Report No.6

VERI'EBRATE REMAINS FROM THE RICHARDS AND PHIlO II SITES

by

James L. Murphy

The Richards site represents a Late Prehistoric Fort Ancient settlement lying on the north lank of the Muskingum River, very near the Philo II site, a similar Fort Ancient riverlank settlement which has yielded a previously analyzed faunal sample (Shane and Barber, 1976. Murphy, 1976). At the time of occupation, circa A.D. 1260, the Richards site lay at the littoral-Beach Forest interface, with the upland Mixed Oak Forest nearby. Maize cultiva­ tion probably provided some forest edge biospace, and the composition of the fauna attests to the presence of some semi-open area, either natural or cre­ ated by the Indians. Shane and Barber (1976) have given a brief reconstruc­ tion of the paleoenvironment of the Philo II site, and little need be added here, except to mention the remarkable accuracy and detail with which David Zeisberger's notes on the Schoenbrunn area some fifty miles to the northeast can be used to describe the original ecology of this region (Mahr, 1949). Zeisberger's notes on the.aQariginal utilization of the primitive environ­ ment are e~ually helpful and applicable to the central Muskingum Valley.

The bone sample availq.ble from the Richards site consists of nearly 13,000 items, slightly less than a third of which were identifiable to spe­ cies. Fre~uency data on identified and unidentified bones by class for this sample and for a compar&tive sample from the Philo II site (distinct from the sample analyzed by Shane and Barber) are given in Table I. Shane and Barber (1976) have commented upon the presence of sample bias caused by lack of screening and flotation techni~ues in collecting. While such sam­ pling error seems ~uite likely, and the somewhat smaller percentage of iden­ tified bone at Richards may be due to the institution of some screening in the excavations at that site, it should be noted that the Baum Phase Graham site in the Hocking Valley (McKenzie, 1967) yielded a sample that was nearly 40 %identifiable under circumstances that McKenzie felt precluded selection during excavation.

The Richards faunal sample was distributed in 50 refuse pits. The fr~uency of identified vertebrate species is given in Table II, with per­ centage composition based upon number of bones, estimated minimum number of individuals, and total pounds of usable meat per species. Similar data for the the available Philo II sample p lased upon a sample of 8695 items dis­ tributed through 73 refuse pits, is presented in Table III. It is inter­ esting to note that bone preservation seemed to be generally poorer in the Philo II sample; this is reflected in the mean number of items recovered per refuse pit (119.1 at Philo II, compared with 119.8 for Shane and Barber's . Philo II sample and 259.9 for the Richards sample). Carskadden (pers. comm.) states that refuse pits were the same size at both sites.

Percentage breakdown of the faunal remains by class shows only rela­ tively small, insignificant differences between the two Philo II samples, insignificant at the 5 %level p for mammals and birds. The statistically significant difference in amount of recovered fish bone in the two Philo II

-100­ Frequency of Identified and Unidentified Bone by Class, Richards and Philo II Sites, Muskingum County, Ohio

Richards Site

Class Identified Bones Per Cent Unidentified Bones Per Cent Total Per Cent Mammal 2,819 21.69 7,372 56.72 10,191 78.41 Bird 553 4.25 1,651 12.70 2,204 16.96 Reptile 411 3.16 0 0 411 3.16

Amphibian 11 .08 0 0 11 .08 Fish 34 .26 146 1.12 180 1.38

Totals 3,828 29.24 9.169 70 0 54 12,997 99.99

Philo II Site Mammal 2,327 26.76 4,913 56.50 7,240 83.27 Bird 276 3.17 812 9.34 1,088 12.51 ... Reptile 299 ·3.44 0 0 299 3.44 Amphibian 1 .01 0 0 1 .01 Fish 18 .21 49 .56 67 .77

Totals 2,921 33.59 5,774 66.40 8695 99.99 samples may be due in part to the fact that Shane and Barber's sample came from an area of the site somewhat closer to the river than did the present sample. Comparison of the Richards sample by class shows a significantly greater amount of bird bone at Richards and a proportionately smaller per­ centage of deer bone. This is a direct reflection of the greater amount of turkey bone represAnted in the Richards sample. Otherwise, the class break­ down of the Richards sample agrees very closely with that of the two Philo II vertebrate samples. The same is true of species diversity, 41 species being identified in the Richards collection, 35 in the available Philo II sample, and 39 in Shane and Barber's sample from Philo II.

The most abundant species among the mammals and birds at the Richards site, in terms of minimum number of individuals are deer, turkey, raccoon, gray squirrel, and Indian dog. In the Philo II sample available to me, deer, turkey, and passenger pigeon are the three most numerous species, fol­ lowed by equal numbers of dog, gray fox, raccoon, and gray squirrel. Com­ bining the two Philo II samples gives the following order of abundance: deer, turkeyp raccoon, passenger pigeon, and gray fox. The striking com­ parative scarcity of raccoon in my Philo II sample (1.64 %minimum number of individuals compared to Shane and Barber's 3.68 %) cannot be readily explained.

If emphasis is placed upon species contribution to total pounds of usable meat, the line-u~ changes substantially. At Richards, deer remains dominant, followed by elk, turkey, black bear, and raccoon. The order at Philo II is deer, elk, black bear, turkey, and raccoon, according to my data; according to Shane hnd Barber's, the order is deer, elk, turkey, rac­ coon, and bear. The value of thus juggling positions may well be question­ ed, particularly in dealing with pounds of usable meat, if one notes that-­ to take black bear as an example--we are dealing with a single individual in each sample. Furthermore, considerable bias must remain in any compu­ tation of pounds of usable meat per species. Shane and Barber, for example, assign the standard, albeit arbitrary, 100 pounds per individual deer to their 68 deer. If age composition of their deer population is considered, however, based upon their own estimates of tooth wear and using Smith's (1975) estimates of the dressed weight of deer by age class, the Philo II deer sample drops from an estimated 6800 pounds to 4707 pounds, from 76 to 69 %of the total meat • Although I have presented data on the estimated total pounds of usable meat, following Shane and Barber in this respect, it is believed that the estimated minimum number of individuals and percent­ ages derived therefrom provide a more suitable standard for intersite com­ parison of the species composition of faunal remains.

In any case, it is clear that the most common species of mammal uti­ lized at these two sites are deer, raccoon, squirrel, dog, and gray fox. Bear and elk, though rare at both sites, are important because of the large amount of meat supplied by even a single individual. By no stretch of the imagination (or data) can they be considered major contributors to the abo­ riginal larder. The mammalian fauna considered as a whole indicates that the Indians utilized all of the ecological zones near the site--riverine, Beech Forest, Mixed Oak Forest, and semi-open forest, a conclusion reached by Shane and Barber for the Philo II site. Mammalian species not reported by them (otter from Philo II and fisher, mink, otter, and muskrat from Richards) would suggest a greater emphasis upon the littoral niche. It may also be emphasized that the bulk of the mammalian species present were at

-102­ TABLE II

Frequency of Identified Vertebrate Species from the Richards Site, Muskingum County, Ohio .. Scientific Na.me Common Name No. of Per Min. No. Per Total Lbs. Per Bones Cent Individ. Cent Usable Meat Cent

Canis lupus gray wolf 6 .16 1 .45 30 .36

Canis famiUaris dog 29 .76 5 2.26 65 .78 Urocyon cinereoargenteus gray fox 31 .81 4 1.81 20 .24

Ursus americanus black bear 7 .18 1 .45 210 2.53

Procyon lotor raccoon 67 1.75 11 4.98 192.5 2.32

Martes pennanti fisher 2 .05 1 .45 14 .17

Mustela vison mink 2 .05 2 .90 1 .01

Mustela vixosa allegheniana least weasel 1 .03 1 .45

Lutra canadensis otter 2 .05 1 .45 10 .12

Lynx rufus oobcat 15 .39 2 .90 2 .02

Marmota monax woodchuck 13 .34 3 1.)6 16.8 .20

Tamias striatus chipmunk 3 .08 1 .45 0.4 .. Sciurus carolinensis gray squirrel 50 1.30 9 4.07 9 .11 Sciurus niger fox squirrel 3 .08 1 .45 1.5 .02 Peromyscus sp. deer mouse 1 .03 1 .45

Ondatra zibethecus muskrat 1 .03 1 .45 2 .02

Castor canadensis beaver 12 .31 2 .90 40 .48

Sylvilagus floridanus cottontail rabbit 27 .71 2 .90 5 .06

Cervus canadensis elk 63 1.64 3 1.)6 1,050 12.65 Odocoileus virginianus white tailed deer 2,484 64.89 62 28 .05 6,200 74.67

To tal Manunal 2,819 73.64 114 51.58 7,897.2 9.5.11

Gavia immer loon 1 .03 1 .45

010r buccinator trumpeter swan 1 .03 1 .45 17 .20 Branta canadensis Canada goose 1 .03 1 .45 6 .07 Anas sp. duck 2 .05 1 .45 6 .07 Buteo cf. B. jamaicensis red-tailed hawk 2 .05 2 .90 TABLE II continued

Bonasa. umbellus ruffed grouse 1 .03 1 .45 1 .01

Co11nus virginianus bobwhite 5 .13 2 .90 .6 .01 Me1eagris ga11opavo wild turkey 527 13.77 33 14.93 280 • .5 3.)8 Ectopistes migra.torlus passenger pigeon 6 .16 3 1.3.5 2.4 .03 Me1anerpes erythocepha1us red-headed woodpecker 1 .03 1 .45 Corvus corax raven 2 .0.5 1 .4.5 1 .01 Corvus brachyrhynchus crow 4 .10 1 .4.5 1.5 .02

Total Bird .553 14.4.5 48 21.92 316 3.81

Terrapene carolina box turtle 406 10.61 39 17 • .57 11.7 .14­

Trionyx spinifera softshe11 turtle .5 .13 2 .90 3 .04­

Total Reptil~ 411 10.74 41 18 • .5.5 14.7 .18

Bufo sp. toad 11 .29 1 .4.5 '!'

Total Amphibian 11 .29 1 .4.5

Moxostoma sp. redhorse 1 .03 1 .45 3 .04 Catastomidae suckers 12 .31 5 2.25 40 .48 Icta1urus sp. catfish 3 .08 2 .90 3 .04­ Stizostedion vitreum walleye pike 1 .03 1 .4.5 2 .02

Micropterus sp. bass 3 .08 2 .90 3 .Olf Ap1odinotus grunniens drumfish 14 .)7 6 2.70 24 .29

Total Fish .89 17 7.69 7.5 .90

Grand Total 3,828 100.01 221 100.01 13,)02.9 100.00

-104­ TABLE III

Frequency of Identified Vertebrate Species from the Philo II Site, Muskingum County, Ohio

Scientific Name-­ Common Name No. of Per Min. No. Per Total Lbs. Per Bones Cent Individ. Cent Usable Meat Cent

Canis lupus gray wolf 1 .03 1 .:/J 30 .40

Canis familiaris dog 54 1.85 3 1.67 45 .59

Urocyon cinereoargenteus gray fox 26 .89 3 1.67 15 .20 Ursus americanus black bear 1 .03 1 .:/J 210 2.77

Procyon lotor raccoon 16 .55 3 1.67 52.5 .69 Lutra canadensis otter 1 .03 1 .:/J 10 .13

Lynx rufus bobcat 1 .03 1 .:/J 15 .20

Marmota monax woodchuck 8 .27 2 1.11 11.2 .15

Tamias striatus chipmunk 8 .27 2 1.11

Sciurus carolinensis gray squirrel 19 .65 3 1.67 3 .04 Sciurus niger fox squirrel 2 .07 1 .:/J 1.5 .02

Castor canadensis beaver 12 .41 2 1.11 40 .53 Sylvilagus floridanus cottontail rabbit 5 .17 2 · .. 1.11 5 .07 Cervus canadensis elk 16 .55 1 . .:/J 350 4.62 Odocoileus virginianus white tailed deer 2,157 73.84 65 36.11 6,500 85.80

To tal Manunal 2,327 79.66 91 ;50~ :/J 7,288.2 96.20

Gavia immer loon 1 .03 1 .:/J

Anas sp. duck 2 .07 1 .:/J 2 .03

Buteo jamaicensis red-tailed hawk 3 .10 2 loll 4 .05 Bonasa umbellus ruffed grouse 1 .03 1 .:/J 1 .01

Meleagris gallopavo wild turkey 233 7.98 23 12.78 195.5 2.58 Philohela minor woodcock 1 .03 1 .:/J

Ectopistes migratorius passenger pigeon 28 .96 4 2.20 3.2 .04

Bubo virginianus great homed owl 1 .03 1 .:/J Strix varia lBrred owl 1 .OJ 1 .:/J TABLE III continued

Melanerpes erythrocephalus red-headed woodpecker 2 .07 1 .56 Campephilus principalis ivory-billed woodpecker 1 .03 1 .56 3 .04 Corvus corax raven 1 .03 1 .56 1 .01 Corvus brachyrtlynchus crow 1 .03 1 .56 1..5 .02

Total Bird 276 9.45 39 21.67 211.2 2.79

Terrapene carolina box turtle 289 9.89 37 20.56 17.1 .23 Chelydra. serpentina snapping turtle 2 .07 1 .56 7 .09 Trionyx spinifera softshell turtle 8 .27 1 .56 1.5 .02

Total Reptile 299 10.24 39 21.67 25.6 .34

Rana catesbiana bullfrog 1 .03 1 .56

Total Amphibian 1 .03 1 .56

Catastomidae suckers 7 .24 4 2.22 32 .42 Ictalurus catfish 4 .14 2 1.11 3 .04 Aplodinotus grunniens drumfish 7 .24 4 3.89 16 .21

Total Fish 18 .62 10 .5·55 51 .67

Grand Total 2,921 100.00 180 100.01 7,576 100.00

-106­ home on the semi-open or Beech Forest bottomlands and that the inhabitants of the Richards and Philo II sites appear to have derived little or no sus­ tenance from the Mixed Oak uplands.

The wild turkey is the only bird that can be considered of major impor­ tance to the.Richards site food economy. The passenger pigeon appears to have been utflized more frequently than other game birds such as the ruffed­ grouse, quail, and bobwhite, but none of these provided a substantial amount of meat to the aboriginal diet. Aquatic birds--duck, goose, and swan--can be interpreted as merely a reflection of the nearness of the river niche rather than as evidence of deliberate, intensive exploitation of that niche by the Indians. While aquatic birds were definitely taken by the inhabit­ ants of the Richards and Philo II sites, they were apparently not taken in large numbers.

Even though important as food items, many of the birds represented at these two Fort Ancient sites are important as indicators of seasonality in hunting and site occupation. The Canada Goose, for example, is a typical transient, migratory waterfowl, and its presence at both Richards and Philo II probably reflects fall hunting (October-November), though it would also pass through Ohio in the spring migration (MarCh-April), and has rarely been reported during other parts of the year (It may winter over in the southern part of the state). The same may be said of many of the other waterbirds, notably the loon, trumpeter swan, and ducks. The Great Blue Heron, however, reported by Shane and Barber from Philo II, is a common summer resident. Similarly, the presence of the woodcock at Philo II and the red-headed woodpecker at Richards is strong evidence of summer occupa­ tion at the sites. The extinct passenger pigeon, toci, may be classified as a summer resident. The avian fauna thus provides considerable evidence for occupation of the site during the spring and fall migratory seasons as well as through the summer.

Fish, turtle, and amphibian remains are all present in much the same quantities at Richards and Philo II. Clearly, none of these were heavily relied upon as items of food. Drumfish, as Smith (1975) notes, is often over-represented in faunal collections because of the ease with which the otoliths and pharyngeal plates are preserved and identified. The preferred species were, clearly, catfish, catastomids, and the fresh-water drum. My data from Richards and Philo II vary somewhat from Shane and Barber's sample from Philo II in this respect, for they report a proportionately smaller amount of drumfish and larger amount of catfish. The differences scarcely seem significant, however, in view of the small sample size--a total of 77 fish bones from Philo II and J4 from Richards.

DISCUSSION OF SPECIES

Gray wolf -- Canis lupus

~"olf remains are rare at both Richards and Philo II. A single canine with the roots ground down as well as a drilled canine represent the species at Philo II. Guilday (1971) reports an upper left carnassial with the roots similarly ground or planed off from the late Fort Ancient Buffalo site, Putnam County, West Virginia. At the Richards site, the species is repre­ sented by five maxillary fragments from one refuse pit. Cutting or score marks are prominent in the area between the maxillary foramen and the

-107­ rostrum as well as along the buccal side of the roots of the canine and first molar, possibly indicating an attempt to fashion the teeth in a manner similar to that of the canine recovered from the Philo II site; they may merely be skinning marks, however. An incised mandible also occurred at Richards and is discussed in the artifact section.

Worked wolf teeth, mandibles, and maxillae are a relatively common feature of Late Prehistoric sites, as well as earlier Hopewell sites (Parmalee, 1959). Indian dog -- Canis familiaris At the Richards site at least five individuals were distributed through six features, including 15 elements representing two individuals in Feature 16. None of these appear to represent deliberate burial. The proximal end of a femur from Feature 16 bears butchering cuts below the acetabulum; cut marks also occur on the distal end of a tibia from the same feature.

Few measurements can be made. Measurements are available on four lower first molars: 17.9, 18.0, 18.9, and 19.1, with a mean of 18.5 mm, standard deviation ~f,0.6l, and coefficient of variation 3.32. This would indicate a dog similar in size to those described from other Midwestern sites (Potter and Baby, 1964; Guilday, 1971).

Remains of three individuals are available from the Philo II site. Features 202 and 218 have provided the material for which measurements are given in Table IV. I~ ~ddition, there is the distal end of a femur from Feature 217, exhibiting butchering marks, and one each from Feature 223 and 234 showing beadstock cut marks. The remains do not seem to represent deliberate burial.

The specimen from Feature 202 is clearly an older individual, tooth wear placing it at the division between GUilday's (1971) age classes II and III (crown height/crown length ratio for the first lower molar being 47.1 and 50.7 %). Comparable tooth wear ratios for the Richards mandibles are 52.5 and 52.7 % The two Philo II individuals for which measurements are available are clearly larger than those in the Richards sample. The Rich­ ards sample represents a generalized Woodland canine type, judging from the small amount of material available. Mandibular measurements fall well with­ in the ranges given by Baby and Potter (1964) for their Scioto Cavern sample, which is probably Middle Woodland in prOvenience. Both dental and post-cranial measurements for the Philo II specimens are larger than the samples described by Baby and Potter and may be comparable to the Eschelman, Pennsylvania, sample (Guilday, Parmalee, and Tanner, 1962), but only meas­ urements of the first lower molar are available for that sample.

The Indian dog does not seem to have held any particular importanCe at the Richards and Philo II sites, to judge from the absence of deliberate burials and the comparatively small number of individuals recovered. Butchering cuts on bones from both sites indicate that the dog was used for food at least on occasion.

Gray fox -- Urocyon cinereoargenteus Numerous worked fox ilia were encountered during the faunal analysis. These were presumably used as pendants or beads and are discussed in the chapter on bone artifacts. Butchering marks were noted on a fox tibia,

-108­ TABLE IV

~ familiaris measurements (in mm) from Richards and Philo II Sites, Muskingum County, Ohio

Philo 11--202 Philo II--218 Richards--16

Length'carnassial P4 17.6, 17.1 16.9, 17.7

Alveolus C-M3 85.6 77.3 Alveolus P2-M3 68.9 61.0

Alveolus PTM3 59.1 50.6

Alveolus P4-M3 46.8 40.7

Alveolus Ml-M3 35·2 29.9 Length carnassial Ml 20.8, 21.2 17.7, 18.2, 18.6

Condylo-symphysis length 117.2

Humerus, length 158.1, 161.3 146.0, 147.2

Diameter, humerus head 33.1, 34.4 31.0, 31.1 Ulna, 1ength 183.1

Radius, length 153.8 , 157.2 Femur, length 169.4

Tibia, length 160.8

Calcaneum, length 39.8

-109­ femur, and mandible (anterior edge of the ascending ramus) at the Richards site and on a tibia from Philo II. The Richards mandible shows consider­ able wear along the ventral, suggesting utilization of some sort.

Black bear -- Ursus americanus Black bear was rare at both sites. Pit 49 at the Richards site yielded a large skull fragment, a mandibular fragment, an atlas, calcaneum, and the distal end of a tibia. Butchering marks are conspicuous on the atlas, tibia, and calcaneum. The only other bear element found in the Richards sample is an isolated phalange from Feature 23. A bear molar pendant is discussed with the artifact material.

Bear is represented in the available Philo II sample only by a single phalange, and Shane and Barber report only a single bear bone from that site.

Raccoon -- Procyon lotor The comparative scarcity of raccoon in the present Philo II sample has been noted above. The species' occurrence at Richards (17.7 individuals per 100 deer) closely approximates that in Shane and Barber's estimate based on the Philo II sample (19.1 individuals per 100 deer), but the Philo II sample available to me indicates only 4.6 individuals per 100 deer. There is considerable variation of this ratio among Fort Ancient sites, from a low of 5.6 at the Graham site to 31.8 at Blain. It is difficult to recon­ cile such a discrepancy between samples from the same site (albeit, from different parts of the same site), however. At Philo II, the 16 raccoon elements were distributed through 11 (15.1 %) of the pits, a "scatter" identical to that of ~lk (16 elements distributed through 11 pits). At Rich­ ards, the 67 raccoon elements were distributed through 19 (38.0 %) of the features, but over half ()6) of the bones were derived from a single pit. Had this single pit (Feature 56) not been included in the sample, the rac­ coon/deer ratio would have been reduced from 17.7 to 9.8, suggesting that the difference between the two Philo II samples may be due largely to sample error.

Butchering marks are present on the distal ends of the right radii and right tibiae of two individuals from the Richards site, as well as on a single left mandible and on five of the six right mandibles from the site. Cut marks are also plainly discernible upon the single calcaneum available from Richards. None of the raccoon elements from the Philo II sample dis­ play butchering marks, and Shane and Barber not~ only skinning cuts on two raccoon mandibles. It is unlikely that the animals were butchered other than for removal of the feet.

Although a small sample, eight raccoon mandibles from the Richards site permitted measurements OI lower canine length and width, along with est~­ mates of age based upon tooth wear. The data is presented below, along"with measurements (in mm) of the two available raccoon canines from the Philo II site.

Canine Length Canine Thickness Sex Age Grade (years) 22.6 3.7 F 1-2 23.1, 23.6 4.8, 4.7 M 3-5 21.3 3.7 F 3-5 21.3 3.6 F 1-2 25.0 4.8 M 7+

-110­ 25.7 4.9 M 7+ 20.1 3.8 F 1 21.8 3.4 F (Philo II) 19.6 3.7 F (Philo II) The sex ratio of 4 females to 3 males at the Richards site seems to be con­ sistent with SmithVs (1975) data, indicating a more or less balanced ratio. When four additional mandibles lacking canines are age graded, the distri­ bution among age grades developed by Grau, Sanderson and Rogers (1970) is as follows: I, 2; II, 3r III, 4; IV, 2. This is a very small sample but appears to follow the normal distribution noted by Smith (1975), Shane (1972), and others at Late Prehistoric sites.

Fisher -- Martes pennanti The right maxilla of a fisher recovered from Feature 14 at the Richards site displays a cut across the nasal to the anterior end of the zygomatic arch, apparently indicating deliberate removal of the rostrum for some pur­ pose. It is interesting to note th~t the only occurrences of fisher and otter at the Richards site are in the same refuse pit.

Mink -- Mustela vison One of two left mandibles from Feature 23 at Richards displays very prominent skinning marks along the mid-portion of the ventral edge.

Least weasel -- Mustela vixosa allegheniana A skull and associated mandibles from Feature 56 at Richards represent an occurrence probably unrelated or incidental to the aooriginal occupation of the site.

Otter -- Lutra canadensis .. Otter is present, though rare, at ooth Richards and Philo II. A left mandible from Feature 234 at the Philo II site has butchering marks on the anterior edge of the ascending ramus.

Bobcat -- ~ rufus A single mandible from the Richards site has skinning marks·on the chin area. Butchering marks were also noted on the distal end of a bobcat tibia.

Muskrat -- Ondatra zibetheca A single muskrat tibia in Feature 141 at the Philo II site bears several faint cut marks. The species did not occur in Shane and Barber's sample from Philo II and is not present in the Richards sample.

Beaver -- Castor canadensis Beaver do not seem to have been heavily exploited at the Richards and Philo II sites, aoout three or four being taken for every 100 deer, in con­ trast with the Eschelman site (Guilday, 1971), an Historic site at which hunting for furs was probably an important activity, where approximately seven beaver were taken for every 100 deer.

Butchering marks were noted on the distal end of three tibiae and on

-111­ a mandible at the Richards site. A femur from the Philo II site had butchering marks below the femur neck, and two innominates had butchering marks near the iliac crest, representing a cut apparently analogous to Guilday, Parmalee and Tanner's (1962) Cut 2, which serves to separate the hindquarters from the carcass. Worked beaver incisor "chisels" also occur in the collection.

Squirrels -- Sciurus Both gray (Sciurus carolinensis) and fox squirrel (~. niger) were present at the Richards and Philo II sites, about one fox to nine gray at Richards and one fox to three gray at Philo II. Shane and Barber (1976) estimate a ratio of one fox to two gray for their Philo II sample.

Although a small sample, measurements of some Sciurus elements are presented below. These agree closely with the measurements given by Guilday (1971) for his sample from the Buffalo site, Putnam County, West Virginia.

Measurement Sciurus carolinensis Sciurus niger Site x O.R. No. O.R.

Humerus, total length 45.6 44.9-46.) 2 Richards it).8 42.1-45.4 2 Philo II width, distal end 11".6 . 11.5-11.8 ) Richards

11.2 10.7-11. 9 ) 1).2 Philo II Femur, shaft AP diameter 4.) ).9-4.6 4 Richards Tibia, distal tooth row 5.9 5.6-6.4 5 Richards Length, lower tooth row 11.) 10.)-11.9 11 Richards

Standard deviation for measurements on the length of the lower tooth row is 0.52; coefficient of variation is 4.59.

Elk -- Cervus canadensis Butchering marks were noted on only two elk bones, an astragalus from the Richards site and the proximal end of a humerus from Philo II. The latter probably indicates efforts to dismember the shoulder, analogous to Guilday, Parmalee and Tanner's (1962) Cut 5 on the neck of the scapula. White tailed deer -- Odocoileus virginianus Mandi bles recovered from the Richards and Philo II sites were age.. graded according to the method outlined by Severinghaus (1949). The results are presented in Table V and shown in graphic form. The data presented for the Richards site are based upon 60 right mandibles; a sample of 11 left

-112­ mandibles is also available from the site, showing a similar distribution. The Philo II data are based upon a collection of 47 left and right mandibles (the larger sample of either left or right mandibles in each age grade being used): a total of 24 right mandibles and 36 left mandibles are available from PhiJ,o _.II. The considerable difference between numbers of left and right mandibles recovered at the Richards site is significant at the 5 %level (such is not the case with the Philo II sample), similar to Cle­ land's findings at the Moccasin Bluff site (Cleland, 1966).

When the relative age of deer is considered, it is clear that the bulk of utilized deer came from the 3-4 year age bracket. A less significant peak occurs at both sites in the 11-13 month interval, which seems to accord with the curve derived by Guilday (1971, fig. 3) from his Buffalo site sample. Essentially, the distribution approaches a normal curve, which mayor may not be taken as evidence that stalking was not the preferred mode of hunting.

The seasonality of hunting may be inferred from the ages of deer under the age of two years, for these are generally determinable to within a 2-3 month span. There are some discrepancies between the Richards and Philo II curves in this respect. The Richards site curve shows a distinct peak at the 5-7 month interval, which would indicate heavy hunting during the Novem­ ber hunting period. A decided drop in number of fawns taken is indicated for the late winter-spring period (ages 7-11 months). The subsequent peaks in the Richards graph, however, at 11-13 months and 20-24 months, clearly indicate late spring-early summer hunting, followed by corresponding lows during the fall season. Greater stress should probably be placed upon the ages of the younger deer, which data are consistent with the interpretation of heavy fall hunting activity dwindling during the colder portion of the year. The Philo II curve is similar, with the exception that the peak hunt­ ing period appears to have lasted throughout the winter, 'to;' judge from the 7-11 month age grades. The large amount of deer in the 13-17 month age grade, followed by a corresponding decline, however, supports the contrary view--that heavy fall hunting was superseded by a winter period of rela­ tively little deer hunting.

Because Guilday (1971) has provided considerable data on ' the recovery rate of individual deer elements, careful count was kept of the individual elements recovered in the Richards and Philo II samples. These data are presented in Tab13 VI. In general, they confirm Guilday's contention that carnivore scavenging greatly influences the relative composition of the various skeletal elements in a faunal sample. Several striking dissimilar­ ities in the relative abundance of various deer elements occur between these three sites, however. The most common element recovered, for exam­ ple, is the distal end of the humerus at Buffalo, the head of the scapula at Richards, and the calcaneum at Philo II. The comparatively low percent­ age of scapulae recovered from the Buffalo site (62) may be due to the gener­ ally fragile nat'Ire of this element other than for the head which, by itself, might be easily overlooked. Other differences include the small number of the proximal end of the radius noted at Philo II and Richards (29 and 21 % contrasted with 81 %at Buffalo), the low number of metacarpal and meta­ tarsal elements at the Ohio sites, and the small number of astragali re­ covered from Philo II (14 %contrasted with 70 %at Richards and 90 %at Buffalo). Deliberate salvage of deer mandibles and astragali at the Buffalo site might explain the large number recovered there, but no such procedure occurred at Richards to explain the nearly equally large discrep­

-113­ TABLE V

Estimated age of white tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, at time of death, Richards and Philo II sites, Muskingum County, Ohio.

Age Class No. of Individuals Percentage

Richards Philo II Total Richards Philo II Total

10 weeks-4 months 0 2 2 0 4.3 1.9

4-6 months 3 1 4 5. 2.1 3.7 6-7 months 3 2 5 5. 4.3 4.7

7-9 months 1 2 3 1.7 4·3 2.8 9-11 months 0 2 2 0 4.3 1.9

11-13 months 6 1 7 10. 2.1 6.5 13-17 months . 2 7 9 3.3 14.9 8.4 17-20 months 6 6.4 .. 3 3 5. 5.6 20-24 months 6 3 9 10. 6.4 8.4

221 years. 5 3 8 8.3 6.4 7.5 3t years 6 7 13 10. 14.9 12.1

4t years 11 7 18 18·3 14.9 16.8

5t years 5 2 7 8.3 4.3 6.5

6t years 5 3 8 8.3 6.4 7.5

7t years 2 2 4 3·3 4.3 3.7 st years 2 0 2 3.3 0 1.9

60 47 107 99.8 100.2 99.9

-114­ AGE GRADING OF WHITE TAILED DEER

May- Dec ember- May- Dec November May November May

20

18

16

14 I \ , . " I : I \ ,. 1Il I , r-i 12 ,: ~ I \ 'd.,..., I \ I: ::­ I \ ,. ;g 10 s:: I· , f H. , 0 , . ../ z 8 •• I -1 \ .. . . ~ . 6 \ / ,. \ / / 4 J •

8% months years Richards --- Philo II • • • •• Average TABLE VI

Recovery rate, white-tailed deer skeletal elements, Richards and Philo II sites. Minimum number of deer: Richards, 62, based upon number of re­ covered right scapulas: Philo II, 65, based upon number of recovered right calcanea. Number bearing butchering cut marks in parentheses.

Element Number Expected Number Recovered Per Cent Recovered

Richards Philo II Richards Philo II Richards Philo II

Humerus, distal 124 130 103 (14) 90 (25) 83 69 proximal 124 130 16 8 (2) 12 6 Scapula 124 130 109 (12) 96 (11) 87 96 Radius, distal 124 130 27 J8 (2) 21 29 proximal 124 130 37 (2) 36 (5) 29 28 Ulna 124 130 67 (3) 55 (4) 54 42 Metacarpal, distal 124 130 1 9 1 7 proximal 124 130 50 23 (2) 40 18 Metatarsal, distal 124 130 51 24 41 18 proximal 124 130 8 18 6 14 Femur, distal .. 124 130 32 (1) 33 (1) 25 25 proximal 124 130 12 25 (4) 9 19

Tibia p distal 124 130 66 (10) 57 (14) 53 44 proximal 124 130 28 17 (5) 22 13 Calcaneum 124 130 105 (10) 117 (14) 84 90

Astragalus 124 130 88 (24) 71 (26) 70 14 Proximal phalanx 496 520 102 163 20 31 Second phalanx 496 520 170 92 34 18 Distal phalanx 496 520 118 40 23 8 Atlas 62 65 16 15 (2) 25 23 Axis 62 65 11 (2) 16 (12 ) 17 25 Cervical 3-7 310 325 20 19 6 -6 Dorsal vertebrae 992 1040 132 39 13 4 Lumbar vertebrae 310 325 86 70 (1) 27 22 Mandibles 124 130 98 78 (2) 79 60

-116­ ancy between the percentage at that site and the percentage at Philo II.

Butchering marks were noted on numerous deer bones. For ease in com­ parison, the number of each is presented in parentheses under "Number Re­ covered" in Table VI. In addition, at Richards, cut marks were noted on the folloWing elements: occiput, 2; hyoid, 1; naviculo-cuboid, 1 (out of 8); innominate, 7. Butchering marks are closely comparable to those de­ scribed by Guilday (1971), with few exceptions. Cut marks are rare on the mandibular ramus, none being noted at Richards, though several mandibles have this portion of the bone badly battered, indicating removal of the jaw. The "throat cut" on the ventral surface of the axis has apparently not been noted in the Ohio-Pennsylvania-West Virginia region, though Parma­ lee (1965) describes it from Missouri. Cuts on the stylohyoid indicate removal of the tongue, as noted at the Buffalo and Mt. Carbon, West Virginia,sites. Cuts were not noted on the atlas or vertebrae. Five of the scapulae show cut marks along the spinal process. One distal femur end exhibits cut marks (defleshing) on the ventral surface; distal humeri ends have cuts on the anterior (3), lateral (9), and posterior (2) sides. Deer frontals from Richards (6 males; 1 female) have cut marks for removal of antlers on 2 specimens. One antler has the bulbous tip characteristic of summer specimens.

Butchering marks at Philo II, in addition to those listed in Table VI, were seen on 2 innominates, 2 atlases, and 17 (out of 23) naviculo-cuboids. Six skull fragments showed cutmarks to remove the antlers, whereas 5 showed that the antlers had been shed.

Measurement for selected skeletal elements from the Richards and Philo II sites are given in Tables VII and VIII. Although a number of these (calcaneum length, astragalus length, length of first phal~nx) differ sig­ nificantly from measurements available from the Buffalo site, the differ­ ences are believed to be due to factors such as differences in the mean ages of the various samples and intensity of scavenging at the d1fferent sites. Bias due to variations in the measuring technique may be an important factor, but statistically significant differences appear to exist in measurements that scarcely allow more than one interpretation during the measuring pro­ cess. In general, Richards and Philo II measurements seem to be slightly greater than those from the Buffalo site. More samples from the region would be necessary before postulating a size gradient or cline dependent upon latitude or other geographic factors.

Birds Birds accounted for only about 3 %of the total poundage of usable meat at the Richards and Philo II sites, and the bulk of this consisted of wild turkey. Nonetheless, the class is important because of the compara­ tively high species diversity represented in the two samples and the evi­ dence they provide for year-round occupation of the sites. The comparative dearth of waterfowl, considering the location of the two Sites, has been noted earlier. It is not considered likely that the loon (Gavia immer) was eaten; Zeisberger (Mahr, 1949) notes that the bird "is not eatable, but the Indians make pouches of its skin, which is taken off whole, large enough to hold pipe, tobacco, flint, steel and knife." Zeisberger's note on the swans is also of interest, for "the Indians declare that their flesh tastes like that of the bear, of which they are particularly fond," espe­

-117­ TABLE VII

Measurements in mm., Odocoileus virginianus, Richards site, Muskingum County, Ohio. Lower jaw measurements taken from adults estimated from two to four years of age. All post cranial measurements from presumed adults.

Measurement X S.D. C.V. O.R. N

length, lower toothrow (P2-M3) 83.6- 1.13 4.18 5.0 77.7-93.0 14

51.7- .64 2.36 5.53 47.1-57.4 20

height, posterior cusp of M2 11.0- .20 1.00 9.13 8.7-12.0 24

depth of jaw at Ml 22.0- .37 1.60 7.28 21.0-25.3 19

scapula, maximum width of neck at spinous process 24.6 .31 2.67 10.84 18.3-31.1 74 humerus, maximum width distal end 41.1- .35 2.63 6.39 35.0-48.5 55 radius, proximal width 37.7- .57 2.40 6.37 37.1-43.2 18 metatarsal, distal width 33.3- .48 1.58 4.74 29.8-35.7 11

tibia, distal width 37.1- .28 1.77 4.77 32.9-39.6 40

calcaneum, length 92.0- .99 5.09 4.94 83.3-99.3 25

calcaneum, width 25.5- .14 1.22 4.78 22.1-30.0 77 astragalus, total length 41.4- .22 1.96 4.73 37.5-45.0 81

~stragalus, width 27.1- .16 1.]8 5.09 23.7-29.5 79 first phalanx, length 49.0- .43 3.21 5.89 42.1-54.8 56 second phalanx, length ]6.7- .44 3.17 8.64 33.7-43.4 50 hoof, height 20.1- .43 1.44 7.16 17.4-22.0 17 hoof, length 33.7- .86 2.72 8.08 28.9-39.6 16

X - sampl e mean C.V. - coefficient of variation

S.D. - standard deviation N - sample size

o •R. - 0 bserved range

P2--4 lower premolars

-118­ TABLE VIn

Measurements in mrn., Odocoileus virginianus, Philo II site, Muskingum County, Ohio. Lower jaw measurements taken from adults estimated from two to four years of age. All post cranial measurements from presumed adults.

Measurement X S.D. C.V. O.R. N length, MI -M3 50.9-.34 3.41 6.70 46.6-56.8 10 height, posterior cusp of M2 11.5- .26 .98 8.50 10.4-12.6 14 depth of jaw at Ml 25.4- .25 2.45 9.65 21.3-29.6 10 scapula, maximum width 0 f neck at spinous process 25.1- .32 2.35 9.37 20.6-30.9 51 humerus, maximum width distal end 40.8- .43 2.75 6.81 36.9-48.2 41 radius, proximal width 39.1- .28 1.45 3.71 35.5-42.6 27 metacarpal, proximal width 31.2-.36 1.54 4.93 27.8-34.1 18 metacarpal, proximal anterior- posterior diameter 22.5- .42 1.79 7.95 20.0-25.0 18 , I ~etacarpal, distal width 31.1- .52 1.85 5.95 28.9-35.3 13 .~ metatarsal, distal width 33.3-.48 1.58 4.74 29.8-35.7 11 tibia, distal width 37.2- .36 2.05 5.51 34.0-41.8 32 calcaneum, length 84.9-.46 2.76 3.25 8~.8-99.8 36 calcaneum, width 25.2- .18 1.59 6.32 21.4-29.0 74 astragalus, total length 41.0- .26 2.13 5.20 37.3-45.4 67 astragalus, width 27.2- .18 1.48 5.45 23.4-30.4 65 first phalanx, length 49.1- .35 2.75 5.60 42.4-56.1 63 second phalanx, length 37.4- .37 2.9 7.74 30.2-43.0 60 hoof, height 18.2- .27 1.54 8.47 15.8-22.9 33 hoof, length 33.5- .49 2.82 8.41 28.0-38.9 33

X - sample mean C.V. - coefficient of variation

S.D. - standard deviation N ­ sample size a.R. - observed range

-119­ cially in view of the rarity of both swans (and of bear, for that matter) at these sites. A single cut and polished bone tube made from the humerus of a trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator) is the only representative of that species from either site. Similar tubes have been reported from numerous Late Prehistoric sites.

Zeisberger's notes on the ruffed grouse and bobwhite seem pertinent. Of the former, he states "Pheasants are not valued by the Indians, though their flesh is palatable." Of the bobwhite, on the other hand, he finds that "the flesh is tender and of a fine flavor. They are favorites with all people, being innocent and harmless birds." This may explain the rela­ tively greater frequency of the latter at the Philo II site.

The presence of several woodpecker species, as noted by Guilday (1971) at the Buffalo site, probably indicates that these colorful and conspicuous birds were collected for their feathers and beaks to be used as items of display. The occurrence of the ivory-billed woodpecker at the Philo II site represents a considerable extension of the known range of this presumably extinct species. Although records based upon beaks and wing elements must be regarded with suspicion, since these might represent trade items, the ivory-billed woodpecker tarsometatarsal found at Philo II is not considered likely to have been brought to the site by trade.

The extinct passenger pigeon, though not rare at either site, can scarcely be considere~ a major food item. On the other hand, the bones are small and easily destroyed or overlooked.

!Urkey -- Meleagris gallopavo The most abundant bird utilized at the Richards and Philo II sites, turkey is relatively more common, in comparison to deer, than at the Buffalo site, though far less abundant than at the Fort Ancient Blain site (Prufer and Shane, 1970).

Measurements upon various complete skeletal elements from the two sites are presented in Table IXo Based upon the most common measurement, which is the midshaft diameter of the humerus, females slightly outnumbered males in the utilized portion of the population, by about 3 to 2 or 4 to 3. Although this does not agree with Guilday's findings in a large sample from the Buffalo site, where toms and females were about equal in number, it does agree with Smith's (1975) findings. He suggests that the consistently low precentage of males reflects a low representation of adult males in the original turkey popUlation rather than the result of deliberate selection upon the part of the hunters.

The recovery rate of individual bone elements may be of some interest and is presented in Table X, based upon the minimum number of individuals recovered from each site (Richards: 33; Philo II: 23). It might be sug­ gested that the low number of tarsometatarsi found in the refuse pits at both sites is a reflection of their utilization for bone awls or other arti­ facts. Greater ingenuity would be required, however, to explain the consid­ erable difference in the relative number of turkey ulnae found at the twq sites.

Cutmarks occur on the following turkey elements at the Richards site: carpometacarpus, 3 out of 7; proximal end of ulna, lout of 3; distal end

-120­ TABLE IX

Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) measurements from the Richards and Philo II sites, Muskingum Co., Ohio. Measurements (in mm) based upon adult individuals.

Richards Site Philo II Site No. Range Mean S.D. No. Range Mean S.D. Carpometacarpus

length male 1 80.6 1 80.4

female 5 65.5-71.7 67.7 1.63 3 65.8-70.8 68.9 Humerus- mid­ shaft diam. male 14 17.1-18.7 18.0 .53 13 16.5-19.0 17.5 .87 female 19 13.0-16.3 14.5 .84 18 13.1-15.4 14.6 .49

Humerus- distal width male 6 31.5-33.9 32.5 1.01 3 33.5-)4.2 33.8 female 9 25.6-28.3 26.7 .95 1 26.4

Radius, length 3 105.8 106.1

107.1

Femur, distal "­ width male 1 30.2 1 29.0 • female 1 24.2 1 23.3

? 1 27.0 Coracoid

max. length male 2 114.5-116.7

female 2 89.7-90.7

distal width male 2 30.8-37.3 1 31.6

female 2 22.9-2703 1 27.3

? 1 31.0

-121­ TABLE X

The recovery rate of individual bone elements of wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) based upon the minimum number of individuals recovered from each site (Richards: )); Philo II: 2).

Richards Philo II

Element No 0 Expected No. Recovered % No. Expected No. Recovered % Humerus 66 44 66.7 46 40 86.95 Ulna 66 )2 48.5 46 7 9.7 Coracoid 66 )1 47.0 46 2) )1.9

Carpometacarpus °66 19 28.8 46 I) 18.1 Tarsometatarsus 66. 6 9.1 46 8 11.1 Tibiotarsus 66 20 )0.) 46 17 2).6 .. Sternum )J' )) 100.0 2) 20 86.95

Scapula 66 )1 47.0 46 I) 18.1

-122­ of tarsometatarsus, lout of 3; coracoid, 3; distal end of humerus, 7 out of 14; proximal end of humerus, 5 out of 13; proximal end of femur, 1. At Philo II, cutmarks were noted on 3 humeri, 1 sternal rib, 1 carpometacarpus, 2 tarsometatarsi, and 2 coracoids. Only the cut femur differs significantly from previously described turkey butchering marks.

Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fish Representatives of these three classes present at the Richards and Philo II sites require little comment, other than to emphasize ,the remark­ ably small amount of fish harvested from the nearby Muskingum River. This is in accord with previously analyzed samples from other Fort Ancient sites.

Summary Analysis of faunal remains from the Richards and Philo II sites, Mus­ kingum County, OQio, reveals that these two Fort Ancient sites had virtually identical food economies. Both may be considered typical Late PrehistoriC maize-hunting focal economies in which maize agriculture was supplemented by deer and turkey hunting, particularly during early autumn. Habitation of both sites clearly was year round, and all local ecological niches were utilized by the inhabitants of the site, although little use was made of the upland oak forests and much less emphasis was placed on the littoral and riverine niches than might be expected.

Acknowledgments Identifications are those of the author, with the exception of several of the bird elements. Dr. Storrs Olsen, U. S. National Museum, kindly identified a number of the bird bones. Identification of the ivory billed woodpecker metatarsal was confirmed by Bruce Farrand, Jr., American Museum of Natural History. Donn Davids, Ohio Historical Society, confirmed identi­ fication of the several drilled turtle scapulae. ..

References Baby, Raymond S. and Martha A. Potter 1964 Hopewellian Dogs. The Ohio Journal of Science 6~ (1): 36-40.

Cleland, Charles E. 1966 The Prehistoric Animal Ecology and Ethnozoology of the Upper Great lakes Region. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers, No. 29.

Grau, Gerald A., G. C. Sanderson, and J. P. Rogers 1970 Age Determination of Raccoons. Journal of Wildlife Management J4 (2): 364-372. Guilday, John E. 1971 Biological and Archeological Analysis of Bones from a 17th Century Indian Village (46 Pu 31), Putnam County, West Virginia. West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey, Report of Archeol­ ogical Investigations, No.4.

Guilday, John E., Paul W. Parmalee, and Donald P. Tanner 1962 Aboriginal Butchering Techniques at the Eschelman Site ()6 La 12), Lancaster Co.,Pa. Pennsylvania Archaeologist 32 (2): 59-83.

-123­ McKenzie, Douglas H. 1967 The Graham Village Site. In Studies in Ohio Archaeology, edited by Olaf H. Prufer and Douglas H. McKenzie, Western Reserve Univ­ ersity Press, Cleveland.

Mahr, August c. 1949 A Chapter of Early Ohio Natural History. The Ohio Journal of Science 49 (2): 45-69.

Murphy, James L. 1976 Molluscan Remains from the Philo II Site, Muskingum County, Ohio. Pennsylvania Archaeologist 46 (3): 7-13.

Parmalee, Paul W. 1959 Use of Mammalian Skulls and Mandibles by Prehistoric Indians of Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science 52 (3-4): 85-95. 1965 The Food Economy of Archaic and Woodland Peoples at the Tick Creek Cave Site, Missouri. The Missouri Archaeologist 27 (1): 1-34. Prufer, Olaf H. and Douglas H. McKenzie 1967 Studies in Ohio ArChaeology. Western Reserve University Press p Cleveland• • Prufer, Olaf H. and Orrin C. Shane III 1970 Blain Villa~e ~ the Fort Ancient TraMtion in Ohio. Kent State University Presso Severinghaus, C. w. 1949 Tooth Development and Wear as Criteria of Age in White-tailed Deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 13 (2): 195-216.

Shane, Orrin C. III 1972 Vertebrate Remains from the Eiden Site. In The Eiden Site, Terminal Late Woodland on the South-central Lake Erie Shore, edited by Douglas H. McKenzie, et al., Lorain County Metro­ politan Park District, Board ofPark Commissioners, Lorain.

Shane, Orrin C. III and Michael B. Barber 1976 A Preliminary Analysis of Vertebrate Faunal Remains from the Philo II Site, Muskingum County, Ohio. Pennsylvania Archaeol­ ogist 46 (3): 1-6. Smith Bruce D. 1975 Middle Mississippi Exploitation of Animal Populations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers, No. 57.

-124­ (Fig. 6-1) Cut wolf canine fxom Pb1~o II.

(Fig. 6- 2 ) Mink mandible with cut marks on lower margin , from Richards . (Fig. 6-J) Swan humerus oone tube from Richards .

•