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Home , Shifting cultivation, Tropical Asia

How Blaming ‘Slash and Burn’ is Deforesting Mainland Southeast

JEFFERSON M. FOX AsiaPacific ISSUES

Analysis from the East-West Center SUMMARY For decades, international lenders, agencies, and foundations No. 47 December 2000 as well as national and local governments have spent millions of dollars trying The U.S. Congress established the East-West Center in 1960 to to “modernize” the traditional practices of farmers in many mountainous foster mutual understanding and cooperation among the govern- areas of —an agenda driven by the belief that their age-old ments and peoples of the Asia Pacific , including the United shifting cultivation practices (known pejoratively as “slash and burn”) are States. Funding for the Center comes from the U.S. government deforesting Asia. But a new look at how fare under shifting cultivation with additional support provided by private agencies, individuals, (as opposed to under permanent ) clearly demonstrates that efforts corporations, and Asian and Pacific governments. to eliminate the ancient practice have actually contributed to ,

The AsiaPacific Issues series 1 contributes to the Center’s role as loss of biodiversity, and reduction in carbon storage. In fact, shifting cultiva- a neutral forum for discussion of issues of regional concern. The tion, rather than being the hobgoblin of tropical conservation, may be views expressed are those of the author and not necessarily those ecologically appropriate, culturally suitable, and under certain circumstances of the Center. the best means for preserving biodiversity in the region. The real threat to

these tropical forests is posed by the steady advance of large-scale permanent

and commercial agriculture. 2

Analysis from the East-West Center

combined with both an increasing need for cash The Region and the Threat and increasing opportunities to earn it, are pushing The mountainous area of farmers away from traditional shifting practices and is an enormous, ecologically vital region compris- toward permanent agriculture, with potentially dev- ing about half of the land area of , , astating ecological consequences. If this continues, , , , and China’s Yunnan the region will finally see the extensive deforestation Province. The region harbors an immense wealth for which it has so long been cited. of natural resources, including globally important stocks of forests and biological diversity; it is home Shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation (also called to a rich heritage of indigenous cultures; and it is the “swiddening”) is the dominant farming system found headwaters of major Southeast Asian river systems. in the region, where it has been practiced for at least Much of this region has only recently been reopened a millennia. It is a system in which vegetation felled to outside influences, bringing profound and wide- in patches of forest during the dry season is burned spread changes to both its physical environment and before the onset of the rainy season to open the site to its local societies. and release nutrients. The cleared fields are cultivated The greatest threat to this ecological bounty is set- and harvested for one or more years, and then left to tled agriculture, which permanently eliminates com- lie fallow for varying periods to allow secondary for- plex forests and replaces them with crops of a single est to regrow. Indigenous farmers manage the system species, such as rubber, , coffee, or , in ways that integrate production from both culti- or by annuals, such as maize, cassava, and ginger. Na- vated fields and diverse secondary forests, including tional policies favoring permanent fields (including everything from grass and bushes in its early stages, introduced exotic crops) over shifting cultivation, to young open-canopy , to mature closed-canopy communities. Swiddens have been described as “[a] natural forest...transformed into a harvestable forest,”i and others suggest that vast areas considered primary or virgin forest are really late secondary for- ests on lands previously cleared for swiddens.ii In fact, it is arguable as to whether there is any primary or virgin forest left in accessible areas of mainland South- given the long history of shifting cultivation in the region. Opposition to shifting cultivation is based main- ly on misconceptions about how the system works, especially misunderstandings about its effects on as compared to the effects on soil of permanent agri- culture. Indeed, the Food and Agricultural Organiza- tion of the United Nationsiii defines deforestation as “the transfer of forest land to non-forest uses” and

1 Because plants absorb and store carbon as they grow, forests help keep carbon out of the atmosphere, where it is a major contributor to greenhouse gases. When a plant sprouts and as it matures, it absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, breaks it down chem- ically, and uses carbon as construction material for roots, stems, branches, flowers, and leaves. When the plant dies, some of the car- bon goes back into the atmosphere, but some is also released into the soil as the dead plant decays. 3

Analysis from the East-West Center

lists shifting cultivation as one of its causes. Shifting cultivation, however, involves only temporary use of forest lands, not permanent loss, as is the case with permanent agriculture, human settlements, , and dam building.2

What Works and What Doesn’t

In fact, shifting cultivation has a significant advan- It is arguable tage over permanent agriculture: the fallow periods that there is any allow soil to stabilize and give forest vegetation an op- virgin forest left in portunity to regrow, providing a home for a variety of life forms. Because of its fallow period, swidden accessible areas of agriculture promotes both greater carbon sequestra- Southeast Asia tion and biodiversity conservation than permanent agriculture.iv The stability of shifting cultivation, an asset that has typically been ignored, was recently documented by five studies of land-use and land-cover change over the last 35 to 50 years at five sites in mainland Southeast Asia (Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Yunnan-Mengsong, and Yunnan-Baka). These studies classified and quantified changes, explored the forces driving them, and investigated their probable envi- ronmental effects at local, regional, and global levels. in an annual increase in forest cover (3.4 percent)— They revealed that vegetation re- while open-canopy and grass, bamboo, and shrub mained fairly stable throughout the study period: vegetation tended to increase. A second significant despite continuous shifting cultivation, 77 to 95 per- land-cover change related to shifting cultivation was cent of the total landscape of each of the five sites a great increase in forest fragmentation in Vietnam, remained under secondary vegetation. The only true Thailand, and Yunnan-Baka. Forest fragmentation deforestation that occurred—about 7 to 8 percent of is an important cause of species loss. Tropical forests the land-cover change—was from conversion of areas are especially susceptible to species loss because they under swidden cultivation (including secondary for- are unusually rich in species and ecologically com- est) into permanent and commercial agriculture. plex as compared with other terrestrial ecosystems Significant areas, however, were transformed from (and thus have more to lose) and they contain many one type of secondary vegetation to another. Some species with restricted or patch distribution. They closed-canopy cover was lost at all sites—except suffer especially because fragmentation often lowers Yunnan-Baka, where a new nature reserve resulted local immigration rates of many rare tree animals in tropical forests. Forest fragments are also more 2 It should be noted, however, that not all swidden systems are sus- vulnerable to drought and fire. tainable. A minority of cultivators practice “pioneer” shifting culti- Thus, although shifting cultivation has not caused vation, a system in which new areas of forest are cleared for fields, allowed to remain under cultivation for too long, and then aban- deforestation, it has changed the structure and com- doned in a degraded condition. This can ultimately produce grass- position of the forest as well as the pattern of forest- lands, rather than forest regrowth. The type of shifting cultivation that is practiced more widely, and that is reported on here, rotates ed areas in the landscape. This may be the reason through the same plots, rather than continuously clearing new land. that the contribution to carbon absorption made by 4

Analysis from the East-West Center

secondary forests may have been significantly under- vegetation often find species diversity comparable to estimated by scientists who have focused almost ex- more mature forests (although the diversity of large clusively on timber inventories and ignored carbon mammals and bird species may not recover). Similar- in secondary forest regrowth, , and wetlands.v ly, surveys suggest that the negative impacts of swid- By failing to consider forest regrowth in fallow swid- dening on water- and soil-holding have dens across Southeast Asia, we may well be missing been exaggerated, especially as compared to those of another important , one that will be se- commercial agriculture, , or roads.vi verely compromised by a boundless expansion of , so important in mitigat- commercial agriculture. ing global warming, may be similar under intensive tree-cropping systems and swiddening (though tree- The high price of permanent agriculture. The cropping systems’ effects on biodiversity and hydrol- By ignoring forest small amount of land-use change that has occurred ogy are often negative). But carbon accumulation is regrowth, we may in this region has been caused by a move away from negligible in agricultural plots planted with annuals. be endangering a shifting cultivation to the growth of cash crops, in- cluding paddy rice and plantation tree crops. In some major carbon ‘sink’ Forces Driving Land-Use Change cases annual rates of change have been significant— so important to as high as 35 percent per year in Yunnan-Baka. Shifting cultivation has remained the dominant land- mitigating climate It is the spread of permanent and commercial use system throughout the past 35 to 50 years de- change agriculture that ultimately will bring about true de- spite attempts to eliminate it by every country in the . The result will be a landscape dominat- region. Policies have included outright banning of ed by tree crops (e.g., rubber, palm oil, and coffee), shifting cultivation, declaring an area a forest reserve or composed of annuals (e.g., maize, cassava, and and excluding people, resettling people into the low- ginger). In either case, biodiversity, as measured by lands, and promoting and subsidizing permanent the number of plant and animal species on the land- and commercial agriculture either in place of exist- scape, will decline. By contrast, surveys of secondary ing shifting cultivation systems or in new locations.

The Life of a Swidden Fallow canopy layers including older trees from the previous fallow forest, younger trees that have sprouted from Contrary to the popular belief that swidden fallows are trees cut earlier, and trees that have developed from impoverished environments, fallows have a richness of seeds. The swiddening environment as a whole is plant and animal species, many of which are not found complex, dynamic, of uneven age, and structurally elsewhere, and are not dominated by any single diverse: a compound of successional stages that species. Secondary forests consist of up to three replace each other at a rapid pace. 5

Analysis from the East-West Center

Governments have also encouraged human settle- ments at such high population density that the fal- The Effects of Burning on the Atmosphere low periods necessary for forest regeneration cannot be maintained, making sustainable swidden impossi- Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide are pro- duced by consuming fossil fuels such as gasoline ble (which has helped give it a bad name). and coal, and by other activities, including the burn- But despite the historical resilience of shifting ing of forests. Large uncontrolled fires have recently cultivation, national land tenure policies militate in- ravaged landscapes as diverse as Borneo, the creasingly against traditional shifting practices. A , , and . The causes of these fires vary. Plantation and industrial legacy of the colonial era, national land policies do interests use fire to facilitate large-scale, not recognize customary use rights to swidden fields, high-speed land conversion. Expanding urban com- and in particular do not recognize swidden fallows— munities that find overgrown trees and bush in their uncultivated land perceived as unused or abandoned way will also use fire to clear land. In Kalimantan, , replacing shifting cultivation with estates as far as the government is concerned, and therefore devoted exclusively to the growth of oil palms (used not claimable. Governments do not want to lose to produce palm oil) and tree led to the their own rights to land they can lease to large com- monumental and disastrous fires of 1998 that caused mercial agricultural interests or devote to plantation acute air in Southeast Asia (and even spread to other parts of the world). The fires, original- forests. Governments are also swayed by a history of ly blamed on shifting cultivators (of “slash and burn” “bad science” that argues that shifting cultivation fame), had actually been set on behalf of the large leads to soil and water degradation; are often biased commercial interests to clear their own vast tracks. against the “primitive” nature of traditional cultiva- According to the World Resources Institute, “blaming on shifting cultivators does tion practices; and like to see their people settled, the not follow the evidence. Although carbon emissions The shift from better to collect taxes and provide services. Finally, from burning are partly from shifting cultiva- subsistence to cash they have been told by international development tion, a focus on the emissions alone is misleading as agencies such as the Food and Agricultural Organiza- it ignores another important parameter—carbon crops offers imme- absorption (or sequestration) by vegetation. Both tion, and multilateral banks such as the World Bank, diate benefits to output and absorption must be understood together. along with groups such as the Consortium for Inter- Shifting cultivation systems have relatively high car- farmers, but also national Agricultural Research (comprising more than bon absorption because they typically maintain and enhance vegetation in the successions and often many long-term a dozen research institutes around the world) that include trees in the cropping cycle.” (See endnote disadvantages indigenous agricultural practices must be eliminated vii, Thrupp, et al.) or transformed.vii The result is that settled farmers, rather than shifting cultivators, secure rights to their land. And it is permanent agriculture, not shifting coffee) and to expand the production of traditional cultivation, that is perpetuated and spreads. Nation- subsistence crops on a commercial scale. Cassava, al polices to replace swiddening with commercial for example, once grown as famine food and for agriculture are beginning to work at the Thailand, family livestock is now produced for processing into Yunnan-Baka, and Cambodia sites. While this trend livestock feed and exported to . Today, some was too small to measure at the Yunnan-Mengsong farmers have given up their traditionally varied sub- and Vietnam sites, there is evidence of increasing sistence crops to grow just one or two commercial commercial farming. crops. The focus on cash crops and the commercial- ization of former subsistence resources offers almost Market pressures will also grow. Shifting cultiva- immediate financial benefits to the farmers. But these tors have traditionally grown a variety of subsistence changes also have many long-term disadvantages. crops, including, for example, rice and cassava. As Some affect the environment: when crops are not the cash and then the global economy reached them, varied (e.g. when “monocropping” is practiced) bio- they began to introduce some cash crops (such as diversity suffers; increasingly large areas of land go 6

Analysis from the East-West Center

into settled, permanent agriculture; wild plants that National legislation needs to be developed that rec- have found a market, such as bamboo, are encour- ognizes customary claims to swidden fallows and aged to spread and become in effect a commercial grants farmers and farming communities legal access crop, suspending the fallow period that normally to the land they have traditionally used. permits forest regeneration. Other disadvantages also In this way, the international, national, and local affect the : monocrops are more susceptible to forces that have worked to eradicate shifting culti- pests and make the farmer vulnerable to price fluc- vation can work toward preserving the ecological tuations; as self-sufficiency decreases, vulnerability diversity and stability of the enormous, and im- increases; and like all people living on the margin, mensely important, mountain region of mainland the farmers of Southeast Asia’s mountain areas are Southeast Asia. safer when they diversify.

Recommendations How This Study Was Conducted

The recognition that shifting cultivation may be the The calculation and comparison of deforestation most ecologically appropriate and culturally suitable rates, so necessary to evaluating the relative impacts of shifting cultivation and agriculture, is There must be fun- means available for promoting sustainable economic notoriously difficult and complicated. Especially damental changes growth in many mountain areas requires some fun- problematic is that there are no standardized defini- tions of “forest,” and other traditional land-cover in how develop- damental changes in how development is envisioned and funded and in the ways governments manage classifications such as “agriculture” and “plantation” ment is envisioned do not capture the crucial variations in shifting culti- land. Two responses are particularly important. vation and its associated stages of secondary vege- and funded and in tation. For example, between 26 percent and 49 per- how governments Protect and improve the traditional systems. The cent of all mainland Southeast Asian land has been classified as “other” where other is defined as shrub, integrity of shifting cultivation systems, which are manage land brush, pasture, waste, and other land-use cate- under pressure from shortened fallow periods, lack gories, many of which are actually some stage of of legal recognition, and commercial pressures, must secondary forest or vegetation.viii be improved. It is essential to learn how to main- In this project, aerial photographs and satellite images were interpreted and grouped into five class- tain the biodiversity of fallows while also increasing es: secondary forest, cultivated swidden plots, their productivity and soil-sustaining properties. Re- paddy, cash crops and plantations, and miscella- search aimed at accelerating the regeneration of fal- neous. We believe the study sites contained no sig- lows could address the effects of different methods of nificant “primary” forest. Secondary vegetation was further subdivided into three classes: closed-canopy land clearing, crop cultivation, fertilizer use, propa- forest, open-canopy forest, and grass, bamboo, and gation of wild crops found in swidden fallows, and shrub. The more refined classification scheme per- a number of other issues. Education efforts aimed at mitted better study of the complexity of secondary the farmers must disseminate this information in a vegetation, its diverse vegetation types, and its species compositions and structures that change way that is meaningful and useful to them. rapidly in the course of successional stages of growth. Recognize the land claims of shifting cultivators. Socioeconomic databases were compiled Land tenure policies that disenfranchise shifting through interviews with local residents and govern- ment officials. Researchers documented changes in cultivators in favor of settled farmers must end. New national and regional policies influencing land use policies must be designed and implemented in or- (e.g., land tenure, taxation, credit, import and export der to empower local people to manage and utilize regulations) and changes in infrastructure (roads and their own land and forest resources, a development markets). The purpose was to identify the socioeco- nomic and institutional factors influencing land use that would help control the spread of large planta- and management decisions affecting land use. tions and their negative effects on the environment. 7

Analysis from the East-West Center

Notes and Sources v Fan, S., M. Gloor, J. Mahlman, S. Pacala, J. Sarmiento, T. Takahashi, and P. Tans. 1998. A large terrestrial carbon sink Readers are referred to the longer paper from which this sum- in implied by atmospheric and oceanic carbon mary has been adapted: “Can’t See the Forest for the Swidden: dioxide data and models. Science 282:442. Land-Use and Land-Cover Change in Montane Mainland Philips, O. et al. 1998. Changes in the carbon balance of tropi- Southeast Asia,” by Jefferson Fox. East-West Center Working cal forests: Evidence from long-term plots. Science 282:439. Paper: Environment Series. October 2000. vi Forsyth, T. 1994. The use of cesium-137 measurements of soil i Geertz, C. 1963. Agricultural Involution: The Processes of Eco- and farmers’ perceptions to indicate land degradation logical change in Indonesia. Berkeley: University of California amongst shifting cultivators in northern Thailand. Mountain Press. Research and Development 14:229–244. Forsyth, T. 1996. Science, myth and knowledge: Testing Hima- ii Brown, S. and A. Lugo. 1990. Tropical secondary forests. layan environmental degradation in northern Thailand. Geoforum Journal of Tropical Ecology 6:1–32. 27:375–392. Ziegler, A. and T. Giambelluca. 1997. Importance of rural roads iii Rao, Y. 1989. Forest resources of tropical Asia. Pages 1–20 as source areas for runoff in mountainous areas of northern in Environment and Agriculture—Environmental Problems Thailand. Journal of Hydrology 196:204-229. Affecting Agriculture in the Asia-Pacific Region. World Food Day Symposium, 11 October 1989, : Food and vii Thrupp, Lori Ann et al. 1997. The Diversity and Dynamics of Agriculture Organization. Shifting Cultivation: Myths, Realities, and Policy Implication. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute. iv Lawrence, D., D. Peart, and M. Leighton. 1998. The impact of shifting cultivation on a landscape in West Kali- viii Potter, L., H. Brookfield, and Y. Byron. 1994. The mantan: Spatial and temporal dynamics. Landscape Ecology region of Southeast Asia. Pages 460–518 in Kasperson, J.X., 13:135–148. R.E. Kasperson, and B.L. Turner II (eds.). at Risk: Com- Tomich, T., M. Noordwijk, S. Budidarsono, A. Gillison, parisons of Threatened Environments. Tokyo: United Nations T. Kusumanto, D. Murdiyarso, F. Stolle, and A. Fagi (eds.). University Press. 1998. Alternatives to Slash-and-Burn in Indonesia: Summary Kummer, D., and B.L. Turner II. 1994. The human causes of Report and Synthesis of Phase II. ASB-Indonesia Report deforestation in Southeast Asia. BioScience 44(5): 323–328. Number 8. Bogor: ICRAF.

About this Publication Recent AsiaPacific Issues About the Author

The AsiaPacific Issues series reports on No. 46 “The Future of E-Commerce in Jefferson M. Fox is a senior fellow in the topics of regional concern. China” by Dieter Ernst and He Jiacheng. East-West Center Research Program. His October 2000. interests include land-use and land-cover Series Editor: Elisa W. Johnston No. 45 “Multilateralism and Regional change and community-based resource The contents of this paper may be repro- Security: Can the ASEAN Regional Forum management. His most recent publication is duced for personal use. Single copies may Really Make a Difference?” by G. V. C. “Shifting Cultivation: A New Old Paradigm be downloaded from the Center’s website. Naidu. August 2000. for Managing Tropical Forests,” by Fox et al. Copies are also available for $2.50 plus in Bioscience 50:6, 521Ð528. He can be shipping. For information or to order copies, No. 44 “Natural Gas: The Fuel of the Future reached at: please contact the Publications Office, in Asia” by Fereidun Fesharaki, Kang , East-West Center East-West Center, 1601 East-West Road, and Sara Banaszak. June 2000. Telephone: (808) 944-7248 Burns Hall Rm. 1079, Honolulu, Hawaii No. 43 “Domestic Politics Fuels Northeast Email: [email protected] 96848-1601. Asian Maritime Disputes” by Mark J.

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