Taonga Pasifika World Heritage in the Pacific

Australian Government Department of the Environment and Water resources Glossary akua gods Hawaiian ‘aumakua guardian spirits Hawaiian fonualoto fa’itoka burial vault Tongan kiore Pacific rat Maori kümara sweet potato Maori langi royal tombs Tongan laulau ai dining table Samoan lupe pigeons Niuean/Samoan marae meeting house Maori matai chief Samoan naflak political system Vanuatu nofoa papa chair Samoan ‘ohi to gather Hawaiian pä fortified settlement Maori peka bats Niuean/Tongan pu sea shell trumpet Hawaiian rai whale Yapese rahui reserves Niuean siapo bark cloth Samoan tapa bark cloth Polynesian origin tanoa faiava bowl buried in sand Samoan taonga treasures Maori tapu taboo Polynesian origin taoga treasures Niuean Contents

Introduction 2 Message from Tumu te Heuheu 3 Voyaging 4 The Pacific’s Crested Voyager 5 Voyaging for Stone Money 6 Adaptation 8 Kuk—origins of agriculture in the Pacific 10 Lapita—Pacific ancestors 11 Marae Taputapuatea 12 Ha’amonga ‘a Mau’i—the Tongan trilithon 14 Lapaha Tombs—a link with Tonga’s ancient royal heritage 15 Chief Roi Mata’s Domain—a journey through life and legend 16 Tapa Cloth 17 Nan Madol—sacred islets of Pohnpei 18 Rapa Nui’s Magnificent Moai 20 Front cover image: Masked Booby Map of the Pacific 22 (Sula dactylatra) Photo: C. Grondin Levuka—a colonial Pacific port 24 Hawai‘i—people of the land 26 Fagaloa Bay—Uafato/Tiavea Conservation Zone 28 Living their Ancestors’ Lives 30 Huvalu Forest 31 New Caledonia’s Sea of Treasures 32 East Rennell 34 Kakadu National Park—indigenous management 36 For the Good of Mankind 38 New Zealand’s World Heritage Sites 40 Country Profiles 42

1 Introduction

Kia orana, ni sa bula, fakaalofa lahi atu, malo e lelei, halo olaketa, la orana, kia ora, talofa lava, kam na mauri and welcome to Taonga Pasifika. The Pacific Ocean is the largest geographical feature on earth. It spans a third of the earth’s surface, covering 16.5 million square kilometres. More than 20 000 islands are dotted throughout this massive ocean, the majority of which are small coral atolls. Many of the Pacific’s thousands of islands are separated from their neighbours by vast expanses of water. Easter Island (Rapa Nui, Isla de Pascua) in the eastern Pacific is one of the most remote places on earth, lying 3500 km west of Chile and 2000 km east of its nearest neighbour, Pitcairn Island. The stories that follow are drawn from this immense region—from mainland Papua New Guinea to the northern atolls of the Marshall Islands and the eastern archipelagos of French Polynesia. They explore the distinctive ways in which Pacific peoples adapted to the islands they came to inhabit and utilised new resources. Despite the great distances that separate the islands of the Pacific, the cultures are intricately connected. For example, Lapita pottery that is found in Vanuatu has been linked to similar artefacts found thousands of kilometres away in Samoa. As well as showcasing exceptional places, these stories highlight the way in which the people of the Pacific relate to their surroundings, and the individual and collective histories that make the region so unique. In Taonga Pasifika, you will learn about early astronomical knowledge in Tonga, be reminded of the Pacific’s colonial history in Fiji and discover the world’s second largest coral reef, surrounding one of the world’s largest lagoons, in New Caledonia. A shared distinctive feature of Pacific cultures is the making of tapa (bark cloth). Tapa cloth, which is both utilitarian and ceremonial in function, has become a symbol of the region that links the Pacific nations. Taonga Pasifika not only introduces the amazing history and culture of the Pacific, but also highlights the more recent efforts to preserve the region’s natural and cultural heritage. The articles about East Rennell, in the Solomon Islands, and Kakadu National Park, in Australia, illustrate the relationship between traditional land ownership and World Heritage sites, while Niue’s story demonstrates the importance of managing local resources. Many of the following stories were gathered at a Pacific World Heritage workshop held in Turangi, New Zealand, in early 2007. The workshop was a follow-up to an earlier World Heritage workshop in 2004, and is part of the implementation of the Pacific 2009 Action Plan—a plan designed to guide World Heritage work in the Pacific through to 2009. The workshop focused on how people of the region can work together to improve global recognition of World Heritage in the Pacific, and the need for the international community to support a Pacific World Heritage Fund. The stories represent only a small portion of the myriad narratives about the region and its people, but highlight many of the extraordinary places of universal value in the Pacific. Some of these places are already World Heritage sites, some are on tentative lists and some are yet to be introduced to World Heritage. From the western waters of Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia to Easter Island’s magnificent statues in the east, and from the wild Hawaiian volcanoes in the north to New Zealand’s sleeping volcanoes in the south, welcome to this journey through the Pacific.

2 Message from Tumu te Heuheu

Ko Tongariro te maunga Ko Taupo-nui-a-Tia te moana Ko Ngati Tuwharetoa te iwi Ko Te Heuheu te tangata

It is a great pleasure for me to welcome our international visitors to the 31st session of the World Heritage Committee in Christchurch, New Zealand. One of my goals for this meeting is to showcase the natural and cultural beauty of the Pacific region. This is important, as I believe there is currently only a limited awareness of Pacific heritage outside the region. Furthermore, the special and unique characteristics that make up the Pacific region are not adequately represented on the World Heritage list. There is an enormous wealth of cultural diversity in the Pacific, and traditional heritage management practices reinforce the inseparable relationship between communities, cultures and the environment. Heritage in the Pacific is strongly linked to ‘indigeneity’. It defines our cultural identity and is inseparable from our social, economic and environmental well-being. Our heritage is holistic, embracing all life, both tangible and intangible, and is understood through our cultural traditions. As you will learn in the following pages of Taonga Pasifika, the Pacific region contains a series of spectacular and highly valued natural features and cultural places. These places are related to the origins of the people, the land and sea, and other traditional stories. Taonga Pasifika is a gift to you from the Pacific region and tells stories of who we are and about the natural and cultural heritage that is important to us. Through reading these stories, I trust you will gain a greater appreciation that protection of Pacific heritage must be based on respect for, and understanding and maintenance of, the traditional cultural practices, indigenous knowledge and systems of land and sea tenure in the Pacific. I also hope that you take away the message that the identification, management and conservation of World Heritage sites must actively involve local, traditional and indigenous people and communities. It is clear that linking communities to heritage protection is a ‘win-win’ scenario.

Tumu te Heuheu with children at Uafato Village, Samoa Photo: Tata Lawson

3 3 Voyaging Despite its beauty, the Pacific can be In the Federated States of Micronesia, a challenging place to live. Islands the Yapese people regularly travelled are separated by enormous distances; 600 km to the island of Palau, where smaller atolls have limited land and water they established camps and quarried resources; and cyclones, droughts and limestone discs, which they used as a floods are all persistent threats. These form of money. This stone money was limitations were overcome by Pacific eventually developed to 1 m or more in peoples thousands of years ago through size, and was transported between Yap the adoption of many new and innovative and Palau into the 19th century. To assist them in their voyaging, Pacific sailors relied on a number of tools. Foremost was their knowledge of the wind, currents, tides and stars along a particular route. In some Pacific cultures, this knowledge was maintained within specific families or clans who were then responsible for handing the skills on through their children. These navigators recalled the particular combination of features at particular times of the year at particular stages in their journeys to give them an accurate understanding of their location. The depth of knowledge required to safely navigate across the open ocean, and the skill and stamina needed to use it on a long voyage, was a remarkable cultural Orou double canoe under sail. technologies, and by the integration of and personal achievement. To help them, Mailu, 1932 these technologies into their cultures. some cultures also developed physical Foremost among the technologies that tools, such as star maps, which were made were needed to settle the Pacific were on woven frames, and used shells and those linked to voyaging and navigation. coral to mark the position of stars. Navigating the immense distances In the past 30 years, traditional voyaging between islands on a regular basis was cultures and technologies have been an extremely challenging task, especially rediscovered in the Pacific. In some since early sailors relied solely on wind cases, such as the building of the Hokule’ and currents for propulsion, and on oral canoe in Hawai‘i in the mid-1970s, and cultural tradition for navigation. the rediscovery of voyaging has been Pacific navigation was not limited to a powerful factor in strengthening occasional, risky voyages of discovery. traditional cultures in the face of pressure Well-known trade routes were established from modern society. Large voyaging very early in the history of the Pacific. canoes have now been built in many Volcanic obsidian, which was found Pacific nations, including Hawai‘i, Tahiti, only on the island of New Britain near Rarotonga and New Zealand. In 1995, Papua New Guinea, was being traded a fleet of these canoes converged on by sea as early as 20 000 years ago. The Taputapuatea in Tahiti to celebrate the recent finding of obsidian in Fiji, dating tradition of the Fa’atau Aroha—the from perhaps 3000 years ago, provides Friendly Alliance of ancient Polynesian evidence of a trade route between New peoples. Britain and the islands of Fiji.

4 The Pacific’s Crested Voyager One of the Pacific’s smallest voyagers of Fiji’s two largest islands, Viti Levu and does not have a tradition of navigation or Vanua Levu. It is a unique example of how cultivation, and turns dark green when it terrestrial biodiversity can spread across feels threatened. enormous distances to establish in new The crested iguana (Brachylophus environments. vitiensis) did not plan to voyage to Fiji On six of the nine islands on which it from South America, but probably got lives, the crested iguana is still threatened caught on a raft of vegetation that floated by cats and goats. However, on Yadua Taba across the Pacific on the currents and Island, as many as 10 000 iguanas survive winds. Today, this rare iguana is restricted in a habitat free of cats and goats. The to nine small islands off the western and 70-ha island is managed by the National northern coasts Trust of Fiji through a long-term lease from its traditional owners who live on an adjacent island. With community Fijian crested iguana Photo: Stuart Charpe support, goats have been eradicated and there has been no burning or disturbance for 15 years. Yadua Taba Crested Iguana Santuary and its iconic 1-m-long crested iguanas are on Fiji’s tentative list for World Heritage status.

Fijian crested iguana Photo: Dr Peter Harlow, Taronga Zoo

5 Voyaging for Stone Money For over 500 years, the people of Yap in limestone was cut using stone tools, a the Federated States of Micronesia have difficult and time-consuming task, and used a form of stone money in ceremonial was then rafted back to Yap. exchanges. The stone discs—some as The money is said to have originated from large as 3 m in diameter—are remarkable an occasion when Yapese fishermen were not only for their size but for the fact blown off course to Palau. There they that they were transported more than found the stone, which they carved and 600 km by sea from Koror State in took back to their home villages. The Palau where they were quarried. This original carving is said to have been in continuous history of quarrying, voyaging the shape of a whale or rai, which is the and their related cultural practices needs local name for the money. to be marked by a serial World Heritage The value of the stone money is not listing. fixed, but instead is related to the rites The stone disc money was originally of its production and transport, and the about 30–40 cm in diameter and 3–6 cm customs and history of its use—thus its thick. It was quarried from the walls of value can change over time. In this regard, coral limestone caves in the Rock Islands the money can tell the story of a village of Palau. The caves are no more than and the hardships of the people who Mangyol stone money bank on the island of Yap, Federated 3–4 m deep and are usually found at sea quarried it. Often the stone money was States of Micronesia level, making them easily accessible. The used to purchase prestige goods, such as Photo: Scott Fitzpatrick

6 Mangyol stone money bank land or homes, in a similar way to the fine probably survived in the Federated on the island of Yap, Federated States of Micronesia woven mats of Samoa and Tonga that are States of Micronesia because regular Photos: Scott Fitzpatrick used as tokens in social and ceremonial travel between the many small islands transactions. was common. In contrast, the distances In Yap, ownership of the stones is publicly between islands in the western Pacific known and some of the money is publicly were so great that once voyaging was displayed on dancing grounds, which are interrupted it ceased forever. Amongst raised stone platforms that may be some the techniques maintained were the distance from the owner’s residence. design and construction of canoes, oral Several of these grounds at Mangyol and traditions of navigation and the making Bleyrach constitute part of the proposed of wooden star charts. The rediscovery of serial site. The discs are pierced in the these traditions in the 1970s was vital to the middle, allowing them to be carried using rebirth of voyaging across the Pacific. poles. If ownership of the larger stone The preservation of this serial site, which money is transferred, this is often done is on the tentative lists of both Palau in public at the dancing grounds. Smaller and Federated States of Micronesia (Yap discs may be kept in people’s homes. state), is important for the recognition The arrival of Europeans changed the way of the relationship between the people stone money was made and transported. of both countries. The people of Palau The introduction of metal tools and the and the Yapese voyagers developed good provision of transport by ship resulted relationships over a period of hundreds of in the size of discs increasing to as years. Today the caves are well protected much as 3 m in diameter in the late 19th by local chiefs on Palau who are reluctant century. Although modern transport to have people visit them. On Yap, methods were introduced, traditional the dancing grounds where money is voyaging technology and knowledge was stored are also protected by the local maintained among the Yapese people, and municipality. Both communities recognise by the 1960s they were the last holders the importance of the continuous contact of an unbroken tradition of oceanic between their cultures, and maintain the voyaging in the Pacific. relationship through participation in The knowledge of voyaging techniques festivals and ceremonial visits.

7 Adaptation An important part of the story of sites such as Kuk in Papua New Guinea civilisation in the Pacific is the way as long as 6000–7000 years ago, and were indigenous people adapted crops and transported from the Solomon Islands all technologies to the new homes in the way to Samoa by the Lapita people which they settled, and the effects these between 2500 and 3000 years ago. adaptations had on the local ecologies. The effects of introducing new crops Early voyagers moved across the Pacific were threefold. Firstly, these new crops carrying with them a suite of domesticated and animals changed the ecology of the crops and animals, and techniques for islands to which they were introduced.

Gardens on traditional village their cultivation and husbandry. Some of Secondly, Pacific peoples adapted their site, Babeldaob, Palau these crops and techniques originated in crops, animals and techniques to the Photo: Kevin Jones different climates, soils and seasons of their new homes. Lastly, the cultures of the people changed in response to the new ways of making a living. The type of agriculture that developed at sites such as Kuk was based on a warm, stable climate and relatively fertile land. Larger Pacific islands, such as the volcanic islands of Samoa, were sufficiently similar that they could also support the introduction of these crops and techniques. However, smaller islands, such as the coral atolls of the Marshall Islands, were less fertile; this, combined with their limited land area, meant that they were unable to sustain their populations based on agriculture alone. Consequently, in these islands, fishing, shell fishing, and the gathering of seabirds, turtles and other marine life became essential for providing enough protein for the communities to survive. The arrival of people with crops, cultivation methods and introduced animals led to major changes to the ecology of these islands. The Pacific rat (kiore, Rattus exulans), which travelled with voyaging people, is associated with the extinction of many bird species. The hunting and gathering of birds and animals by pre-European communities also contributed to the extinction of many species. In some cases, deforestation, as a result of harvesting or burning for cultivation, contributed to soil erosion and extinctions. However, in other places, such as Manono and Apolima Islands in Samoa, it enabled communities to develop plantations and gardens that have sustained them for many generations.

8 Fortified and terraced hilltop, with modern gardens, The establishment of maritime lifestyles with cooler, windier climates. Tropical Babeldaob, Palau also promoted the development of crops found it harder to survive in these Photo: Kevin Jones fishing and voyaging technologies. conditions, so Polynesian people used Fishing techniques and types of fishhooks cultivation techniques such as the building changed depending upon the type of of stone-walled gardens to protect plants island environment people were living from oceanic winds, or mounding to in. For example, the size and shape of maintain increased temperatures and hooks varied depending upon whether fertility. In New Zealand, staple foods people were fishing in coral lagoons (in such as banana and breadfruit would which case a curved hook was used, as it not grow, and the cultivation of kumara was less likely to get caught in the coral) (sweet potato) was reliable only in the or in the open ocean (where a sharper north. However, bird and ocean life was ‘jabbing’ hook was more useful). abundant, so the culture adapted to using Cultivation techniques also changed as these resources. people spread across the Pacific. When Without this constant process of adapting people reached islands such as Easter technologies and culture to their Island (Rapa Nui, Isla de Pascua) or New environments, Pacific peoples would Zealand (Aotearoa) they began to move not have ultimately reached and settled into subtropical and temperate zones the whole of this immense ocean.

9 Kuk—origins of agriculture in the Pacific Papua New Guinea is well known for its As early as 10 000 years ago, there is magnificent plant and animal biodiversity. evidence of exploitation of tubers It is less well known for being one of such as taro and yam at the Kuk site the first places on earth, alongside the in the Upper Wahgi Valley of Papua Fertile Crescent of the Middle East and New Guinea. Between 6400 and 7000 the Yangste and Yellow Rivers of China, years ago, the people of Kuk developed to develop settled agriculture. agricultural practices focused around the cultivation of bananas. From 4000 years ago there is archaeological evidence of the periodic drainage of swamps using ditch systems. These agricultural systems make Kuk significant both globally and regionally as an early and independent site of an important technological development in the history of humanity. The agricultural practices developed in Kuk were also important in the spread of present-day cultures across the Pacific. Agriculture in New Guinea and the Pacific is based on the propagation and cultivation of plants such as banana, taro, yam and grasses such as sugarcane. The agricultural practices found at Kuk, such as mounded cultivation, spread across the Pacific with successive waves of migration. The Lapita people, whose earliest sites are found in the islands of the Bismark Archipelago adjacent to Papua New Guinea, transported these practices across the Pacific. Today, the Kuk site is occupied by the Kawelka clan group, who continue a 10 000-year tradition of land management. Community support from the Kawelka clan for the listing of Kuk as a World Heritage site is vital to the proposal. This proposal has been important for the local community because it has led the Government and the Kawelka clan to negotiate an agreement about ownership and responsibilities for the property.

Cordyline on bank with taro behind Photo: Kevin Jones

10 Lapita—Pacific ancestors Approximately 2500 years ago, a motifs of Lapita, named after the site remarkable episode of human colonisation in New Caledonia where the pottery took place in the Pacific, when the makers was first discovered. Some have argued of a unique, highly decorated style of that the designs seen on the pottery pottery, known as ‘Lapita’, spread out from are precursors to those on modern tapa the southern tip of the Solomon Islands cloths and even in traditional tattoo to become the first human inhabitants of designs. remote Oceania. In West Polynesia, these Perhaps more important to the long-term first inhabitants were the ancestors of survival of the Lapita people and their modern Polynesian peoples. descendents was their knowledge of The earliest evidence of Lapita ceramics domesticated food crops that they took is dated to around 2900 years ago and with them to provide food resources can be found in archaeological sites on newly colonised islands. Their highly on the Bismarck Archipelago, islands sophisticated knowledge of navigation that bridge eastern Papua New Guinea and seafaring, fishing and other oceanic and the northern Solomon Islands. resources was also essential. The Bismarck Archaeologists believe it was from this Archipelago, where evidence of Lapita area that the Lapita people spread rapidly culture was first found, is adjacent to across thousands of kilometres of ocean New Guinea, where tree and root crops in a wave of expansion that established such as banana and taro had long been the first settlements in Vanuatu, New domesticated—evidence from the Kuk Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga and Samoa within a early agricultural sites in the Wahgi Valley period of only a few hundred years. suggests that this may have been as early Lapita pottery is highly visible in archaeo- as 7000 years ago. logical sites, enabling archaeologists to Lapita archaeological sites are often linked interpret the timing and direction of these either directly or indirectly to proposed early seafaring people. Much of the pottery or potential World Heritage sites in the in the sites is plain earthenware, but a Pacific because they represent tangible small percentage has the characteristic evidence of a unique and outstanding and unmistakable episode of human colonisation. The Lapita pottery fragment decorative presence of Lapita sites in island nations 1000 BC, Solomon Islands Photo: Courtesy of the across the western Pacific offers great Anthropology Photographic potential for a trans-boundary serial Archive, Department of Anthropology, University of World Heritage nomination that would Auckland reflect both the route taken and the ingenuity of these people as they first explored the unknown waters and islands of the Pacific. Voyaging across the Pacific in the centuries before the height of the Roman Empire, the Lapita people and their culture laid the foundations for human life in the Pacific. As their technology, crops and animals spread across the region, a process of cultural adaptation to island environments began that led directly to the cultures of today.

11 Marae TaputapuAtea The stone marae at Taputapuatea and the Hawaiian Islands, Avaiki (now the Cook associated complex of features is one of Islands), Havai’i (now the Marquesas the most important Polynesian cultural Islands) and Savai’i (now Samoa). sites in the Pacific. The site is central to From around the 16th century, Rai’atea Polynesian mythology and religion, and to became a religious centre for the worship technologies such as oceanic voyaging. of the Polynesian god of war, Oro. It was Marae Taputapuatea is found on the island around this time that the Tamatoa dynasty of Rai’atea, which is part of the Society built the main part of Marae Taputapuatea, Islands in French Polynesia. It is a large although earlier marae may also have site of approximately 60 ha and comprises existed on the site. The marae was the an association of traditional Polynesian site of royal coronations for the Tamatoa elements, including a mountain, a river, a dynasty, and a large standing stone, ceremonial complex of stone platforms 2–3 m high, remains to mark the site and a pass between the reefs. where investitures occurred. Rai’atea has the reputation of being a Marae Taputapuatea was considered cradle for Polynesian culture. In ancient sacred by worshippers of Oro, and times it was called Havai’i fanau’ra became a centre of worship, knowledge fenua (Havai’i the cradle). In mythology, and religion for Polynesians across fragments of Havai’i broke off to create the central Pacific. Priests from other other islands, and the name is reflected islands voyaged to Rai’atea, where they Marae Taputapuatea across the Pacific in places such as the participated in rituals and ceremonies, Photo: R. Ariihau Tuheiava

12 Marae Taputapuatea Photo: R. Ariihau Tuheiava including prayers, offerings and sacrifices. symbolises a stone canoe remaining on Priests, explorers and warriors spread land after a long voyage. In oral tradition, these rituals and knowledge across voyagers returning to Rai’atea had to the Pacific, helping to create a shared raise their oars as a symbol of peace as Polynesian theology. they entered the sacred passage though Practices developed at Taputapuatea the reef known as Ava-moa. Since the link it both physically and spiritually renaissance of Polynesian navigation and with marae throughout the Pacific. One sailing traditions in the 1970s, canoes such tradition is the use of a stone from from Hawai‘i, New Zealand and Rarotonga Taputapuatea as the foundation for new have voyaged to Taputapuatea as a way of marae on other islands. An echo of this restoring Pacific traditions and heritage. tradition can be found in New Zealand, The marae complex itself covers 2 ha where it is believed that soil from and is composed of 11 stone platforms. Taputapuatea was brought in the canoe Associated with it are dwelling platforms, of the Tainui tribe and used to establish farming terraces and workshops. It an altar at their landing spot at Kawhia. is the biggest marae site in French A Maori proverb captures this idea in the Polynesia and one of the largest in the words ‘E kore au e ngaro; te kakano I ruia Pacific. Recognition of Taputapuatea mai Rangiatea’—‘I shall never be lost; as a site of outstanding universal value [I am] the seed which was sown from would acknowledge its central place Rangiatea’. in Polynesian religion and culture, and One of the most important features of would materially assist in the protection Taputapuatea is its association with and preservation of its heritage for years voyaging. In Tahitian culture, the marae to come.

13 Ha’amonga ‘a Mau’i Photo: Paul Dingwall Ha’amonga ‘a Mau’i—the Tongan trilithon The Ha’amonga ‘a Mau’i (Burden of Mau’i) 1972, he declared it and the surrounding is a huge coral gateway or monumental area a protected historical park. arch that was constructed in the 13th Oral traditions record that Tu’itatui century by civil engineers at the time of ordered that the stone for the Ha’amonga the 11th Tu’i Tonga (paramount ruler), ‘a Mau’i, and for other large coral columns Tu’itatui. It aligns the astronomy of the nearby, be brought from distant islands. heavens and the island of Tongatapu, The Ha’amonga ‘a Mau’i is located in mirroring the astronomical function of the earlier Tu’i Tonga settlement site its northern hemisphere counterpart, of Heketa. In the 13th century, the Stonehenge. The monolithic celestial Tu’i Tonga moved the capital from the platform permitted the Tu’i Tonga to Ha’amonga area to Lapaha, where it decipher the heavens and forecast remained until the 19th century. weather patterns, providing the Tongan The Ha’amonga ‘a Mau’i, which is located admiralty with much-needed weather along the noisy shores of ‘Utulongo’a, information. and the royal Lapaha tombs (langi), Made of three slabs of coral—two which are found along the inner lagoon, upright, and the third resting in a notch fanga ko longonoa, are inseparable. across the top—the arch is about 4–5 m The Ha’amonga ‘a Mau’i established a high and 6 m wide. scientific phenomenon that remained Some believe that Tu’itatui may have built undiscovered for almost 800 years. the structure to symbolise his two sons The tombs were constructed by civil and the bond between them. In 1967, engineers who understood the sound King Tupou IV endorsed the theory that architectural principles of strong rock the trilithon was an ancient astronomical footing foundations. Together these instrument used to predict the summer sites are a candidate for Tonga’s World and winter solstices and the equinoxes. In Heritage tentative list.

14 Lapaha Tombs—a link with Tonga’s ancient royal heritage The ancient royal tombs (langi) at Lapaha Uvea (Wallis), which is hundreds of in Tonga comprise one of the great kilometres from Tonga. Once the coral ceremonial sites of the Pacific. Along structure was completed, the body of a with sacred monuments such as Roi Tu’i Tonga, or allied high-ranking chief, Mata’s domain in Vanuatu or the tombs was placed in a burial vault (fonualoto of Nan Madol in the Federated States of fa’itoka) inside the tomb, which was then Micronesia, the Lapaha tombs symbolise covered with black volcanic pebbles. the association between political and The rituals that surrounded and continue spiritual power that was held by royalty to be used for burial are remarkable and high chiefs in the Pacific. As a in themselves. Royal undertakers, the cultural landscape, these massive coral ha’atufunga, are responsible for the burials, structures provide a link to the Tongan including rituals such as the washing and dynasties that created a huge maritime anointing of stones (lanukilikili). Stones empire in the Pacific in the 12th to 15th for the tomb are selected by a ha’atufunga centuries. and then washed to remove seawater. The link of Lapaha with Tongan history They are then anointed using sweet oil begins around the 13th century, when from the mohokoi flower or siaipasi tree. the paramount rulers, known collectively Children of the royal line later arrange the as the Tu’i Tonga, moved the capital from stones on the tombs. A separate clan of the Ha’amoana area to Lapaha, where caretakers, the Ha’a Ma’u, is responsible it remained until the 19th century. for the upkeep of the tombs and keeping Between the 12th and 15th centuries, the history of those who are buried Tongan navigators and warriors were there. actively exploring the Pacific, establishing The site itself is just over 3 ha in size and trade routes and military dominion over contains around 28 tombs. Like many an empire that stretched from Niue in the other important sites in the Pacific, the east to Tikopia in the Solomon Islands, area around Lapaha is also a site of early and controlled large island groups such Lapita settlement. Unlike other burial as Fiji and Samoa. sites in the Pacific, the tombs and the The construction of the massive tombs rituals surrounding royal burial are still was used to demonstrate the spiritual part of Tongan culture, and were most and political power of the Tu’i Tonga. recently used in 2006 for the burial of The tombs were built from huge slabs Prince and Princess Tu’ipelehake. This of carefully cut coral transported from cultural landscape is a remarkable living neighbouring islands, or in mythology link with ancient Tongan royal heritage from far islands in the empire such as and culture. Lapaha royal tombs Photo: Paul Dingwall

15 Chief Roi Mata’s Domain—a journey through life and legend An ancient village, a volcanic cave and indicates that Roi Mata drew his last a burial site on a tabu island form the breath. The cave is a deep chamber in a triangle of Chief Roi Mata’s domain, a volcanic tuff cliff and is still central to the unique cultural landscape in Vanuatu traditions of the local people. The spirits whose features reflect the ongoing of local people’s ancestors are believed influence of traditions dating back at to walk in the cave, and if their footprints least 400 years. are found by grieving relatives a mark is made. These marks add to the ancient paintings and engravings, including some from Roi Mata’s time, that adorn the walls. Roi Mata’s corpse was taken from Feles Cave and displayed in each of the villages of Efate owing him loyalty before being taken across the sea to Artok (or Hat) Island for burial. According to oral tradition, family and clan members accompanied Roi Mata in his journey to the land of the dead. These traditions have been verified through archaeological excavations, which have identified a mass grave of around 50 individuals, many of whom were richly adorned with insignia of their clan and rank. Roi Mata himself is buried with his advisors and possibly Site of Roi Mata’s grave, Artok Around 1600 AD, the last chief to hold his youngest wife in the deepest pit at (Hat Island), Vanuatu the title of Roi Mata brought peace to the site. Above and around them are Photo: Vanuatu Cultural Centre the war-ravaged island of Efate in Vanuatu. the remaining individuals, including 11 From his residence in the village of couples, embracing in death. The graves Mangaasi, he instituted a political system appear to have been dug in an area which known locally as the naflak, which to this archaeologists believe to be the dancing- day defines genealogical affiliations and ground for the final burial ceremonies. the way the community interacts with Through the achievements of his life the landscape. and the rituals of his death, Roi Mata Mangaasi has a history stretching back created an oral and social tradition that nearly 3000 years. It includes evidence has also created a unique landscape of the massive Kuwae volcanic eruption over the centuries. Following his burial, of 1452 AD, which was larger than the human habitation on Artok Island ceased, Santorini eruption that destroyed the allowing marine and animal life to Minoan culture of ancient Crete. The flourish. remains of the village include eight sacred The chiefly title of Roi Mata has not stones where generations of holders of been bestowed on any individual since the title Roi Mata received people who the abandonment of Artok Island, as came to pay their respects, as well as a potential candidates have felt that the large dancing area 300 m × 100 m wide, responsibilities it carries are too great. and gigantic trees that are said to date Today, the traditional owners of the sites back to the time of the last Roi Mata. wish to protect Roi Mata’s legacy through The second part of the site is Feles Cave the nomination of the sites for World on Lelepa Island, where oral tradition Heritage status as a cultural landscape.

16 Tapa Cloth Tapa, or barkcloth, is one of the most range of purposes, from utilitarian to distinctive products of Pacific Island ceremonial. Clothing is the main use culture. While some South American, for many cultures, but the tapa cloth is African and Southeast Asian peoples often also kept for ritual purposes. This also made barkcloth, the commonly used includes presenting it to honoured guests, name ‘tapa’ originates from Polynesia. wearing special tapa clothing for festivals Tapa cloth is also thought to have reached and using it to wrap images of their gods. its greatest refinement and variety among In Samoa, tapa, or siapo, plays a crucial the islands of the South Pacific. role in exchange at special occasions, The skill and knowledge of making cloth such as births, weddings, funerals or the from bark were brought from Southeast investiture of matai (chiefly) titles. Asia by the first people to move into The designs and techniques used when the South Pacific. Most linguistic and making tapa vary between the east and archaeological evidence suggests that west Pacific, as well as between islands. tapa-making was one of the ancient skills When large cultures met and traded, that the Lapita ancestors of Polynesia such as the people from the Fiji–Samoa– Tongan tapa cloth featuring brought with them when they migrated Tonga triangle, the unique designs easily flowers and doves identified the source of the tapa. For Photo: Kevin Jones into the wider Pacific. Within each culture, tapa serves a wide example, Cook Island tapa cloths are distinctive for their striking contrast of black designs on a white background, whereas Tahitian tapa are recognisable for their leaf designs, which are created by dipping ferns into dye and using these to stain the cloth. During the period of European colon- isation in the Pacific, the use and production of tapa continued, with village women adapting their techniques and designs to suit the changing conditions. As well as introducing new tools and dyes, they incorporated foreign motifs into their work and sometimes created new types of clothing. Despite these adaptations to European influences, the basic craft of tapa-making persisted in the region. Tapa designs are not only visually unique to different cultures but they can also tell stories and hold hidden messages. Many Tongan tapa motifs commemorate historic events and make references to chiefs or ancestral lines. In parts of Papua New Guinea, even when used in an everyday context such as for clothing, patterns on the tapa cloth can convey signals about clan allegiance. The first Europeans to explore the Pacific came to regard tapa as a symbol of Pacific identity, a symbol that is still a fundamental feature of Pacific culture.

17 Nan Madol—sacred islets of Pohnpei Around 500 AD, two brothers, Olisihpa bordering the site. The site is 1.5 km × and Olosohpa, built an altar at Nan 0.5 km in size, and it is estimated that Madol to worship the god of agriculture, between 500 000 and 750 000 tonnes of Nahnisohn Sahpw. These brothers began building material was used to construct the Sau Deleur dynasty, which ruled the complex over a 1000-year period. The Pohnpei for almost 1000 years and which islets themselves are semi-rectangular in was responsible for the construction of shape. Their base is formed from huge between 92 and 98 artificial stone islets boulders that are topped by basalt slabs that can still be seen at Nan Madol in the and infilled with coral rubble. All of the Federated States of Micronesia. islets were individually named and more Sometimes called ‘the Venice of the than half have burial chambers. Pacific’, this complex of artificial islands The ideology of the new state was based that are separated by canals is a cultural on the Nanmwarki system of carefully landscape demonstrating both the shared ranked inherited leadership. It is likely Polynesian tradition of stone megalith that the islets functioned as a residence building, and the unique political and for the political, religious and social cultural character of ancient Pohnpei. The leaders of the society and their retainers. use and purpose of the site reflects the Estimates of the number of residents vary, successful organisation by the Sau Deleur but it may have been up to 1000 in total. dynasty of a centralised political system They had to be supplied with food, water to govern an entire island population. and other essentials from villages and The residential islets and tombs were cultivations on the main island. constructed on a reef behind a wall of Although time and nature have taken their massive basalt boulders that form 12 islets toll on many of the structures, some are

18 Nan Douwas, one of the ceremonial islets of Nan Madol, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia Photos: Kevin Jones

still in excellent condition. Nan Douwas, Nan Madol represents an exceptional one of the largest and best preserved of and unique example of the link between the islets, still retains the full-height stone architecture and political function. facings of its original construction. It The creation of a centralised ritual and measures about 30 m2, with walls up to political centre mirrored the shift in 8 m high and 2–3 m thick. The internal socio-political organisation from a tribal layout of courtyards and burial chambers society to a centralised political state. can still easily be appreciated. Some of this tradition continues in the The building of the complex began as chiefly systems of modern Pohnpeian early as 500 AD, and it was not abandoned society, continuing the practices that as a ritual and social centre until the were started by two brothers over 1500 16th century. The site was explored by years ago. Europeans in the 19th and early 20th centuries. 19 Rapa Nui’s Magnificent MoaI Rapa Nui is the indigenous name for the territorial divisions of the island and Easter Island (Isla de Pascua). This dispersal of the small, highly competitive Chilean island, the most isolated social entities that they represented. inhabited island in the world, lies in the This great social and spiritual decay was eastern Pacific and is home to a unique probably caused by an environmental cultural phenomenon—hundreds of crisis: the people had over-exploited giant stone monoliths known as moai the island’s resources, resulting in total (anthropomorphic statues). Created by deforestation and a scarcity of gardening a complex culture in a geographically land. isolated location, moai are recognised for Conflict erupted between the competing their magnificent size and presence. clans and by the 18th century the moai The story of the moai is intricately had almost all been thrown down with intertwined with the social structure their faces in the ground. It is thought

Birdman petroglyphs, Orongo and ultimate downfall of the culture that that clans saw the destruction of their Village, Rano Kau (left) created these great statues. rivals’ moai as a destruction of their mana. Moai on the outer slopes of Rano Rarakau (middle and Rapa Nui was discovered and settled The damage inflicted upon the great right) by Polynesians in around 800 AD. Small statues symbolised the affliction that one Photos: Kevin Jones statues were beginning to be carved by clan wanted to inflict on another. around 1100 AD. In the 16th century, Following the throwing down of the which was the height of moai production, moai, the Rapa Nui people replaced the the largest moai were created, symbolising ancestors’ cult of the moai with another, the very essence of Rapa Nui culture. the birdman cult (Tangata manu). The The moai stand on rectangular platforms, ceremonial village of Orongo, which is ahu, and in courtyards. These were situated on the cliffs above the crater lake ceremonial places. The moai represented of Rano Kau, is a great archaeological site the spirit of the tribal ancestors and that is testimony to this cult. served to maintain the memory of Today, the great moai are some of the individual clan histories. They played a most widely recognised symbols of the key role in social organisation and the Pacific. Their sheer size and the mystery control of land division on the island. that surrounds them have enthralled At around 1200 AD, the island became people for years. Efforts are being made increasingly divided into strips running to conserve the moai and many have now from the coast inland, defining clan been re-erected. boundaries and controlling access to The Polynesian culture of Rapa Nui is resources such as fresh water and land alive today, despite its dramatic history for gardens. Competition to build the almost bringing its people to extinction. biggest and best moai began to emerge In 1995, Rapa Nui National Park was between clans. inscribed on the World Heritage list and Near the height of the moai production visitors come from all over the world period, there was a breakdown of social to appreciate the island’s magnificent order on Rapa Nui marked by a failure of iconic moai. 20 Fallen moai, Ahu Vaimata

Ahu Kivi, moai re-erected on ahu

21 22 23 Levuka Beach Street Photo: Anita Smith Levuka—a colonial Pacific port Levuka, Fiji’s first capital, is one of the from here to Suva in the early 1880s. best-preserved colonial port towns in In the early 19th century, the indigenous the world. Located on the rugged island village of Levuka existed on the site, of Ovalau off the east coast of the main and the Tui Levuka was the village chief. island of Viti Levu, the site of present- The Tui Levuka permitted European day Levuka was probably first settled ‘beachcombers’ to settle in the village and by the makers of Lapita pottery around establish small trade businesses. European 2500 years ago. It is thought that they influence in Levuka grew from the 1830s would have been attracted to the site to the 1860s with the development of by the same geographical features that trade and cash crops, and the arrival of brought European traders to the area Marist missionaries in 1858. The town in the 1830s—a sheltered harbour that boomed, with bars and shops lining the was accessible through a nearby gap in beach and private houses being built on the reef. the steep hillsides. Around the Pacific and the rest of However, the growing population the world, many colonial port towns led to crime and tension within the developed into major cities and in the community, and in 1871 a local chief, process lost their original character. In Ratu Seru Cakobau, attempted to control contrast, Levuka has kept much of its the situation by forming a modern unique cultural heritage because of a government along Western lines. The series of political and economic changes attempt to establish an indigenous that saw the colonial capital of Fiji move government failed, and on 10 October

24 1874 Cakobau and fellow chiefs ceded constructed in the town. The Royal Hotel, control of Fiji to the British at the village which is believed to be the oldest hotel of Nasova, just outside Levuka, which in the Pacific, was established in Levuka led to the establishment of the colony in the late 1880s, and continues to be of Fiji. run by the descendants of the original The events leading up to the establishment owners. of Fiji echo similar events in other parts of Many of Levuka’s early public buildings the Pacific. For example, in New Zealand, still exist, as do commercial buildings, crime, drunkenness and prostitution at especially those associated with the the first large European settlement of copra industry, and private dwellings Kororareka earned it the name of the from the colonial period. Links between ‘hell hole of the Pacific’. When Governor the culture and geography of the site William Hobson established New also exist in the architecture of the town. Zealand’s first capital in 1840, he was The spire of Sacred Heart Church, built unwilling to site it at Kororareka, and so by the Marist Fathers, was lined up with purchased land at Russell across the Bay a beacon lit at night on the hills behind of Islands. the town to help guide ships through From 1874 to 1881, Levuka was Fiji’s the gap in the reef that was first used by colonial capital. The town, which was Lapita settlers. established alongside the original Levuka As a potential World Heritage site, Levuka village, then developed further, with the combines a long, rich and occasionally construction of many colonial buildings tempestuous history with architecture for the British administration. These and physical features that reflect the included Fiji’s first public school, bank global signature of European, particularly and post office. By the turn of the century, British, colonisation in the 19th century, a hospital, town hall and the oldest as well as the early contact between Levuka School Masonic Lodge in the Pacific had been European and Fijian people. Photo: Anita Smith

25 Hawai‘i—people of the land

As is the case for many Pacific peoples, connect with the land. Each division, the native Hawaiian perspective of starting from the top of a mountain down wilderness differs from the traditional to the ocean’s edge, relates to a unique Western perception. Land has never relationship between the people and been something they could own; it is the land. considered sacred and belongs to the Kuahiwi refers to the mountaintop. gods. Because of its height, kuahiwi is very Native Hawaiians relate to the land sacred. Kualono is the area near the through vertical and horizontal divisions. mountaintop where very little vegetation Vertical divisions are based upon grows, and wao ma‘ukele is a region geographical landforms—mountains, of wet, soggy ground surrounding the rivers, streams and cinder cones. These mountain. create ‘political’ boundaries separating Wao akua is the forested area below the chiefdoms and are known as ahupua‘a. wao ma‘ukele, and is said to be occupied ‘Ohi‘a trees inundated by lava Horizontal land divisions are based upon by spirits of the forest. Humans seldom flow from Kilauea, one of the vegetation, and relate to the way in which ventured into this area during ancestral world’s most active volcanoes Photo: USGS Hawaiian Volcano the native Hawaiian people identify and times. In wao akua, the forest has a great Observatory variety of trees. The trees in this area need to be healthy and in abundance to keep the forest alive through the supply of seeds and the regeneration of new growth. Wao kanaka refers to the outer forested region, where humans could gather vegetation and collect wood. Kula is the upland grassy plains, and kahakai refers to the edge of the ocean. Native Hawaiians recognise and acknowledge the importance of vegetation, identifying land sections by the change in flora. They place high cultural value on older or larger trees because they know that the trees bring the rain and that water is essential for life. The word ‘ohi, which is the beginning of the word ‘ohi‘a (a large red-flowering tree), means ‘to gather’, which is what this tree does—it gathers rain. From a native Hawaiian perspective, the ‘ohi‘a tree is the most important tree in the forest. In ancestral times, if a large ‘ohi‘a tree had to be taken from the wao akua, a human life would have to be sacrificed. If possible, native Hawaiians would try to source the trees elsewhere, avoiding the disturbance of seed-producing forest areas. The continual Aloha ‘Aina (love of the land) and respect for their homeland by the native Hawaiian people is highlighted in the way in which Hawai‘i Volcanoes

26 ‘Ohi‘a trees frame view of National Park, a World Heritage site, is The park recognises the vital connections summit of Kilauea Volcano, its craters and caldera managed. Many of the park’s staff are that the island’s first people have to Photo: Hawai‘i Volcanoes Hawai‘i born and raised. Their work sacred sites and provides a sanctuary for National Park focuses on the preservation of the reclaiming ancient feelings of place. It is cultural and historical importance of here that native Hawaiians come to offer the area, and the protection of the living homage to their akua and ‘aumakua, gods indigenous culture. and guardian spirits. At certain times throughout the year, the echo of pu (sea shell trumpet) and the heartfelt expression of chant and dance on the edge of the Halema‘uma‘u Crater serve as a reminder that the culture of Hawai‘i is very much alive. ‘The thread of ancestral memory reminds us that the mountain, like our parents, is the wellspring and provider of physical and spiritual nourishment.’ Pualani Kanaka’ole Kanahele

Lehua blossom on the sacred ‘ohi‘a tree Photo: Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

27 Fagaloa Bay—Uafato/Tiavea Conservation Zone Living in the Pacific’s largest remaining for their livelihood. In 1994, village area of coastal rainforest, the people elders, who were concerned about over- of Uafato and Tiavea manage the 1400- exploitation of the forest, approached ha community conservation zone in a the non-government environmental traditional way, with the long-term future organisation O le Siosiomaga for in mind and a 3000-year history behind assistance in managing their resources. them. O le Siosiomaga formed a partnership Uafato is a very important area in the with the UN agency SPREP (Secretariat history of Samoa. It is one of two known of the Pacific Regional Environment sites in Samoa that were settled by Programme) and the villagers to develop the Lapita people, perhaps 3000 years a conservation programme for the area. ago. Local clay that is suitable for the The forest is one of the most important manufacture of pottery is found in the areas of natural biodiversity in Samoa area, possibly explaining why the island’s and the Pacific. It has an intact band of earliest settlers chose this remote spot for rainforest running from the sea to the a settlement. The name Samoa is also said interior upland. to have originated from Uafato village, Among other features, it has the largest and the remains of old fortresses and remaining stand of ifilele Afzelia( bijuga), villages can be found in the conservation a tree of great significance to Samoan zone. people, and in the forest are a number of Uafato is located in one of the remotest endangered animals, including two bat areas of Samoa and the local community species, six of the eight endemic Samoan

Fagaloa Bay depends almost solely on natural resources birds and the extremely rare manumea Photo: Yoshichika Akasaki

28 Uafato Conservation Area Photo: Tata Lawton (tooth-billed pigeon, Didunculus obligations, and thereby maintain the strigirostris). reputation and status of the community. The area is also extremely important to Due to their isolation, the villages maintain Samoan mythology. It is the home of the almost unchanged traditional social and ancestral god Tagaloa, who lived in the community practices. ninth heaven—the highest mountain in To protect the forest and their livelihood, the area, standing at a height of 700 m to the villagers have worked with O le the west of the village of Uafato. Another Siosiomaga and SPREP to develop a ancestral god, Moso, is also said to have range of conservation practices. There lived in the area, and some of the stone are now restrictions in place limiting features that are visible are associated access to the forest and the sea, and with his life, such as a chair (nofoa), a bans on the use of chemical pesticides, dining table (laulau ai) and a bowl buried dynamite and fish poisons. Local pigs in the sand (tanoa faiava). have been fenced in and carvers have The relationship between the local been trained to use wood resources more villagers and the forest is central to the sustainably. A marine protected area has future of the area. The forest provides been established, including a restricted resources such as wood, which villagers no-take area. use for carving, and pandanus, which These new practices will protect the is used to make baskets. These provide legacy of the past and the future of this income for the village, enabling the beautiful, rugged and historic part of the people to meet their cultural and religious Pacific.

29 Living their Ancestors’ Lives nurture respect for people in positions of authority, particularly the familial leader or chief (matai) and religious leaders. The matai is often responsible for managing areas of communal land or resources. Certain people may be responsible for tending certain crops or animals, or for fishing, and may live in close proximity to those resources, whereas the matai may live in the centre of the village. On Manono and Apolima Islands, fa’a-Samoa is still the guiding way of life. Gardening, fishing and caring for livestock are still the basic activities of the inhabitants. Although a limited amount of tourism has also been allowed in recent years, this is under strict control to ensure that the values of the community are not transgressed. Some new tools have been used for Traditional fales are still There are very few places on earth where gardening and fishing. However, many commonly found throughout Manono and Apolima Islands traditional lifestyles continue more or traditional practices and tools remain Photo: Paul Dingwall less unchanged to this day. The Samoan in use, such as the building of outrigger islands of Manono and Apolima are canoes using hand tools. There are no two such places and are candidates for roads or cars, and very few other modern nomination as cultural landscapes. conveniences. These islands are remarkable not because The islands have been important in of their natural biodiversity, but because the history of Samoa. Lying between of the way in which the people have the two larger islands of Upolu and interacted with the landscape over a Savaii, Manono and Apolima Islands have period of hundreds, if not thousands, wielded significant political and military of years, creating a sustainable natural influence through their control of the sea and cultural environment. Although the and strategic alliances. process of first modifying the landscape From 1820 to 1870, Manono Island and then adapting crops and animals was the effective capital of the country has been underway in the Pacific for and was where the London Missionary thousands of years, Manono and Apolima Society established its headquarters Islands are special because of the way in when it arrived in 1836. which the people have maintained their Today, the islands are populated by modified and adapted environments into fewer than 1000 people, most of whom the modern era. live in four villages on Manono Island. Central to this lifestyle are the traditional The smaller island of Apolima is the cultural practices known as fa’a-Samoa remnant of a volcanic crater (Apolima or ‘the Samoan way’. The practices of literally means ‘hollow of the hand’) and fa’a-Samoa encompass both personal is extremely difficult to access, as the and communal behaviours and the only landing point is through a narrow, relationship of people with the landscape winding channel which is washed by through the physical layout of villages sea currents and waves. A small islet and fields. between the two islands, Nuulopa, is a At the core of fa’a-Samoa are a set of family conservation area for flying foxes and relationships that govern behaviours and turtles.

30 Huvalu Forest Saving native bats (peka) and pigeons of the forest tapu (taboo) before the (lupe) from starvation following the Second World War. At the heart of Huvalu devastation of their habitat by Cyclone Forest is an area called the Tauga, where Heta in Huvalu Forest was a way for the sacred blessing of village elders has Misatama Kulatea to carry on the traditions protected animals such as bats, pigeons of his forefathers of Hakupu Atua village and land crabs from hunting. in Niue. Concepts of tapu and taoga (treasures) are Following the cyclone, Misatama found part of the shared cultural heritage of the hungry bats and pigeons that had lived in Pacific. As people journeyed across the the devastated forest searching for food. Pacific, they settled islands with widely Using his greenhouse as an aviary, he differing resources and landscapes. They started feeding the animals using pawpaw managed these resources using cultural and tins of peaches and pears from the tools such as tapu and rahui (reserves), supermarket. and by adapting their environments Huvalu Forest, which is situated near through the introduction of plants, Hakupu Atua, is the largest remaining animals and tools that they brought with area of rainforest in Niue. It is a living them. In this way, the gardening skills that cultural landscape and an example of how were developed in Papua New Guinea local communities across the Pacific have and the pottery of the Lapita people developed cultural practices to protect moved across the Pacific, being changed their natural resources. and adapted as they went. The forest continues to exist as a result The Tauga has recovered from Cyclone of the traditions of the village of Hakupu Heta, and Misatama Kulatea has released Kulukulu Atua, whose forefathers declared part the bats and pigeons he was feeding back Photo: G. McCormack into the forest, continuing the traditions of protecting the forest and the life in it for future generations. Niue ratified the World Heritage Convention in 2001, and the Community Affairs Department and Taoga Niue Office are preparing a tentative list that includes Huvalu Forest and the Tauga area. With a population of only 1700 people, the preparation of a tentative list is a substantial undertaking for Niue, and technical assistance from UNESCO’s Apia Office may be needed.

31 New Caledonia’s Sea of Treasures

The world’s second largest coral reef, marine and adjacent ecosystems, which surrounding one of the world’s largest are representative of the biotopes at the lagoons, is on France’s tentative list level of the archipelago. Some of the outer for World Heritage nomination. New reefs are as much as 80 km offshore and Caledonia, in the South Pacific, is one of are exposed to strong oceanic currents. the world’s biodiversity hot spots and Other reefs lie within a few kilometres is home to an outstanding reef system of the mainland, and are influenced by that surrounds the islands. What makes factors such as human settlements and the area remarkable is that over three- primary sector activities. quarters of the plants and animals found Despite the existence of traditional on the islands of Grand Terre, Ile des Pins and small-scale fisheries, the reefs are and Loyalty Islands, and in the lagoon in excellent condition. The diversity of and surrounding barrier reef, are unique marine life is very high, with over 1700 to the area. fish species documented, 600 species The size of the reef system itself is of sponges, 5500 species of molluscs, incredible. The reef is more than 4000 km 5000 species of crustaceans and over long and encloses more than 24 000 km2 350 species of algae. Notable among of lagoon. The strong local and national the inhabitants of the reef are dugongs willingness to preserve this beautiful and (Dugong dugon), green turtles (Chelonia largely unspoiled environment has driven mydas), giant clams (Tridacna spp.) the authorities to submit a tentative list and humpback whales (Megaptera submission for an area that includes novaeangliae). One reason for this 1600 km of barrier reef covering diversity is the latitudinal situation of 7284 km2, and which encloses more than these sites. This results in a mixture of 1.5 million ha of lagoon. warmer and colder waters along the reef: The submission is for a proposed serial in the south and east of the reef, cooler Humpback whales are a common inhabitant of the site highlighting six sites that make up waters from New Zealand bring a variety surrounding reef system the reef. These sites cover a wide range of of temperate species to the area, while in Photo: C. Garrique

3232 Bourail Pass Photo: M. Dosdane the north and west of the region warmer Kapone Customary District during an waters from Papua New Guinea create annual ritual to celebrate the yam. tropical conditions. In all six Customary Districts, groups Development of the tentative listing have been involved in discussions about involved a great deal of consultation with the management of the proposed site, local communities, including traditional with more than 50 community meetings users of the reef. Issues that needed to date. A pleasing side-effect of this to be considered included the use process has been that the different of the reef for customary fishing, the parties involved, from state and regional maintenance of taboos on particular areas, government to traditional stakeholders, and the provision of opportunities for the have developed increasing confidence in maintenance of cultural activities, such each other over the management of the as the sacrifice of a turtle by the Djubea proposed site.

Green turtle Photo: C. Grondin

33 East Rennell Photo: Paul Dingwall East Rennell East Rennell, in the Solomon Islands, as common property of all the villages. is an outstanding example of ongoing Traditional landowners have a high degree ecological and biological processes. of autonomy in the Solomon Islands. It was inscribed as a World Heritage Therefore, it is vital that local communities site in 1998. An important feature of become engaged in management. the site is the fact that in the last year Fortunately, the communities of East the local community has developed a Rennell take pride in the listing of their management plan that engages local home as a World Heritage site, and believe traditional landowners in the future that sustainable management of the area protection and running of the area. is a key to their long-term prosperity. Rennell is the largest raised coral atoll In the late 1990s, following the inscription in the world and contains Lake Tegano, of the site, some work was undertaken to a brackish freshwater lake, 15 500 ha develop conservation and management in size, which developed from a former plans. Civil unrest in the Solomons lagoon. Covered with dense forest that brought this process to a halt until is largely unmodified, the impacts of 2005, when a UNESCO team visited East humans, invasive predators and weeds Rennell to evaluate the situation. As a on the native biodiversity have been result of this visit, a new process was relatively small. started in 2006 through a partnership There are four main villages within the between the East Rennell World Heritage area of the World Heritage site, with a Trust Board, the local Council of Chiefs, total population of around 700. This is community leaders and landowners. the westernmost Polynesian community A series of participatory workshops in the South Pacific. The people possibly was held to discuss and debate options came from the Wallis and Fortuna group for managing the area, and from this in around 1400 AD. Land is owned process an action plan and a tourism communally, with the lake being regarded development plan were prepared. These

34 East Rennell rainforest plans are now the guiding documents The objectives of the plan include Photo: Paul Dingwall for the community and for any potential sustainable management of the forest partners or donor agencies that wish to and marine resources to ensure food become involved. security for the local communities while The major threats to the site identified protecting the health of the ecosystems. by the community are pressure to log The plan also focuses on involving the forest and the potential to over- and training local community groups harvest coconut crabs (Birgus latro) in the monitoring and protection of and some species of fish from the lagoon. the site. Local communities have a Cultural pressures are also a problem. great deal of traditional knowledge The development of a cash economy and about the area and its resources. This Rennell ibis, East Rennell the demand for modern conveniences is a very important link to the ongoing World Heritage Area, Solomon Islands (left) are forcing residents to find sources of management process. The plan mirrors Tropical vegetation around Lake income, which in turn increases pressure some of the approaches taken by the Tengano, East Rennell on local resources. The potential for traditional owners of Kakadu National World Heritage Area, Solomon Islands (middle) tourism, based around the World Heritage Park in Australia, where management of Raised coral, Lake Tengano, site, is an important opportunity for local the site is strongly influenced by ancient East Rennell World Heritage Area, communities to generate income in less rituals and management practices. Solomon Islands (right) intensive ways. Photos: Les Molloy

35 Kakadu National Park—Indigenous Management There are parts of Kakadu National Park, Government, but continue to actively a World Heritage site, that no tourist will participate in the park’s management ever see. This management decision through the 15-member Board of reflects the wishes and knowledge of Management. Recently, a new park plan traditional owners of Kakadu, who play and vision for tourism was developed a central role in planning the future of with the aim of integrating indigenous the park. values into the management of the site. The park crosses the boundaries of The traditional owners, who make up 15 Aboriginal clans. The clans have 10 of the 15 members of the Board, leased the park to the Australian Federal consulted thoroughly with their clans before agreeing to the plan. Reconciling the increasing demands of tourism with the values of the traditional owners who live in the park has been one of the biggest challenges for the Board of Management. As Ryan Baruwei (Wurrkbarrbarr clan) describes it. ‘Tourism was becoming “boss of country”, driving the way the park was managed and threatening clan life and culture.’ Traditional owners and their clans actually live within the park, and continue to use it for hunting and cultural purposes as they have done for thousands of years. To manage the pressures of tourism on traditional life and values, the Board has decided that some parts of the park containing sacred sites and burial grounds will be permanently closed to tourism, and other areas where traditional management practices take place will only be open at certain times of the year. Park ranger and traditional owner Jeffrey Lee (Djok clan) explains that at certain times of the year his clan undertakes controlled burning of the bush both as a way of managing fire risk, and as a hunting and fishing tool. Controlled burning has shaped the ecology of Kakadu over thousands of years, and closing areas to tourism at burning times will help to continue that tradition. Integration of the values of indigenous people in the management of their sites is an important issue across the Pacific. In early 2007, a management plan was approved for the East Rennell site, based on the cultural and economic needs of the indigenous people who, like the people

36 Kakadu National Park Photos: John Baker, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Water Resources

of Kakadu, rely on the local environment Although it is not easy to reconcile the for much of their livelihood. Many of the indigenous values of traditional owners sites currently on tentative lists, such with Western management structures, as Manono and Apolima Islands, Samoa, doing so is a rewarding and essential will face similar management challenges task for the future of World Heritage in to those of Kakadu and East Rennell. the Pacific.

37 For the Good of Mankind Pacific people have overcome many heritage therefore reflects the impact challenges in their long history, but few of Western technology and culture on have experienced a challenge as great as the environment and landscape of this that of the Marshall Islanders of Bikini Pacific lagoon. Atoll, whose home was the site of 23 As a potential World Heritage site, Bikini American atomic bomb tests between would include unique historical and 1946 and 1958. cultural landscape values. The historical Evacuated from their homes in 1946 values reflect an important period at ‘for the good of mankind and to end the end of the Second World War when Three divers hover on the upside- 1 down hull of the battleship all wars’ , the people of Bikini cannot the atomic age was beginning and the Arkansas now return to their home because of technological race started to develop Photo: Eric Hanauer, www. the legacy of radiation. Their cultural more powerful nuclear weapons. Cultural ehanauer.com values include the naming of the women’s two-piece swimsuit that was coming into fashion at the time of the tests. Within the lagoon there are a number of important historical sites, including 16 ships that were deliberately sunk during one of the first tests in 1946. These vessels include several that have important historical significance, among them the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga and the flagship of theJ apanese Fleet, Nagato, which was the scene of operational planning for the attack on Pearl Harbour. As a natural site, Bikini is a unique example of a marine environment that has recovered from devastating damage. The lagoon and surrounding reefs have been largely undisturbed since the nuclear tests ended in 1958, and now show rich biological diversity. The Marshall Islands are also considering a serial listing of a chain of seven northern atolls that are now largely uninhabited and represent an outstanding example of marine and atoll habitats. In the past, they were an important traditional harvesting area for inhabitants of nearby atolls who journeyed 50–100 km to use the marine and seabird resources as a ‘pantry’ to supplement the limited food resources on their home islands.

1 From a speech made by Admiral William H. Blandy to the people of Bikini when they were requested to leave Bikini in 1946.

38 Ailinginae Atoll, Marshall Islands Photos: J.E. Maragos

39 New Zealand’s world heritage sites New Zealand separated from the ancient landscape of the central North Island. supercontinent Gondwana 80 million These mountains are at the heart of the years ago. Since this time, the country World Heritage site and have important has evolved into a spectacular collection cultural significance for the Maori people, of dominating mountain ranges, rolling symbolising the spiritual links between plains, volcanic landscapes, rugged the community and its environment. coastlines, breathtaking glaciers and Tongariro National Park is also home to amazing offshore islands. active and extinct volcanoes and a diverse New Zealand’s three World Heritage range of ecosystems. It was the first site sites, Tongariro National Park in the to be inscribed on the World Heritage central North Island, Te Wahipounamu list as a cultural landscape, recognising – South West New Zealand and the the park’s important Maori cultural subantarctic islands in the Southern and spiritual associations, as well as its Ocean, encapsulate unique ecosystems volcanic features. and the beauty of the land. Making up one-tenth of New Zealand’s The sacred mountain peaks of Tongariro land mass, Te Wahipounamu – South West National Park—Ruapehu (2797 m), New Zealand extends 450 km down the Yellow-Eyed Penguin, Ngauruhoe (2290 m) and Tongariro west coast of the South Island, covering Auckland Islands Photo: Sam O'Leary (1968 m)—are dominant features on the 2.5 million ha. It combines four national parks—Fiordland in the southwestern corner, Aoraki/Mount Cook to the north, Mount Aspiring in the centre and Westland Tai Poutini stretching along the West Coast. Te Wahipounamu – South West New Zealand contains some of the best examples of animals and plants that were once found on Gondwana. It has been shaped by successive glaciations into a collection of fiords, rocky coastlines, towering mountains, ancient beech forests, lakes and waterfalls. New Zealand’s subantarctic islands—the Snares, Bounty, Antipodes, Auckland and Campbell Islands—are some of the least modified environments in the world. Isolated from each other, these islands are each unique in character, sustaining rare ecosystems. The subantarctic islands are home to an extraordinary wealth of biodiversity and a large number of rare wildlife populations, including one of the world’s rarest ducks, the flightless Campbell Island teal Anas( nesiotis), and the endangered New Zealand or Hooker sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri). Ten of the world’s 24 species of albatross breed on these islands and the most southerly forests in the western Pacific are found here.

40 Doubtful Sound Photo: Don Merton

Aerial view of Mount Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe, Tongariro National Park Photo: DOC

41 COUNTRY PROFILES

Pacific Ocean • The largest of the world’s five oceans • 155.557 million km2 • Covers about 28% of the global surface • Larger than the total land area of the world • Last region settled by humankind

American Samoa Land area: 199 km2 Population: 57 794 Political status: Territory of the United States

Australia Land area: 7 686 850 km2 Population: 20 264 082 Political status: Independent since 1901 (after being a federation of the British colonies since the 1700s)

Cook Islands Land area: 236 km2 Population: 21 388 Political status: Self-governing; in free association with New Zealand

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Land area: 477 km2 Population: 82 459 Political status: Commonwealth in political union with the United States

Easter Island Land area: 117 km2 Population: 4 200 Political status: Island of Chile

Federated States of Micronesia Land area: 702 km2 Population: 108 004 Political status: Independent since 1986, under a Compact of Free Association with the United States

Fiji Land area: 18 270 km2 Population: 905 949 Political status: Independent since 1970 from the United Kingdom

French Polynesia Land area 3 660 km2 Population: 274 578 Political status: Overseas lands of France

42 Galapagos Islands Land area: 7 800 km2 Population: 30 000 Political Status: Islands of Equador

Guam Land area: 541 km2 Population: 171 019 Political status: Territory of the United States

Hawaii Land area: 16 729 km2 Population: 1 270 000 Political status: State of the United States

Marshall Islands Land area: 181.3 km2 Population: 60 422 Political status: Independent since 1986 under a Compact of Free Association with the United States

Nauru Land area: 21 km2 Population: 13 287 Political status: Independent since 1968 from the Australia, New Zealand and United Kingdom administered UN trusteeship

New Caledonia Land area: 18 575 km2 Population: 230 789 Political status: French overseas territory

New Zealand Land area: 268 021 km2 Population: 4 076 140 Political status: Independent since 1907 from the United Kingdom

Niue Land area: 260 km2 Population: 1 700 Political status: Self-governing; in free association with New Zealand. Niue is fully responsible for internal affairs; New Zealand retains responsibility for external affairs and defence. However, these responsibilities confer no rights of control and are only exercised at the request of the Government of Niue.

Norfolk Island Land area: 35 km2 Population: 1828 Political status: Territory of Australia

43 Palau Land area: 458 km2 Population: 20 579 Political status: Independent since 1994 from UN trusteeship in free association with the United States

Papua New Guinea Land area: 452 860 km2 Population: 5 670 544 Political status: Independent since 1975 from Australia

Pitcairn Islands Land area: 47 km2 Population: 45 Political status: Territory of the United Kingdom

Republic of Kiribati Land area: 811 km2 Population: 105 432 Political status: Independent since 1979 from the United Kingdom; formerly the Gilbert Islands

Samoa Land area: 2934 km2 Population: 176 908 Political status: Independent since 1962 from New Zealand

Solomon Islands Land area: 27 540 km2 Population: 552 458 Political status: Independent since 1978 from the United Kingdom

Tonga Land area: 718 km2 Population: 114 689 Political status: Independent since 1970 from British protectorate; only monarchy in the Pacific

Tokelau Land area: 10 km2 Population: 1 392 Political status: Territory of New Zealand

Tuvalu Land area: 26 km2 Population: 11 810 Political status: Independent since 1978 from the United Kingdom

Vanuatu Land area: 12 200 km2 Population: 208 869 Political status: Independent since 1980 from France and the United Kingdom

44 Acknowledgments Fapoi Akesi Keola Awong Nicole Baker Ryan Baruwei Laura Berdejo Becky Bliss Rachel Cates Anne Chamberlain Paul Chatterton Andrew Cutler John Daniels Paul Dingwall Chris Edkins Tony Everitt Scott Fitzpatrick Mose Fulu Vagi Genorupa Eric Hanauer Marian Hutchin Kevin Jones Douglas Kalotiti Mardie Lane Tata Lawton Jeffery Lee Tim Mackrell Rufino Maurico Christophe Oblede Isabelle Ohlen Ralph Powlesland Pronto Print Mere Ratu Ralph Regenvanu Faustina Rehuher-Marugg Peter Retimanu Kayt Robinson Peter Sheppard Susana Simonetti de Groote Dr. Anita Smith KC Stover Greg Tai’eha Amanda Todd Richard Ariihau Tuehiava Hon. Albert Tu’ivanuavou Vaea Carla Wilson Aseri Yalangono Dr. Robert Yarrow