, BettyJ. Meggers,Rhoads Murphey,John K. The three-dimensionaldiagram in Fig. 1 Musgrave,D. T. Myren,Jock Netzorg,Jesse P. Perry,Jr., John H. providesan Rowe, P. Voorhoeve,Karl A. Wittfogel,and Richard B. Woodbury. ecologically-orientedframe of referencewhich I have Maria de Azevedo Brandao, Jacques Bordaz, Howard P. Linton, found helpful in discussingsuch problems.The place- and Annemarie de Waal Malefijt have provided special biblio- mentand relativewidth of the labeled bands subdivid- graphical assistance.For help in preparing the manuscriptand in checkingreferences I am deeply indebted to Jean M. Conklin,Joan ing each of the threevisible facesof the diagrammatic Gordon, and Robert Harrison. cube are significant.A few words of explanation may

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This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Conklin STUDY OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION ECOLOGICALDIMENSIONS OF SHIFTINGCULTIVATING I

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I I

Gls IN.I

1. Selecting ~~~~~~~~~~2. ~~~~~jc Cutting 3. Burning 4. Cropping 5. Fallowing

P ~~~~~~~FIG.1. Diagram representingthe cultural and environ- mental dimensionsof any systemof shiftingcultivation throughtime.

help to clarifythe implied distinctionsof arrangement tneirinterreiations are categorizecanc interpretealo- and content. cally. Failure to cope with this aspect of cultural ecol- Along the environmentalaxis, climaticfactors refer ogy, to distinguishclearly between native environ- to such conditionsas moisturein its manyaspects, tem- mentalcategories (and associatedbeliefs) and thoseused perature,air movement,and sunlight.Edaphic factors by the ethnologist,can lead to confusion,misinforma- relate to general soil conditionsincluding parent ma- tion, and the repetitionof useless cliches in discussing terial,fertility, porosity, texture, relief, and drainage. unfamiliarsystems of land use. Biotic factorspertain to floraland faunal components The numericallylabeled temporaldistinctions refer of the environment.Of these three general environ- to the fivesuccessive phases of swiddenfarming: select- mentalcategories, and under conditionsof shiftingcul- ing, cutting,burning, cropping,and fallowing.The tivation,climatic factors are least amenable to cultural firstthree phases involvethe removalof old vegetation; controlor change, in contrastto biotic factors,which the last two, the controlof new vegetation.The wavy are most highlycorrelated with cultural activityand line separatingphases 4 and 5 indicates that in any whichalso contain the greatestnumber of discretesub- given environmentalsetting the relative duration of distinctions(e.g., particularplant types)which are im- the croppingperiod may vary more than that of the portant to swidden agriculturists.This explains the preceding clearance phases. The proportionately sequence and relative width of the general environ- greaterwidth of the phase-5band, the broken lines at mentaldivisions noted in thediagram. one side of the cube, and the dotted extensionsin the Along the culturalaxis, threedistinctions are noted: same direction,represent the longer,yet variable, pe- technological,social, and ethnoecological.Technologi- riodsof fallowing. cal factorsrefer to theways in whichthe environment is The special importanceattaching to the temporal artificiallymodified, including the treatmentof crops, dimensionsof the diagramstems from the factthat the soils,pests, etc. In systemsof shiftingcultivation, these studyof swidden farming-morethan that of perma- relationshipsare of primaryimportance and oftenex- nent-fieldagriculture-must include the investigation hibit great complexity;hence, the relativelygreater of farmingpractices over extended periods of contin- width of this sector. Social factorsinvolve the socio- uous cultural and environmentalchange. The dotted political organization of the farmingpopulation in cube representsrepetition of the cycle. termsof residential,kin, and economic groups; etc. Once the range of locallysignificant variations along These factorsare usually well within the domain of each of thesedimensions has been workedout, one can anthropologicalinterest. Ethnoecological factors refer frame questions more systematically-andat varying to the ways in which environmentalcomponents and levels of generalization-about the interrelationbe- Vol. 2 *No. 1 -February 1961 29

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions tween differentecological componentsof a given sys- considerableknowledge of theactual rangeof problems tem.This approach can be illustratedby a verysimple in swidden agricultureis presupposed.The extentof example. If one were to examine carefullythe factors such problems,and of their varied solutions among operative within that sector for which the diagram differentgroups of swiddencultivators, is suggestedin would suggestthe designation"biotic-technological re- the followingtopical outline. This inventoryof swid- lations during the burningphase," he mightbe led to den activities,arranged largely according to the se- ask such questionsas: Are all formsof vegetationkilled quence of phases mentionedabove and indicatedalong by cuttingand by the intenseheat of subsequentburn- the temporalaxis of thediagram, is designedprimarily ing? If not, what are the assumed reasons? Natural as an aid to futurefield research. The originalcontent of ,resprouting? Artificial protective covering? this outline reflectedprimarily the patternsof Malay- Firebreaks?Techniques of slashingand ?Others? sian integral swidden farming(Conklin 1957b: 2-3) The answersto such questions are rarelyfound in the among thosegroups with which I am most familiar.It literature,but theymay be of crucial importancein has been furtheraugmented, however, by suggestions termsof thechoice of a new swiddensite and thenature fromthe literatureand fromstudents of similarsystems of the successionof regrowthduring the fallowingpe- in otherareas. For coverageof factorsespecially impor- riod, which in turn may partlydetermine the length tantin regardto partial systemsof swiddenagriculture, of the swiddencycle. I have been less successful,though some published and One cannot anticipateall significantavenues of field manuscript questionnaires prepared by government inquirymerely by being aware of thesebroad ecological agenciesand by FAO have been helpful(e.g., Wind, et dimensions.Even in the brief illustrationjust cited, al. 1930-31: 1022-33; de Haan 1959: 1953-54).

TopicalOutline

This compositeoutline of topics to be investigatedin the 0.3.2. Temporal location studyof shiftingcultivation stems from diverse sources. It is 0.3.2.1. Time period(s) coveredby study not exhaustiveor complete for any particular system.Nor 0.3.2.2. Timing of specificevents (date, duration) does it provide a set of fixedrules for fieldresearch. It does 0.3.3. Quantification comprise,however, an orderedlisting of suggestivetopics in- 0.3.3.1. Measurement(including local measuresof timeand tended to draw the investigator'sattention to factorswhich space [linear,area, weight,volume]) have provensignificant in some areas and whichmight other- 0.3.3.2. Enumeration(including local techniques) wise be neglected.The firstsection of the outline deals with 0.3.3.3. Incidence (abundance in time and space) cross-cutting,general considerationswhich are not restricted 0.3.3.4. Distribution(frequency in timeand space) to a particularstage in the swidden cycle. The succeeding 0.3.3.5. Variation (range,reliability of estimates) sections are sequentiallyorganized. Considerationsimplied 0.4. Environmentalconditions (regional and local) throughoutthe outline, but not usually specified,include: 0.4.1. Climaticfactors (a) native categorizationof relevant natural and cultural 0.4.1.1. Precipitation and humidity (moisture, available phenomena,(b) correlates,(c) incentives,(d) available alter- waterresources) natives,and (e) differentialresults. 0.4.1.2. Temperature 0.4.1.3. Wind (direction,velocities, seasonality) 0. General considerations 0.4.1.4. Storms 1. Site selection 0.4.1.5. Sunlight 2. Cutting 0.4.2. Edaphic factors(soil and terrainconditions) 3. Burning 0.4.2.1. Relief (topography) 4. Cropping Elevation 5. Fallowing Slope Drainage 0. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 0.4.2.2. Soils (zones, types,etc.) Parentmaterial and age 0.1. Group Fertility (in terms of physical and 0.1.1. Identification(political, social, linguistic) nutrients) 0.1.2. Largergroup identification Texture and porosity 0.1.3. Subgroups Aggregationand compactness 0.2 Population Soil moisture 0.2.1. Size and distribution Subsurfacemacro- and micro-biology 0.2.2. Lowest density(population/total area) 0.4.2.3. Other terrainfeatures 0.2.3. Economic density(population/cultivable area) Outcroppingof rock 0.2.4. Other demographicconsiderations (e.g., growth,de- Results of wind and watererosion population) 0.4.3. Biotic factors 0.3. Location 0.4.3.1. Flora (local plant associations and successionsin 0.3.1. Spatial location terms of their botanical and ethnobotanical 0.3.1.1. Of the area studied(geographic co-ordinates, includ- composition) ing altitude) Climax vegetation(e.g., rain forest,grassland) 0.3.1.2. Within the area studied (micro-geographicalco- Second growthvegetation ordinates,including distances, elevation, etc.) Swidden vegetation(including weeds)

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This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 0.4.3.2. Fauna (local formsof animal life in termsof their Conklin: STUDY OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION zoologicaland ethnozoologicalclassification and importance) 0.5.2.2. Labor arrangements Wild fauna (especially swidden pests-insects, Division of labor birds,other vertebrates, and mammals) Overall swiddenwork pattern Domesticatedfauna (see 0.5.1.3) Seasonal distributionof labor 0.4.3.3. Disease (types,prevalence, etc.) Labor requirements(per task,per area) Plant and animal diseases (especiallyof domesti- Man-hourinput cates) Energyinput Human health and disease Labor arrangementswithin smallest economic 0.5 Culturalsetting unit 0.5.1. Technological factors Recruitmentof additional labor (types,combina- 0.5.1.1. Crops (classificationand handling of domesticated tion), by plants [and useful nondomesticates]) Obligation Crop list (includingnonswidden domesticates) Request Crop associationsand successions Exchange,of Crop uses (seasonal pattern,preferences) Equivalent labor Food (diet, meal pattern,relative proportions Other services of various foods,etc.) Feasts Drink Payment(in crops,cash, other media) Technology Task basis Ritual Time basis Cash Other arrangements Other purposes Loss of productiveagricultural labor within the 0.5.1.2. Tools (implementsand techniquesof use) smallesteconomic unit Cutting implements (e.g., axes, adzes, knives, Agriculturalwork outside the unit machetes,hoes; and sharpeningdevices) Nonagriculturalactivities Digging implements(e.g., dibbles, planting and Illness diggingsticks, digging bars, picks, hoes) Other reasons Carrying equipment and containers (e.g., nets, 0.5.2.3. Local group organization baskets,bags, lines, tubes, boxes, bins) General settlementpattern (including seasonal Food crop preparationequipment (e.g., scrapers, variation) strainers,sieves, slicers,pounders, grinders, Kinds of local groups (including social composi- mortars and pestles, presses, sifters,flails, tion) winnowing devices, chopping blocks, and Domesticunits mats) Settlements Special harvesting equipment (e.g., reaping Larger units knives,cutting rings, climbing devices) Internal relationsof local groups Other movable equipment Interrelationsbetween local groups 0.5.1.3. Domesticatedanimals (classificationand treatment) Settlementlocation with respect to cultivated Kinds of domesticatedanimals swiddens Significancefor swidden agriculture Permanencyof settlementlocation Traction and transport 0.5.2.4. Social structure Feed requirements General pattern of kinship and social relations Crop damage (including principles of affiliationand de- Manure scent) 0.5.2. Social factors Family organization 0.5.2.1. Propertyownership and economictransactions Larger social groupswithin the society Kinds of agriculturalproperty (including land, Marriageand residencerules crops,animals) Patternsof authority Social significanceof agriculturalproperty Social stratification Types of owniershipand usage rights Local Establishmentof new propertyrights Within wider contexts Transferof establishedproperty rights Politicalorganization Inheritance Local Giftexchange Regional Purchase/sale National Lease 0.5.2.5. Contact Rental General pattern of relationshipswith members Settlementof disputesover propertyrights of othersocieties Loss of agriculturalproperty by Contact withother swidden farminggroups Theft Local contact with representatives of non- Litigation swidden-farminggroups, including Destruction Hunters Safeguardsagainst losses Traders Transactionsinvolving agricultural products Miners Within the local community Beyond the local community(including par- Lumbermen ticipationin externalmarket economy) Cattlemen(herders) Other economicconsiderations Homesteaders(settlers, land buyers)

Vol. 2 *No. 1 *February 1961 31

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 0.5.2.5. Contact(Continued) 1.1.1.3. Limiting vegetation (e.g., some grassland associa- Surveyors tions) Swidden laborers (fromother societies) 1.1.1.4. Religious taboos (e.g., sacred groves,cemeteries) Missionaries 1.1.1.5. Other systemsof land usage School teachers 1.1.2. Variables consideredwithin cultivable area (includ- Governmentofficials (including the military) ing preferences) Agriculturalextension personnel 1.1.2.1. Distances from one's own previous swidden and Anthropologists settlementsites Others 1.1.2.2. Distances from present swidden and settlement Contact, in other regions, with non-swidden- sites (including thoseother than one's own) farminggroups 1.1.2.3. Topography (including slope) By performinglabor in areas of permanent- 1.1.2.4. Exposure to sun and wind fieldagriculture 1.1.2.5. Soil conditions By using, visiting,attending 1.1.2.6. Type of vegetation Markets,stores 1.1.2.7. Ownershipand previoususe of land Schools 1.1.2.8. Anticipatedlabor requirements Governmentoffices 1.1.2.9. External considerations(e.g., governmentrestric- Religious centers tions,crop quotas) Medical centers 1.1.3. Timing By othermeans 1.2. Procedures 0.5.3. Conceptual factors 1.2.1. Preliminarysurveying (visits to potential sites) 0.5.3.1. Local interpretationof general agriculturalactivi- 1.2.2. Planning (includingpersonnel and timing) ties,with regard to 1.2.2.1. Informaldiscussions Environmentalrelations 1.2.2.2. Formal discussions Group relations 1.2.2.3. Resolutionof conflictinginterests Individual involvement 1.2.3. Ritual testingof site (e.g., by location augury) Motivation 1.2.4. Definitivesurveying and markingof swiddensite Ideology 1.3. Results 0.5.3.2. Local interpretationof ritual aspectsof agriculture 1.3.1. Selected sites (number,area) Seasonal pattern of agriculturalrites 1.3.2. Characteristicsof swidden sites Magical principlesemployed 1.3.2.1. Topographic orientation Relations withsupernaturals 1.3.2.2. Size (dimensions) Tabooed activities(including use of sacred areas) 1.3.2.3. Shape 0.5.3.3. Local interpretation of unanticipated swidden 1.3.2.4. Divisions crises. 1.3.2.5. Borders 0.6. Change 1.3.2.6. Degree of separationfrom other swiddensites 0.6.1. Processual changes within the swidden cycle (see 1. 1.4. Related Activities through5. below) 1.4.1. Traveling,visiting, feasting 0.6.2. Environmentalchanges during the last decade (and 1.4.2. Shiftingof residenceor settlementsite during the last century)which have affectedthe 1.4.3. Ritual observances availabilityand distributionof natural resources 0.6.3. Sociocultural changes of agricultural significance whichhave occurredduring the last decade (and 2. CUTTING duringthe last century)and which involve: 0.6.3.1. New cultivatedplants (annuals; perennials) 2.1. Preliminaryconsiderations Food crops 2.1.1. Kind of vegetationat the site Cash crops 2.1.1.1. Virgingrowth (initial clearance) Cover crops 2.1.1.2. Previouslycleared 0.6.3.2. New agriculturaltechniques Climax growth 0.6.3.3. New domesticatedanimals Second growth 0.6.3.4. New markets 2.1.2. Provisionof necessarytools 0.6.3.5. New roads 2.1.3. Labor arrangements 0.6.3.6. Immigration,emigration 2.1.4. Timing 0.6.3.7. Change in social structure 2.2. Procedures 0.6.3.8. Combinationof swiddenfarming with other systems 2.2.1. Rituals of land use (e.g.,grazing, agriculture) 2.2.2. Cuttinglow forestgrowth 0.6.4. Correlation of local environmental and cultural 2.2.2.1. Slashingof low undergrowthand small changeswith modification of external 2.2.2.2. Lopping of saplings 0.6.4.1. Commercialinterests 2.2.2.3. Removal of wood for 0.6.4.2. Administrativepolicy Construction(e.g., fences,dwellings) 0.6.5. Presenttrends and futurepossibilities Fuel 2.2.2.4. Spreadingof cut debris 2.2.3. Cuttingof high forestgrowth 1. SITE SELECTION 2.2.3.1. Notchingtechniques 2.2.3.2. Felling of large trees 1.1. Preliminaryconsiderations Scaffoldingconstruction 1.1.1. Land considereduncultivable, because of Mishaps 1.1.1.1. Poor drainage Kickbacks 1.1.1.2. Limiting surfaceconditions (e.g., rocky,sandy, or Snaps eroded terrain) Entanglements

32 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2.2.3.3. Girdlingof trees Conklin: STUDY OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION 2.2.3.4. (cutting off branches of treesleft stand- ing) 3.3.2.1. Cases of poor burn (overall) 2.2.3.5. Trimming(cutting off only the leafy tips of trees 3.3.2.2. Cases of incompleteburn (spotty) leftstanding) 3.3.2.3. Cases of no burn 2.2.3.6. Leveling (furthercutting of felled timber) 3.4. Related activities 2.2.3.7. Covering(spreading of debris) 3.4.1. Use of firein huntingand gatheringactivities 2.2.4. Clearingof open land vegetation 3.4.2. Fire fighting 2.2.4.1. Scrub clearance 2.2.4.2. Grasslandclearance 2.2.4.3. Techniques other than slash-cutting(e.g., digging, 4. CROPPING hoeing) 2.2.5. Supplementarycutting outside the swiddensite 4.1. Preliminaryconsiderations 2.2.5.1. To providemore wood forfiring 4.1.1. Cropping patternin termsof 2.2.5.2. To removeexcessive shade 4.1.1.1. Main crop focus: 2.2.6. Drying Annual grains 2.3. Results Root crops 2.3.1. Swiddensites covered with dead, dryingvegetation crops 2.3.2. Partiallycut sites,abandoned 4.1.1.2. Main crop associationsand successions 2.3.2.1. Because of illness 4.1.1.3. Environmentalrequirements of principlecrop types 2.3.2.2. For otherreasons 4.1.2. Labor requirements 2.4. Related Activities 4.1.3. Timing of initial planting,in relation to 2.4.1. Maintenance and repair of cuttingimplements 4.1.3.1. Date of completed clearance (burn) 2.4.2. Clearing of new trails 4.1.3.2. Seasonal climaticchanges 2.4.3. Early plantingof root crops 4.1.3.3. Calendric agriculturalrites 2.4.4. manufacturefrom excess timbercut 4.2. Procedures 2.4.5. Incidental harvestingof other forest products ex- [Main cropping: 4.2.1-4.2.9, Secondary cropping posed duringcutting 4.2.10] 4.2.1. Main planting 4.2.1.1. Rituals 3. BURNING Magical techniques Firstplanting rites 3.1. Preliminaryconsiderations 4.2.1.2. Preparationof soil 3.1.1. Necessityof burning None, otherthan burning 3.1.2. Parts of site not to be burned (because of fruittrees, Turning, digging,hoeing etc.) Mounding 3.1.3. Surroundingvegetation Ditching 3.1.4. Timing, in relation to Ridging 3.1.4.1. Kind of vegetationto be burned Terracing 3.1.4.2. Drynessof cut vegetation Other techniques 3.1.4.3. Rains 4.2.1.3. Markingof swidden subdivisions 3.1.4.4. Other signs 4.2.1.4. Handling of special features 3.2. Procedures Termitaria 3.2.1. Preparatory Depressions 3.2.1.1. Protectiveclearing Stumps Around productiveplants Rocks Around swiddensite Others 3.2.1.2. Protectivecovering of young plants and tree crops 4.2.1.5. Preparationof seed (of nonvegetatively-propagated 3.2.1.3. Protectiveburning to preventlater escapes crops) 3.2.1.4. Arrangementswith cultivatorsof adjacent or neigh- Seed selection boringswiddens Ritual seed 3.2.2. Main burning Nonritualseed 3.2.2.1. Actual firing Mixing of seed (typescombined) Ritual aspects 4.2.1.6. Seed planting Technical aspects Spacing and timing 3.2.2.2. Controlledburning Dibbling (or other)equipment and techniques Section firing Seeding equipmentand techniques Backfiring Individual placement 3.2.2.3. Uncontrolledburning Dropping 3.2.3. Reburning Sowing (broadcast) 3.2.3.1. Piling of incompletelyburned debris Ritual plot treatment 3.2.3.2. Secondaryfiring Protectionof planted seed (from insects,birds, 3.2.3.3. Tertiaryfiring etc.) 3.2.4. Treatmentof unburnedlogs and stumps Use of leftoverseed 3.3. Results Replanting or transplanting 3.3.1. Swidden sites completelycleared by fire 1.2.1.7. Preparationfor planting of vegetatively-reproduced S.3.1.1. Ash cover crops(e.g., root crops) S.3.1.2. Modifiedsoil conditions Selectionof sourceplants 3.3.1.3. Modifiedbiotic conditions 1.2.1.8. PlantingStorageand of vegetatively-reproduced transportof partsremoved crops 3.3.2. Swidden sitesnot completelycleared by fire Vol. 2 -No. 1 -February 1961 33

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 4'2.1.8. Planting vegetatively-reproducedcrops (Cont.) 4.2.7.3. Harvestingprocedures Spacing and timing Spacing and timing Use of plantingsticks and otherequipment Cutting,picking, or diggingtechniques Preplanting in moist area; later transplanting 4.2.7.4. Carryingin of harvest (e.g., taro) 4.2.7.5. Yields Ritual treatment 4.2.7.6. Preliminarytreatment of harvestedcrops 4.2.1.9. Interplantingof otherannuals and perennials Distributionof shares Spacing and timing Threshing Filling in a sparselyplanted crop Drying 4.2.1.10. Plantingdifficulties Other Seed shortage 4.2.7.7. Main harvest-endingcelebration Labor shortage 4.2.8. Storingof crops Delayed planting 4.2.8.1. Rituals Failure to plant a burned site 4.2.8.2. Division of crops forstorage 4.2.2. Fencing Seed forplanting 4.2.2.1. Need for fencing Crops forlocal consumption Domesticatedand wild mammals Crops forsale or trade Other reasons Crops forritual use 4.2.2.2. Types of functionalfencing 4.2.8.3. Techniques of storage 4.2.2.3. Types of tokenfencing House storage(in rafters,tubes, baskets, etc.) 4.2.3. Guarding Storagein special structures 4.2.3.1. Guarding maturingcrops against Granaries Birds Caches Monkeys Racks Other animals not stopped by fences 4.2.8.4. Storagedifficulties Theft Spoilage 4.2.3.2. Watchingtechniques Damage by animal pests Tree lookouts Theft Swidden shelters 4.2.8.5. Handling of unusuallyabundant crops 4.2.3.3. $caringtechniques 4.2.9. of swiddensite Scarecrows 4.2.9.1. Secondaryharvesting (rereaping, gleaning) Manually-operatednoise-making devices 4.2.9.2. Cleaning and weedingof swiddens Wind-blownnoise-making devices 4.2.9.3. Cultivationof remainingintercropped plants 4.2A4. Weeding 4.2.10. Secondarycropping 4.2.4.1. Weeding of swiddensto 4.2.10.1. General pattern Preventcrowding; allow tillering,etc. Incentives Control rodent population Spacing and timing(especially of planting and Allow forcontinued intercropping harvestingactivities) 4.2.4.2. Types and techniquesof weeding Crop associations Pulling up weed sproutsand seedlings Specificcrops Cuttingback herbaceousgrowth Relative yields Digging out herbaceousgrowth 4.2.10.2. Dry season cropping of annuals (e.g., maize) and Cutting down coppice shoots from live stumps, ratooningperennials (e.g., sugar cane) etc. 4.2.10.3. Continued and extended cropping of perennials 4.2.4.3. Weeding stages (e.g., root crops,bananas) 4.2.5. Ritual and othertechniques for crop protectionfrom: 4.2.10.4. Wet season recultivationof annuals 4.2.5.1. Wild animals 4.3. Results techniques 4.3.1. Cultivatedswiddens Trapping techniques 4.3.2. Fallow swidden sites (see 5.) 4.2.5.2. Insects 4.3.2.1. Unfinishedswiddens (i.e., cleared but unplanted Use of fumigants sites) Use of smudges 4.3.2.2. Sites fromwhich most cultivates have been removed 4.2.5.3. Lodging due to wind Beginning of succession to cultivable (desired) Shielding formof second growthvegetation Bending Beginning of successionto uncultivable type of 4.2.6. Care of maturingcrops vegetation(often grassland) 4.2.6.1. , Factorsfostering this succession 4.2.6.2. Mulching Local deterrentfactors 4.2.6.3. Manuring 4.3.3. Harvestedcrops 4.2.6.4. Digging or hoeing 4.4. Related activities 4.2.6.5. Irrigating 4.4.1. Planting and cropping activities outside the main 4.2.7. Main harvesting swiddens 4.2.7.1. Rituals 4.4.1.1. In old swiddens Magical techniques 4.4.1.2. In houseyards Firsthandling of maturecrops Plots for medicinal,ritual, ornamental, spice, or Special harvestingtaboos supplementaryfood plants 4.2.7.2. Preparationof harvestingequipmenlt Experimentalplots Cuttingor diggingimplemenlts Children'splay swiddens Gatheringcontainers 4.4.2. Processingof harvestedcrops Carryingcontainers 4.4.2.1. Food products 34 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 4.4.2.2. Fiber products Conklin: STUDY OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION 4.4.2.3. Cash crops 4.4.2.4. Other agriculturalproducts 5.1.2.7. Ideal cropping: fallowingtime ratios 4.4.3. Constructionof 5.1.2.8. Other typesof land use in the vicinity 4.4.3.1. Field huts Permanent-fieldagriculture 4.4.3.2. Storagefacilities Grazing 4.4.4. Nonagricultural activities linked to cultivation of Lumbering main crops 5.2. Procedures 4.4.4.1. Observanceof generalritual taboos duringgrowing 5.2.1. Practicesfavoring regrowth of vegetation period 5.2.1.1. Protectionof fallow area fromfire 4.4.4.2. Ceremonies 5.2.1.2. Preventionof cuttingof fallowgrowth 4.4.4.3. Feasting,drinking 5.2.2. Enrichmentof forest fallow by planting of non- 4.4.4.4. Traveling swidden semidomesticates(e.g., trees, tubers, 4.4.4.5. Hunting,gathering, fishing rattans) 5.2.3. Other methods of controllingthe regenerationof fallowvegetation 5. FALLOWING 5.2.3.1. Allowing domesticatedanimals to browse in low fallowscrub or forest 5.1. Preliminaryconsiderations 5.2.3.2. Removing dead and otherwoody materialfor fuel 5.1.1. Necessityof fallowing 5.2.3.3. Cuttingfence posts fromlow fallow forest 5.1.1.1. Excessiveweed growth(evidence) 5.2.3.4. Cuttingconstruction poles and heaviertimber from 5.1.1.2. Soil depletion (evidence) high fallowvegetation 5.1.1.3. Other reasons 5.2.4. Uncontrolledtreatment of fallows 5.1.2. Given factors influencingduration and quality of 5.2.4.1. Lack of fireprotection fallow 5.2.4.2. Complete abandonment 5.1.2.1. Original vegetationcleared 5.3. Results Selectivecutting during clearance 5.3.1. Sites coveredwith lower fallowvegetation Fire resistanceof plant species 5.3.1.1. Types of plant associations 5.1.2.2. Kinds of second growthvegetation in region 5.3.1.2. Agriculturalpotential Foresttypes 5.3.2. Sites coveredwith higherfallow vegetation Scrubtypes 5.3.2.1. Types of plant associations Grasslandtypes 5.3.2.2. Agriculturalpotential 5.1.2.3. Dispersal of swiddens 5.3.3. Successionto climax vegetation 5.1.2.4. Exposure of swiddensite to wind-blownseed 5.3.3.1. Types of plant associations 5.1.2.5. Previous burningof vegetationat the site 5.3.3.2. Agriculturalpotential Time lapsed since initialburn 5.4. Related activities Repeated burning 5.4.1. Hunting and trapping 5.1.2.6. Preferredvegetation for new swiddenclearance 5.4.2. Foraging

othergeneral restrictions-geographical the actual field reports are regionally Bibliography or topical-are intended,many gaps un- specific, the main listing is followed by a doubtedlyexist. References to worksin Geographical Index. The following bibliography com- non-European languages are very few, prises a selectedlist of more than 1200 and theliterature on SoutheastAsia and ADAMS, RICHARD N. 1957. Cultural surveys referencesto books, articles, reviews, Malaysia is probably more adequately of Panama-Nicaragua-Guatemala-El and some publicly-available but un- covered than that for other tropical Salvador-Honduras. Pan AmericanSani- published works which contain direct I taryBureau, Science Publication No. 33, areas. would greatlyappreciate having iii, 669 pp., maps, tables. Washington, and significantstatements regarding importantomissions brought to my at- D.C.: Pan AmericanSanitary Bureau Re- swidden agriculture.For purposes of tention. gional Officeof the World Health Or- this listing, an ethnographic report A number of specialized bibliog- ganization. x that --. 1959. Explotation de la madera en el which statesmerely such-and-such raphies,the coverageof which includes municipio de Totonicapan. Boletin del a tribe "practices slash-and-burnagri- manyof the specificinterests of thispa- Instituto Indigenista Nacional, Vol. 2 culture"or that the group raises "corn, per, are listed below as regular entries (segunda epoca), Nos. 1-4 (1956). Guate- beans, pumpkins, and chilies by the (see especially Bartlett 1955, 1957a, mala. usual primitive farming techniques 1961; Bergawet al. 1940; E. E. Edwards ADAMS, W. 1959. Review of: Hanunoo agriculture,by H. C. CONKLIN. Sarawak practicedin thisregion" does not consti- 1942; Forde 1956b; MacLeich et al. Gazette 85.1216:144. Kuching. tute a significantreference, and there- 1940; and U.S. Department of Agri- ADRIANI, N., and ALB. C. KRUYT. 1950-51. fore it is not included. On the other culture1942-). De Bare'e-sprekende Toradja's van Mid- den-Celebes.2d ed., 3 vols. text,2 atlases, hand, I do include some borderline To save space, full entriesare listed plates, maps. Verhandelingender Konin- cases whereinformation is providedre- only once, and are arrangedalphabeti- klijke Nederlandsche Akademie van We- gardingpoorly documented areas. Gen- callyby author.A terminal'x' indicates tenschappen, Afdeling Letterkunde, eral works and textbooks containing a sourceparticularly useful in preparing Nieuwe Reeks, 56.1. Amsterdam.(Ist ed. published in 1912-14. Batavia: Lands- only brief referencesto shiftingculti- the Topical Outline abo\ve;a terminal drukkerij.) x vation are excluded, as are sources 'o' indicates a source of probable im- ALEXANDER, BOYD. 1908. From the ,by treating related problems (e.g., food, portance but one unavailable at the Lake , to the Nile. Journal of the labor, crops,weeds, grazing, grass fires), ManchesterGeographical Society24:145- time of this compilation. Inasmuch as 62, 6 figs.,map. Manchester. but lacking any explicit statementre- many of the importantgeneral discus- ALLAN, COLIN B. 1957. Customaryland ten- garding swidden activities.Though no Qionn' of Q11iftinCr oilltiluntionnn onll o11f ure in the British Solomon Islands. vii, Vol. 2 *No. I *February 1961 35

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 329 pp. Honiara, B. S. I.: WesternPacific Green and Co. LIERE, and JEAN-PAULHARROY. 1954. High Commission. o ANONYMOUS. 1849. The island of Mindoro. Tropiques (la nature tropicale). 206 pp., ALLAN,C. W. 1916. taungya planta- Journal of the Indian Archipelago and 24 planches en h6liogravure,dessins, 16 tions in the Henzada-Maubin Division. EasternAsia 3:756-66 [-67]. Translated hors-texte,34 photos en couleurs. Paris: The Indian Forester42:533-37, plates 50- fromSpanish. Singapore. x Horizons de France. 51. Allahabad. ANONYMOUS. 1914. De eilanden Alor en Pa- --. 1957. The .208 pp., 80 plates, ALLAN,WILLIAM. 1945. Africanland usage. vitar. Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk 16 color plates, 34 color photos., text Rhodes-Livingstone Journal, No. 3:13- Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genoot- illus. New York: Alfred A. Knopf; Lon- 20. Livingstone, Northern Rhodesia: schap, ser.2, 31:70-102, map. Amsterdam. don: Harrap. Rhodes-LivingstoneInstitute. x ANONYMOUS. 1948.Shifting cultivation. The AUSTEN, LEO. 1945-46. Cultural changes in --. 1949. Studies in African land usage Tropical Agriculturist 104:1-2. Pera- Kiriwina. Oceania 16.1:15-60, 1 plate. in Northern Rhodesia. Rhodes-Living- deniya. Sydney. x stone Papers, No. 15, 86 pp., illus. Cape ANONYMOUS.1954. Act to stop illegal kaifi- AYMONIER,ETIENNE. 1895-97. Voyagedans Town, London, New York: Oxford Uni- gins. The Daily Mirror(Sept. 10), pp. 1, 4. le Laos. Vols. 1, 2. Paris: Ministere de versityPress. x Manila. l'Instruction Publique, Annales du Mu- ALLAN, WILLIAM, MAX GLUCKMAN, et al. ANONYMOUS.1959. Nothing (Editorial). see Guimet. Vols. 5, 6. Paris: Ernest Le- 1948. Land holding and land usage Philippines Free Press (Aug. 8), 52.31:8. roux, Editeur. among the plateau Tonga of Masabuka Manila. x AZARA,FELIX DE. 1809. Voyagesdans l'Amer- District: a reconnaissance survey, 1945. ANVERY, S. A. A. 1934. Substitute for the ique Me'ridionale . . . depuis 1781 jus- Rhodes-LivingstonePapers, No. 14, 192 word taungya. The Indian qu'en 1801 . . . publies d'apres les manu- pp., 47 tables. Cape Town, London, New 60:313-14. Allahabad. scrits de l'auteur avec une notice sur sa York: Oxford UniversityPress. x ARDENNE, TH. VAN. 1912. "Bijdrage tot de vie et ses e'critspar C. A. Walchenaer . . . ALLEN, B. C. 1908. "Assam," in The Impe- kennis der To Lampoe," in De Bare'e- Vol. 1, ix, 389 pp. Paris: Dentu, Im- rial Gazeteer of India, Vol. 6, new edi- sprekende Toradja's van Midden-Celebes primeur-Libraire. tion, pp. 14-121. Oxford: Clarendon (by ADRIANI, N., and A. C. KRUYT), 1st Press. ed., Vol. 2:392-421. Batavia: Landsdruk- BABCOCK,W. J. 1946. Agriculture in the ALLEN, PAUL H. 1956. The rain forest of kerij. British Solomon Islands Protectorate. Golfo Dulce. 417 pp., 34 plates, 22 figs., ARMILLAS, PEDRO. 1949.Notas sobre sistemas AgriculturalJournal of Fiji, 17.3:63-70. index, glossary.Gainesville: Universityof de cultivo en Mesoamerica. Anales del Suva. Florida Press. Instituto Nacional de Antropologz'a e BAILEY,FREDERICK MARSHMAN. 1945. China- ALLISON, P. A. 1941. From farm to forest. Historia 3:85-112. Mexico. Tibet-Assam: a journey, 1911. 175 pp., Farm and Forest 2:95. Ibadan. ARNALDO, MARCELO. 1949. A study of the illus., map. London: Jonathan Cape. x ALLOUARD, P. 1951. Better conditions for economic and social conditions of the BAKER, SAMUEL WHITE. 1868. Exploration rural populations in tropical forestareas. mountain barrio of Malabo, Valencia of the Nile tributariesof Abyssinia; the 5:99-102. Rome. (Luzuriaga), Negros Oriental, Philip- sources,supply and overflowof the Nile; ALLsoP, F. 1953. Shifting cultivation in pines. 17 typescript pp. Dumaguete, the country,people, customs,. . . xxi, 624 Burma: its practice, effects,and control, Negros, Philippines: College of Business pp., illus., map. Hartford: D. Case and and its use to make forest plantatiohs. Administration, Silliman University. Co. Proceedings of the Seventh Pacific Sci- ARNOT,D. B., and J.S. SMITH.1937. Shifting BAKKERS, J. A. 1862. De afdeeling Sandjai ence Congress,1949, 6:277-85. Auckland cultivation in Brunei and Trengganu. (Celebes). Tijdschrift voor Indische and Christchurch,New Zealand: Whit- The Malayan Forester 6:13-17. Kuala Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 11:265- combe and Tombs, Ltd. x Lumpur. 373. Batavia. - . 1955. Shiftingcultivation in the Bel- ASBECK, F. M. VAN, W. W. FEITH, and BALEIN,JOSE C. 1955. Men of the frontier, gian Congo. Unasylva 9.2:67-71. Rome. A. L. A. VAN UNEN. 1915. Het voorkeur- theybreak ground in untouched , ALTSCHULER,MILTON. 1958. On the environ- recht op grond en het genotrecht van Christiansettlers follow in clearingsthey mental limitationsof Mayan cultural de- grond (Pandekten van het Adatrecht,II). have made. This Week, Magazine of the velopment. SouthwesternJournal of An- 237 pp. Amsterdam:Koloniaal Instituut. Sunday Chronicle 10.34:13-21, photos. thropology14:189-98. Albuquerque. x x Manila. ALVINo,G. 1939. Panorama forestale del ASCHMANN, HOMER. 1955-56. Hillside BALL, JOHN. 1887. Notes of a naturalist in Hararino. Estratto da I'Agricoltura Co- farms,valley ranches; land-clearingcosts South America. xiii, 416 pp., map. Lon- loniale, Anno 33, XVII, Numero 5, 10 and settlementpatterns in South Amer- don: Kegan Paul, Trench and Co. pp., illus. Firenze: Regio Instituto Agro- ica. Landscape 5.2:17-24, illus. Santa BALL, VALENTINE. 1880.Jungle life in India, nomico per L'Africa Italiana. Fe. x or the journeysand journals of an Indian AMES, OAKES. 1939. Economic annuals and --. 1960. 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58 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions --. 1956b. "Problems concerning pre- i. kl7. * . fT1YY' ^l T-T TTTt- JITTT rTTVA1T^XT historicsettlement patterns in the Maya lowlands,"in Prehistoricsettlement pat. ternsin the New World (ed. GORDON R. States GovernmentPrinting Office. T. S., and C. E. WOOD,JR.) WILLEY), Viking Fund Publications in --. 1907. Rotation of crops on chena WOOD,D. P. J., and B. J. MOSER.1958. Vil AnthropologyNo. 23, pp. 107-14. Newv land. Circulars and AgriculturalJournal lage communitiesin the Tambunan area York: Wenner-GrenFoundation for An- of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Ceylon of BritishNorth Borneo. The Geographi- thropologicalResearcli. 4:39-40. Peradeniya. cal Journal 124:56-68. London. --. 1960."Historical patternsand evolu- ---. 1922. Agriculturein the tropics.224 WOOD,R. C. 1934. Rotations in the tropics. tion in native New World cultures," in pp., 24 plates. Cambridge: University Tropical Agriculture 11.2:44-46. Trini- Evolution afterDarwin. Vol. 2: The evo- Press. (First ed., 1909.) x dad. x lution of man: man, culture and society WILSON, FERGUS. 1950. "Agriculturein Zan- WOODFORD, CHARLES MORRIS.1890. A nat- (ed. SOL TAX), pp. 111-41. Chicago: The zibar. Peasant agriculture" (Chapter 27), uralist among the headhunters: being an Universityof Chicago Press. in East African agriculture: a short sur- account of three visits to the Solomon WILLEY, GORDON R., EVON Z. VOGT, and vey of the agricultureof Kenya, Uganda, Islands in the years 1886, 1887 and 1888. ANGEL PALERM (Eds.) 1960. Middle Tanganyika, and Zanzibar, and of its xii, 249 pp., 16 plates, 3 maps. Melbourne American anthropology, Vol. 2, Special principal products (ed. J. K. MATHESON and Sydney: E. A. Petherick and Co. symposium of the American Anthropo- and E. W. BOVILL), pp. 250-67. London, WORTHINGTON,E. B. 1938. Science in Af- logical Association. Social Science Mono- New York, Toronto: Oxford University rica: a review of scientificresearch relat- graphs 10. v, 73 pp. Washington: Pan Press. ing to tropical and southern Africa. 746 American Union. WILSON, GILBERT LIVINGSON. 1917. Agricul- pp., 5 maps, 8 plates. London: Oxford WILLIAMs, FRANCIs EDGAR. 1928. Orokaiva ture of the Hidatsa Indians: an Indian UniversityPress. magic. xii, 232 pp. London: Oxford Uni- interpretation.University of Minnesota WRIGHT, A. C. S., and I. T. TWYFORD. 1957. versityPress. x Studies in the Social Sciences No. 9, 129 Soil development, shifting cultivation --. 1930. Orokaiva society.xxiii, 355 pp., pp., 40 figs.,4 plates. Minneapolis. x and permanentagriculture in the humid map, 36 plates. London: Oxford Univer- [WIND, E. J.,et al.] 1930-31.Enquete betref- tropics. Agricultural Journal of Fiji sity Press. fende het ladangvraagstuk, ingesteld 28.3-4:56-61. Suva. --. 1933a. Depopulation of the Suau Dis- door de Studiecommissie voor het La- trict.Territory of Papua, Anthropology, dangvraagstuk.Landbouw 6.11:1022-33. Report No. 13, 75 pp. Port Moresby. Buitenzorg. x YAMAGUCHI,SADAO. 19-? "Yakihata n6gyo - . 1933b. Practical education: the re- WINKLER, HUBERT. 1914. Die Pflanzendecke no chiritekibumpu sono ta" [The geo- formof native horticulture.Territory of Suidost-Borneos. Botanischen Jahrbiucher graphical distributionof, and other mat- Papua, Anthropology, Report No. 14: 50:188-208. Leipzig and Berlin. ters concerning,shifting cultivation], in 1-67. Port Moresby. WISDOM, CHARLES. 1940. The Chorti In- Chirigaku Hyoron 14. o --. 1938-39. "The grasslanders,"in Ter- dians of Guatamala. xiv, 490 pp., 12 figs., YDE, JENS. 1957. The agricultural level of ritoryof Papua, Annual Report, pp. 39- 12 plates. Chicago: Universityof Chicago the Waiwai Indians. Timehri, No. 36:23- 67, 8 figs.Canberra. Press. 35. Demerara, British Guiana. WILLIAMS, Louis 0. 1954. (see ANDERSON, E., WITTFOGEL, K. A. 1931. Wirtschaft und YOUNGBERG,C. T. 1957. (see DRYNESS, C. T., and L. 0. WILLIAMS) GesellschaftChinas. xxiv, 767 pp. Leip- and C. T. YOUNGBERG) --. 1957. The subsistenceagriculture of zig: C. L. Hirschfeldt. YPES, W. K. H. 1932. Bijdrage tot de ken- Lake Yojoa, Honduras. Economic Botany WOENSDREGT,JAC. 1928. De landbouw bij nis van de stamverwantschap,de inhe- 11.3:249-56. Kutztown, Pennsylvania. de To Bada's in Midden Celebes. Tiid- emsche rechtsgemeenschappen en het WILLIAMS, THOMAS. 1858. Fiji and the Fi- schriftvoor Indische Taal-, Land- en grondenrechtder Toba- en Dairi bataks. jians. Vol. 1: The islands and their in- Volkenhunde68:125-253. Batavia. x xi, 553 pp., plate, 3 maps and charts. habitants. Edited by GEORGE STRINGER WOHLTMANN, F. 1892. Handbuch der 's-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff. ROWE. xi, 266 pp., plates, figs.,map. Lon- tropischenAgrikultur. Band 1: Die nat- don: Alexander Heylin. uirlichenFaktoren der tropischen Agri- WILLIAMS-HUNT, P. D. R. 1952. An intro- kultur und die Merkmale ihrer Buertei- ZERRIES, 0. 1956. Zur Frage der urspruln- duction to the Malayan aborigines. vi, lung. 440 pp. Leipzig: Duncker und glichen Wirtschaftsform der Waika- 102 pp., 22 plates, map. Kuala Lumpur: Humblot. Indianer des Oberen Orinokos (Vene- GovernmentPress. x WOLF, ERIC R. 1957. (see PALERM, A., and zuela). Wiener vilkerkundliche Mitteil- WILLIAMSON, R. W. 1912. The Mafulu: E. R.. WOLF) ungen 4.2:148-56. Wien. mountain people of BritishNew Guinea. ---. 1959. Sons of the shaking earth: the ZINGG, ROBERT. 1935. (see BENNErr, W. C., xxiii, 364 pp. London: Macmillan and people of Mexico and Guatemala, their and R. ZINGG) Co., Ltd. land, history and cultures. 303 pp., ZSCHOKKE, T. C. 1923. Forestry among the WILLIS, JOHN C. 1905. A report upon agri- bibliog., illus., index. Chicago: Univer- pagan tribes of northern Luzon. Makiling culture in the Federated Malay States. sity of Chicago Press. Echo 2.4: 1-9. Manila: Bureau of For- 106 pp. Kuala Lumpur: Federated Malay WOOD, CARROLL E., JR. 1943. (see GITHENS, estry.

6. Africa and Stephenson 1934; Friedrich 1904; Frith GeographicalIndex 7. New World 1955; Gaussen 1958; Goldschmidt 1959; Gourou 1947, 1953, 1956; Gray 1944a,b,c; 0. GENERAL (Works not restrictedgeo- Greenaway 1956; Grist 1955; de Haan 1954, In thisindex, the main regionalhead- graphically,except in termsof "the tropics" 1959; Hagreis 1930-31; Harris 1959; Heizer ings follow a general east-to-westse- or multiregional comparisons): Allouard 1955; Holdridge 1959a,b; Hubbard 1944; quence, beginningin the Pacific.With 1951; Ames 1939; Anderson,E. 1952, 1960; Imperial Agricultural Bureaux 1944; fewexceptions, subheadings reflect con- Anonymous 1948; Anvery 1934; Aubert de INitAC 1947; International Labour Office la Rue 1958; Aubert de la Rue, Bourli&e, 1953; Joubert 1933; Kellogg 1956; Klemn- siderationsof bibliographicaland geo- and Harroy 1954, 1957; Bartlett 1955, 1956, medson,Schultz, Biswell, and Biswell 1958; graphical convenience. They do not 1957a, 1959, 1960; Bates, M. 1952; Bennett, Kuhnholtz-Lordat 1939; Leach 1959; indicate culturalprovinces as such,but H. H. 1943; Bews 1935; Blaut 1959; Blu- Loffler1960; Loucher 1949; Lowie 1938; are intended primarilyto facilitateun- menstock 1958; Bramao and Dudal 1958; MacLeish, Hennefrund, Lacy, and Pro- Brown, D. 1944a,b,c; Budowski 1956b; vinse 1940; Marshall, C. 1958; Masefield ambiguousreference to particularareas Burgy'and Scott 1952, 1953; Burkill 1935, 1951; Meggers 1954, 1959; Morrison 1959; with a minimum of necessary cross- 1953; Carneiro 1956, 1960; Christian 1958; Ochse 1959; Ooi Jin-Bee 1958; Pelzer 1945, referencing. Conklin 1954a, 1959a,b; Demangeon 1947; 1958a; Pendleton 1949, 1950, 1954, 1958; Deutsche Akademie der WissenschaftenzU Piggott 1959; Quiggin 1958; Richards, P. 0. General Berlin 1957; Dryness and Youngberg 1957; W. 1952; Robb 1959; Royer 1958; Sauer, C. 1. Oceania Egler 1958; Ehrenfels 1957; Ekwall 1955; 0. 1950, 1952, 1956; de Schlippe 1955b, 2. Eastern Asia Erasmus 1956; [Fagg] 1956; FAO 1957; FAO 1957b, 1959; Scott, V. H. 1956; Scott and 3. SoutheasternAsia Staff 1957; Ferdon 1959; Fickendey 1941; Burgy 1956; Senstius 1930-31; Simoons Food and AgricultureOrganization of the 1958; Skutch 1959; Spencer 1959; Stamp 4. SouthernAsia United Nations 1959; Forde 1952, 1956a; 1926, 1958a,b; van Steenis 1937, 1958; 5. Europe Fosberg 1958; Fosberg,et al. 1958; Fowells Steward 1955a,b; Tansley and Chipp 1926; Vol. 2 -No. 1 -February 1961 59

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Tempany 1951; Tempany and Grist 1958; Burkill 1935; Cole 1945; Conklin 1957b, gado 1892; Delizo 1934; Dickerson 1928; Thomas, W. L. 1956; Troll 1958; U.S. De- 1959c; Dobby 1954; Fosberg 1958; Frake Ealdama 1938; Fernandez and Evangelista partmentof AgricultureLibrary 1942-; 1956; Goodenough 1955, 1956; Gourou 1952; Finley 1913; Fischer 1932; Fox 1953, Vayda 1961; Versluys1956; Vlamis, Schultz, 1940a; Grist 1955; Guillemard 1889; Heine- 1954; Frake 1955, 1957; Fukuhara 1943; and Biswell 1955; Watters 1960a; Werth Geldern 1932; Huberman 1949; Keith 1953; Garvan 1931; Gillis and Sulit 1922; de la 1954; Whittlesey 1937a,b; Whyte 1944, Lbffler1960; Miller, R. W. R. 1954; Pelzer Gironi&e 1853; Gonzalez 1947, 1954; Har- 1958; Willis 1922; [Wind, et al.] 1930-31; 1945; Spencer 1959; Terra 1953; Tubb greaves, G. H. 1956; Hart, D. V. 1954; Wohltmann 1892; Wood, R. C. 1934; 1959; Watters 1960b; Wickizerand Bennett Jocano 1958; Kolb 1942; Lansigan 1959; Wrightand Twyford 1957. 1941. Locsin 1960; Manio 1934; Marche 1887; 3.1. East Indies (excluding British Bor- Mercado 1958; Merrill 1907, 1926, 1945; 1. OCEANIA (General and compara- neo): Adriani and Kruyt 1950-51; Anony- Miller, E. Y. 1905; Miller, M. L. 1912; tive): Barrau 1960; Bartlett 1957a, 1960; mous 1914; van Ardenne 1912; van Asbeck, Montano 1886; Nano 1939, 1951; Oliveros Cook, J. 1777; Erskine 1853; Finsch 1893; Feith, and van Unen 1915; van Assens 1936; 1932; Oracion 1955; Pelzer 1958b; Pendle- Frake 1956; Goodenough 1955, 1956; Heine- Bakkers 1862; Ballot 1904; Bangert 1860; ton 1933, 1942; Pflueguer 1930; Quiroz Geldern 1932; Huberman 1949; Massal and Bartlett 1919, 1928, 1935, 1952, 1957b; 1957; Rabor 1958; Rama 1960a,b,c; San Barrau 1956a,b; Merrill 1945; Watters Berkusky1913; van Beukering 1947; Bick- Pedro 1934; Scott, W. H. 1958; Serevo 1960b. more 1869; Blink 1918, 1926a,b; Bock 1882; 1955; Spencer 1949, 1954; Sulit 1947; Van- 1.1. Polynesia (including Fiji and the de Boer 1914,1917; van den Bor, A. C. 1869; overbergh 1941; Wendover 1928; Wern- outliers): Barrau 1956e, 1957; Best 1924, van den Bor, R. C. 1932; Bouman 1952; stedt 1954; Wester 1925; Whitford 1906; 1925; Block 1933; Brown, G. 1910; Buck, Bouman and de Jong 1930; Boxer 1957; Zschokke1923. P. H. 1930; Burrows 1937; Cassidy and van Brenda de Haan 1903, 1917; Breiten- 3.4. Taiwan: Chi-lu 1956; Dampier 1697; Pahalad 1954; Coulter, J. W. 1931, 1-941; stein 1899; von Brenner 1894; Burton and Hoffman 1912; [Ishii] 1911; Ishii 1915-16, Cumberland 1941; Eckardt 1882; Ellis 1853; Ward 1827; de Bussey 1938; Campen 1884; 1917; Kano and Segawa 1956; Segawa 1953; Firth 1939, 1959; Forster1778; Handy 1940; Cohen Stuart and van Limburg Brouwer Wiedfeldt 1914. Hargreaves, R. P. 1959; Harwood 1950; 1868; Couperus 1856; Crawford1820; Dan- 3.5. Malaya: Annandale and Robertson Homne1881; Jolliffe1954; Mercer and Scott hof 1940, 1941; Demang van Sibolga, et al. 1903; Arnot and Smith 1937; [Barnard] 1958; Quain 1948; Sahlins 1958a, 1960; 1928; Dormeier 1947; Elshout 1926; Endert 1954; Begbie 1834; Birch 1910; Burkill Vayda 1956, 1961; Watters 1958a,b; Wil- 1920; Favre 1865; [Fokkinga] 1948; Forbes 1918-21; Coombs 1918; Coulter, J. K. 1950; liams, T. 1858. 1885; van Gelderen 1929; van Gogh and de Craig 1933; Dobby 1951; Douglas 1897; 1.2. Micronesia: Barnett 1949; Barrau Vries 1930-31; Goldman 1861; Grabowsky Favre 1865; Grist 1950; Ironside 1957; Jack 1956e; Bascom 1948; Block 1933; Burrows 1908; de Haan 1950; Hagreis 1926-27, 1923; Ja'far 1897; Logan 1849; Marshall, C. and Spiro 1953; Crozet 1891; Eiler 1935; 1930-31; Hagreis and Vonk 1927-28; van 1952; Ooi Jin-Bee 1959; Strong,T. A. 1934; Pelzer 1947. Hall F1946]; van Hall and van de Kop- Symington 1933; Thomas, W. L. 1957; 1.3. Melanesia (excluding New Guinea): pel [1946]; Hamerster 1926; Hardeland Williams-Hunt 1952; Willis 1905. Allan, C. B. 1957; Austen 1945-46; Babcock 1859; van der Hart 1857; van Hasselt 1882, 3.6. Northern Southeast Asia (including 1946; Barrau 1954, 1956a,b,c,d, 1958a,b, 1893; van Hoevell 1890a,b,c, 1891; Holle- Burma, Thailand, Laos, , and 1959; Bell, F. L. S. 1946-48, 1953; Belshaw man 1919; Hondius van Herwerden 1916; Vietnam): Allan, C. W. 1916; Allsop 1953; 1953; Blackwood 1935, 1950; Bromilow Hose and McDougal 1912; Hueting 1906; Anderson,J. 1876; Atkinson 1948; Aymon- 1910; Brown, G. 1910; Codrington 1891; Jacobs 1894; Java, Governmentof, Welva- ier 1895, 1897; Barthelemy 1899, 1904; Deacon 1934; Frake 1959; Friederici 1912; artcommissie 1911; Jellesma 1911; Jorge- Baudesson 1919; Bernatzik 1947; Bernat- Glaumont 1897; Guiart 1956, 1958; Guiart jans 1918; Joustra 1926; Junghuhn 1847; zik H. A. and E. 1941; Bertrand 1952; and Robert 1960; Guiart and Tercinier Juynboll 1916; Kempski 1924; van Kla- Bigandet 1866; Blanford 1950; Brerault 1956; Hadfield 1920; Hogbin 1937, 1939a; veren 1953; Koch 1919; Koens 1920; 1925- 1905; Brien 1885; Carey and Tuck 1896; Hogbin and Wedgewood 1953; Humphreys 26; Kools 1935; Kooper 1927; Kreemer Carrau 1882; Champion, H. G. 1929; 1926; Ivens 1927, 1930; Leenhardt 1937; 1922-23; Kroon 1937; Kruyt,A. 1920, 1922, Chemin-Dupontes 1909; Condominas 1957; Malinowski 1935; Oliver 1949, 1955; Powell 1923, 1930, 1932, 1938; Kruyt,J. 1924; van Consigny 1936; Credner 1935a; Cuisinier 1883; Spoehr 1958; Woodford 1890. der Laan 1925; van Limburg Brouwer 1946; Cupet 1900; Davis, A. P. 1923; De- 1.4. New Guinea (the island): Barrie 1868a; Maass 1902, 1910; Mallinckrodt vereaux 1958; deYoung 1955; Dumoutier 1956; Bowman 1948; Brass 1941; Brookfield 1924; Marsden 1783; Merrill 1945; Modi- 1891; Ferrars,M. H. 1875; Ferrars,M. and 1960; Brown and Brookfield 1959; Buck- gliani 1890; Mohr 1938, 1944; Nieuwenhuis B. 1900; Garnier 1885; Girard 1903; Gouin land 1878; Chalmers and Gill 1885; Conroy, 1904, 1907; Ormeling 1955; Pelzer 1957; 1891; Gouin and Moulie 1886; Gourou W. L. 1953; Conroy and Bridgland 1950; Provinse 1937; van Roosendael 1924; de 1936, 1940b, 1951, 1955; Guignard 1911; Cowan 1955; Elmberg 1955; Evans, A. H. Santy 1925; de Savornin Lohman 1909; Haguet 1905; Halpern 1958; Harmand 1956; Gehrmann 1916; Gilliard 1959; Git- Scheltema 1923; Schroder 1917; Schultzvan 1877a,b, 1879, 1879-80; Hoffet 1933; low 1947; Goodenough 1953; Haddon n.d.; Vlissingen 1911; van Setten 1920, 1922, Huard and Maurice 1939; Huke 1954; Hu- Hagen 1899; Held 1947; Hogbin 1938, 1925; Smits 1929; van Steenis 1932, 1933, man 1884; Hunerxvadel 1952; Izikovitch 1939b, 1946,1951; Holmes, J. H. 1924; Hur- 1937; Tergast 1935-36; Tergast and de [sic] 1951; Izikowitz [1944], 1951; Joubert ley 1924; Kaberry 1941; Klein 1953-54; Vries 1951; Terra 1949, 1950; Thorenaar 1933; Kauffmann1935; Kurz 1875; Lafont Kouwenhoven 1956; Landtman 1927; Lane- 1921, 1922, 1926; Tideman 1922; van der 1959; Leach 1949, 1954,1959; Lehman 1959; Poole 1925a,b; Lanternari 1957; Lawrence Veer 1918; Vink and Gadroen 1926-28; de Loetsch 1958; Lunet de Lajonquiere 1906; 1955; Le Roux 1948-50; Marr 1938; Mead Vries 1929; Vroklage 1953; van Waarden- Marshall, H. I. 1922; Mason 1860; Maurice 1938, 1947; Meggitt 1956, 1958; Poch 1907; burg 1936; Wada 1942; Wallace 1869; and Proux 1954; McMahon 1876; Mouhot Pospisil 1958; Pouwer 1955; Read 1950; White 1925; [Wind, et al.] 1930-31; Wink- 1864; Pendleton 1939; Ross, D. 1892; [Scott, Reay 1959; Spate 1953; Tergast and de ler 1914; Woensdregt1928; Ypes 1932. J. G.] 1882; Scott,J. G. 1906; Smalley 1956; Vries 1951; Thurnwald 1932; Vicary 1960; 3.2. BritishBorneo (Sarawak, North Bor- Spate 1945, 1954; Stamp 1925, 1926; Steven- Vicedom and Tischner 1943-48; de Wilde neo, Brunei): Adams, W. 1959; Arnot and son 1943,1944; Taylor, G. D. 1953; Thomas, de Ligny 1954; Williams, F. E. 1928, 1930, Smith 1937; Beccari 1904; Brooke 1866; W. L. 1957; Tournier 1900; Verdaguer 1933a,b, 1938-39; Williamson 1912. Burns 1849; Conklin 1957c; Evans, I. H. N. 1912; Ward, F. K. 1921. 1922, 1923, 1953; Freeman, J. D. 1955; 2. EAST ASIA (General and compara- Furness 1902a,b; Geddes 1954a,b; Haddon 4. SOUTHERN ASIA (General and com- tive): Gourou 1940a; Wickizer and Bennett n.d.; Hatton 1886; Hodder 1956; Hose parative): Bartlett 1957a, 1960; Grist 1955; 1941. 1905; Hose and McDougal 1912; Leach Huberman, et al. 1949; Spate 1954; Wicki- 2.1. Japan (including the Ryukyus): 1949,1950, 1959; Low 1848; Needham 1956; zer and Bennett 1941. Furushima 1957; Hall and Nok 1953; Mc- North Borneo, Colony of 1951, 1952; Ny- 4.1. India, Pakistan: Allen, B. C. 1908; Ewan 1956; Nuttonson 1952; Ono 1942; andoh 1954; Roth 1896; Rutter 1922; Sah- Anvery 1934; Bailey 1945; Ball, V. 1880; Soma 1959; Suyama 1928a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h; lins 1958b; Sarawak Department of Agri- Banerjee 1942; Barton and Tuljashankar Yamaguchi 19-? culture 1948, 1949; Smythies1949; Spurway 1880; Bernot,D. and L. 1958; Biswas 1956; 2.2. Korea: Ch'oi 1958; Lee 1936; Mc- 1937; Strong,T. A. 1950; Vayda 1961; Wood Bompas 1909; Bor, N. L. 1938, 1942; Bower Cune 1951. and Moser 1958. 1950a,b, 1953; Bradley-Birt 1905; Breeks 2.3. China (including Hainan Is.): An- 3.3 Philippines: Adams, W. 1959; Anony- 1873; Browne 1929; Buck, E. 1915; Burkill derson, J. 1876; Beauclair 1956; Credner mous 1849, 1954, 1959; Arnaldo 1949; Ba- 1924; Butler 1855; Campbell, J. M. 1883, 1935b; Cressey1934; Gourou 1949; Graham, lein 1955; Barton, R. F. 1922, 1949; Bene- 1884; Campbell and de Souza 1883; Camp- D. C. 1954; Graves 1870; Odaka 1950; Pen- dict 1916; Brown, W. H. 1919; Brown and bell, J. 1864; Chambers 1889; Champion, dleton 1933; Wittfogel 1931. Mathews 1914; Burbridge 1880; Cabailo H. G. 1923, 1929; Chaturvedi and Uppal 1925; Cenabre 1954a,b; Christie 1909; Cole 1953; Chaudhuri 1925; Cleghorne 1861; 3. SOUTHEASTERN ASIA (General 1913,1922, 1956; Conklin 1954a,b,1957a,b,c, Dalton, E. J.T. 1845; Dalton, E. T. 1872; and comparative): Bartlett 1957a,c, 1960; 1960; Copeland 1924; [Daoey] 1959; Del- Das 1937, 1945; Davis, H. P. 1935; De 1918;

60 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 14.139.45.242 on Thu, 15 Jan 2015 04:27:05 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar1915; Dutta 1955, Conklin: STUDY OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION 1959; Elwin 1939, 1947, 1955; [Enthoven] 1909a,b; Forsyth1889; von Fiirer-Haimen- dorf 1938, 1943, 1946a,b, 1952; von Ftirer- French Equatorial Africa, the Sudan, the mann 1960; Beals 1943; Bennett and Zingg Haimendorf, C. and E. 1943; Godwin- Congo area, and Uganda): Allsop 1955; 1935; Blom and Duby 1955; de Borhegyi Austen 1873; Gohain 1954; Gorer 1938; Barbour 1953; Barth 1857, 1859; Bartholo- 1956; Budowski 1956a,b; Bullard 1960; Gorrie 1935; Graham, R. J. D. 1913; mew, Meyerand Laudelout 1953; Beirnaert Bushnell 1958; Carrasco 1960; Carr 1953; Grange 1840; Grigson 1938; Gurdon 1907; 1941; Bernard 1945; Blohm 1931; Booth Chiuderi and Boninsegni 1952; Choy 1955; Helfer 1839; Hislop 1886; Hodgson 1880; 1905; Burnett 1948; Burton 1860, 1863; Coe, M. D. 1957; Coe, W. R. 1957; Con- Hodson 1911; Hunter 1879; Hutchinson Cameron 1877; Casati 1891; Catford 1951; zemium 1932; Cook, 0. F. 1909, 1921; Cook, 1909, 1914; Hutton 1921a,b, 1929, 1949; Champion, A. M. 1912; Chevalier 1907-08; S. F. 1958; Cooke 1931; Cowgill 1960; Imperial Gazetteer of India 1907; Kauff- de Coene 1956; La Commission pour Drucker and Heizer 1960; Emerson 1953; mann 1935; Kihara 1957; Kloss 1903; Laird l'ttude de la JachiereInstitut National du Emerson and Kempton 1935; Erasmus 1876; Lewin 1869, 1870; McCall 1949; Centre de Recherches de Yangambi 1949; 1956; Foster 1942; de la Fuente 1949; Gillin Mooney 1942; Nakane 1955, 1958; Parry Corfield 1938; Cottes 1911; Crowther 1948; 1951; Gomez Gonzailez 1956; Guiteras 1931,1932; Roy 1960; Shukla 1959; Shake- Delevoy 1928-29; Drachoussoff 1947; Du Holmes 1952; Guzman 1956; Hester 1952, spear 1912; Shaw 1928; Shebbeare 1932; Chaillu 1861, 1867; Dugast 1944; Dumont 1953, 1954; Higbee 1947, 1948; Hooper Stebbing 1922-26; Troup 1926; Verma 1957; Duvigneaud 1949; Everaerts 1939; 1945; Hoyt 1955; Johnson 1948; Kelly and 1956;Vidyarthi 1958. Ferguson 1948; Fickendey 1950; Focan and Palerm 1952; Kempton [1935]a; Kirchhoff 4.2. Ceylon: Ceylon, Government of, Laudelout 1950; Geortay 1956; Gleichen 1948a; La Farge 1927; La Farge and Byers 1951, 1953; Chapman 1947; Clifford1927; 1905; Goma Conference 1949; Guttmann 1931; LeBeau 1956; Lewis, 0. 1951; Linton Farmer 1953, 1954a, 1957; Farrer 1908; 1956; Haig 1940; Heck 1956; Henry 1951a; 1940; Loenholdt 1953; Lundell 1933, 1937, Freeman, H. R. 1913; Hiller and Furness INIRAC 1947; Jewitt 1950; Johnson 1958; 1938; McBride and McBride 1942; McBryde 1902; Holmes, C. H. 1951; Joachim and Jurionand Henry 1951; March 1936; Mase- [1947]; Millon 1955; Morley 1947, 1953, Kandiah 1948; Leach 1959; Murphey 1957; field 1948; Matheson and Bovill 1950; 1956; Palerm 1954, 1955; Palerm and Wolf Nijhawan 1944; Parker,H. 1910; Paul 1949; Noyun 1954; Rahmann 1957; Reining 1958; 1957; Perez Toro 1946; Perry,Bautista and Ponniah 1956; de Soyza 1944; Stockdale Roscoe 1911, 1923a,b, 1924; Samuel 1950; Rabaj 1958-59; Perry, Gil, Franco, and 1926; Udugama 1947; Wikkramatileke Sautter 1954; de Schlippe 1948, 1954, Martinez Lima 1958; Perry, Rachie, and 1957; Willis 1907. 1955a,c, 1957a; de Schlippe and Batwell Martinez Lima 1957-58; Popenoe 1959, 1955; Seligman 1932; Staner 1957; Tondeur 1960; Pozas 1959; Redfield and Villa Rojas 5. EUROPE: Beckinsale 1945; Childe 1955, 1956; Torday and Joyce1911; Tothill 1934; Reh 1939; Reichel-Dolmatoff1961; 1950; Clark, G. 1946; Clark, J. G. D. 1952; 1940, 1948; Westermann1912. Roys 1943; Rublo 1950; Sanders 1957; Sap- Costa 1915; Darby 1956; Ehrenfels 1957; 6.3. Eastern Africa (including Ethiopia, per 1890, 1934; Schmiedler 1930; Skutch Garcia-Badell 1951; Greenaway 1956; Iver- Kenya, Tanganyika): Alvino 1939; Baker 1959; Stadelman 1940; Standley 1945; Steg- sen 1941, 1949, 1956, 1960; J0rgensen1953; 1868; Chiuderi 1942; Edwards, D. C. 1950; gerda 1941, 1943; Steward 1946-S50;Stone Kivekas 1939,1941; Lyashchenko1949; Pfei- Gillman 1949; Glover, H. M. 1953, 1954; 1949; Strong, W. D. 1947; Tax 1953; fer 1956; Piggott 1959; Smith,R. E. F. 1959; Griffithand Stuart 1955; Hall, A. D. 1930; Thompson 1930, 1954; Tozzer 1907; Val- Steensberg 1955; Troels-Smith 1954. Jensen 1954, 1959; Lewis, E. A. 1953; Ma- ladares 1957; Villa Rojas 1945; Vogt 1960; theson and Bovill 1950; Meiklejohn 1955; Wagley 1941; Wagner 1955, 1958; West 6. AFRICA (General and comparative): Nadel 1946; Paterson 1956; Paulitschke 1948; Willey 1956b; Willey, Vogt, and Busse 1908; Chantran 1957; Chevalier 1909, 1893, 1896; Phillips 1930; The Round Ta- Palerm 1960; Williams, L. 0. 1957; Wis- 1929, 1933; Dundas 1944; Forde 1956b; ble 1950; Stiehler 1948; Thornton and dom 1940; Wolf 1959. Githens and Wood 1943; Great Britain: Rounce 1936; Wilson 1950. 7.3. South America: Aschmann 1955-56; Colonial Office1950; Greaves 1935; Hailey 6.4. SouthernAfrica (south of the Congo de Azara 1809; Ball, J. 1887; Bates, H. W. 1945; Harroy 1944; Masefield 1951; Mor- area and Tanganyika): Allan, W. 1945, 1864; Bates, M. 1955; Braun 1956; Budow- gan, W. B. 1957; Murdock 1959; Phillips 1949; Allan, Gluckman,et al. 1948; Anders- ski 1956a; Bushnell 1958; Camargo 1959; 1959; Porteres 1952; Royer 1956, 1958; son 1856; Cameron 1877; Clairmonte 1896; Carneiro 1956, 1957a,b, 1960, 1961; Car- Shantz and Marbut 1923; Shantz and Clements 1933; Costa Junior 1956; Gluck- neiro and Dole 1955; Caspar 1952; Choy Turner 1958; Stebbing [1942]; Vine 1955; man 1941; Gomes e Sousa 1949; Hudson 1955; Cooper 1946; Crist 1943, 1944, 1952; Whittlesey 1937a,b; Worthington 1938. 1935; Junod 1927; Livingstone, D. 1875; Cutler 1946; Dansereau 1948; Davis and 6.1. WesternAfrica (fromGambia to Ni- Livingstone, D. and C. 1866; Morgan, Richards 1932-33; Denis 1823; Dobrizhof- geria and the British Cameroons): Alexan- W. B. 1953; Peters 1950; Richards, A. I. fer 1784; Dye 1957; Erasmus 1956; Evans der 1908; Allison 1941; Ashmun 1825; 1948, 1951, 1958; Scudder 1960; Smith and and Meggers 1955a,b, 1960; de Fautereau Barnes 1956; Beckett 1947; Begue 1937; Dale 1920; Trapnell 1943,1953, 1959; Trap- 1955; Fernandes 1949; Freise 1939; Geyskes Benoist 1926; Bergeroo-Campagne 1956; nell and Clothier 1937. 1954; Gillin 1948; Glover, H. 1951; Gold- Bertin 1920; Bohannan 1954; Briggs 1941; 6.5. Madagascar: Besson 1897; Brockway man, I. 1948; Gumilla 1791; Guppy 1887; Browning,Capstick and Waldock 1951; Bu- 1876; Catat 1895; Chapotte 1898; de Cointet Hoehne 1937; Hohenthal 1951; von Hum- chanan 1953, 1954; Buchanan and Pugh 1897; Condamy 1899; Copland 1822; Dom- boldt 1850; Im Thurn 1883; Kirchhoff 1955; Bumpus 1951; Burton 1863; Busse mergues 1952; Durand 1897; Duruy 1897; 1948b; Koch-Griinberg1923; Lange 1914; 1907; Cabral 1954; Cardinal 1931; Chipp Ellis 1838; Faublee 1955; de Flacourt 1661; Leeds 1961; Levi-Strauss 1948a,b; Lowie 1926a, 1927; Dennis 1944; Dresch 1949; Humbert 1927; Jeannelle 1900; Joubert 1946, 1948; Martius 1840-1906; Meggers Dubie 1953; Ekandem 1957; Faulkner and 1933; Keller 1901; Linton 1933, 1939; Petit 1957; Meggers and Evans 1956, 1957; Me- Mackie 1933; Feilberg 1958; Field 1943-44; 1937; Pierre 1897; Rabe 1952. traux 1946a,b, 1948a,b,c; Mishkin 1946; Forde 1937, 1953; Forde and Jones 1950; Murphy 1960; Murphy and Quain 1955; Forde and Scott 1946; Griaule and Dieter- 7. NEW WORLD (General and compar- Nimuendaju' 1939, 1946; Oberg 1949, 1953; len 1954; Grove 1951; Haswell 1953; Hedin ative): Bergaw, Hannay, and Larson 1940; Park 1946; Patinlo1956; Pittier 1936; Quin- 1934; Irvine 1953; Johnson, B. F. 1958; Carrier 1923; Edwards and Rasmussen tus Bosz 1954; Rodriguez, A. 1952; Rondon Johnston 1906; Jones,G. H. 1936; Kaberry 1942; Moore 1960; Sauer, C. 0. 1944, 1958; n.d.; Roosevelt 1914; Steward 1946-50,1948, 1952; Keay 1951; Kobben 1956; Lamb 1942; Weatherwax 1954; Willey 1956a, 1960. 1949; Suirez de Castro 1953, 1957; Suarez Lancester 1943; Lynn 1937; McCulloch, 7.1. North America: Byers l946, Castet- de Castro and Rodriguez 1955; Vayda 1961; Littlewood, and Dugast 1954; McElderry ter and Bell 1951; Day 1953; Driver and Wagley 1951, 1953; Wagley and Galvao 1942; Meek 1957; Mercier 1953; Morgan, Massey 1957; Flannery 1939; Fowells and 1948a,b, 1949; Waibel 1948, 1949, 1955; W. B. 1959; da Mota 1950, 1951, 1954; Stephenson 1934; Hatt 1953; Hill 1938; West 1957; Whiffen1915; Yde 1957; Zerries Nigeria, Forestry Department 1949; Nye Johnson, A. 1917; Kinietz 1940; Linton 1956. 1957, 1958; Nye and Bertheux 1957; Nye 1924; Maxwell 1910; Morgan, L. H. 1954; 7.4. West Indies: Ballet 1894; Beard and Stephens 1958; Patullo 1942; Paulme Newcomb 1956; Parker,A. C. 1910; Rainey 1946, 1949; Blaut 1959; Cater 1939, Dela- 1954; Pitot 1952, 1953; Prothero 1957; Rat- 1936; Swanton 1946; Voegelin 1941; Waugh warde 1938; De Young 1958; Durland 1922; tray 1932; Ribeiro 1953; Ross, R. 1954; 1916; Will and Hyde 1917; Wilson, G. L. Hardy, Duthie, and Rodriguez 1937; Her- Rouanet 1952; Rouch 1954; Smith, M. G. 1917. skovits 1937; Hodge and Taylor 1957; 1952; Stamp 1938; Steel 1948; Thomas, 7.2. Mexico and CentralA merica:Adams, Holdridge 1947; Lov6n 1935; Marshall, N. W. 1914, 1916; Vine 1953; White, S. R. N. 1957, 1959; Allen, P. H. 1956; Alt- R. C. 1934; Oviedo y Valdes 1526, 1851-55, 1944; Wood, R. C. 1934. schuler 1958; Anderson,E. 1952; Anderson 1942, 1959; Perez de la Riva 1951; Sturte- 6.2. Central Africa (including the former and Williams 1954; Armillas 1949; Asch- vant 1961.

Vol. 2 *No. I *February 1961 61

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