The Middle Ages “Behold, I Make All Things New”: The Holy Grail and the Eucharist By Michael Martin
An idealistic young ty. tion to this, his best known work. knight, an ailing and aged But what about the men who wrote Wolfram von Eschenbach, whose Parzival king, a chalice bathed in these stories? Were they, indeed, sending is based on Chrétien’s work, was a light: such, in miniature, literary messages in bottles in hopes that Bavarian knight and small land-holder. are the trappings of The Story of the some enlightened souls from the future Robert de Boron, the author of Joseph of Holy Grail. The very concept of this would be able to decipher them and Arimathea , may have been a Burgundian object, this relic, testifies to the existence reveal the “truth” to mankind? Were they knight with little scholarly training, owing of the ideal in the face of the real, and is setting up a rival to the established to his clumsy style. The Queste del Saint an avowal of the power of Truth, Beauty, Church, anticipating a “once and future Graal (The Quest of the Holy Grail ), the and Goodness in the world, despite all Church” purified of all corruption? flower of the Vulgate cycle, was almost the evidence to the contrary. A young While no theory on the whys and where - certainly written by a Cistercian cleric, but man searches through forest and waste - fores of the authors’ purposes can ever his name is unknown to us. land, through castle and hermitage for be absolutely conclusive, we can still The Grail literature is by no means a this mystery of Christ. The knight seeks make a pretty good hypothesis. Maybe, uniform whole. “There never was a Story this sacred token made an agent of mira - just maybe, they were trying to write of the Grail”, writes A. T. Hatto, “and cles and grace through contact with the down a ripping good tale. That, I think, is never could be. On the other hand there Holy Blood. Many on this quest have reason enough. were stories of as many different Grails failed. Many have died. Many have ended as there were writers or syndicates in disillusionment and despair. Yet he exploiting the potent name.” 1 Le Conte del perseveres. Graal and Parzival have as their hero Over the years an amazing number of Parzival (Perceval), a knight who devel - books have been published whose For the Christian mind of the ops from a country bumpkin, a pure fool, authors boast that they have “found the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it was to the ideal of knighthood. Parzival is real secret of the Holy Grail.” The “real only a short step from seeing the Grail flesh and blood; he has a wife and chil - secret” ranges from a revelation that dren. He is a sinner, albeit an uncon - Jesus was “secretly” married to Mary as the vessel containing Christ’s blood scious one. On the other hand, the hero Magdalene (as made all-too popular in to seeing it as the chalice of the Mass. of the Queste is Galahad, a chaste and The Da Vinci Code ), to a description of the noble knight who, though born of sin, is Grail as a cipher for a “secret” Johannine spotless otherwise. The Queste was writ - Church, to a postulation that the Grail is ten c. 1225, a good fifty years after the in reality the Ark of the Covenant, held Conte and roughly fifteen years after to this day “in secret” by the Ethiopian Parzival . Considering the author was Coptic Church. While the conclusions The History of the Holy Grail probably a Cistercian it is no wonder found in these approaches range from What we do know about some of the Galahad is such a Christ-like figure. the ludicrous to the plausible to the irrel - writers of the Grail literature is sketchy. Boron’s tale, based on the apocryphal evant, there is something in all of them Chrétien de Troyes, the author of the Gospel of Nicodemus and other works, which suggests the Grail is the sigil for incomplete Le Conte del Graal , which is breaks ranks with all of the different some kind of arcane conspiracy theory also known as Perceval , was a poet and approaches and tells how the Grail came that the benevolent authors are just now scholar in France who has left us several to Britain. bringing to light for a benighted humani - works on the Matter of Britain in addi - The times in which the Grail literature
12 July/August 2010 StAR was written were marked by a level of fathers than to the Benedictine Rule. Also cultural cross-pollination as Europe had like the Byzantines, the bishops were celi - never known. From c. 1174, when bate, having risen from the monastic Chretien’s Le Conte del Graal was written, ranks, and often referred to Eastern to 1235, the date of the last of the authority in conflicts with Rome. 8 Most Vulgate cycle, Europe was transformed. likely the Celtic Church was Eastern via The Crusades had opened up the Gaul and the form of monasticism and European mindset. Encounters with liturgy developed by St. Martin of Tours. 9 Muslims, Arab or African, initiated As late as 1185, Giraldus Cambrensis Europeans into the wonders of algebra describes an Irish monastery in North and Aristotle among other things. Munster where a few monks “called Contact with Byzantium opened Culdees devoutly serve God.” 10 The European eyes, at times suspiciously, to a Culdees observed liturgical customs simi - different style of Christianity. This period lar to those found in the Christian East. also witnessed the careers of St. Francis But the Celtic liturgy is not Ireland’s only of Assisi, whose simplicity and devotion contribution to the milieu that creates the vastly altered European devotion, and St. background of the Grail literature. Albertus Magnus, magnanimous scholar In the Grail stories one notices some - and mentor of Aquinas. Gothic architec - thing that is atypical of other twelfth cen - ture and the sublime prayer of the Rosary tury literature: women are assigned roles Christ at the Gates , Jef Murray also found their origin at this time. 2 of authority and importance. At the Grail den at the Council of Westminster in castle a company of women process with The Real Presence and the Holy Grail 1175. 4 the Grail and offer healing. In Wolfram, Perhaps inspired by Western Christen- The withdrawal of the chalice from the Parzival receives all of his best advice dom’s contact with the liturgical practices laity may have influenced the writers of from women, until he meets the hermit of the Byzantines coupled with the the Grail literature, even if subconscious - Trevrizent. advent of the intellectual rigor of ly; but, whether or not the Grail is sup - The prestige which women held in Scholasticism, one issue that was particu - posed to be a chalice, a paten, a ciborium, Celtic society betrays a reality that did not larly relevant at this period was that of or even a stone (which may suggest an completely disappear with the Roman- the Real Presence in the Eucharist. altar) is not always clear. 5 From author to ization of Ireland by the Church. Irish Christians did not doubt whether they author we have different representations. women bore a tremendous influence on really partook of the Body and Blood of However, in the Byzantine Liturgy the religious life of the island. Abbesses Christ in Communion. What they were Communion in both kinds is from the held great esteem and authority in the wondering about was when the bread and chalice . But the writers of the Grail litera - early days of Irish Christianity; and the wine became the Divine Flesh and Blood. ture did not necessarily need to go to Asia power swayed by St Brigit, in particular, Was it at the words of Institution, or at Minor in order to find a variety of was indeed formidable. 11 Given the the Epiclesis as the Byzantines suggested? Christianity different from their own. esteem of women in Irish society, it is no As James Douglas Bruce puts it “in no They could go to Ireland. wonder that women have such an impor - other period of the Church has the doc - tant role in the Grail literature. Yet the trine of transubstantiation been so imme - The Celtic Church tendency to allude to a conspiratorial and diately the centre of theological interest Prior to the twelfth century, the Celtic clandestine “Church” that permitted the and discussion as in the later part of the Church was more akin to its Eastern than feminine participation in the Grail pro - twelfth century and the early decades of to its geographically closer Roman cession proves false, as such participation the thirteenth.” 3 Theologians were also brethren. Like the Byzantines, the early was allowed in the East as well as in concerned as to whether or not one Irish Church had a married priesthood. Ireland and Britain. 12 Although initial needed to communicate in both Species. Indeed, the apostle of the Irish, St. contact between Rome and the Celtic This subject was eventually resolved in Patrick, was the son of a deacon and the Church was not always friendly, the Celtic the ordination of the Feast of Corpus grandson of a priest. 6 “Patrem habui Church was no rogue community. On the Christi in 1246. The chalice, however, had Calpornium diaconem,” he writes, “filium contrary, the Celts “never ceased to see been gradually removed from lay com - quondam Potiti presbyteri” 7—“I had for Rome as the spiritual capital.” 13 Like the munion over the course of the twelfth father the Deacon Calpurnius, son of one pre-schism Byzantine Churches, the century in the Latin West, although some Potius, a priest.” The Irish also had a tra - Celtic Church had different cultural and places practiced intinction (dipping the dition of monasticism more compatible liturgical practices, but adhered to the Bread into the Wine) until it was forbid - with that of the North African desert same dogma as Rome.
StAR July/August 2010 13 The Holy Grail and the Eucharist In his humiliation, judgment of him Women play an important part in the While the writers of the literature was taken. progress of the hero. But most impor - were not using the Grail in the context of Who shall declare his generation tantly, the hero, Parzival, is an Everyman a Mass, they were certainly employing a for his life is being cut off from who must amend his wrongs and become Eucharistic atmosphere. Like the Agape earth. the Grail King. He represents, according Feast of the early Church, the Grail The Lamb of God, who takes away to Hatto’s insight, “the regeneration of Man”. 18 repast is somehow connected to the the sins of the world, As Jean Frappier suggests, Chrétien’s Eucharist without being the Eucharist. is being offered for the life and salva - refusal to pin-down a deliberate symbol - And, for the Christian mind of the tion of the world. ism for the Grail “creates an atmosphere twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it was of Christian spirituality”. 19 It also opens only a short step from seeing the Grail as As apt as these spear references are to itself up to manifold interpretations. That the vessel containing Christ’s blood to the Eucharist, some scholars, such as is part of the charm, and danger, of these seeing it as the chalice of the Mass. While Jesse Weston, dismiss the Longinus story tales. One can take any aspect of the rich the Grail for these writers may or may and the Byzantine connection as irrele - symbolism and motifs and build a literary not be a liturgical vessel, it is one which is vant to the Grail literature. Others, how - or esoteric construct around it. The litera - at the very least surrounded with ever, such as Fr. G. Ronald Murphy and ture invites its audience to write what is Christian mystery. Even in Wolfram, Konrad Burdach, believe them to be per - not written. where we witness the least liturgical of tinent. 15 Charles Williams suggests the The Grail literature, though it signifies the Grail feasts, Parzival’s half-brother spear being Longinus’ and the Cup being many things, is at heart a story of trans - Feirefiz is not able to behold the Grail Christ’s is the poetic, if not theological, formation. Parzival is transformed, and prior to being baptized. center of the stories. 16 Certainly, because so transforms his world. Galahad, though Another symbol in the Grail literature of the constant intercourse between born of a sinful union, transforms the which has been a point of interest for Constantinople and the West during the kingdom of Logres. The interest in the scholars is the spear which precedes the twelfth century Chrétien’s source may Transubstantiation of the Eucharistic ele - Grail in the Procession of the Grail. This well have contained a description of the ments, so animated a topic in the times in spear is born into the hall causing all Byzantine Divine Liturgy which some which the Grail literature was written, is present to be struck with a deep sorrow. crusader brought home. 17 While Celtic itself a meditation on transformation. Blood gushes forth from the tip of this miraculous vessels and spears exist as Christ tells John in the Book of spear and drips onto the hands of the sources and even may have informed the Revelation, “Behold, I make all things squire who carries it. Certainly, in Celtic writers of the literature, the authors were new”. In transforming Celtic and other lore magical spears exist. But these using them in a decidedly Christian and sources into a Christian mythos of such a weapons flamed, they did not bleed. 14 Eucharistic context. compelling and enduring character, the The spear as a symbol seems to have at authors of the Grail literature made their least two sources. One is the spear of The Achievement of the Grail sources new, changing their essence and Longinus, the Roman soldier who tradi - As literary achievement, the Grail giving them new life. Parzival, at the end tion identifies as he who thrust his lance canon stands as a magical high water of Wolfram’s account, asks the suffering into the side of the crucified Christ in the mark of Western literature. Arguably, no Anfortas, “Uncle, what is it that troubles nineteenth chapter of John’s gospel. The other literature outside of the Bible, not you?” That so simple a question would be other has a relationship to the spear of even Shakespeare, has been food for the key to the mystery Parzival is invested Longinus. This is the “spear”, actually a more artists and writers. Indeed, new fic - with solving is surely profound. That he knife, which is used in the Proskomedia , or tion on Grail or Arthurian themes has such a difficult time discovering its Rite of Preparation, of the Eastern appears regularly, not to mention popular truth is all too human. Scholars look for Church. and reissued editions of the originals. In the sources of the Grail as if their quest The Proskomedia is the preparation of the last decades several films have treated will lead them to truth. Esotericists seek the species prior to the Divine Liturgy this theme, The Fisher King and Excalibur , hidden knowledge they believe the Grail (the Mass). A part of the rubric, said as not to mention the classic send-up Monty contains. But we should never forget that the “spear” cuts the bread (called the Python and the Holy Grail . Perhaps what it is not what the Grail brings to Parzival Lamb), is from Isaiah 53, makes this literature so appealing and which is central to the story, but what resilient is that it stands at the threshold Parzival brings to the Grail. The Grail Like a lamb that is led to the slaugh - of myriad literary frontiers. The stories does not heal Parzival; but when he is ter; embody Christian truth as well as pagan before the Grail cognizant of its nature, And like a sheep without blemish, romance. They are both religious and sec - the Fisher King is healed. The Psalmist that before its shearer is dumb, ular. They are cosmopolitan, having describes Parzival’s condition at the so he opened not his mouth. European, Eastern, and Celtic elements. moment of achieving the Grail: “My sac -
14 July/August 2010 StAR rifice, O God, is a contrite spirit; a heart Down to the Year 1300 2 vol. (Baltimore: Early Irish Society (Ithaca: Cornell contrite and humbled, O God, you will Johns Hopkins, 1923), vol 1: pp. 241–42. University Press, 1966), p. 88. not spurn” ( Psalms 51:19). Seeing the 4. Miri Rubin, Corpus Christi: The 12. Bruce, The Evolution of Arthurian Grail is not enough. Only participation in Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture Romance from the Beginnings Down to the Year its nature heals the Wounded King. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1300, vol. 1: p. 259. 1991), pp. 70–71. 13. Geoffrey Ashe, “The Visionary Michael Martin teaches English at Marygrove 5. According to G. Ronald Murphy, Kingdom.” The Quest for Arthur’s Britain , ed. College in Detroit, Michigan. His criticism, Wolfram’s Grail is an altar stone. See Geoffrey Ashe. (London: Paladin, 1971), p. essays, and poetry have appeared in many jour - Gemstone of Paradise: The Holy Grail in 170. nals and magazines. He lives on a small farm Wolfram’s Parzival (Oxford: Oxford 14. Charles Williams, Arthurian Torso outside of Ann Arbor, Michigan, with his wife University Press, 2006). from Taliessin through Logres by C. S. Lewis and eight children. 6. F. E. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual and Arthurian Torso (Grand Rapids: of the Celtic Church (1881) (Willits: Eastern Eerdman’s, 1974), p. 249. References Orthodox, 1979), p. 13. 15. G. Ronald Murphy, S.J., Gemstone of 1. A. T. Hatto, “Forward,” Parzival by 7. “St. Patrick’s Confession,” in History Paradise: The Holy Grail in Wolfram’s Wolfram von Eschenbach (New York: of the Irish Primitive Church, together with The Parzival, p. 159 and note 23. Penguin, 1980), p. 7. Life of St. Patrick, by Daniel de Vinné 16. Ibid, p. 250. 2. Indeed, Sister M. Amelia Klenke (New York: Francis Hart, 1870), p. 207. 17. Bruce, The Evolution of Arthurian suggests that the builder of Saint-Denis, My translation. Romance from the Beginnings Down to the Year Abbot Suger, was an influence on 8. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual of the 1300, vol. 1: p. 259. Chrétien. See Urban T. Holmes Jr. and Celtic Church, p. 56. 18. A. T. Hatto, “An Introduction to a Sister M. Amelia Klenke, O.P., Chrétien, 9. Barry Cumliffe, The Ancient Celts Second Reading,” Parzival by Wolfram von Troyes, and the Grail (Chapel Hill: (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. Eschenbach (New York: Penguin, 1980), p. University of North Carolina Press, 166. 415. 1959), p. 98. 10. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual of the 19. Jean Frappier, Chrétien de Troyes:The 3. James Douglas Bruce, The Evolution Celtic Church, p. 35. Man and His Work , trans. Raymond J. of Arthurian Romance from the Beginnings 11. Kathleen Hughes, The Church in Corrier (Athens: OUP, 1982), p. 130. Talks by Joseph Pearce
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