“I AM THE APPLE OF MY BROTHER’S EYE” An investigation into the evolving roles of Samoan women with particular reference to religion and gender relations Thesis submitted for the Master of Arts in Pacific Island Studies At the University of Otago, Dunedin New Zealand By Malia Ellen Mamele Lameta For Suluga Lameta Who taught me to be a Samoan woman Family are not necessarily those of our blood but are also those who have become our blood. This work is also dedicated to the strong, driven women in my life who have helped to mould and shape me into the woman I have become. Ua taulāmua i finagalo ma mafaufauga tinā ma tama’ita’i o lo’u aiga. Fa’afetai tatalo, fa’afetai tapua’i, fa’afetai alofa. Fa’afetai Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iii Preface ............................................................................................................................ iv History vs Mythology ................................................................................................. xi Division of Samoan history ...................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... xvi Chapter One Le Amataga ‘The break of Dawn’ An introduction ............................. 1 Samoa and the Samoans............................................................................................... 3 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 7 Talanoa as a Research Methodology ..................................................................... 11 Talanoa as a Writing Style ..................................................................................... 12 Participant Biographies .......................................................................................... 14 Definitions.................................................................................................................. 17 Samoan Concepts: Definitions ............................................................................... 21 Samoan Cultural Concepts: Definitions ................................................................. 27 Discussion of Key Written Sources ........................................................................... 31 Thesis Structure ......................................................................................................... 34 Chapter Two Samoan Culture and Women .............................................................. 35 The Samoan way of Life ............................................................................................ 35 The Three-legged Stool.......................................................................................... 35 Samoan Pride ......................................................................................................... 36 Culture and Identity ............................................................................................... 37 Reciprocity, Fa’alavelave, Aiga and Obligation ................................................... 38 Culture and the Samoan Woman ............................................................................... 41 The Transformation of the Feagaiga and its Importance Today in Samoan Society . 46 The feagaiga in Historical context ......................................................................... 47 The feagaiga in a contemporary context. .............................................................. 48 The Religious Transformation of the feagaiga ...................................................... 51 Women’s Role in the Village ..................................................................................... 53 Aualuma, Faletua ma Tausi and the wives of untitled men .................................. 54 Village Committees ............................................................................................... 58 Chapter Three Samoan Mythology, History and the Role of Women as Wives and Daughters ...................................................................................................................... 60 Talisoa le i’a a Nafanua ‘wait for the assistance and benevolence of Nafanua’ ........ 62 The Genealogy of Nafanua .................................................................................... 65 The Ancestry of Nafanua ....................................................................................... 66 The Narratives of Nafanua ..................................................................................... 68 The Perception of Samoan Women from the Tales of Nafanua ............................ 71 Queen Salamasina of Samoa: E gase toa, ae ola Pule ‘Warriors die and battles are forgotten but a just leader is remembered’ ................................................................ 79 Salamasina’s Genealogy ........................................................................................ 80 Her Birth – Salamasina’s Adoption ....................................................................... 82 i Salamasina’s First Love ......................................................................................... 86 Salamasina’s Reign ................................................................................................ 89 Tongan Trickery and Royal Cunning .................................................................... 89 Her Last Years ....................................................................................................... 92 The Perception of Samoan women from the history of Salamasina ...................... 93 The Role of the Samoan Woman as Wife and Daughter ........................................... 97 Chapter Four Traditional Samoan Religion and the Samoan woman’s role ....... 107 Traditional Samoan Religious Beliefs Prior to Christianity .................................... 108 Samoan Creation Mythology ................................................................................... 110 Traditional Samoan Religion and the role of women .............................................. 114 Chapter Five Christianity and the Samoan woman’s role ..................................... 123 A Brief History of Christianity in Samoa ................................................................ 123 Nafanua’s Prophesy to Malietoa Vainu’upo ............................................................ 126 Missionary Wives .................................................................................................... 129 Missionary Legacy in the Samoan Islands and its effect on the perception of Samoan women ...................................................................................................................... 134 The Indigenisation of Western Christianity ............................................................. 139 Samoan Christianity and Women’s role .................................................................. 144 Chapter Six Tinā ma Tama’ita’i o Samoa ‘Women in Samoan Society’.............. 150 Women in Traditional Samoa .................................................................................. 152 Material and Economic Wealth of Samoa ............................................................... 158 Subsistence Based Society and Women in Samoan Economy ................................ 159 The cultural think-tank: women as teachers and facilitators ................................... 166 Women and Cultural Boundaries ............................................................................. 168 Women’s Roles within Modern Samoan Society .................................................... 173 Women in Samoa’s Modern Political History ......................................................... 176 The Colonial Administration of Samoa ............................................................... 177 Women in Politics .................................................................................................... 183 Critical Issues for Women: Legalistic Equality Vs Cultural Complementarity ...... 188 The Samoan woman and her choices ....................................................................... 190 Constraints and Opportunities for Women .............................................................. 192 The Change in Women’s Roles over Time .............................................................. 194 Epilogue What Can The Future Bring?................................................................... 197 Ideas of Being Samoan ............................................................................................ 198 What Can The Future Bring? ................................................................................... 206 Works Consulted ........................................................................................................ 213 Interview Participants .............................................................................................. 224 Glossary ...................................................................................................................... 226 Appendix One: Information Sheet and Consent ..................................................... 229 Appendix Two: Interview Questions ........................................................................ 231 ii Abstract What does it