BLACK POP SONGWRITING 1963-1966: An Analysis of U.S. top Forty Hits by Cooke, Mayfield, Stevenson, Robinson, and holland-dozier-holland

JON FITZGERALD

Black songwriter-performers such as Fats Domino, Little Richard, and Chuck Berry achieved success on the U.S. pop charts1 as leading contrib utors to the development of 1950s rock and roll. Rock and roll's impact had waned by the late 1950s, however, and white songwriter-producers dominated the creation of U.S. pop hits. Many of the successful song writers from this period have been referred to as "Brill Building" com posers?so named after a building (located at 1619 Broadway in New York) that first housed music publishers during the Great Depression. Successful writers and writing teams (e.g., Don Kirsher/Al Nevins, Jerry Leiber/Mike Stoller, Doc Pomas /Mort Shuman, Carole King/Gerry Goffin, Barry Mann/Cynthia Weil, and Phil Spector) created material for a wide range of artists (including male and female soloists, duos, and girl groups). They typically functioned as producers as well as songwriters,

1. Billboard began publishing a weekly U.S. national pop chart in 1940. The first Billboard "Top 100" chart was published in 1955, and the "Hot 100" chart (typically used as the music industry's primary source for singles chart data) commenced in 1958. This article draws on Whitburn's (1987) summary of Billboard chart information. Hesbacher et al. (1975a, 1975b) examine the procedures involved in compiling pop chart information; although they iden tify some shortcomings, they describe the Billboard charts as "a vast data source that both historians and social scientists should continue to use" (1975a, 14).

JON FITZGERALD is associate professor of music theory and history in the contemporary music program at Southern Cross University. His doctoral thesis examined the develop ment of popular songwriting in the early 1960s, and he has published numerous articles and book chapters on aspects of popular music theory and history. He is also an experienced composer-performer and has toured in Australia, Europe, southeast Asia, and South Korea.

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and some went on to form influential record companies such as Aldon (Kirshner/Nevins), Redbird (Leiber/Stoller), and Philles (Spector/Sill).2 Betrock (1982, 38) describes the Brill Building sound as emanating "from the stretch along Broadway between 49th and 53rd streets." He also provides a sense of the frenetic activity of the New York pop scene: "You could write a song there, or make the rounds of publishers with one until someone bought it. Then you could go to another floor and get a quick arrangement,. . . get some copies run off,. . . book an hour at one of the demo studios, . . . round up some musicians and singers, . . . and finally cut a demo of the song" (39). The dominance of writer-producers meant that black performers of the day (like their white counterparts) depended largely on these profession al writers to supply them with potential pop-chart hits.3 For example, Leiber/Stoller provided material for the Coasters and the Drifters, Goffin/King created hits for the Drifters, Shirelles, Cookies, and Little Eva, while Mann/Wen's artist roster included the Drifters and Crystals. The first sign of a new "crossover" breakthrough into the pop charts for black songwriters came in the late 1950s, in the form of hits by Sam Cooke and Curtis Mayfield. Described by Reed (2003, 89-90) as "the first wide ly-celebrated professional gospel singer to seek a secular career," Cooke achieved a number-one U.S. Top Forty hit in 1957 with "You Send Me." By 1963, he had a total of eighteen Top Forty entries (many self-penned). Mayfield's first U.S Top Forty hit was "For Your Precious Love" (written for Jerry Butler in 1958). He followed this up with a series of hits for artists such as Jerry Butler, the Impressions, and Major Lance. During the early 1960s, black songwriters associated with the Motown label joined Cooke and Mayfield on the pop charts. The Motown Record Corporation (together with Jobete Music Publishing Company) was cre ated by Berry Gordy in 1959. Gordy had previously operated an unsuc cessful jazz record shop (from 1953 to 1955), eventually receiving some financial rewards by writing songs for Jackie Wilson. Gordy was con vinced by William "Smokey" Robinson (whom he met in 1957) that "the way to really make it was to stop leasing records to others and to begin marketing and merchandising their music themselves" (Robinson, cited in George 1985, 27). Motown released its first song in mid-1959, and by 1961, the company had produced a number-one R&B hit (and number-two pop hit) with "Shop Around," written by Robinson and performed by the Miracles. With an increasing roster of performing artists, an established core of spe

2. Shaw (1992) provides an overview of Brill Building artists and record companies. 3. At this time, writer-performers were a rarity. Exceptions included Roy Orbison and Del Shannon.

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cialist session players, and talented and ambitious young writer-produc ers, the company soon achieved considerable pop-chart success, ulti mately becoming "the largest independent label and the largest black owned business in America of the 1960s" (Kooijman 2006, 123). Smokey Robinson and the team of Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, and Eddie Holland (Holland-Dozier-Holland, hereafter referred to as H-D-H) were Motown's main songwriters, and they monopolized the production of pop hit songs for the company. A&R director William Stevenson also (co)wrote a number of early hits for the label. By 1963, then, black songwriters were achieving unprecedented pop chart success.4 Table 1 lists the number of U.S. Top Forty hits by the most successful black pop songwriters of 1963-1966.5 It demonstrates that Motown's impressive chart achievements coincided with Curtis Mayfield's most prolific period as a pop writer while simultaneously overlapping with the final phase of Sam Cooke's career. It might be expected that the successful black songwriters listed in Table 1 brought some new elements into the pop "mainstream," and var ious writers have indeed attempted to describe the distinctive nature of the new black pop music. McEwen and Miller (1992, 279), for example, speak of the "gospel-pop fusion" of Berry Gordy's early songs and sug gest that H-D-H "exploited gospelish vocal gestures in a pop context" (281). Heilbut (1985, 76) argues that "Motown soul is equally shot through with [gospel] quartet influences," while McEwen (1992, 76) col orfully describes Sam Cooke's pop music as "the place where soul and feeling of gospel meets the finger-snapping, ascot-wearing ambience of supper club pop." These types of generalized assessments provide some sense of the new black pop music, but any attempt to define the specific musical and lyri cal characteristics of the crossover songs needs to be grounded in a detailed examination of the repertoire. I aim here to contribute to the lit erature surrounding black pop songwriting by (a) documenting the

4. Brackett (2005, 75-76) rightly draws attention to the "fluid" nature of music industry categories, commenting that "the music categories of 'popular,' 'R&B/ and 'country' each encompass genre labels that emerge in other media contexts, all of which are in a perpetu al state of transformation." Nevertheless, Table 1 signals the beginnings of unprecedented exposure for black pop songs. Jerry Wexler describes Motown's achievements, for example, as "something you would have to say on paper was impossible. They took black music and beamed it directly to the white American teenager" (Guralnick 1991, 2). 5. Table 1 includes all black songwriters with eight or more U.S. Top Forty hits 1963-1966. Influential black songwriters James Brown and Norman Whitfield had both begun to achieve some pop-chart success during the period under consideration, but their most pro lific and influential period came later. (Brown, for example, had thirty-four Top Forty hits between 1967 and 1974 [Whitburn, 1987].)

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Table 1. U.S. Top Forty hits by the most successful black songwriters, 1963-1966 (Whitburn 1987) 1963 1964 1965 1966 Total Holland-Dozier-Holland 7 8 8 12 35 Robinson 5 5 9 4 23 Mayfield 5 6 4 1 16 Stevenson 2 2 3 2 9 Cooke 13 4 0 8

results of musical and textual analysis of all of the songs from Table 1 and by (b) drawing on these results to reflect on the trajectory and signifi cance of the early 1960s crossover phenomenon. The present work reflects my belief that musical and textual analysis can play an important role in providing data to inform historians and theorists as they attempt to formulate a comprehensive account of the development of popular music. As Keightley (1991, 5) suggests: "[T]heoretical overviews and tex tual instantations are necessary and ongoing parts of the study of popu lar culture. They are complementary, not opposite; one approach should not dominate to the detriment of the other."

Brief Biographies of Cooke, Mayfield, Robinson, H-D-H, and Stevenson

Sam Cooke (1935-1964) was born in Chicago and began singing gospel music from age nine, first with the Singing Children and subsequently with the Highway QCs. He joined the Soul Stirrers in 1950 and recorded for Specialty Records. In 1956, he began to record secular songs. "You Send Me" (1957) was the first in a lengthy series of pop hits. Cooke formed his own record label (Sar), which rereleased gospel-influenced R&B hits, and he joined RCA as a solo artist in 1960, negotiating a new contract that afforded him considerable artistic control. He recorded his own songs, as well as songs by other writers, until his death in 1964. Several of his songs continued to appear on the pop charts in 1965. Curtis Mayfield (1942-1999), also born in Chicago, sang with his cousins in the Northern Jubilees (which included Jerry Butler, for whom Mayfield wrote many of his early songs). Mayfield's strongest early musical influence was gospel, but by the mid-1950s, he was also listening to R&B and rock and roll. He became especially interested in the music of the Coasters. Mayfield formed the Impressions in 1957 with Butler, who subsequently left to pursue a solo career (with Mayfield as guitarist and songwriter). Mayfield continued to write and perform with the

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Impressions and also supplied pop songs for solo artists such as Major Lance and Gene Chandler. He formed his own independent record com pany (Curtom Records) in 1969. Born in Detroit, Smokey Robinson (b. 1940) studied saxophone from an early age and sang in a church choir. He formed a high school group (the Matadors) that included Ronnie White, Bobby Rogers, Warren Moore, and Robinson's future wife, Claudette Rogers. They performed original songs, mostly written by Robinson. At his audition for Gordy in 1957, Robinson told him that he had already written over one hundred songs. Gordy offered Robinson advice about songwriting and suggested that the Matadors change their name to the Miracles. Between 1959 and 1975, the Miracles had forty-six U.S. Top 100 songs (mostly written and produced by Robinson). Robinson also wrote numerous songs for other Motown performers, including the Temptations, Mary Wells, and Marvin Gaye. Another Detroit native, Eddie Holland (b. 1939) joined Berry Gordy's publishing company as a singer. He tended to imitate the vocal style of Jackie Wilson and achieved some minor success on both the R&B and pop charts. A nervous and reluctant performer, he decided that he was better suited to studio work.6 After observing the financial rewards his brother Brian was obtaining from songwriting, he asked him if they could work together. When Brian Holland (b. 1941) was sixteen, he met Gordy, who encouraged him to compose melodies to lyrics. Holland became involved with studio production by writing and producing songs for Motown's first girl group, the Marvelettes, and worked with a number of partners, including William Stevenson, Robert Bateman, Freddie Gorman, and Lamont Dozier. Also from Detroit, Lamont Dozier (b. 1941) first recorded at age fifteen with the Romeos. He moved to New York and worked outside of the music industry until his return to Detroit in 1958. As Lamont Anthony, he recorded for Motown and began to write songs with Brian Holland. In 1962, Brian Holland, Eddie Holland, and Lamont Dozier began to work as a songwriting/production team, and by 1963, they were achieving substantial success. They worked together at Motown until 1968 and composed a large number of pop hits for many of Motown's most suc cessful groups, such as the Supr?mes and Four Tops. William Stevenson began recording R&B and gospel music in the mid 1950s and tried to obtain support from Detroit businessmen, doctors, and lawyers for a black record company. George (1985,37) observes that these people "weren't interested in entering what they saw as the hustling,

6. George (1985, 40) describes Holland as a "dull" and "frightened" performer, whose decision to abandon performing was influenced by a "rough experience before the Apollo Theatre's notoriously demanding audience."

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unsavory world of black show business." Berry Gordy knew of Stevenson's support for black music and offered him the position as A&R director at Motown. Stevenson encouraged the use of jazz musicians for Motown sessions and also wrote and produced a number of hits for the company.

Top Forty Hits by Cooke, Mayfield, Robinson, H-D-H, and Stevenson: 1963-1966

Tables 2-6 list the U.S. Top Forty hits by Cooke, Mayfield, Robinson, H D-H, and Stevenson between 1963 and 1966. Eleven songs performed by Cooke reached the Top Forty between 1963 and 1965. He wrote seven of these (see Table 2). In addition, the Animals (one of the British blues bands that followed the Beatles' 1964 "invasion" of the U.S. charts) achieved a hit in 1965 with a cover of Cooke's "Bring It on Home to Me." Mayfield achieved consistent chart success during the years 1963 to 1965 and wrote an even balance of songs for his own group (the Impressions) and for other performers (all male soloists). Robinson functioned both as writer-performer (as lead singer of the Miracles) and professional songwriter, supplying songs for other Motown artists. Apart from composing several songs for Mary Wells, he wrote mainly for male performers, establishing a particularly productive partnership with the Temptations and Marvin Gaye. Although several members of the Miracles regularly received credit as cowriters with Robinson, Robinson was seemingly the primary creative force within the various writing partnerships.7 He usually bore total responsibility for lyrics and major responsibility for the musical elements, receiving only occasional assistance with aspects such as the creation of melodies and guitar riffs. Consequently, the songs involving Robinson as both sole and joint writer are considered collectively. H-D-H functioned exclusively as professional songwriters and com posed songs for a large number of Motown performers, both male and female. They wrote primarily for groups?especially the Supr?mes, Four Tops, and Martha and the Vandellas. William Stevenson cowrote and produced eight songs for a variety of Motown performers. Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Wheels, for example, covered "Devil with a Blue Dress On"?originally written for Motown performer Shorty Long.

7. In his autobiography, Robinson (1989,169) explains, "For years I'd tried to supplement the Miracles' income by having them help me compose. If they worked a writing session with me?whether I used their ideas or not?I put their names on the tunes and, conse quently, they enjoyed extra earnings."

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Table 2. U.S. Top Forty hits by Sam Cook, 1963-1966 (Whitburn 1987)

Year Performer Song Title 1963 Cooke Another Saturday Night 1964 Cooke Good News Cooke Good Times Cooke Cousin of Mine 1965 Cooke Shake Cooke A Change Is Gonna Come Animals Bring It on Home to Me Cooke Sugar Dumpling 1966

Table 3. U.S. Top Forty Hits by Curtis Mayfield, 1963-1966 (Whitburn 1987)

Year Performer Song Title 1963 Jan Bradley Mama Didn't Lie Major Lance The Monkey Time Impressions It's All Right Major Lance Hey Little Girl Jerry Butler Need to Belong 1964 Major Lance Urn, Urn, Urn, Urn, Urn, Urn Impressions Talking about My Baby Impressions I'm So Proud Impressions Keep on Pushing Impressions You Must Believe Me Major Lance Rhythm 1965 Impressions People Get Ready Major Lance Come See Impressions Woman's Got Soul Gene Chandler Nothing Can Stop Me 1966 Impressions You've Been Cheatin'

Song Analysis

Lyrics

An overview of the lyric content of the songs analyzed here shows that lyrics relating to aspects of relationships are in a clear majority (see Table 7).8 Cooke, Mayfield, Robinson, and Stevenson favor either positive or ambivalent sentiments, while H-D-H's songs deal much more frequently with negative sentiments. Faithfulness is a topic of common concern to all

8. Recordings of all songs from Table 2 to 6 were analyzed and data entered in a database.

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Table 4. U.S. Top Forty hits by Smokey Robinson, 1963-1966. Cowriters: (B) J. Bradford, (M) W. Moore, (Mi) Miracles, (R) R. Rogers, (T) M. Tarplin, (W) R. White (Whitburn 1987)

Year Performer Song Title 1963 Miracles (Mi) You've Really Got a Hold on Me Mary Wells Laughing Boy Miracles A Love She Can Count On Mary Wells (B) Your Old Standby Mary Wells What's Easy for Two Is So Hard for One 1964 Temptations (R) The Way You Do the Things You Do Mary Wells My Guy Temptations I'll Be in Trouble Miracles (T) I Like It Like That Miracles (R, M) That's What Love Is Made Of 1965 Temptations (W) My Girl Marvin Gaye (M, T) I'll Be Doggone Miracles (M) Ooo Baby Baby Temptations (M) It's Growing Miracles (M,T) The Tracks of My Tears Temptations (M) Since I Lost My Baby Marvin Gaye (M, R, T) Ain't That Peculiar Miracles (M, T, W) My Girl Has Gone Temptations (M, R) My Baby 1966 Miracles (M, R, T) Going to a Go-Go Marvelettes Don't Mess with Bill Marvin Gaye One More Heartache (M, R, T, W) Temptations Get Ready

Various authors (e.g., Hennion 1983,163; Moore 1993, 32) have stressed the importance of considering the sound recording as musical text. Recordings were original 1960s versions of the songs obtained from a variety of sources (including specialist retail outlets, radio sta tions, private collections, and the sound recording archives at Bowling Green State University). Recent CD compilations were avoided, since record companies tend to remas ter (even remix) the originals. Original transcriptions were used to facilitate some of the analytical calculations entered in to the database. Sheet music (if available) was avoided since it usually differs significantly from the recorded version of the song. As Nettl (1983, 48) has noted, "circumscribing, defining, or enumerating the content of a music is indeed difficult," and music analysts have suggested a wide range of possible parameters that may provide a broad analysis of musical texts. In the present study, I grouped parameters into six common areas: lyrics, melody, rhythm, harmony, form, and production. A comparable amount of analytical data was sought within each area.

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Table 5. U.S. Top Forty Hits by Holland Dozier-Holland, 1963-1966 (Whitburn 1987) Year Performer Song Title 1963 Martha and the Vandellas Come and Get These Memories Martha and the Vandellas Heat Wave Miracles Mickey's Monkey Mary Wells You Lost the Sweetest Boy Marvin Gaye Can I Get a Witness Martha and the Vandellas Quicksand Supr?mes When the Lovelight Starts Shining through His Eyes 1964 Miracles I Gotta Dance to Keep from Cryin' Marvin Gaye You're a Wonderful One Supr?mes Where Did Our Love Go Four Tops Baby I Need Your Lovin' Supr?mes Baby Love Marvin Gaye Baby Don't You Do It Supr?mes Come See about Me Marvin Gaye How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You 1965 Supr?mes Stop in the Name of Love Martha and the Vandellas Nowhere to Run Supr?mes Back in My Arms Again Four Tops I Can't Help Myself Four Tops It's the Same Old Song Supr?mes Nothing but Heartaches Supr?mes I Hear a Symphony Four Tops Something about You 1966 Supr?mes My World Is Empty Without You Four Tops Shake Me, Wake Me (When It's Over) Isley Brothers This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You) Supr?mes Love Is Like an Itching in My Heart Jr. Walker and the All Stars (I'm a) Roadrunner Supr?mes You Can't Hurry Love Jr. Walker and the All Stars How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You

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Table 5, cont. Four Tops Reach Out I'll Be There Supr?mes You Keep Me Hangin' On Martha and the Vandellas I'm Ready for Love Miracles (Come Round Here) I'm the One You Need Four Tops Standing in the Shadows of Love

writers, but H-D-H more often address the anguish associated with rela tionship difficulties or the ending of a relationship. Many song titles (e.g., "Where Did Our Love Go," "You Lost the Sweetest Boy," "Standing in the Shadows of Love") signal this type of lyric content. Such lyrics are designed provide a powerful "feeling" of the song's emotional content, as in this example from "Standing in the Shadows of Love," recorded by the Four Tops: "I want to run, but there's nowhere to go. Because heartache will follow me I know. . . . Standing in the shadows of love. I'm getting ready for the heartaches to come." The songs by H-D-H also frequently portray a state of dependence on a relationship (often despite indifference or unkindness displayed by a partner). Sentiments of this type are expressed by both males and females. Typical lyrics include the following:

"Baby love, my baby love, I need you, oh how I need you. But all you do is treat me bad, break my heart and leave me sad." ("Baby Love"?Supr?mes) "Some say it's a sign of weakness for a man to beg. Then weak I'd rather be, if it means having you to keep." ("Baby I Need Your Lovin'"?Four Tops) "Set me free why don't you babe. Get out' my life why don't you babe. 'Cause you don't really need me, you just keep me hangin' on." ("You Keep Me Hangin' On"? Supr?mes)

Mayfield refers explicitly to dancing in five of his sixteen songs ("Come See," "The Monkey Time," "Hey Little Girl," "Rhythm," "It's All Right"). These songs mention popular dances of the day (or those that the song hopes to establish in the dance repertoire) and frequently suggest dance movements. Typical lyrics include:

"Do the Monkey yeah. Do the Monkey yeah. A-twist them hips, let your backbone slip." ("The Monkey Time"?Major Lance) "Come now not later, see the Mashed Potato yeah. My feet go berserk as I do the New York Jerk." ("Come See"?Major Lance)

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Table 6. U.S. Top Forty hits by William Stevenson, 1963-1966. Cowriters: (G) M. Gaye, (P) C. Paul, (H) I. Hunter, (W) N. Whitfield, (M) S. Moy, (E) F. Eong (Whitburn 1987) Year Performer Song Title 1963 Marvin Gaye (G,P) Hitch Hike Marvin Gaye (G,W) Pride and Joy 1964 Martha and the Vandellas (G,H) Dancing in the Street Martha and the Vandellas Wild One 1965 Four Tops (H) Ask the Lonely Marvelettes (H) I'll Keep Holding On Martha and the Vandellas (H,P) You've Been in Love Too Long 1966 Martha and the Vandellas (M) My Baby Loves Me Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Devil With a Blue Dress On Wheels (L)

Social comment is rare within the song field. Those by Mayfield involve symbolic, quasi-spiritual lyrics such as "Look-a look-a look-a yonder, what's that I see? A great big stone wall stands there ahead of me. But I've got my pride and I'll move the wall aside. Keep on pushin'," from "Keep on Pushin'," recorded by the Impressions. Cooke's "A Change Is Gonna Come" (which entered the Top Forty after his death) uses a similar, quasi-spiritual tone to evoke a sense of the "world-weary" spirit and express a hope for better times: "It's been too hard living but I'm afraid to die, 'cause I don't know what's up there beyond the sky. It's been a long along time coming but I know a change gonna come, oh yes it will." Although all writers use poetic devices to some extent, Robinson's lyrics are by far the richest and most carefully crafted in this regard, and he regularly creates distinctive and memorable images. A favored tech nique is the chain of parallel statements, usually involving a device such as simile or metaphor, as in the following example from "The Way You Do the Things You Do," recorded by the Temptations: "You got a smile so bright you know you could've been a candle. I'm holding you so tight you know you could've been a handle. The way you swept me off my feet, you know you could've been a broom. The way you smell so sweet, you know you could've been some perfume." A similar technique involves contrasting, paradoxical images or statements, as in the follow ing examples:

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"I've got sunshine on a cloudy day. When it's cold outside I've got the month of May." ("My Girl"?Temptations) "I don't like you but I love you, seems that I'm always thinking of you. Though you treat me badly I love you madly.... I don't want you but I need you, don't want to kiss you but I need to." ("You've Really Got a Hold On Me"?Miracles) Robinson sometimes displays an almost playful approach to lyric cre ation, using unusual or extensive rhyming passages, as in the following example from "Since I Lost My Baby," recorded by the Temptations: "Next time I'll be kinder. Won't you please help me find her? Someone just remind her of the love she left behind her?'till I find her I'll be tryin' to. Every day I'm more inclined to find her." H-D-H frequently use short, repeated lyric statements, particularly in choruses. These chorus hooks (e.g., "Baby I Need Your Lovin'," "How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You," "Nowhere to Run") normally combine a few memorable catchwords, together with a short repeated melodic idea. While Mayfield's songs are mostly narrative, songs by H-D-H are mostly personal direct-address style. Robinson uses a fairly even balance between the two approaches. Both Cooke and Stevenson favor the narra tive style and largely avoid direct address.

Melody Table 8 provides an overview of the melodic content of the songs. Mayfield uses a more extended vocal range than the other songwriters, regularly using, for example, the male falsetto register for melodic cli maxes (e.g., "It's All Right," "I'm So Proud," "Keep on Pushing"). He also demonstrates a marked preference for major pentatonic melodies, using the scale in nine out of ten songs. This scale is also regularly used by Cooke, Robinson, and H-D-H, particularly for melody hooks. The major hexatonic scale is also used regularly (especially by Cooke), but complete major scales are extremely rare. Robinson makes the most use of the mixolydian mode, while Stevenson regularly creates blues influenced melodies, using the flattened third scale degree extensively within major keys (and alternating it with the major third), as well as fea turing the flattened seventh in prominent locations. H-D-H's melodies also include regular blues inflections. All of these songwriters show a liking for melodies with flat overall contours (i.e., those that do not rise appreciably in pitch for chorus state ments or bridge sections). Mayfield and Cooke make extensive use of arch contours for verse melodies, while the Motown writers clearly favor flat or irregular verse contours. Many of their melodies involve the exten

This content downloaded from 128.214.82.157 on Sat, 30 Nov 2019 11:27:05 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Robinson H-D-H Stevenson % % % 9 3 129 9 0 4 32 750 9 0 35 29 4325 56 2250 15 25 43 38 30 0 26 12 22 12 12 52 56 2262 29 2637 15 0

/o Mayfield

Cooke /o 0-5 57 25

Major pentatonic 29 87 Minor pentatonic 0 0 Less than octave Octave 14 0 to tenth Greater 71 44 than tenth 14 56 Major hexatonic 43 25 Blues inflections 14 12 within phrases Greater than 10 29 50 Major (ionian) 14 0 Table 8. Melodie content Disjunctive intervals Mixolydian 0 0 Aeolian 0 0

Vocal range Mode type 6-10 14 25

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sive reiteration of short melodic statements based on a small range of pitches. H-D-H's songs often contrast simple, repetitive chorus melodies with longer, more complex verse melodies (e.g., "Baby I Need Your Lovin'," "Standing in the Shadows of Love"), while melodic ornamentation is a feature of many of the pop crossover melodies. Although specific orna mentation may result from the input of the singer rather than the song writer, the songwriters were usually closely involved in the production process and therefore can be said to have endorsed the ornamentation present on the recordings. In addition, Mayfield and Robinson incorpo rate ornamentation when performing their own songs, indicating the inherent nature of this element to the crossover hits.

Rhythm As indicated in Table 9, which provides an overview of the rhythmic content of the songs analyzed here, the largest proportion of songs fall within the range 120-139 beats per minute (bpm), although Robinson demonstrates a preference for slower tempi (more than half of his songs are less than 120 bpm), while H-D-H regularly use fast tempi (one-third of their songs are over 160 bpm). All writers, apart from Cooke, use straight eighth-note subdivisions more than triplet eighth-note subdivisions (shuffle). But while Mayfield clearly prefers the former, Robinson uses an almost even balance of the two. There is, however, clear evidence that Robinson's songs moved away from a shuffle feel and toward the straight eighth-note feel over time. The songs of 1963 and 1964 are predominantly shuffles (eight of ten songs), whereas those of 1965 and 1966 mostly use straight eighth-note subdivisions (ten of thirteen songs). A similar trend is evident in the songs by H-D-H. Ten of the fifteen songs from 1963 and 1964 employ shuffles, but fifteen of the twenty songs from 1965 and 1966 have a straight eighth-note feel. The Motown songs normally incorporate a heavy emphasis on beats two and four (backbeat). A large number of instruments (e.g., snare, tam bourine, handclaps or finger snaps, brass, and guitars) combine to pro vide the backbeat emphasis, with guitar parts often displaying a distinc tive heavy staccato downpick and a metallic tone. Repeated syncopated rhythmic motives also feature prominently in the songs by all writers except Cooke. Both Mayfield and Robinson make extensive use of the dotted quarter note followed by eighth note (in both shuffle and straight eighth feels). This motive appears in approximately one in three songs (see Table 10).

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120-139 14 62 30 50

Shuffle/triplet Changing eighth 57 subdivision 31 48 38 0 6 0 3 Distinct harmonic 29 68 61 62 Rhythmic-chordal 0 50 48 47 Less than 100 29 19 17 0 Heavy four in bar 0 0 0 15 Use of triplets 0 0 4 0 160 plus 29 0 9 32 Overall 0 56 52 68 Tempo (beat per 100-119 min.) 0 12 35 15 140-159 29 6 9 3 Straight SixteenthSectional eighth Specific 0 features 0 0 6 43 rhythm changes 62 52 53 0 44 26 38 rhythm Rhythmic 0 12 4 26 Beat subdivision Riffs

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Table 10. Songs by Curtis Mayfield and Smokey Robinson featuring the dotted quarter eighth-note motive (S = shuffle) Mayfield Year Robinson Year It's All Right (S) 1963 I Like It Like That (S) 1964 Need to Belong 1963 It's Growing 1965 Talking about 1964 The Tracks of My Tears 1965 My Baby You Must Believe Me 1964 Since I Lost My Baby 1965 Woman's Got Soul (S) 1965 My Girl Has Gone 1965 You've Been Cheatin' 1963 Going to a Go-Go 1966 Get Ready 1966

On most occasions, the dotted quarter-eighth-note rhythm is associat ed with one or more repetitive chord progressions and is used as part of rhythmic-chordal riffs?which often act as a structural framework sup porting the melodic and lyric development (see "Form/Structure"). Table 10 indicates that while Mayfield employs this technique as early as 1963, Robinson uses it most frequently after 1965. Songs by H-D-H incorporate a wide variety of repeated rhythmic motives and rhythmic-chordal riffs and use a number of different pat terns (see Table ll).9 Like Robinson, H-D-H make increasing use of these devices over time. By 1966, their songs include several complex synco pated patterns. All writers except Cooke regularly create distinct harmonic rhythms by attaching syncopated rhythms to chord changes. This often occurs in association with short repeated chord cycles, but they also apply synco pated rhythms to longer chord sequences. Mayfield and H-D-H often associate significant rhythmic changes with sectional changes and/or begin and end riffs at sectional points within songs, providing further evidence of their sensitivity to the rhythmic aspects of song composition. An example of this process occurs in the H-D-H song "When the Lovelight Starts Shining through His Eyes," in which the verse's even eighth-note rhythmic riff contrasts markedly with the chorus's shuffle feel. Many of the vocal melodies by Mayfield, Robinson, and H-D-H were performed with rhythmic flexibility typical of much African-American popular music. Singers regularly placed notes on either side of the beat and began phrases at different points in the bar, helping to create a sense of rhythmic freedom.

9. This table previously appeared in Fitzgerald (1995a, 6).

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Harmony Table 12 provides an overview of the harmonic content of the songs. The harmonic language used by Cooke and Mayfield is extremely simple. Almost two in three songs use diatonic harmony exclusively, while the remaining songs involve only common secondary-dominant progres sions or occasional borrowed or unusual chords. Robinson uses bor rowed chords in one in six songs and chord colorations in almost half of

Table 11. Rhythmic motives employed by H-D-H (S = shuffle) Rhythmic pattern Song title Year Heat Wave (S) 1963 , K. You Lost the Sweetest Boy (S) 1963 ~ ' Quicksand (S) 1963 Shake Me, Wake Me 1963 _(When It's Over)_ Mickey's Monkey 1963 When the Lovelight Starts 1963 J *JU J i# J J # i Shining through His Eyes ijj j I* j j 11 j Gotta Dance to Keep 1964 from Cryin' (S) _Baby Don't You Do It_1964 Come See about Me 1964 Nowhere to Run 1965 Back in My Arms Again 1965 Nothing but Heartaches 1965

This content downloaded from 128.214.82.157 on Sat, 30 Nov 2019 11:27:05 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Robinson H-D-H Stevenson % % % 17 6 254 6 259 0 0 9 6 0 4 3 0 35 26 37 13 18 25 17 41 12 48 29 37 22 18 25

Cooke Mayfield

O//o 0//o

Mixolydian progressions Extended cycle 14 0 progressions Diminished 14 0 Borrowed / unusual colorations Dominant 14 12 Overall 43 25 Overall 28 19 Overall 14 0 Overall 0 6 Major/ 0 minor12 6 9/11 III7 vi 14 6 chords Major 7 0 0 Secondary dominant 117 V 14 19 Table 12, cont. Chord

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his songs. Almost half of the H-D-H songs are exclusively diatonic, but the remaining songs incorporate a variety of harmonic features (e.g., bor rowed chords, modulation between song sections, ambiguity of key cen ter)-representing an increased level of harmonic complexity compared with the songs by the other writers. The songs by Mayfield and H-D-H are notable for their use of extended step bass progressions (see Table 13). The other diatonic chord progression strongly favored by all writers (apart from Cooke) is the I-IV progression. In many cases, this progres sion forms part of a repetitive rhythmic-chordal riff (see Table 14), rather than being used to harmonize melodic movement. When used as part of the I-IV riff, the IV chord acts as an embellishment (double appogiatura) of the I chord, and the rhythmic elements of the riff often take aural prominence.

Table 13. Extended step chord sequences in songs by Mayfield (M) and H-D-H Ascending patterns Song Year I ii iii Woman's Got Soul (M) 1965 I ii iii IV Nothing Can Stop Me (M) 1966 You've Been Cheating (M) 1966 ii iii IV Come See about Me (H-D-H) 1964 I'm So Proud (M) 1964 Rhythm (M) 1965 ii iii IV V Come and Get These Memories (H-D-H) 1963 Heatwave (H-D-H) 1963 Woman's Got Soul (M) 1965 I Can't Help Myself (HDH) 1965 iii IV V The Monkey Time (M) 1963 You Lost the Sweetest Boy (H-D-H) 1963 Descending patterns

i VII VI Standing in the Shadows of 1966 Love (H-D-H) viVIV How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You (H-D-H) 1964 Stop in the Name of Love (H-D-H) 1965 IV iii ii Need to Belong (M) 1963 Baby Love (H-D-H) 1964 IV iii ii I You Must Believe Me (M) 1964 chord/bass descent (I'm a) Roadrunner (H-D-H) 1966 (Come Round Here) I'm the One You Need (H-D-H) 1966

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Table 14. Songs with rhythmic-chordal riffs involving the I-IV progression Composer Song Year Mayfield Need to Belong 1963 Talking about My Baby 1964 You Must Believe Me 1964 Come See 1965 Woman's Got Soul 1965 Nothing Can Stop Me 1965 Robinson The Way You Do the Things You Do 1964 I'll Be in Trouble 1964 I Like It Like That 1964 That's What Love Is Made Of 1964 My Girl 1965 It's Growing 1965 The Tracks of My Tears 1965 My Girl Has Gone 1965 H-D-H Heatwave 1963 Mickey's Monkey 1963 You Lost the Sweetest Boy 1963 Baby I Need Your Lovin' 1964 Baby Don't You Do It 1965 Come See about Me 1965 Back in My Arms Again 1965 Nothing but Heartaches 1965

Rhythmic-chordal riffs involving other chord sequences also occur with some frequency. Mayfield, for example, uses the I-ii sequence for riffs in several songs ("You've Been Cheatin'," "The Monkey Time," "Hey Little Girl"), while H-D-H incorporate a wide variety of riff chord sequences. Table 15 provides some examples of some other H-D-H chord sequences. Sometimes H-D-H make very small adjustments to chord sequences,10 thereby creating variety within an otherwise highly repetitive frame work. "You Lost the Sweetest Boy," for example, reverses the I-IV pro gression of the verse to make a IV-I progression in the chorus (while maintaining the same rhythmic riff). "Baby Don't You Do It" attaches the rhythm outlined in Table 11 to three alternative chord sequences. Repeated short chord cycles are also frequently used in songs without notable rhythmic-chordal riffs. This is especially true of the H-D-H songs

10. It is highly likely that the Motown session players also made regular contributions in this area as well (see "Production").

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Table 15. Other riff chord sequences used by H-D-H Chord sequence Song Year ii V Reach Out 1966 IIV V Standing in the Shadows of Love 1966 I v IV I Nowhere to Run 1965 Something about You 1965 (I) bVII IV I Baby Don't You Do It 1964 Something about You 1965 You Keep Me Hangin' On 1966 (verse section, in C) (I) v bVII bVI You Keep Me Hangin' On (chorus section, in A) 1966

(e.g., "You Can't Hurry Love," "Where Did Our Love Go," "I Hear a Symphony," "This Old Heart of Mine"). Chord cycles are often longer when they are not attached to rhythmic riffs. For example, "You Can't Hurry Love" repeats a I-IV-I-iii-vi-lY-V pattern, while "This Old Heart of Mine" cycles I?iii?IV?iii?ii?V).

Form/Structure

Table 16 provides an overview of the form of the songs. The songs by Cooke and Mayfield are very short (between two and two-and-a-half minutes), while Robinson and H-D-H prefer slightly longer durations. The verse-chorus form (with or without bridge) is preferred by all writ ers, although Stevenson and Robinson use the AABA form regularly. H-D H's extensive output is notable for the complete avoidance of the AABA form. Irregular patterns of verses and choruses occur frequently within both Robinson's (one in four songs) and H-D-H's songs (almost one in two songs). H-D-H's "Heat Wave" provides an example of this practice. After proceeding twice through a predictable verse-prehook-chorus sequence, the song continues with two more verse-prehook sections without the chorus, which seems to begin but then fails to continue as anticipated. Some songs, such as "You Can't Hurry Love," introduce previously unheard melodic material over an already established verse or chorus chord progression. A contributing factor to these more irregular, fluid forms is the pres ence of riffs that often play an important role in song structure. Although all writers (apart from Cooke) use riffs extensively, H-D-H use them most often (in four in five songs). In addition, as discussed under "Rhythm"

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and "Harmony," they use the greatest variety of both rhythmic and chordal patterns in the creation of riffs. It is not surprising, then, that these writers should also be most aware of the structural possibilities of riffs. They regularly use both rhythmic-chordal riffs and general rhyth mic changes as structural elements within songs. The presence or absence of a riff helps differentiate between verse and chorus in some of H-D-H's songs (e.g., "Love Is Like an Itching in My Heart"). At other times (e.g., "Nothing but Heartaches"), two or more dif ferent riffs provide verse-chorus contrast. Occasionally, the riff-based structure does not coincide exactly with the lyric/melodic division of verse and chorus but serves instead to provide an element of surprise (e.g., "Come See about Me"). In "Baby Don't You Do It," neither lyrics nor melody provide any clear differentiation between verse and chorus, and so the rhythmic motif and changing chord sequence assume primary importance in defining song sections. This manipulation of riffs, in combination with regular general rhyth mic changes between song sections, allows the writers to create variety within a compositional style that typically involves numerous repetitive elements (e.g., riffs, chord cycles, short recurring lyric and melodic hooks), as well as a relentless and emphatic backbeat. Another recurring formal element in the songs of H-D-H in particular (and to a lesser extent in the songs of Robinson and Mayfield) is the short, repeated chorus statement. As already noted, this type of chorus consists of a few memorable catchwords, allied to a short and easily recognizable melody. The writers use repetition to reinforce the lyric statement and establish the melody in the listener's mind. Table 17 lists the songs con taining this type of chorus, demonstrating H-D-H's particular preference for short statements. In addition to the songs listed in Table 17, several other H-D-H songs use slightly different techniques to approximate this effect. Both "Heatwave" and "Quicksand" (recorded by Martha and the Vandellas) use repeated hook statements by backing voices, to which the lead voice adds further melodic and lyric ideas. "Nothing but Heartaches" involves a repeated hook followed by further melodic development. Backing vocals are also regularly used to create call-response patterns that play an important role in the black pop crossover songs (see the Production section).

Production

Because Mayfield, Robinson, H-D-H, and Stevenson were writer-pro ducers, studio production can be seen as an integral part of their song ere

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Table 17. Songs by Curtis Mayfield, Smokey Robinson, and H-D-H with short chorus hooks

Composer Song Year Mayfield Mama Didn't Lie 1963 It's All Right 1963 Urn, Urn, Urn, Urn, Urn, Urn 1964 Robinson I Like It Like That 1964 Ooo Baby Baby 1965 Ain't That Peculiar 1965 Going to a Go-Go 1966 Don't Mess with Bill 1966 Get Ready H-D-H Mickey's Monkey 1963 You Lost the Sweetest Boy 1963 Can I Get a Witness 1963 You're a Wonderful One 1964 Baby I Need Your Lovin' 1964 Baby Don't You Do It 1964 Come See about Me 1964 How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You 1964 Stop in the Name of Love 1965 Nowhere to Run 1965 Back in My Arms Again 1965 My World Is Empty without You 1966 Shake Me, Wake Me 1966 Love Is Like an Itching in My Heart 1966 I'm Ready for Love 1966 Standing in the Shadows of Love 1966 ation process. Mayfield uses brass instruments in most songs (87%) and favors them for instrumental solo sections. They also use saxophone (57% of songs) and strings (37%) regularly. Robinson uses a similar mixture of brass (83%), saxophone (57%), and strings (35%) but prefers saxophones for solo sections. H-D-H also prefer saxophones for solo sections (41% of songs compared with 6% featuring brass) and use them more extensive ly overall (79%). Brass instruments are present in 65% of H-D-H's songs and strings in 24%. The baritone saxophone is often used on repeated bass patterns, providing the bass register with a distinctive sonority. As well as piano, both Robinson and H-D-H regularly use the electronic organ and vibraphone in their songs, although the placement of these sounds in the final mix makes it at times difficult to be certain of their

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presence in a particular song and therefore to quantify their use reliably. Similarly, handclaps, finger snaps, and tambourines regularly augment the standard drum-kit sounds. The Motown productions often used a large rhythm section and a reg ular core of specialist session musicians. Keyboard player Earl Van Dyke describes the situation as follows:

In most rhythm sections, you might have four or five players, but at Motown we usually had nine or ten, and sometimes as many as a dozen. That's why it was so powerful. You might have three guitars, two keyboards, two or three percussionists, two drums, and even two basses on one tune. We were also much tighter and much more precise than any other rhythm section around. When Robert [White, the guitar player] and I played parts in uni son, we played so close and tight that a lot of times they would stop the ses sion and say, "I can't hear the piano," or "I can't hear the guitar," because they couldn't separate us. (quoted in Slutsky 1993, 93)

In addition, the Motown rhythm section often used distinctive instru mental voicings. As Van Dyke observes: "With so many people playing chords, we all had to be very conscious of the registers we played in. .. . [T]he guitarists used to divide up the neck so that one guy would play up high, one would be in the middle, and the third guy would be down low. We'd do the same thing with the keyboards. The section sounded like one big chord voicing" (100). As well as using large instrumental forces, H-D-H songs sometimes make particular use of dramatically contrasting instrumental textures, with sparsely orchestrated sections alternating with tutti sections. This technique is especially evident in some of their later songs for the Four Tops, such as "Reach Out" and "Standing in the Shadows of Love." Backing vocals are present in most songs by all writers, apart from Cooke (see Table 18). Mayfield uses male voices almost exclusively, Stevenson's and H-D-H's songs most often feature female backing vocals, and Robinson's songs employ a mixture of voice types. Together with using traditional triadic backing harmonies, all writers also make exten sive use of unison/octave parts. These parts often double the lead melody (e.g., "I Can't Help Myself" [H-D-H], "Come See" [Mayfield]). Sometimes the backing voices deviate slightly from the lead melody, while still supporting the lyric hook (e.g., "How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You" [H-D-H]). Call-response?contrapuntal patterns between lead and backing vocals?are used extensively and take a variety of forms. Backing vocals sometimes echo the lead voice, a technique favored by Robinson in par ticular (e.g., "I Like It Like That," "The Way You Do the Things You Do").

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Sometimes backing voices complete a lyric-melodic statement initiated by the lead voice, as in H-D-H's "Come See about Me," which proceeds as follows:

Lead voice: "Smiles have all turned" Backing voices: "to tears"

On other occasions, the backing voices sing the main lyric-melodic hook, to which the lead voice adds new material (e.g., "Heat Wave"). Given the dominant position of Motown songwriters within the black pop crossover domain, it is important to consider the distinctive aspects of the Motown studio production process. This process saw the song writer-producers collaborate with a team of specialist session players, such as Earl Van Dyke (keyboards), James Jamerson (bass), Benny Benjamin (drums), and Robert White (guitar). Session musicians were on call for recordings with a wide range of Motown performers, and session bands developed a tightness of sound more commonly found among members of long-established groups. The session players (often following minimal directions) would create grooves that could often become the building blocks for songs. Earl Van Dyke recalls that H-D-H would "come in with about five chords and a feel" (George 1985, 115). Riffs and feels drew on the extensive musical knowledge and experience of the session players (most of whom were skilled jazz musicians), and many Motown songs exhibit bass, drum, and keyboard parts that are highly complex and innovative for the pop main stream at the time.11 As well as providing a solid foundation for the songs, these parts help to provide points of interest within the repetitive frame work of Motown songs. Dozier (1992) has acknowledged the importance of the contributions from the session players, observing that "a lot of the ideas wouldn't have been possible without the Funk Brothers" and that after players had filled out a basic idea given by the producers, his reac tion was often "Hey, did I write that?" Since elements such as rhythmic chordal riffs (normally involving several or all of the main instruments of the rhythm section) play such an important part in the song, the session players clearly contributed significantly to the creation of many Motown songs. In addition to the creative input provided by the session players, Motown's songwriters were assisted by a range of innovative ideas relat

11. For example, James Jamerson's contributions have been transcribed, discussed, and analyzed by Allan Slustky (1989). There is some dispute about "who did what and where" (Cunningham 1996, 75) in terms of certain Motown sessions. For example, famous Los Angeles-based session bassist Carole Kaye claims to have played bass on some of Motown's biggest hits (e.g. )"Reach Out, I'll Be There," "Baby Love," "My Guy" [74]).

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ing to sound engineering (George 1985, 112-114). For example, Motown was one of the first studios to use "punch-ins," to run guitars and bass directly into the console, and to employ limiters and equalizers. In addi tion, small car radios were used to assess the quality of the sound that lis teners were likely to hear.

Summary and Discussion

Rhythmic elements play a prominent role in many of the black pop crossover songs. These elements include heavily reinforced backbeats (in the Motown songs in particular), dance tempi between 120 and 139 bpm, syncopated rhythms attached to chord changes, and repeated rhythmic chordal and rhythmic riffs?which often help define the song's structure. Sam Cooke's songs tend to incorporate more on-beat vocal delivery and rarely use rhythmic riffs or syncopated harmonic rhythms. At the other extreme are H-D-H's songs, which are permeated with structural riffs built from a wide variety of rhythmic motifs and harmonic sequences. In between these extremes are the songs by Curtis Mayfield and the other Motown writers. While incorporating all of the rhythmic elements men tioned, they use a smaller number of rhythmic and harmonic patterns and less of the complex riff structures associated with the songs of H-D-H. It is not surprising that rhythmic elements should take prominence in black pop crossover music. The significance of rhythm within various African-American musical styles has been stressed by many authors (e.g., Shaw 1970, 180; Crawford 1977, 555; Maultsby 1990, 192-193). James Brown asserted that "Black music's basically rhythmic, it's all about Africa and dancing" (Hall 1976, 38). As already noted, however, in the early 1960s, black pop performers mostly recorded songs written and produced by white writer-producers, and the songs by these writers, although they often incorporate certain stylistic elements associated with African-American traditions, rarely reflect intimate involvement with these traditions. A focus on the subtleties of rhythm is especially lacking. In contrast, Motown, the dominant new force in black pop crossover music, supplied its performers with songs written and produced by black writer-producers who had extensive first-hand experience of black musi cal traditions (gospel in particular) and offered writers the opportunity to adapt aspects of these traditions to the pop mainstream. Therefore, it is not surprising that rhythmic elements were afforded a significant role in these new crossover songs. There are, of course, many other stylistic elements common to African

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American songwriting traditions.12 Melodic elements include the flat tened third and seventh scale degrees (associated with the blues in par ticular), pentatonic scales, improvisation, melodic embellishment, pitch variation, melisma, varied and expressive (sometimes "raw") vocal tone, riffs, and other repetitive elements. These elements are present in varying degrees in the songs analyzed here. Melodies regularly involve penta tonic scales, melisma, and repetition (although the latter is much less evi dent in Sam Cooke's songs, which tend to consist of longer, more devel oped phrases rather than short repeated motifs). Melodic embellishment occurs frequently but varies in extent according to the particular per forming artist. For example, Marvin Gaye and Levi Stubbs (lead singer of the Four Tops) use a great deal more embellishment than Diana Ross (lead singer of the Supr?mes). It is impossible to determine the extent of free vocal improvisation within the crossover hits examined in this study, but one can surmise that it was limited. Compared with the often free and expressive impro visatory vocal of many blues songs and late 1960s soul songs, the vocals are often fairly constrained and only quasi-improvisatory. They regularly feature repetition of a particular embellishment, suggesting writer-pro ducer direction rather than spontaneous improvisation. Lamont Dozier (1992) remembers, "We were meticulous about the delivery of a song." However, even H-D-H were prepared to adjust this meticulous approach at times. For example, Dozier (1992) acknowledges that when working with Marvin Gaye, "We let him do what he felt." It is also impossible to determine the extent of writer-producer input into vocal timbre, but considering the light, sweet tone of writer-per formers Cooke, Mayfield, and Robinson, as well as performing artists such as Diana Ross, it seems clear that this style of vocal tone was gener ally preferred by black pop crossover writer-producers (and pop audi ences) to more raw, soulful timbres. Of all the writers, H-D-H show the greatest affinity for soulful timbres. For example, their songs for Levi Stubbs showcase freer, gospel-influenced vocals. Melodic contour is notably lacking in discussions of African-American popular music, but this study indicates that the presence of flat or irreg

12. These elements have been discussed by numerous writers. This present discussion of African-American melodic, harmonic, and formal elements draws in particular on the work of Middleton (1993, 1983), Maultsby (1979, 1983, 1990, 1992), Crawford (1977), Williams Jones (1975), and Wilson (1974). There are also many elements that relate to aspects of per formance rather than songwriting, but they are beyond the scope of this study. It should be noted, however, that a clear distinction cannot always be made. For example, the Motown writer-producers clearly had input into aspects of vocal delivery for particular performers. It should also be noted that various elements that assume prominence in African-American musical traditions are rarely exclusive to these traditions (see, e.g., Tagg 1989).

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ular verse contours (and relative absence of arch contours) is a notable feature of the new 1960s crossover hit song. The only writer to use the arch contour extensively is Sam Cooke. All other writers tend to write repetitive, short melodic phrases, often combined with repeated rhyth mic and harmonic patterns. Attention has already been drawn in the literature to the presence of various harmonic elements within many African-American musical tra ditions. These include twelve-bar blues patterns, "static" dominant sev enth chords (those used for their sound quality rather than functioning as V chords), and short repeated sequences (which often form part of repet itive grooves). These elements are also present in the black pop crossover songs of 1963-1966. In particular, short chord sequences play a prominent role in the songs of all writers. These sequences, often attached to riffs, provide chord movement without drawing attention to the actual pro gression itself and provide further evidence that the black pop crossover songwriters were more concerned with the overall groove than function al tonality. Similarly, the IV chord in these songs normally acts as an embellishment of the I chord, rather than supporting a strong melodic movement. Cooke alone regularly uses more ballad-style extended "functional" chord sequences. Interestingly, none of the black pop crossover writers make much use of the most pervasive African-American harmonic formula, the twelve bar blues progression. Of all the songs analyzed in this study, only eight examples provide a literal (or nearly literal) version of this chord sequence, and of all the performers of songs discussed here, Marvin Gaye is the only artist regularly associated with the twelve-bar blues. There is an additional harmonic element?extended step chord pro gression?that regularly recurs within the black pop crossover songs but has not normally featured in discussions of African-American popular music. Although Moore (1993, 51) has asserted that, in rock music, "Stepwise moves are normally highly limited," and that "there are clear grounds for arguing that there is a single harmonic language for rock/pop/soul" (1992, 81), my analysis indicates that step chord move ment is in fact an important aspect of the harmonic language employed within black pop crossover hits (especially those by Mayfield and H-D-H). Aspects of song form associated with African-American musical tradi tions include the (normally twelve-bar) blues sequence, "musematic" repetition,13 and call-response structures. While the twelve-bar structure,

13. Middleton (1990, 269) uses the term musematic to describe repetition of short musical cells (as in the case of riffs), in contrast to repetition of longer phrases, which he labels dis cursive.

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as already noted, rarely appears in the black pop crossover songs, the other two elements play an extremely important role. Mayfield and the Motown songwriters often use musematic repetition (in the form of riffs) as a structural element, while H-D-H demonstrate a particular awareness of the structural possibilities of riffs, using them to help create variety in an otherwise highly repetitive framework, as well as to provide a foun dation on which more free-flowing, irregular song forms can be con structed. Call-response dialogue between lead and backing vocals is also an inte gral part of Motown songs. Contrapuntal interplay between these parts is a feature of (on average) four in five Motown songs (as opposed to one in two Mayfield songs and one in seven Cooke songs). Lyrics and melodies are often divided between lead and backing voices. When considered as a whole, the pattern of musical characteristics identified in the songs analyzed confirms that, of the various African American musical traditions, gospel music had the most profound influ ence on the creation of the new black pop crossover sound. Maultsby (1990, 202) stresses the importance of the gospel tradition, which, "for more than eighty years . . . has preserved and transmitted the aesthetic concepts fundamental to music-making in Africa and African-derived cultures." Gospel music typically played an integral role in the develop ment of the musical sensibilities of black musicians. Dozier (1992), for example, notes of the Motown writers and performers, "We were all from the gospel church." It is not surprising, then, that gospel elements found a place in pop songs by black songwriters. These elements have been the subject of con siderable research and, in some cases, debate. Crawford (1977) quotes from sworn court witness statements by gospel practitioners, publishers, and others attempting to define the musical and lyrical elements of gospel. Gospel is described as "a vehicle to entertainment and to spiritu ality" and is said to differ from hymns because "it deals with the ordinary human emotions" (555). Other elements include "characteristic form of verse . . . and chorus. . . . The tempo of these gospel songs is usually fast as opposed to a slower tempo for the traditional hymns. The rhythm, the rhythmic element of these gospel songs is almost a predominant one." Syncopation is "a very characteristic idiom" while flattened notes are said to give the music "an effect that you will find very much in blues songs" (555). Other writers identified additional musical characteristics common to gospel, such as the use of call-response, melismatic melodies, varied and expressive vocal tone, vocal dexterity, melodic variation, embellishment and improvisation, repetition, percussive playing techniques, handclap

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ping and foot tapping, and the importance of instrurnents such as piano and tambourine.14 Boyer (1992,285) identifies the vamp as a "short musi cal phrase of two, four, or eight measures that is repeated over and over" and describes it as "the most important stylistic element in contemporary gospel." Some of these features are also common to a range of African American musical styles, and their existence in the black pop crossover songs has already been discussed. However, many of the most prominent features of the pop crossover hits analyzed in this study are quite specif ically related to the gospel tradition. Looking first at musical form, one can clearly see gospel elements. Boyer (1992, 280) discusses the predominance of verse-chorus forms in the gospel repertoire (with the addition of an occasional repeated refrain AAA form) and describes the different melodic styles normally applied to these song sections. The verse "with its complex melodic line" is con trasted to the chorus, which consists of "a genuine sing-along refrain that the marginally sophisticated gospel ear can pick up after one hearing." This scheme is ideally suited to the call-response between preacher/soloist (singing the verse) and congregation (singing the cho rus). These verse-chorus forms dominate the black pop crossover songs and are increasingly evident in the songs by Mayfield, Robinson, and H D-H. The song forms used by the latter writers occur in exactly the type of profile identified by Boyer, with verse-chorus forms dominating, an occasional AAA form, and the absence of AABA forms. In addition, many black pop crossover songs use the type of short, sing-along chorus iden tified by Boyer as typical of the gospel song. H-D-H are again at the fore front of this stylistic development within the popular mainstream, writ ing by far the greatest number of songs of this type. A large number of their songs also feature contrasting verse and chorus melodies similar to those described by Boyer. Complementing the gospel nature of many of those songs featuring "sing-along" choruses are lyrics that consist of a few memorable catch words. These are designed to be repeated extensively and serve, like their gospel counterparts, both to offer entertainment and to deal with normal human emotions. H-D-H lyrics, in particular, often sound like a secular ized gospel plea or statement of joy (e.g., "Baby I Need Your Lovin'," "How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You").15 The use of backing voices to

14. The most comprehensive overview of gospel practice is Reagon's (1992) We'll Understand It Better By and By, in which a number of gospel scholars discuss aspects of gospel history and musical style. Maultsby's (1992) article on the impact of gospel in the secular arena is particularly informative, as is Boyer's (1992) detailed analysis of the music of Roberta Martin. Other useful sources of information on gospel music include Hillsman (1990), Heilbut (1985), Broughton (1985), and Williams-Jones (1975). 15. Southern (1984, 29) observes the "advisory or moralizing" nature of Motown songs.

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reinforce important lyric/melodic licks also helps create a sense of com munal, congregational involvement. This technique is applied most fre quently by Mayfield and H-D-H, both for short choruses and key words within verses. At times, the backing vocals deviate slightly from the lead melody?singing notes of different pitch and/or rhythmic duration to create the effect of congregational singing. Scale choices in the black crossover melodies also have much in com mon with the spiritual and gospel repertoire. Maultsby's (1975, 328-332) analysis of the scale types present in one hundred spirituals reveals the predominance of major hexatonic and major pentatonic scales and the virtual absence of minor pentatonic and mixolydian scales. Boyer's (1992, 275-286) analysis of gospel songs by Roberta Martin reveals the preva lence of ionian and major pentatonic scales and a similar avoidance of minor pentatonic and mixolydian scales, although he notes that "any great folk singer, especially a gospel singer, will alternately brighten or darken a third or a seventh" (280). The songs of the black pop crossover writers demonstrate a similar profile of scale usage,16 with a clear pre dominance of major pentatonic and major hexatonic scales and limited use of minor pentatonics and mixolydian scales. Blues inflections are most often employed by H-D-H and Stevenson. The importance of riffs in the music of Mayfield and the Motown writ ers bears direct comparison with the importance of the vamp in gospel music. In addition, the Motown songs in particular regularly use instru ments and other sounds (such as the tambourine, piano, and handclaps or finger snaps) with specific gospel associations. Maultsby (1992, 31) notes the important contributions made by Roberta Martin and Ray Charles in elevating the function of the piano in gospel and gospel derived music "from that of background for vocals" to an integral part of the performance. The Motown songwriters, ably assisted by session pianists such as Earl Van Dyke, continued this process.

Conclusion

Analysis of the black pop crossover songs demonstrates that Curtis Mayfield and the Motown writers injected numerous gospel elements into the mainstream charts. This article supports Reed's (2003, 111) asser tion that "the ascendancy of Curtis Mayfield" was a "potent example of

Maultsby (1983, 55) notes, however, that specific social comment is rare in songs by black writers prior to the era of soul (1965-1969). 16. The only dissimilarity relates to the greater presence of complete major scales in the gospel songs of Martin (see Boyer 1992, 280).

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the re-churchification of black secular sound" and demonstrates that the Motown writers (especially H-D-H, the most successful and gospel-ori ented of all the writers) continued this process to the point that gospel infused music became one of the dominant sounds of the early 1960s pop mainstream. Although gospel-influenced music had previously crossed over from the sacred to secular domain (through artists such as Ray Charles and Little Richard), the extent of that crossover had been limited. The new composers showed beyond doubt that black songwriters could achieve substantial pop-chart success by adapting the musical language of gospel to create gospel-nuanced pop hits. This article also supports the idea that Sam Cooke is a transitional fig ure in terms of the movement of gospel into the pop mainstream. Cooke's crossover success undoubtedly represented a major breakthrough for black musicians. However, he tended to write what Guralnick (1991, 37) describes as "lightweight but durable pop material" for mainstream audiences. And, as shown here, his U.S. Top Forty hits between 1963 and 1966 are minimally imbued with the musical language of gospel. Reed (2003,105) argues that in the late 1950s (when Cooke's crossover success began), black artists like Cooke and the Platters deliberately avoided "textual nuances that might conjure up the image of spirit possession" in order to "convey an image of sophistication and conformity to main stream norms." Shaw (1970, 85) suggests that Cooke's restraint was effec tive in that it "moved soul singers to strive for something beyond surface values, beyond the vocal exhibitionism of gospel possession." Not all of the songs by Mayfield and the Motown writers display obvi ous links to gospel tradition. Many early Motown songs in particular (e.g., Robinson's "My Guy," "You've Really Got a Hold on Me") incorpo rate teen-romance lyrics, shuffle rhythms, arch melodic contours and functional harmony?elements more readily associated with the songs by the 1960s Brill Building writer-producers than gospel traditions (Fitzgerald 1995b). Even H-D-H first entered the U.S. Top Forty charts in 1963 with a typical girl-group pop song ("Come and Get These Memories"). Neither is the so-called Motown sound a completely consis tent entity. For example, H-D-H increasingly prefer declamatory, rhyth mic melodies, allied to anguished lyrics, whereas Robinson's output is notable for sweet melodies and happy, positive lyrics. Robinson is also rightly regarded as one of the most poetic pop lyricists of all time;17 his songs use devices such as simile, metaphor, and parallel or paradoxical statements to create distinctive and evocative images. Motown perform

17. Legend has it that Bob Dylan once referred to Robinson as America's "greatest living poet."

This content downloaded from 128.214.82.157 on Sat, 30 Nov 2019 11:27:05 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 136 BMR Journal ers often used a mixture of material from both H-D-H and Robinson (and other writers) and in so doing built song repertoires with a considerable amount of textual and musical variety. The new crossover music is clearly characterized overall by a demon strable shift in focus toward specific gospel techniques, rhythmic ele ments, and rhythm-based structures. Few white songwriters of the day used rhythm as a central element or in a structural way (Fitzgerald, 1996); in fact, they typically treated rhythm as an element of relatively minor importance.18 The black songwriters discussed in this article should therefore be considered significant innovators in the history of popular songwriting, and their songs can be seen to have pointed the way to the rhythmic intensity of late 1960s-early 1970s black music by songwriters such as James Brown and Norman Whitfield.19 Maintaining and extend ing their pop chart success during the height of the British Invasion,20 while many of the previously dominant white writer-producers strug gled to compete with bands that wrote their own songs,21 black song writers were able to establish a presence as prominent members of a new generation of 1960s pop songwriters.

18. Leading Brill Building songwriter Jeff Barry has described the songwriting process (with partner Ellie Greenwich) as follows: "[B]asically there were three parts to the song? the words, the melody that the words were hung on, and the chord bed" (cited in Smith 1990,144). Rhythm does not rate a mention in his account. 19. James Brown had already created rhythmically oriented pop songs, such as "I Got You (I Feel Good)" (1965), and his subsequent series of hits maintained this rhythmic focus. Norman Whitfield moved Motown toward the rhythmic funk of songs such as "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone" (recording by the Temptations in 1972). 20. The British Invasion is commonly seen to have begun in 1964 with the Beatles' assault on the U.S. pop charts?and continuing with the success of other British bands such as the Kinks and Rolling Stones. 21. For example, Goffin/King's U.S. Top Forty hits numbered eight (1963), four (1964), one (1965), and two (1966). See Fitzgerald (1997) for additional chart analysis demonstrat ing the declining chart success of leading Brill Building writers.

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DISCOGRAPHY

Animals. Bring it on home to me. MGM 13339 (1965). Bradley, Jan. Mama didn't lie. Chess 1845 (1963). Brown, James. I got you (I feel good). King 6015 (1965). Butler, Jerry. Need to belong. Vee-Jay 567 (1963). Chandler, Gene. Nothing can stop me. Constellation 149 (1965). Cooke, Sam. A change is gonna come. RCA 8486 (1965). -. Another Saturday night. RCA 8164 (1963). -. Cousin of mine. RCA 8426 (1964). -. Good news. RCA 8229 (1964). -. Good times. RCA 8368 (1964). -. Shake. RCA 8486 (1965). -. Sugar dumpling. RCA 8631 (1965). Four Tops. Ask the lonely. Motown 1073 (1965). -. Baby I need your lovin'. Motown 1062 (1964). -. I can't help myself. Motown 1076 (1965). -. It's the same old song. Motown 1081 (1965). -. Reach out I'll be there. Motown 1098 (1966). -. Shake me, wake me (when it's over). Motown 1090 (1966). -. Something about you. Motown 1084 (1965). -. Standing in the shadows of love. Motown 1102 (1966). Gaye, Marvin. Ain't that peculiar. Tamla 54122 (1965). -. Baby don't you do it. Tamla 54122 (1965). -. Can I get a witness. Tamla 54087 (1963). -. Hitch hike. Tamla 54075 (1963). -. How sweet it is to be loved by you. Tamla 54107 (1964). -. I'll be doggone. Tamla 54112 (1964). -. One more heartache. Tamla 54129 (1966). -. Pride and joy. Tamla 54079 (1963). -. You're a wonderful one. Tamla 54093 (1964). Impressions. I'm so proud. ABC-Paramount 10544 (1964). -. It's all right. ABC-Paramount 10487 (1963). -. Keep on pushing. ABC-Paramount 10554 (1964). -. People get ready. ABC-Paramount 10622 (1965). -. Talking about my baby. ABC-Paramount 10511 (1964). -. You must believe me. ABC-Paramount 10581 (1964). -. You've been cheatin'. ABC-Paramount 10750 (1966). -. Woman's got soul. ABC-Paramount 10647 (1965). Isley Brothers. This old heart of mine (is weak for you). Tamla 54128 (1966). Junior Walker and the All Stars. How sweet it is to be loved by you. Soul 35024 (1966). -. (I'm a) roadrunner. Soul 35015 (1966). Lance, Major. Come see. Okeh 7216 (1965). -. Hey little girl. Okeh 7181 (1963). -. Rhythm. Okeh 7203 (1964). -. The monkey time. Okeh 7175 (1963). -. Urn, urn, urn, urn, urn, urn. Okeh 7187 (1964). Martha and the Vandellas. Come and get these memories. Gordy 7014 (1963). -. Dancing in the street. Gordy (1964). -. Heat wave. Gordy 7022 (1963). -. I'm ready for love. Gordy 7056 (1966).

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-. My baby loves me. Gordy 7048 (1966). -. Nowhere to run. Gordy 7039 (1965). -. Quicksand. Gordy 7025 (1963). -. Wild one. Gordy 7036 (1964). -. You've been in love too long. Gordy 7045 (1965). Marvelettes. Don't mess with Bill. Tamla 54126 (1966). -. I'll keep holding on. Tamla 54116 (1965). Miracles. A love she can count on. Tamla 54078 (1963). -. (Come round here) I'm the one you need. Tamla 54140 (1966). -. Going to a go-go. Tamla 54127 (1966). -. I gotta dance to keep from cryin'. Tamla 54089 (1964). -. I like it like that. Tamla 54098 (1964). -. Mickey's monkey. Tamla 54083 (1963). -. My girl has gone. Tamla 54123 (1965). -. Ooo baby baby. Tamla 54113 (1965). -. That's what love is made of. Tamla 54102 (1964). -. The tracks of my tears. Tamla 54118 (1965). -. You've really got a hold on me. Tamla 54073 (1963). Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Wheels. Devil with a blue dress on. New Voice 817 (1966). Supr?mes. Back in my arms again. Motown 1075 (1965). -. Baby love. Motown 1066 (1964). -. Come see about me. Motown 1068 (1964). -. I hear a symphony. Motown 1083 (1965). -. Love is like an itching in my heart. Motown 1094 (1966). -. My world is empty wihtout you. Motown 1089 (1966). -. Nothing but heartaches. Motown 1080 (1965). -. Stop in the name of love. Motown 1074 (1965). -. When the lovelight starts shining through his eyes. Motown 1051 (1963). -. Where did our love go. Motown 1060 (1964). -. You can't hurry love. Motown 1097 (1966). -. You keep me hangin' on. Motown 1101 (1966). Temptations. Get ready. Gordy 7049 (1966). -. I'll be in trouble. Gordy 7032 (1964). -. It's growing. Gordy 7040 (1965). -. My baby. Gordy 7047 (1965). -. My girl. Gordy 7038 (1965). -. Papa was a rollin' stone. Gordy 7121 (1972). -. Since I lost my baby. Gordy 7043 (1965). -. The way you do the things you do. Gordy 7028 (1964). Wells, Mary. Laughing boy. Motown 1039 (1963). -. My guy. Motown 1056 (1964). -. You lost the sweetest boy. Motown 1048 (1963). -. Your old standby. Motown 1047 (1963). -. What's easy for two is so hard for one. Motown 1048 (1963).

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