CULTURAL RESOURCES AND LAND USE HISTORY BACKGROUND REPORT ON AN APPROXIMATELY 300- ACRE PARCEL LOCATED IN SAUGATUCK TOWNSHIP IN ALLEGAN COUNTY, MICHIGAN

For Submission to & Funded By:

Mr. Carl J. Gabrielse, Attorney North Shores of Saugatuck, LLC 148 South River Avenue, Suite 100 Holland, Michigan 49423

By:

Mr. Gregory R. Walz, RPA

Public Service Archaeology & Architecture Program Department of Anthropology 1707 South Orchard Street University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, Illinois 61801 (Project No.17-053)

Dr. Kevin P. McGowan, Principal Investigator

May 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES ...... ii

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT ...... 1

CULTURAL CONTEXT ...... 9

ARCHIVAL RESEARCH RESULTS ...... 20

REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND SIGNIFICANCE ...... 30

RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 31

REFERENCES CITED ...... 32

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Location of the project area in Michigan ...... 2 2. Overview map of the North Shore of Saugatuck project area ...... 3 3. Location of the project area ...... 4 4. Location of 20AE619 within project area and the NRHP-listed Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Structure adjacent to the project area ...... 21 5. Portion of the 1850 United States General Land Office survey plat of Township 03 North, Range 16 West (Saugatuck Township) ...... 24 6. Potion of the 1873 atlas map of Saugatuck Township and detail of the 1873 plat of Singapore ...... 25 7. Portions of the 1895 and 1913 atlas maps of Saugatuck Township ...... 26 8. Portions of the 1895 and 1934 Lake Michigan coastal navigation charts ...... 27

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INTRODUCTION

The Public Service Archaeology & Architecture Program of the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign was contacted by Mr. Carl Gabrielse, Attorney for North Shores of Saugatuck, LLC of Holland, Michigan to prepare a cultural resources background report covering an approximately 121.4- hectare (300-acre) parcel located in Allegan County, Michigan (Figure 1). The project area lies within Sections 03 and 04, Township 03 North, Range 16 West (Saugatuck Township) on the north side of the Kalamazoo River north of the Village of Saugatuck. This is the proposed location for the North Shore of Saugatuck residential and marina development project (Figure 2). This report presents an overview of the natural and cultural contexts of the project location, summarizes the archival and documentary information available for the area, summarizes the applicable cultural resource regulations, and provides recommendations for further cultural resource investigations.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

The North Shore of Saugatuck project area is located within a narrow band of coastal sand dunes along the eastern Lake Michigan coastline adjacent to the natural mouth of the Kalamazoo River in northern Allegan County, Michigan (Figure 3).

Physical Setting

The project area is located within the Great Lakes Section of the Central Lowland province, an extensive area of the Midcontinent underlain by largely sedimentary rock which has been deformed into a series of structural basins and arches which, for the most part, are covered in Pleistocene glacial deposits and landforms (Fenneman 1938). The bedrock strata underlying the Lower Peninsula of Michigan have been deformed into a basin with the result that the oldest rocks are found along the margins of the basin and the youngest fill the center of the structural basin. The strata represented in the Michigan Basin range from the 544 million year old Cambrian sandstone and dolomites that outcrop along the southern shore of Lake Superior, at the edge of the basin, through the oceanic sediments dating to the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Mississippian, which have filled much of the Michigan Basin. These strata range between 544 and 225 million years in age. The youngest strata, those dating to the Pennsylvanian Epoch, include sandstones, shales, limestone, and some coal seams (Hough 1958; Mason 1981:54-56; Michigan Department of Natural Resources 1977; Roberts 1996). Within a regional landscape ecosystems model, the project area falls within the Southern Lake Michigan Lake Plain Sub-Subsection of the Allegan Subsection of the Southern Lower Michigan Section (Albert 1995). This region is characterized by extensive lacustrine deposits and includes areas of fine-textured end and ground moraines which have been re-worked by water. A narrow band of steeply sloping sand dunes is found along portions of the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. The sand dunes form a discontinuous band 1.6-4.8 kilometers wide and range in height up to 60 meters). These dune sands were deposited during the Nipissing stage of Lake Michigan circa 4,500 years B.P. (Before Present). Lower fore dunes are present immediately east of the beach and are associated with the lower, more modern stages of Lake Michigan.

Glacial History

The actions of the Pleistocene glacial advances, retreats, and re-advances have removed any lithologic deposits that formed within the past 225 million years and have mantled the underlying bedrock in glacial moraines, till and outwash plains, lake plains and other glacially-formed landscape features such as

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Figure 1. Location of the project area in Michigan.

2 Figure 2. Overview map of the NorthShore of Saugatuck project area.

3 Aerial Photograph Obtained from ESRI World Imagery - April 2017 Allegan County - Michigan

Saugatuck Dunes State Park

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Service Layer Credits: Copyright:© 2012 Esri, DeLorme, NAVTEQ, TomTom

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Figure 3. Location of the project area.

4 drumlins, eskers and kettles which form the modern Michigan landscape. Western Michigan is characterized by a physiography that exhibits a linear arrangement of landscape features that roughly parallel the eastern shore of Lake Michigan and range from coastal dunes and low lake plains, to higher elevation lake plains, outwash and till plains and morainic uplands. The project area is located in a region of coastal sand dunes that formed during higher lake stages. Relief is generally low; however, the sand dunes formed along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan attain significant heights above the beach. The Kalamazoo River has cut through these Pleistocene deposits and is bordered by sandy, loamy and mucky alluvial sediments which have been deposited within its valley margins (Albert 1995; Dorr and Eschman 1970).

The Pleistocene glaciation is also responsible for the creation of the Great Lakes themselves as the ice fronts cut deeply into the underlying Paleozoic bedrock deposits. During the Pleistocene glaciation, much of Michigan was covered by several miles of ice for nearly one million years, and the ice fronts scoured out valleys and gorges that became primitive drainages. The proto-Great Lakes were altered significantly in size, elevation, and drainage outlets as the ice fronts moved across the land, and the earth’s crust was depressed by, and ultimately rebounded from, the tremendous weight of the glacial ice. Between about 16,000–9,500 B.P. the glacial ice made a series of advances and retreats, finally pulling north of the Great Lakes region by 9,500 B.P. As the major continental glaciers retreated to the north, the massive quantities of meltwater contributed to the formation and evolution of what would become the five Great Lakes.

The evolutionary history of the Great Lakes is a complex one in which the actions of the retreating glacial ice have been responsible for not only creating the basins that the lakes would eventually fill, but also in the opening and closing of many drainage outlets which over time dramatically altered the size and extent of the lakes (Hough 1958; Larsen 1999). The following summary of the Pleistocene and Holocene evolution of the Great Lakes is drawn from Larsen (1999). By about 11,600-11,300 B.P., the glacial ice had withdrawn from much of the Great Lakes region, with the exception of the Lake Superior basin which remained covered in ice. Smaller lakes occupied the Lake Ontario and Erie basins, while the northern portion of the Lake Huron basin was occupied by the Main Algonquin lake and the Lake Michigan basin was occupied by Lake Chicago. The Chicago-Main Algonquin lake basin drained to the south via the Chicago Outlet and the lower lakes drained to the east into the St Lawrence River. By 11,200-11,000 B.P., the glacial ice had receded farther to the north, uncovering an outlet at the Mink Lake Sill in Ontario, and allowing the Main Lake Algonquin to abandon the Chicago Outlet and drain eastward down the Petawa River to the St. Lawrence. Lake levels may have then gradually receded as the drainage to the east paralleled the retreating ice front until the North Bay Outlet was exposed in Ontario. Drainage through this outlet led to the extreme low water conditions, between about 10,000-8,000 B.P., when the Lake Michigan basin was occupied by Lake Chippewa and the Lake Huron basin by Lake Stanley at elevations as much as 50 meters lower than the Lake Chicago-Main Lake Algonquin levels. The Lake Superior basin remained ice-filled during this period. Crustal rebound of the North Bay Outlet allowed the lakes to begin a steady rise in levels, and the Michigan and Huron basins were eventually joined again through the Straits of Mackinac by about 8,150 B.P. Lake levels continued to rise in the Michigan and Huron basins as the North Bay Outlet was abandoned around 4,500 B.P. The high water stages of Lake Nipissing and Lake Algoma are identified by terraces dated between 4,500-3,200 B.P and indicate that the Lake Michigan, Lake Superior and Lake Huron basins were confluent during the Nipissing high water stage which drained into the Lake Erie and Ontario basins via the St. Clair River. With the dropping of Lake Algoma below the St. Mary’s River spillway about 3,000 B.P., the Lake Superior basin was separated from the lower lakes, and the Great Lakes system took on an essentially modern character, marked by less extreme, though more cyclical, alterations in lake levels.

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Drainages

The project area is located within the lower portion of the Kalamazoo River drainage. The Kalamazoo River is one of the major drainages emptying into Lake Michigan and its watershed drains a large region of southern and southwestern lower Michigan. In part due to the presence of the coastal sand dunes which impeded the flow of the river toward Lake Michigan, the lower Kalamazoo River expands greatly to the east of the coastal dunes and forms two large, shallow lakes, Kalamazoo Lake and Douglas Bayou in its lower reaches. These lakes are flanked by extensive wetlands that occupy large portions of the valley floor and are cut by several former river channels. The Rabbit River is a major tributary of the lower Kalamazoo, and several smaller streams such as Silver Creek, Tannery Creek and Goshorn Creek empty into the lower river. A few small natural lakes are found just to the east of the dunes and include Goshorn Lake, Gilligan Lake and Kelly Lake. Small streams such as Halfway Creek flow west from the dune belt into Lake Michigan.

Soils

The distribution of soil types in and near the project area is due in large measure to the distribution of Pleistocene-age features such as morainal ridges, outwash deposits, lake plains, dunes, and drainage- related settings that comprise the landscape. Soils are strongly influenced by the parent materials within which they formed, and their vegetational communities, moisture retention capacity, and topographic setting all contribute to soil formation and the resulting soil types. Time, climatic regime, annual precipitation and drainage characteristics are also responsible for differences in soil formation processes (Whiteside, Schneider and Cook 1956).

The project area is located within the Oakville soil association which is characterized by nearly level to steeply sloping, moderately well-drained to well-drained soils that formed in sandy sediments on outwash plains, lake plains, sand dunes, and beach terraces (Knapp 1987). Specific soil types found within the project area consist of Dune Land and Beaches, which comprise the majority of the western and northern portions of the project area and consist of areas of aeolian dune sands and lacustrine deposits of beach sands. Oakville loamy fine sand, 18 to 45 percent slopes; Chelsea loamy fine sand, 0 to 6 percent slopes; Plainfield sand, lake plain, 0 to 6 percent slopes; and Plainfield sand, lake plain, 6 to 10 percent slopes soils are also present within the project area. These soils formed beneath native mixed hardwood and hemlock forest vegetation and, in the case of the Dune Land and Beaches, in areas of shifting sandy sediments that were largely devoid of permanent vegetative cover (Natural Resources Conservation Service 2017a, 2017b).

Natural Setting

The North Shore Saugatuck project area is located within an area characterized by glacially-formed topography that has been influenced by the climate to support a variety of flora and fauna. These natural features have in turn influenced where and how people have lived on the landscape.

Climate. The climate of Michigan has undergone significant change since the final retreat of glacial ice from the Lower Peninsula and eastern Upper Peninsula about 9,900 B.P. During the Pleistocene, the climate was directly influenced by the presence of the ice front. In general the climate has experienced a long-term warming trend since the terminal Pleistocene, but one that has been marked by both colder and warmer climatic intervals (Fagan 2000; Kapp 1999). A major world-wide climatic shift, the Hypsithermal Interval, between about 8,500-5,000 B.P. resulted in warmer and possibly drier climatic conditions across much of the Midwest. In general, the early Holocene climate was cooler and wetter than the present 6 regime that has remained relatively stable, though with some fluctuation, since the end of the mid Holocene Hypsithermal at about 5,000 B.P. (Deevey and Flint 1957; Fagan 2000; Kapp 1999; Wendlund 1978).

The modern climate in Michigan shows considerable variation from south to north and east to west and is greatly influenced by the generally downwind location with respect to the Great Lakes (Brunnschweiler 1964; Eichmeier 1964). Along the Michigan-Indiana line, mean annual temperatures are greater than 8.9 degrees Centigrade while in the Keweenaw Peninsula they are less than 4.4 degrees Centigrade. Rainfall ranges between 914 millimeters in southwestern Lower Michigan to 711 millimeters in northeastern Lower Michigan (Kapp 1999:34), and annual snowfall totals range from 4 meters in the western Upper Peninsula to less than 76 centimeters in the southeastern portion of the Lower Peninsula (Fitting 1975:24). The southern portion of the state could be described as having a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters, and well-distributed precipitation throughout the year. In Northern Lower Michigan and the Upper Peninsula, the climate is more continental, with shorter growing season, greater daily temperature range, and higher winter snowfall (Kapp 1999:34).

The climate of Allegan County is significantly influenced by the presence of Lake Michigan and its modifying effects on wind and weather patterns. Areas within a few miles of the eastern Lake Michigan shore experience a longer growing season than areas of the interior, as westerly winds blowing across the lake become warmer, picking up heat from the surface waters. Moderated summer temperatures are the result of winds blowing from the west being cooled by the lake. Increased precipitation is also characteristic of the lake effect region on the lee shores of Lake Michigan, especially during the winter when the relatively warm lake waters give off moisture that then precipitates downwind over the cooler land. Minimum winter temperatures recorded along the lake are consistently higher than recorded from locations in the eastern portions of the counties. The growing season in the project area is around 170 days and average annual precipitation ranges between 813-965 millimeters. Snowfall ranges between 1778-2540 millimeters and falls off rapidly to the east (Albert 1995).

Vegetation. Vegetation patterns within Michigan have altered significantly as the post-glacial Holocene climate has evolved (Bryant and Holloway 1985). During the late Pleistocene, after 12,500 B.P., tundra, boreal forest and boreal parklands covered the ice-free portion of southern Lower Michigan. Spruce (Picea) predominated in the forest, along with a few deciduous genera including ash (Fraxinus), birch (Betula), and elm (Ulmus). Between 11,800-9,900 B.P., forest cover expanded throughout the state as various pines (Pinus) such as red and jack pine, and later white pine, began to replace spruce. Forest composition also became more diverse with mixed red and white pine forest also supporting a growing proportion of deciduous taxa such as birch, aspen (Populus), oak (Quercus), and elm. Butternut (Juglans cinera) may have been a component of the Michigan forest by 10,000 B.P. but other taxa such as beech (Fagus), hemlock (Tsuga), hickory (Carya), and basswood (Tilia) had not yet moved northward from their southern glacial refugia. The early Holocene witnessed a major northward expansion of white pine and hemlock, which may have been aided by the exposed lakebeds of the Chippewa-Stanley Low Water Stage in the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron basins. Beech (Fagus grandifolia) appeared in Michigan during the mid-Holocene and this taxa migrated northward in the lake effect band of moderate and moist climate along the eastern Lake Michigan shoreline.

Paleoecological evidence for the Hypsithermal Interval is poorly understood in Michigan when compared to other portions of the Midwest. The general Holocene trend appears to indicate a complex series of ecological settings that suggest increasing temperatures for the entire period of about 9,000- 2,500 B.P. Around 5,000 B.P. increasing levels of oak pollen and decreasing quantities of beech suggest a warmer and drier climate in southern Michigan. The climate may have ameliorated around 4,500-3,500 7

B.P. across much of northern and central Michigan, but warm and dry conditions persisted to about 2,500 B.P. in the southern portion of the state. Oak-hickory forest cover expanded on the drier morainal hills and uplands, while more mesic beech-maple forest was restricted to clayey and moist soils on ground moraines and outwash deposits. Between 3,000-1,500 B.P., beech-maple forest expanded at the expense of oak-hickory forest in southern Michigan and white pine moved southward to form mixed pine- hardwood forest in central parts of the state. Over the past 1,500 years vegetation patterns have fluctuated in response to alterations in climate but the most extensive changes were the result of widespread logging and land clearing during the 19th century (Kapp 1999:47-58).

Pre-settlement vegetation in the region the project area consisted of a mix of climax forest communities owing to its location in a transitional region between the Beech-Maple climax forest region and the Hemlock-White Pine-Northern Hardwoods region. The transitional nature of the climax vegetation communities is mirrored in the soils which are transitional between the gray-brown forest soils and the more northern podzolic soils. The main pre-settlement forest types in the region include beech- maple forest; oak-hickory-maple forest; and oak-pine forest on mesic and dry uplands; and swamp forest or wet forest communities including silver maple, elm, ash and/or cedar, hemlock, spruce in depressions, poorly drained lake plains and alluvial valleys (Braun 1950; Brewer n.d..; Veatch 1959). Albert and Comer (2008) analyzed the United States General Land Office survey records and used the information to compile maps of native vegetation encountered by the surveyors. Their analysis places the project area within a band of Beech-Maple-Hemlock forest with large areas to the north of the mouth of the Kalamazoo River depicted as open sand dunes. Brewer (n.d.), in a map of southwestern Michigan pre- settlement vegetation compiled from various sources, indicates that much of the project area is within a region historically vegetated in beech-maple forest. To the south, between the Rabbit and Kalamazoo rivers, is a large expanse of oak-pine forest and to the west is a band of beech-maple forest with hemlock that extends eastward from the Lake Michigan littoral. Small areas of swamp and bog forest are depicted along the Kalamazoo River and in extreme southeastern Ottawa County. In addition to the canopy species, many varieties of small trees, shrubs, vines, and understory woody vegetation could also be found within the project area and would have varied along with the dominant climax forest (Billington 1949). These woodlands would have provided numerous edible fruits, nuts, seeds, greens, tubers, and fungi throughout the year that would have contributed to the aboriginal subsistence base (Havard 1895; King 1984; Smith 1933; H.V. Smith 1961; Yarnell 1964). The floodplain along the Kalamazoo River would have supported a variety of riparian, marsh, and wetland communities. Ecological communities would be expected to have had many productive ecotone settings, especially along the linear habitats found within a few miles of the Lake Michigan shore and along the major drainages such as the Kalamazoo and Rabbit River valleys.

Fauna

The extensive modification of the natural landscape since the middle of the nineteenth century has altered species distributions and composition throughout Michigan. Many species were decimated in the middle to late-1800s through overhunting and overfishing, landscape modification, and loss of habitat- most prominently through the effects of large-scale lumbering. However, documentary and archaeological evidence suggests that a number of species were present in the project area in the early nineteenth century. Species distribution is to a certain degree related to the distribution of vegetation types and communities across the landscape. Primary habitats within the region included beech-maple forest, oak- hickory-maple and oak-pine forest, bottomland and swamp forest, and aquatic and riverine communities. Mammals available for meat or fur included eastern cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus), woodchuck (Marmota monax), gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), fox squirrel (Sciurus niger), gray wolf (Canis lupus), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), coyote (Canis latrans), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon 8

(Procyon lotor), black bear (Ursus americanus), river otter (Lutra canadensis), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), badger (Taxidea taxus), cougar (Felis concolor), bobcat (Felis rufus), elk (Cervus canadensis), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), beaver (Castor canadensis), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), and mink (Mustela vison) (Jones and Birney 1988; Kays and Wilson 2009).

Avifauna would have included both resident species such as wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius), and ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), as well as numerous species of migratory ducks, geese, raptors, and smaller passerine species that would have been seasonally available during their breeding seasons or on annual migrations through the region (Shorger 1955; Sibley 2000). Many species of fish would have been available in Lake Michigan, the Kalamazoo River or nearby Ribbit River such as smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui), walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), yellow perch (Perca flavescens), drum (Aplodinotus grunniens), northern pike (Esox lucius), bowfin (Amia calva), catfish and bullheads (Ictalurus spp.), suckers (Catostomidae), and smaller taxa such as sunfish (Lepomis spp.). Potamodrous species, those that migrate from freshwater lakes into rivers and streams to spawn, such as the lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) and members of the sucker family (Catostomidae) would also have been present within these river systems during their spring spawning runs (Hubbs and Lagler 1947). The recovery of substantial quantities of sturgeon bone from refuse pits at the Schwerdt and Elam sites located on the Kalamazoo River attest to the importance of these large fish in the subsistence and settlement strategies of the late prehistoric inhabitants of the area (Cremin 1980, 1983; Higgins 1980). Within Lake Michigan, large species such as the lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush namaycush), lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), and cisco (Coregonus artedi artedi) which spawn in the fall on reefs and shoals may also have been targeted by Native American populations beginning with the development of the inland shore pattern of fishing utilizing nets and weirs during the Late Woodland period (Cleland 1982; Smith 2004). These species were also heavily targeted by commercial fishermen beginning in the nineteenth century (Bogue 2000). In addition, many varieties of aquatic and terrestrial turtles, invertebrates, reptiles and amphibians, and freshwater mussels would also have been available for collection and harvest during the warmer months of the year from the aquatic and riparian habitats along the Lake Michigan shoreline and Kalamazoo River as well as many of the smaller-order tributaries and inland lakes (Cleland 1966; Cummings and Mayer 1992; Harding 2000; Higgins 1990).

CULTURAL CONTEXT

The North Shore of Saugatuck project area is situated within a glacially formed late Wisconsin landscape that is characterized by nearly level glacial lake plain topography closely associated with a narrow band of coastal dunes and low moraines that generally parallel the eastern coast of Lake Michigan. The native vegetation consisted primarily of communities of oak-hickory and beech-maple forest, interspersed with wetland and aquatic habitats. The landforms and their associated biota (aquatic, wetland and terrestrial) affected the ways in which Native American and early historic Euro-American peoples utilized the area. Previous archaeological research in southwestern Michigan has identified areas adjacent to permanent water sources, such as creeks, rivers, marshes, kettle lakes, and Lake Michigan as having a high potential for archaeological sites. A review of the archaeological record of southwest Michigan indicates evidence for a long human occupation of the area, extending from Paleoindian to recent times.

The State of Michigan possesses a rich and varied archaeological record which includes sites and materials dating from the earliest Native American occupations of the state, during the terminal Pleistocene nearly 11,000 years ago, to numerous historic European and Euro-American sites, important

9 examples of industrial technologies, processes and machinery developed during the growth of the Industrial Age, and numerous shipwrecks throughout the Great Lakes. Excellent summaries of the archaeological record of Michigan are available by Fitting (1975), Halsey (1999), Holman, Brashler and Parker (1996), and Mason (1981). Given the large body of archaeological sites, site reports, and other works detailing aspects of the Michigan archaeological record, the following cultural overview will focus on the region of southwestern Michigan within which the present project was undertaken. This overview will detail the major prehistoric, proto-historic, and early historic cultural developments that have been documented within the southwestern Michigan region and is intended to provide background information with which to contextualize the findings generated through this research project.

Paleoindian Period (prior to 10,000 B.P.)

The Paleoindian period (prior to 10,000 B.P.) marks the earliest known habitation of the Midwestern United States by Native Americans. Paleoindian groups were highly mobile, generalized hunter-gatherers moving on a seasonal basis to utilize available natural resources (Dragoo 1976). Subsistence strategies focused on the hunting of megafauna (e.g., caribou and mastodon) as well as a broad spectrum of smaller animal and plant species. As such, the Paleoindians were opportunists living under changing climatic and environmental conditions as the Pleistocene ice sheets were retreating northward. Paleoindian groups were small and integrated into egalitarian bands.

Much of the archaeological research on the Paleoindians has been limited to lithic materials located on the surface, especially distinct lanceolate hafted bifaces associated with regional traditions. In Michigan, diagnostic fluted projectile point styles include Enterline, Gainey, Barnes, and Holcombe. The reported points are often very similar to those found in the Great Plains and Southwest regions of North America, as exemplified by Clovis Cluster and Lanceolate Plano Cluster points (Buckmaster and Paquette 1996; Mason 1981; Shott and Wright 1999). However, some points, such as those of the Cumberland Cluster, are also characteristic of eastern North America (Justice 1987). The lanceolate points rarely have been recovered from secure datable contexts or in association with organic remains.

Few Paleoindian sites are reported in Michigan and no significant Paleoindian sites are reported from southwestern Michigan. Many surface finds of Paleoindian projectile points have been made in southwestern Michigan, in areas of the state where prairies were concentrated, suggesting that these areas may have supported open spruce parkland environments while other areas of the state were covered in dense boreal forest (Fitting 1975:38). Paleoindian groups entered a landscape still dominated by sub- arctic grassland and scattered coniferous forest, which, by the end of the Paleoindian period, was replaced by dense boreal forest in the southern portion of the state. Environmental conditions at the end of the ice age were rapidly changing and Paleoindian populations would likely have had to have been flexible in their economic strategies in order to survive, shifting their focus from large mammal hunting to hunting many small mammal species and increasingly utilizing edible plants (Shott and Wright 1999). Unfortunately, many aspects of the Paleoindian adaptation to Michigan environments remain unknown due to the scarcity of intact Paleoindian sites and preserved organic materials that could provide radiocarbon dates.

Archaic Periods

The Early and Middle Archaic periods in Michigan are represented only by the recovery of diagnostic lithic artifacts and are presented as a combined temporal period spanning between 10,000-5,000 B.P. The subsequent Late Archaic period is far better understood archaeologically, and numerous sites have been investigated in southwestern lower Michigan. 10

Early and Middle Archaic (10,000-5,000 B.P.). Occupations corresponding to those identified as Early and Middle Archaic in other portions of the Midwest are not well represented in the Michigan archaeological record, and these two temporal periods are considered here together. Over this span of approximately 5,000 years, the environments in Michigan were dominated first by boreal forest communities and later by pine forest. Deciduous forest communities were most common in the southern portion of the state. This period also spans the Chippewa-Stanley low water stage in the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron basins. Fitting (1975:64-67) has suggested that Early and Middle Archaic occupations in Michigan were infrequent, and that population densities were very low due to the dense boreal and pine forest environments across much of the state which did not well suit the evolving Archaic adaptive strategies. The existence of a huge expanse of newly drained lakebed in the Lake Michigan and Huron basins has also been suggested as a contributing factor, with this area postulated as being more productive than the dense coniferous forest and therefore more frequently utilized. If such a scenario is at work, then the lakebeds may hold the bulk of the material remains of Early and Middle Archaic populations (Shott 1999). Recent research beneath Lake Huron has produced just such evidence on the Alpena-Amberley Ridge. Here, beneath the surface of Lake Huron is evidence for organized caribou hunting utilizing stone blinds and linear rock walls dating to approximately 9,000 years B.P. along with evidence for spruce and tamarack trees and the presence of wood charcoal (O’Shea and Meadows 2009; Sonnenburg and O’Shea 2016). While Early Archaic sites are rare in Michigan, surface finds do indicate the presence of Plano and Kirk type projectile points within the state. Radiocarbon dates are lacking and the Early Archaic chronology, site patterning, and adaptive strategy remains to be fully explicated.

Middle Archaic occupations are better known, especially in the Saginaw Bay region, and the evolution of a more deciduous forest community across the state and climatic shifts to warmer conditions likely played a large role in the increasing numbers of Middle Archaic occupations. Cleland (1966) has suggested that essentially modern distributions of deciduous, mixed deciduous-coniferous, and coniferous forest communities essentially reached their modern limits sometime after 7,000 B.P. Such conditions may have been more amenable to Archaic populations and conducive to increasing population densities. Middle Archaic sites were also likely located on exposed lakebeds in the Lake Michigan and Huron basins or along their shores, settings now covered by the modern lakes. The Saginaw Bay Middle Archaic data indicates that these populations had adopted a settlement strategy based on the occupation of large residential sites and the use of numerous ancillary extractive locales in a logistically organized system (Fairchild 1977; Fitting 1975; Lovis 1999; Lovis and Robertson 1989).

Late Archaic (5,000-2,500 B.P.). The Late Archaic period in Michigan is represented by a number of excavated site contexts that extend from Isle Royale in northwestern Lake Superior, to the Saginaw Bay region, and throughout the Lower Peninsula. Consequently, the Late Archaic is better understood in terms of both its chronology and the adaptive strategies employed by Late Archaic populations than the preceding Middle and Early Archaic. Projectile points show increasing typological variation during this time, but also exhibit similarity across long distances suggesting that increasing exchange and interaction characterizes this period. Participation in regional mortuary-ceremonial complexes such as Glacial Kame, Red Ochre, and Old Copper all point to growing interactions throughout the Great Lakes region (Fitting 1975; Mason 1981). Side notched, corner-notched, and expanding-stemmed forms predominate and may be correlated with similar projectile point styles outside Michigan. Available data indicate that Late Archaic populations had adapted to a broad range of environmental settings and that the subsistence base had broadened significantly to include a variety of plant, mammal, and freshwater fish resources. Marsh and wetland habitats may have been central to the Late Archaic economy (Robertson et al. 1999).

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In southwestern Michigan, several excavated multi-component sites with Late Archaic components have provided excellent data on technology, subsistence and seasonality of occupation. These sites, Eidson (20BE122), Rock Hearth (20BE306), Wymer (20BE132), and Stover (20BE307), were excavated in advance of planned construction of the U. S. Highway 31 freeway project in Berrien County by Western Michigan University (Garland 1990a). At Rock Hearth, evidence for Late Archaic structures was exposed in the form of two wall trench segments containing postmolds. These structures were likely rectangular with rounded corners and had interior dimensions of about 2.5-x-3.0 meter. Abundant floral and faunal materials excavated at Rock Hearth suggest a late summer to early autumn occupation with numerous mammal species and nuts providing the bulk of the subsistence base. Radiocarbon dates place the Late Archaic occupation at Rock Hearth at about 3,750 B.P. Similar short-term occupations have been excavated at the Stover site where autumn nut collection and hide processing were the principal activities undertaken. A single radiocarbon assay places the Stover occupation at about 3,400 B.P. The Wymer and Eidson sites, dating to the terminal Late Archaic, show increasing occupational intensity reflected by more numerous and diverse feature types and increasing material density. These sites may have been reoccupied numerous times during the Late Archaic on a seasonal basis. Abundant floral and faunal remains excavated at Eidson include a single sunflower achene, acorns, hickory and black walnut, and beech nut. The Late Archaic occupation at Eidson is dated to 2,960 B.P. (Garland 1990; Robertson et al 1999).

Woodland Periods

The Woodland is divided into three periods, Early Woodland (2,500-2,000 B.P.), Middle Woodland (2,000-1,500 B.P.), and Late Woodland (1,500-900 B.P.) and is well represented within southwestern Michigan.

Early Woodland (2,500-2,000 B.P.). Early Woodland occupations in Michigan witness the introduction of thick ceramic vessels and the increasing utilization of native cultigens such as squash and sunflower (Garland and Beld 1999; Fitting 1975; Mason 1981). Despite the introduction of new ceramic technology and an increasing reliance on cultivated plant foods, the adaptive strategies employed, at least during the early portion of the Early Woodland, are very similar to those of the preceding Late Archaic period. Stemmed or weakly shouldered projectile point forms such as Kramer and Adena are characteristic of the Early Woodland, and Kramer points are almost always present on sites producing Marion Thick pottery. At the Elam site, located on the Kalamazoo River in Allegan County, a radiocarbon date of 590+65 B.C. was obtained on a feature containing Marion Thick pottery (Garland 1986). Floral and faunal materials recovered from the site include nutshell and turtle remains suggesting a warm season occupation during the Early Woodland period. Work at the Wymer West Knoll in Berrien County indicates a similar Early Woodland use of the St. Joseph River floodplain (Garland and Beld 1999). The Early Woodland period also seems to show indications of interaction with areas outside Michigan especially in the ceramic assemblage from the latter part of this period. Ceramics with attributes similar to types recovered in Illinois and Ohio perhaps are indicative of multiple influences on the Michigan Early Woodland populations. In Berrien County, conservatism in projectile point technology is indicated in the predominance of crudely made corner notched (Berrien Corner Notched) points in Late Archaic through Early Middle Woodland assemblages. Available data suggest that, at least in southwestern Michigan, the Early Woodland pattern is little changed from the preceding Late Archaic in many respects (Garland and Beld 1999).

Middle Woodland (2,000-1,500 B.P.). The Middle Woodland period in Michigan is one in which regional differences in social organization, mortuary and ceremonial behaviors and the use of exotic raw materials are easily visible. In the southern portion of the state, sites exhibiting strong similarities with Havana 12

Hopewell sites in Illinois and northern Indiana are well represented, while in the Saginaw Bay region many of the attributes that characterize the western Michigan Middle Woodland cultures were only partially adopted. In the north, Middle Woodland populations for the most part did not participate in the mortuary and ceremonial aspects that characterize their southern neighbors, and began to more effectively utilize the vast runs of seasonally spawning fish from the Great Lakes. Participation in the mortuary ceremonialism of the Hopewell phenomenon is amply documented at sites such as Norton Mounds, Sumnerville Mounds, and others that represent a related, though distinct, variant of the Havana Tradition of Illinois. The Norton variant of Havana appears to be the result of an intrusive complex into the state that shows little in the way of an antecedent developmental culture. Movement out of Illinois and Indiana of Havana tradition populations likely explains the origins of the Norton Middle Woodland variant (Kingsley 1990). Middle Woodland sites in southwestern Michigan are strongly oriented toward the major drainages of the St. Joseph, Grand, and Muskegon river valleys, and a riverine economic focus is evident. A Havana-related Middle Woodland component is present at the Moccasin Bluff site (20BE8), located near Buchanan on the St. Joseph River (Bettarel and Smith 1973). The Behner site, 20BE255, a multi-component habitation site located in the lower Galien River valley was reported to have been the location of several mounds that have since been destroyed produced fingernail impressed sherds that may date to the early Middle Woodland period (Mangold 1997). Middle Woodland site locations tend to be on terraces or natural levees, on the available floodplain locations within the major drainages, and in close association to large stands of mast-producing trees (Kingsley et al. 1999). Subsistence and settlement patterns are very similar to those known from Havana groups to the south, and are based upon the seasonal exploitation of high-yield resources such as autumn nut collection, spring fishing, winter deer hunting, and spring and autumn exploitation of migratory birds.

Late Middle Woodland sites in southern Michigan show evidence of a dissolution of the Norton- Havana Hopewell mound building and mortuary ceremonialism, but also include evidence that certain Hopewellian ceramic motifs continued to be used. Burial modes change from mound internment to the use of ossuary pits in the Brainerd Phase (A.D. 300-600), which is also marked by an absence of grave goods and the use of ceremonial fire-pits (Garland 1990b). In Berrien County, the Jean Klock Park site (20BE413), located near the mouth of the Paw Paw River produced a small ceramic assemblage that may represent a terminal Middle Woodland to early Late Woodland occupation at this site. In addition, local residents reported that artifacts, including a Snyders Corner Notched projectile point and possibly human skeletal materials, had been recovered at or near the site (Cremin and Walz 1990; Cremin et al. 1991). Additional data relating to the terminal Middle Woodland period are needed to refine the chronology and to provide good contextual data relating to subsistence, settlement, and the termination of the use of Hopewellian decorative motifs on ceramic vessels.

Late Woodland (1,500-900 B.P.). The Late Woodland period represents one of the most diverse periods in the Michigan archaeological record with numerous regional complexes and cultural sequences found throughout the state (Brashler et al 1999; Fitting 1975). Ceramic styles show a high degree of homogeneity across the state suggesting that Late Woodland populations, while spatially separated, were nevertheless closely related. As in Illinois and Wisconsin, distinctive collared ceramics appear in the Late Woodland record about A.D. 900, suggesting macro-regional stylistic change and interaction (Holman and Brashler 1999). Holman and Kingsley (1996) postulate that the distribution of Late Woodland sites and ceramic traditions is indicative of cooperative buffering, where populations interacted in ways that lessened competition and allowed groups to coexist even in times of localized food shortages. Subsistence studies on Late Woodland sites indicate that hunting and fishing continued to play important roles in the economy, along with wild plant food collection and a growing contribution from cultivated plant foods (Parker 1996). Food storage appears to have become more important during the Late Woodland, as deep pits with organic fill have been excavated at many sites The Late Woodland period in lower Michigan is 13 characterized by several regional traditions that are evident in similar, though regionally-distinct ceramic styles including the Younge Tradition in southeast Michigan, the Spring Creek Tradition in the Grand and Muskegon River valleys and the Allegan Tradition within the Kalamazoo River valley. The Allegan Tradition extends from the end of the Middle Woodland period about A.D. 500 to the Upper Mississippian transition which begins around A.D. 1250 in the area. Allegan Tradition populations appear to have been year-round residents within and adjacent to the Kalamazoo River valley, as sites which were occupied during all seasons have been identified. The seasonal round likely included winter hunting camps, spring maple sap collecting locales, spring and summer fishing camps, and locations were fall- ripening nuts were collected during the autumn. Aquatic and riverine resources were likely foraged and collected throughout the seasonal round. The similarities between the various ceramic traditions that have been defined suggest that the populations inhabiting the various regions were closely related despite the differences in ceramic styles (Holman and Brashler 1999). In southwest Michigan, excavated Late Woodland sites include the Hacklander (20AE78), 46th Street (20AE38) and DeBoer (20AE62) sites in Allegan County; Moccasin Bluff (20BE8), Diffendefer (20SJ179), and Kline 1 (20SJ29) (Bettarel and Smith 1973; Cremin et al. 1990). Population densities are higher during the Late Woodland than in preceding periods, and this likely resulted in shrinking procurement territories as the landscape became more filled with people. Such a restriction in territory is likely responsible for intensification in agricultural activities which in turn may have necessitated the need for additional food storage capabilities.

Upper Mississippian Period

The Upper Mississippian period (900-350 B.P.) in Michigan represents the final stage of prehistory in the state. Upper Mississippian occupations in Michigan document the adoption of Mississippian cultural ideas and practices into an otherwise Late Woodland cultural pattern. Shell-tempered ceramics are diagnostic of certain Upper Mississippian occupations, while other occupations show continued manufacture of grit-tempered ceramics with otherwise Upper Mississippian motifs. The Moccasin Bluff (A.D. 1050-1400) and succeeding Berrien (A.D. 1400-1600) phases are well represented in southwestern Michigan and the ceramic assemblages are related to, but distinct from the Fisher and Huber traditions of northern Illinois and Indiana. Both the Moccasin Bluff and Berrien Phase ceramic assemblages are predominantly grit-tempered wares that share stylistic motifs with Oneota traditions to the west of Lake Michigan but which exhibit considerable continuity with Late Woodland ceramic traditions which developed in situ within lower Michigan (Cremin 1992; McAllister 1999). Subsistence activities were based on a mixed horticultural-fishing-hunting-gathering strategy undertaken from substantial warm- season villages and affiliated seasonal extractive and logistical encampments. Aquatic and riverine floral and faunal resources were heavily utilized by Upper Mississippian populations in southwestern Michigan (Cremin 1983, 1999; Parachini 1981; Walz n.d., 1991, 1992).

In Berrien County, Upper Mississippian components have been excavated at Moccasin Bluff (20BE8) on the St. Joseph River, at the Sima Tract sites 20BE405, 20BE410, and 20BE411 located near the mouth of the Galien River, and at the Wymer site (20BE132). Site 20BE410, located just north of New Buffalo, produced excellent floral and faunal data associated with scant ceramic and lithic materials from deep roasting pit features preserved on a bluff overlooking an extensive marsh in the lower Galien River valley (Cremin and Walz 1989; Cremin et al. 1990; Cremin et al. 1991). Site 20BE410 produced a single maize kernel from a pit feature dated at 310+50 B.P. in addition to examples of American lotus (Nelumbo lutea), tubers, and several varieties of wild fruits. The archaeobotanical and faunal assemblages from 20BE410 indicate that a variety of wild resources found in or near the extensive wetlands were utilized (Cremin et al 1990). This site also produced a piece of European trade brass, possibly the back portion of a brass bell, from a feature with a highly suspect radiocarbon age. These Sima Tract sites point to the seasonal 14 exploitation of aquatic and riparian plant and animal taxa from small specialized encampments during the warm season, and possibly during the fall and winter as important components of the Berrien Phase subsistence and settlement system (Cremin 1990, 1996, 1999; Cremin, Walz and Goatley 1991; Walz 2007). To date, no examples of the postulated winter hunting villages have been identified that may be correlated with the Berrien Phase in southwestern Michigan, and the evidence for the summer agricultural village, at least one in which maize agriculture was the economic focus, thus far appears less than convincing (Cremin 1981, 1996).

The Upper Mississippian components at both Moccasin Bluff and Wymer appear to represent substantial village occupations in riverine settings (Bettarel and Smith 1973; Cremin 1999; Garland 1991; Garland and Mangold 1980) that have been viewed as analogous to those proposed by Fitting and Cleland (1969) in their Miami or Potawatomi model of late prehistoric cultural organization. Recent research at Moccasin Bluff, however, has led to a reappraisal of the site as an agricultural village, at least one where maize was the dominant crop. Pollen core analysis and macrobotanical remains indicate that while maize was indeed present, horticultural activities involving indigenous Eastern Agricultural Complex taxa and the collection of wild marsh and wetland plants are far better represented in the archaeological record than is maize agricultural production (Adkins 2003). Thus while the site may have indeed served as a main village-type settlement, the role of maize agriculture appears to be less important than previously envisioned. It is also noteworthy that no sites identified as short-term seasonal camps or extractive locales are known from the lower St. Joseph valley during the late prehistoric period (Cremin 1992, 1996, 1999; Garland 1991). Future research may refine the interpretations and applicability of ethnohistoric models to archaeological sites and assemblages (Adkins 2003; O’Gorman 2003, 2007).

To the north, Upper Mississippian components dating to both the Moccasin Bluff and Berrien phases have been excavated along the Kalamazoo River in Allegan County. At the Allegan Dam site, shell- tempered ceramics that appear to represent a local variant of Fisher series ceramics have been recovered in dated contexts ranging between 1210±100 and 1310± A.D (Spero 1979). The Allegan Dam site is interpreted as a short-term extractive camp. The Elam and Schwerd sites, also located along the Kalamazoo River, are again representative of Upper Mississippian riverine-oriented extractive camps. Spring-spawning sturgeon were targeted at both sites, while the Elam faunal assemblage suggests a longer period of occupancy and broader resource exploitation. Archaeobotanical remains indicate that starchy tubers of the American lotus (Nelumbo lutea) were targeted along with the sturgeon at Elam and Schwerdt (Cremin 1980; Higgins 1980; Parker 1996; Parachini 1981; Walz 1991, 1992). Elam has radiocarbon dates that place its occupation during both the Moccasin Bluff and Berrien phases while Schwerdt appears to have been occupied only during the Berrien Phase (Cremin 1999).

Historic Period

Owing to its central location within the Great Lakes system, the area that would become the State of Michigan witnessed significant European interest, exploration, and settlement beginning during the seventeenth century and continuing up to its attaining statehood in 1837. The early French explorers and missionaries encountered many villages inhabited by Native Americans who spoke dialects of two distinct languages, Algonquian and Iroquoian. The former was spoken by tribal entities such as the Odawa (Ottawa), Ojibwa (Chippewa), and Potawatomi, while the latter was the language of the Huron. The entry of the early Europeans to the Great Lakes region is in part responsible for a tremendous disruption to the lives of the native inhabitants during which inter-group hostilities intensified in efforts to gain advantage in exchange with the Europeans, massive population dislocations and relocations resulted from growing conflict, economic and technological systems of the aboriginal inhabitants were radically altered by Old World guns, kettles, and metal tools, and disease took the lives of many. It is during this 15 turbulent period that the historically known tribes of the Great Lakes such as the Pottawatomi, Ojibwa, and Odawa were evolving and solidifying (Brose 1978; Brown 1975; Cleland 1999; Clifton 1978; Clifton Cornell, and McClurken 1986; Eccles 1998; Feest and Feest 1978; Heldman 1999; Kinietz 1989; McDonnell 2015; Stewart 1970; Stone and Chaput 1978).

The French established a fort, Fort Miami, at the mouth of the St. Joseph River in 1679, and later built Fort St. Joseph near Niles in 1719. Fort St. Joseph was an important trade and military outpost for the French and British until it was abandoned in 1781 (Nassaney, Cremin, Kurtweill, and Brandão 2003). The early French interest in the area was principally due to the nearby location of the portage between the St. Joseph and Kankakee rivers, which provided access to the Mississippi River drainage as well as to the interior of the continent. The St. Joseph River was an important route for the voyageurs and trappers traveling the interior, and was central to the development of New France (Balesi 1992; Johnson 1971).

In southwestern Michigan, archaeological and ethnohistoric data have also been brought to bear on the nature of the Upper Mississippian Berrien phase and its interpretation as a prehistoric manifestation of the Potawatomi tribe. While French documents suggest that the Miami were in residence in southwestern Michigan in 1679 in the region of the St. Joseph River, Cremin (1983, 1999) has argued that the grit tempered ceramics of the Berrien Phase may be seen as proto-Potawatomi, and that the recovery of such materials in sites along the east coast of Lake Michigan documents their presence in Michigan prior to their relocation to the west shore of Lake Michigan where they are placed by the French in the middle seventeenth century. In this interpretation, the Miami are linked by Cremin with the Huber Phase archaeological materials recovered in the Chicago area and northwest Indiana, and are seen as late arrivals in southwest Michigan. It should be noted that this interpretation of the Miami being equated with the Huber Phase is disputed by those who see a more likely connection between the archaeologically-known Huber Phase and the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) tribe located to the west of Lake Michigan (e.g. Brown 1990).

With the passing of the Land Ordinance of 1785, lands located to the north and west of the Ohio River were to be purchased from the Native American inhabitants and surveyed into townships of six miles square. These lands became known as the Northwest Territory, and the Ordinance of 1787 provided for the establishment of a government and set of procedures that would eventually lead to the establishment of a number of individual states. The Northwest Territory, including present day Michigan became an official entity in 1789 and was soon subdivided in 1800, with the western portions transferred to the Indiana Territory. In 1805, the Michigan Territory was created with organizing principles similar to those of the Ordinance of 1787 (Gilpin 1970). In 1805, Territorial Governor William Hull divided the Michigan territory into four jurisdictional districts; Detroit, Erie, Huron and Michilimackinac that were used in the 1810 federal census and acted as administrative units that carried out many of the judicial and civil functions of county government. Hull’s successor, Lewis Cass, initiated the county system in 1815 with the creation of Wayne County in the southeast and began laying out counties within the boundaries of the four districts. The districts continued to function in judicial matters until 1818, but had ceased to operate by 1820 when the federal census of the Michigan territory was undertaken using the county as the geographical unit. The State of Michigan was created on 26 January 1837 (Long 1997).

Acquisition of territory by treaty with the resident Native American populations began in 1807 with the Treaty of Detroit. The 1821 Treaty of Chicago ceded much of the land in southwestern Michigan between the St. Joseph and Grand Rivers. By the 1842 Treaty of La Pointe, nearly all the lands that would come to be included within the State of Michigan had been ceded by their original inhabitants (Bald 1961; Kappler 1973; Institute for the Development of Indian Law 1974). Despite the cession of their ancestral lands, one group of Potawatomi, known as Pokagon’s Band led by Chief Leopold Pokagon, was able to 16 remain in southwestern Michigan following the removal of most other native populations. Pokagon’s village was located within Bertrand Township in St. Joseph County near the Old Sauk Trail and a few miles north and west of present-day South Bend. As settlers began to enter the lands in northwest Indiana and southwest Michigan in increasing numbers, the federal government stepped up its efforts to acquire the territory and remove the indigenous populations. Following the signing of the 1833 Treaty of Chicago, the Pokagon Band had ceded their remaining lands to the federal government. Pokagon and his wife; however, sold their 640 acres of land along the St. Joseph River granted by the Treaty of Tippecanoe in 1832 and purchased about 713 acres in Silver Creek Township near Dowagiac in Cass County, Michigan. Following a request that Pokagon and his band be allowed to remain in Michigan, they removed from Berrien County to the recently purchased land in Silver Creek Township where they organized the first Catholic Church. Leopold Pokagon died on 08 July 1841; however, the Pokagon Band continues to occupy a portion of their former ancestral lands in southwest Michigan (Buechner 1976).

American settlement of southwest lower Michigan began in the 1820s following the cession of Native lands in the 1821 Treaty of Chicago. The settlement of the Lower Peninsula, however, was slowed by the heavily timbered and often wet interior lands, its proximity to British-controlled Upper Canada, and fears of reprisals from the recently removed Native American groups. Settlement of the Lower Peninsula occurred largely from the region of Detroit which served as an important link to Ohio and the eastern states from which supplied the raw materials and people required by the frontier economy that was developing within the region. The opening of the Chicago Road, proximity to the St. Joseph River and areas of oak savanna and prairie habitats that required little timber clearing to begin agricultural production attracted settlers to the southwestern portion of the Michigan frontier. The distribution of suitable agricultural lands in the interior also strongly influenced patterns of settlement and the development of localized economies. The difficulties in transporting supplies and commodities through the interior on often impassable roads, however, limited the economic ties to the other states and slowed growth on the Michigan frontier.

In an effort to improve the transportation of raw materials and people from the coasts into the interior, the Michigan State Legislature passed the Internal Improvement Act shortly after attaining Statehood in 1837. This act provided for the financing and construction of three new railroad lines and two canals. The most ambitious portion of the plan was a canal to be excavated from Lake St. Clair westward over 347 kilometers miles across the State to Singapore, a lumber port located near the mouth of the Kalamazoo River on Lake Michigan. The Clinton-Kalamazoo Canal was envisioned by Governor Steven T. Mason as being similar to the Erie Canal which provided passage to many of the immigrants moving west into the State of Michigan. Work on the canal began on 20 July 1838 in Clinton Township in Oakland County. Unfortunately, the financial Panic of 1837 affected the ability of the canal authorities to sell the $5 million in bonds intended to finance the project, and in April 1840, the Morris Canal and Banking Company, the bond agent, had defaulted in its payments to the State and failed to pay the canal contractors and workers. The Federal government stepped in and paid the contractors and workers in “land scrip” rather than cash; however, the lack of cash payments led to theft of equipment and supplies and the actual destruction of portions of the completed segments of the canal. By 1843, the canal project had run out of money and all construction had ceased with only about 25 kilometers of the planned route having been completed at the east end (Clinton Township Historical Commission 2017; Hour Detroit 2013; Shelby Township Historical Committee 2017; Wikipedia 2017). By the 1840s, owing in large measure to the success of the growing railroad network, the settlement of the Lower Peninsula had evolved a hierarchy of frontier towns and secondary centers with these settlements linked by growing regional road networks, rail lines and increasingly integrated economic ties (Lewis 2002).

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Much of the landscape, however, remained largely unchanged until commercial logging of the white pine and hardwoods eliminated much of the primeval forest from the Lower Peninsula between 1840- 1900. By 1900, vast tracts of the Lower Peninsula which had supported forest had been cut-over at least once, were scorched by large fires that followed the timber harvest, and were then drained and tiled and devoted to agricultural production. Extensive stretches of the northern portion of the Lower Peninsula and much of the Upper Peninsula, which were far less desirable as agricultural land, remained covered in pine and hardwood stumps and dense cedar swamps and were sparsely populated until later in the 19th century (McIntire and McKee 1964).

Allegan County

Allegan County is located along the western side of the Lower Peninsula and is bounded to the west by Lake Michigan. Allegan County is bounded to the north by Ottawa and Kent counties, to the east by Barry County and to the south by Van Buren and Kalamazoo counties. The county was created on 02 March 1831, from Barry County and non-county areas that were attached to Cass and Kalamazoo counties. On 01 April 1833, Allegan County was attached to Kalamazoo County for legal purposes and was formally organized on 07 September 1835, with the county seat located at Allegan on the Kalamazoo River. Allegan County covers approximately 2,142 square kilometers and has 40 kilometers of Lake Michigan shoreline (www.allegancounty.org 2007; Long 1997: 28).

Allegan was viewed as a favorable location for settlement owing to the potential for water power to be generated from the Kalamazoo River. At the mouth of the Kalamazoo, the town of Singapore arose during the 1830s having been backed by eastern interests as a potential Lake Michigan port to rival Chicago or Milwaukee. Saugatuck and nearby Singapore developed in the late 1830s as lumbering increased along the Kalamazoo River. Singapore flourished until the 1870s as a lumber town and lumber port until it was eventually abandoned and the locality buried beneath the shifting dunes that line the coast at the mouth of the Kalamazoo River. By 1838, steamboats operated between Saugatuck and Allegan on the Kalamazoo River and flat boats continued upriver from Allegan to Kalamazoo moving imports of supplies and freight and exports of forest products (Lewis 2002:226-227).

An important movement in the settling of northern Allegan County was the arrival in the 1840s of several covenanted communities of immigrants from the Netherlands. These immigrant groups were united in their Dutch Reformed faith and established a number of communities within which church officials organized both the secular and religious affairs of each community and these communities in turn formed the basis of a larger regional community. In northern Allegan County the communities of Overisel and Graafschap represented the southern flank of the Holland Colony which was centered in the Ottawa County community of Holland and encompassed the region from the St. Joseph River in the south to the Grand River in the north (Lewis 2002:141-149).

Saugatuck Township

Saugatuck Township, Township 03 North, Range 16 West is located in northern Allegan County, and was initially part of Newark Township which was formed in 1836 and comprised what are now the westernmost eight townships in Allegan County. In 1859, Saugatuck Township was formed within its current dimensions. The township is bounded to the north by Laketown Township, to the east by Manlius Township, to the south by Ganges Township and to the west by Lake Michigan. The name Saugatuck is said to be a translation of an Anishinabek word meaning “mouth of river” (MIGenWeb 2017). The earliest written description of the Kalamazoo River mouth area comes from Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who passed up the eastern coast of Lake Michigan in 1820 as a participant in an exploratory journey led 18 by Lewis Cass. Schoolcraft remarks that the river “…appears from its mouth to be a stream of considerable size” (Schoolcraft 1966).

The first known non-Native American residents of what would become Saugatuck Township are William G. and Mary Butler of Hartford, Connecticut who, along with their two children and supplies came ashore in the spring of 1830 from a schooner at the mouth of the Kalamazoo and erected a shelter on shore. Here they remained for several months before they eventually moved up the river to the current location of the City of Saugatuck. Butler constructed a log cabin and began trading with the Native American population of the region. In 1833, Butler platted a village that he named Kalamazoo on the land that he pre-emptively occupied on the east bank of the river. In 1834, R. R. Crosby and Edward Johonnett arrived and constructed a tannery, and were followed by Daniel Plummer, a carpenter and Stephen D. Nichols. Nichols constructed a warehouse and pier near the mouth of the Kalamazoo River on the north bank to aid the arriving settlers in storing their goods and supplies after they disembarked from the ships and boats that brought them to the coast. Soon the warehouse began receiving shipments of flour from residents in the interior that was shipped down the Kalamazoo River for eventual distribution via Lake Michigan and Nichols was thriving. In 1835, Crosby applied for a post office and was commissioned Postmaster on 04 August (Johnson 1880).

In 1837, Oshea Wilder acting as agent for a group of investors from New York including Knowles Taylor, Sampson V.S. Wilder, George Gordon and Daniel S. Jones, made a purchase of two plots of land on the north side of the Kalamazoo River totaling approximately 44.60 hectares. Wilder, under the auspices of the New York and Michigan Lumber Company soon platted the Village of Singapore at this location and embarked upon the construction of a saw mill in addition to erecting housing for the mill workers, and company store. He was able to sell a number of the lots and new arrivals took up residence in Singapore. The company prospered and in 1837 founded The Bank of Singapore with Wilder as President and Robert Hill as Cashier. The bank was referred to as a “wildcat” bank for the form of specie it issued. The Bank of Singapore issued notes in one, two, three and five dollar denominations and had the ornate bills printed in New York and shipped to Michigan. Over $15,000 dollars of the notes were put into circulation and should have been backed by the $50,000 of capital stock that was claimed in the bank’s application to the Allegan County Treasurer made on 05 October 1837. Perhaps as result of the Panic of 1837, wildcat bank notes were often not recognized or redeemed by other banks with the result that the issuing banks lost their ability to do regular business. In 1838, the General Banking Law was suspended by the State of Michigan effectively closing most of the wildcat banks. In April 1839, the investors attempted to reorganize the bank of Singapore; however, the bank was suspended after state banking commissioner made a visit. On 16 February 1842 the charter of the Bank of Singapore and other wildcat banks was annulled by the Michigan State Legislature (Lane 1994). Despite the failure of the Bank of Singapore and eventually Wilder and his fellow investors, the community continued to flourish and was occupied by between 200 and 1,000 residents at its height. Singapore was never incorporated and remained a company town. Four mills were built, but apparently only two were ever simultaneously in operation with up to 12,000 board feet of lumber per day being shipped. The first sawmill was constructed in the spring of 1837 along the banks of the Kalamazoo River in the southwest portion of Singapore. The mill building was 15-x-38-meters in size and held six boilers to produce steam for the saws (Lane 1994:24). The town included 10 to 12 residences, the wildcat bank, a general store and warehouse, a hotel/boarding house, and a cemetery, as well as a town hall. A school was operated from a lumber drying shed. An extensive dock and pier structure lined the riverbank to facilitate the shipping of lumber out and supplies into the community. In 1873, the town had as many as 20 structures. By 1875; however, the once expansive pine and hardwood forests of the Lower Peninsula were largely cut and the last mill was closed in Singapore. Many of the structures were subsequently deconstructed or moved including the mill which was disassembled and shipped north to St. Ignace in the Upper Peninsula. 19

Records indicate several houses within the Village of Saugatuck were moved from Singapore (Schmiechen 2010). The final residents of Singapore were forced to vacate the boarding house in 1896 when the drifting dune sands reached the 2nd story of the structure (Kidorf, Grammer and Busch 2010:34- 39).

Similar to Singapore, the location known as Fishtown had a relatively short existence within Saugatuck Township. Located near the natural mouth of the Kalamazoo River, Fishtown was founded by fishermen sometime during the late 1860s on the south bank. Prior to the arrival of the Euro-American fishermen, the locality was likely also seasonally occupied by Native Americans engaged in similar pursuits. Following construction of a pier between 1869-1870, the community shifted to the north side of the river and by 1881, was comprised of as many as 25 structures including residential cabins or shanties, net houses, ice houses and fish cleaning buildings. The community began to dissipate following the construction of the new channel and navigation structures to the north in 1906 as the natural river mouth was no longer dredged and began to fill with sand. Some of the structures were reportedly moved to other locations and seasonal residents constructed some cabins at the former Fishtown location (Kidorf, Grammer and Busch 2010:52-53).

Despite the short-lived settlements at Singapore and Fishtown the communities of Saugatuck and Douglas continued to grow and thrive during the 19th century as the lumber trade, shipbuilding and other manufacturing concerns and retail businesses expanded their trade. A grist mill was constructed in Saugatuck in 1866; however, it was lost to fire in 1879. In 1868, a customs house was build and in 1870 Saugatuck was named as a Port of Entry with H. R. Ellis appointed as Collector of Customs. The fire department was organized in 1873. The area also began to cultivate peaches in the late 1860s and was soon an important part of the growing fruit orchard industry that occupies a large portion of the eastern shore of Lake Michigan (Johnson 1880). During the late 19th and early 20th century the area became a popular destination for vacationers from Chicago who arrived via steamship, as well as a growing number of artists from the Chicago Art Institute. The Saugatuck Summer School of Painting was founded in 1913 and evolved into the Ox-Bow school. Summer camps and cottages were also being constructed as were instructional camps such as the Forward Movement Association in 1899 and the Oak Openings Camp in the 1930s (Kidorf, Grammer and Busch 2010:11-13). Today the Saugatuck-Douglas area remains a major summer destination for resort and seasonal residents and the surrounding area remains a major fruit producing region.

Archival Research Results

A review of the National Historic Landmarks (National Park Service 2017a) and National Register of Historic Places (National Park Service 2017b) on-line databases did not identify any historic properties within the project area; however, the Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Structures (NHHP#01001216) are located directly adjacent to the project area. These structures are two parallel piers constructed along the artificial Saugatuck Harbor channel that was excavated in the early 20th century (Figure 4). The artificial channel was an improvement over natural mouth of the Kalamazoo River as maintaining the natural channel to the south was a difficult and ongoing process due to sand deposition. Construction of the pier structures was initiated in 1904 and concluded in 1908 (National Park Service 2017a, 2017b). A review of the Michigan archaeological site files indicates that the project has not been previously surveyed and that there is a single known archaeological site, 20AE619 present within the project area. Site 20AE619 represents the former location of the town of Singapore, a middle to late-19th century lumber town constructed on the north shore of the Kalamazoo River in Section 04, Township 03 North, Range 16 West

20

SAUGATUCK QUADRANGLE ALLEGAN COUNTY - MICHIGAN 7.5 MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC) 1981

20AE619

NRHP Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Stuctures

Service Layer Credits: Copyright:© 2013 National Geographic Society, i-cubed

KEY Project Area Recorded Resources

Kilometers Miles Quadrangle 0 0.25 0.5 1 00.125 0.25 0.5 Location

Figure 4. Location of 20AE619 within project area and the NRHP-listed Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Structure adjacent to the project area.

21 (Figure 4). The extent of the site and nature of the deposits which may be present beneath the shifting dune sands are unknown as no archaeological investigations have been undertaken at the Singapore location. As result of the lack of archaeological data regarding the site, the NRHP eligibility status of 20AE619 remains unknown. Singapore was, however, listed on the Michigan State Register of Historic Places (#SO191) in 1958 and a Michigan State Historic Marker commemorating the town is located at the Saugatuck City Hall. The text of the plaque reads:

“Beneath the sands near the mouth of the Kalamazoo River lies the site of Singapore, one of Michigan’s most famous ghost towns. Founded in the 1830s by New York land speculators, who hoped it would rival Chicago or Milwaukee as a lake port, Singapore was in fact, until the 1870s, a busy lumbering town. With three mills, two hotels, several general stores, and a renowned “wildcat” bank, it outshone its neighbor to the south, “The Flats”, as Saugatuck was then called. When the supply of timber was exhausted the mills closed, the once bustling waterfront grew quiet. The people left, most of them settling here in Saugatuck. Gradually, Lake Michigan’s shifting sands buried Singapore” (Michigan Historical Markers 2017).

There are a number of prior archaeological surveys that have been undertaken in Allegan County and have resulted in the identification of a large number of prehistoric Native American sites and Historic period Euro-American sites in the vicinity of the lower Kalamazoo River. Among these survey are several random samplings of transects undertaken by the Department of Anthropology at Western Michigan University in the 1970s and early 1980s (Cremin 1981; Cremin, Hoxie and Weston 1978; Cremin and Stout 1982; Garland and Kingsley 1979; Garland and Parachini 1981). Surveys have also been undertaken in the Saugatuck Dunes State Park (Jackson, Dolanski, Halsey and Phillips 1996; Kingsley 1978) and at the Saugatuck-Douglas sewage treatment plant (Flanders 1975). Green (1958) conducted a reconnaissance survey for a proposed pipeline project which traversed Allegan County, and the Public Service Archaeology & Architecture Program conducted pipeline surveys in Allegan County in 2008 and 2011 (Walz 2008, 2011). Identified archaeological sites located within 1.6-kilometers of the project area include 20AE27; 20AE249; 20AE422; 20AE404; 20AE405; 20AE423; 20AE424; 20AE425; 20AE426; 20AE427; 20AE610; 20AE814 and 20AE853. Notable among these sites are: 20AE27, reported as the location of a prehistoric Native American village site near the mouth of the Kalamazoo River (Hinsdale 1931); 20AE249, reported as the location of numerous Native American graves on the west side of the Kalamazoo River opposite Saugatuck (Johnson 1880); and 20AE853, reported as the wreck of the schooner Condor which sank in the original Saugatuck harbor on 01 April 1904. Shortly after the Condor sank, the new harbor channel was excavated to the north and the ship was left in place eventually settling into the muck and becoming submerged (Norberg and Weed 1979; Swayze 1992). Neither 20AE27 or 20AE249 have been fully investigated, their boundaries and exact locations remain undocumented and neither site has been evaluated for the NRHP. Site 20AE853, the wreck of the Condor, has had some of its fittings removed such as its wheel, anchor and anchor chain and a brass lantern; however, the main portion of the ship lies in the mud and the site is considered to be Potentially Eligible for the NRHP (Kidorf, Grammer and Busch 2010).

In addition to the numerous archaeological surveys conducted in the area, a survey of the coastal dunes to the north and south of the Kalamazoo River mouth was undertaken by the Saugatuck Dunes Coastal Alliance and the Saugatuck-Douglas Historical Society in an effort to make preliminary assessments of the archaeological and historic sites located in the area, and to formulate recommendations for future actions to protect the identified properties from development. This survey identified 17 Historic properties including standing structures and archaeological sites, of which three are listed on the NRHP (Felt Estate, Saugatuck Harbor Navigation Structures, Lake Shore Chapel); seven appear to be eligible for 22 listing in the NHRP, and four are considered likely to be eligible for the NRHP, but require additional investigation. This latter group includes 20AE619, the Singapore town site. The study also concludes that the entire study area should be considered to be an important cultural landscape (Kidorf, Grammer and Busch 2010).

Examination of the 1850 United States General Land Office survey plat for Township 03 North, Range 16 West (Figure 5) indicates that the project area was largely forested and unimproved when the survey was made in 1831. The only indication of human activity depicted within the township was a notation of “Indian Corn Fields” made for a location on the west bank of the Kalamazoo River. The surveyors also noted an area of “sand hills” in the Northeast 1/4 of the Northeast 1/4 of Section 04, likely an area of active sand dunes to the northeast of the major bend in the river channel (Bureau of Land Management 2017a). The surveyor’s notes also indicate Section 04 was characterized by “Sand banks. No timber, soil poor” and that among the forest trees were aspen, hickory, beech, dogwood and sugar maple (Lane 1994:04). The United States General Land Office land grant records indicate that the properties comprising the current project area were purchased by six individuals during the early 19th century. William R. Peters purchased 80 acres in the South 1/2 of the Northwest 1/4 of Section 03 for cash on 05 May 1836. Eurotas P. Hastings purchased 40.2 acres making up the South 1/2 of the Northeast 1/4 of Section 04 for cash on 06 November 1834, and John Hale purchased 40.46 acres comprising the South 1/2 of the Northwest 1/4 of Section 04 also in November 1834; however, Hale’s patent was re- issued and recorded on 28 October 1902. Tillitson Barnes purchased Lots 2 and 3 comprising 110.20 acres and located in the Northeast 1/4 and Northwest 1/4 of Section 04 on 01 December 1835. Robert Averill purchased 59 acres identified as Lot 1 in the Northeast 1/4 of Section 04 on 01 May 1839, and Jacob Silver purchased 31.53 acres identified as Lot 4 in the Northwest 1/4 of Section 04 also on 01 May 1839 (Bureau of Land Management 2017b).

Several plat and atlas maps and coastal navigation charts dating to the 19th depict the presence of the Singapore settlement within the North Shore of Saugatuck project area. The 1873 atlas map of Township 03 North, Range 16 West (C. O. Titus 1873) and detail map depicts Singapore as a platted community that is six east to west oriented streets and four north to south oriented streets which divide the community into 27 numbered blocks and each block subdivided into 12 or 24 individual lots, with most of the blocks bisected by an east to west alley within the Northeast 1/4 of the Northwest 1/4 of Section 04. This map clearly depicts two saw mills located along the riverfront and at least 20 other structures located between the river to the south and Pine Street to the north (Figure 6). Subsequent atlas maps dating to 1895 and 1913 (Figure 7) no longer depict Singapore; however, the 1913 map does indicate the presence of several structures along the north bank of the Kalamazoo River within the former Singapore location (George A. Ogle and Company 1913; Kace Publishing Company 1895). The 1877 Lake Michigan coastal navigation chart, and revised versions published in 1890 and 1895 (Figure 8), for the Lake Michigan coast between South Haven and Grand Haven depict the presence of several structures in the Singapore location as well as the road connecting the locality with Saugatuck to the south (Corps of Engineers, War Department 1877, 1890, 1895). A subsequent 1934 Lake Michigan coastal chart (War Department, Corps of Engineers 1934) illustrates the new channel and navigation structures that were constructed in the early 1900s and also depicts several structures on the north bank of the Kalamazoo River at the location of Singapore (Figure 8). These structures are cottages constructed during the late 1890s by David Cook who owned the property following the demise of Singapore. Cooks also built a road off of 66th Street to access these properties (Lane 1994:47-49). Together, these maps document the presence of the Singapore site within the Northwest 1/4 of Section 04 of Saugatuck Township during the latter portion of the community’s existence which spanned the period between 1837 and the 1890s. The maps also suggest

23

185018951873

- Project Area

18731913

1934

- Project Area

Figure 5. Portion of the 1850 United States General Land Office survey plat of Township 03 North, Range 16 West (Saugatuck Township).

- Project Area

Figure 7. Portions of the 1895 and 1913 atlas maps of Saugatuck Township. Figure 8. Portions of the 1895 and 1934 Lake Michigan coastal navigation charts. Figure 6. Potion of the 1873 atlas map of Saugatuck Township and detail of the 1873 Plat of Singapore. 272624 24 185018951873

- Project Area

18731913

1934

- Project Area

Figure 5. Portion of the 1850 United States General Land Office survey plat of Township 03 North, Range 16 West (Saugatuck Township).

- Project Area

Figure 7. Portions of the 1895 and 1913 atlas maps of Saugatuck Township. Figure 8. Portions of the 1895 and 1934 Lake Michigan coastal navigation charts. Figure 6. Potion of the 1873 atlas map of Saugatuck Township and detail of the 1873 Plat of Singapore. 272623 25 185018951873

- Project Area

18731913

1934

- Project Area

Figure 5. Portion of the 1850 United States General Land Office survey plat of Township 03 North, Range 16 West (Saugatuck Township).

- Project Area

Figure 7. Portions of the 1895 and 1913 atlas maps of Saugatuck Township. Figure 8. Portions of the 1895 and 1934 Lake Michigan coastal navigation charts. Figure 6. Potion of the 1873 atlas map of Saugatuck Township and detail of the 1873 Plat of Singapore. 272623 24 1895

1934

Figure 8. Portions of the 1895 and 1934 Lake Michigan coastal navigation charts. 27 that there were no other structures present beyond the footprint of the Singapore community during the 19th and early 20th century until Cook constructed a large residence on a high bank north of the harbor entrance channel in 1919 (Lane 1994:50).

In 1977, Broward Marine, a Florida manufacturer of luxury motor yachts, received a permit to construct a boatyard along the north bank of the Kalamazoo River within the area formerly occupied by Singapore. The construction of the boat yard required the dredging of a portion of the river sediments, the installation of a sea wall along the north bank of the river, and surfical disturbance associated with the boatyard facilities which include warehouses, boat lifts and ramps that extend to the water’s edge. These developments may have impacted the 20AE619 site deposits adjacent to the riverbank, especially those of the original dock and pier structures. Aerial photographs of the vicinity of the boatyard depict a large structure oriented north to south to the north of the riverbank. This structure appears on air photos dating between 1997 and 2010, but has been demolished by April 2011 (Google Earth 2017). There are two large residential structures present within the North Shore of Saugatuck project area, one located just east of the former boatyard location on the north side of the river, and the other located near the beach just north of the new channel entrance in the southeastern portion of the property. This latter residence was constructed in 1919 by David Cook. Several small structures are located in the east end of the property on the north side of 135th Avenue.

The review of the archival research, including the results of the archaeological site file check and the compiling of archival and documentary data concerning the North Shore of Saugatuck project area indicates that the property contains one known archaeological site, 20AE619 the Singapore town location, and that the project area abuts a National Register of Historic Places listed property, the Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Structures, located at the present mouth of the Kalamazoo River. Singapore existed along the north bank of the Kalamazoo River for approximately 50 years beginning in 1837 until it was finally fully abandoned perhaps as late as 1896. The exact dimensions and extent of 20AE619, the nature of the site deposits, and the potential eligibility status of the site remain unknown as no professional archaeological surveys of the site area have been conducted. The Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Structures date to the early 20th century and consist of twin piers and a navigational light. No prehistoric Native American archaeological sites or Historic period archaeological sites other than 20AE619 are reported as occurring within the project area; however, the property has not been surveyed for cultural resources so the absence of reported sites should not be taken as an indication that additional prehistoric and historic period archaeological sites are not present within the North Shore of Saugatuck project area.

While the property has not been subjected to any prior systematic reconnaissance level archaeological surveys, the location within a short distance of the natural mouth of the Kalamazoo River, the sandy, well-drained soils bordering the river, and the presence of numerous documented Native American archaeological sites in the vicinity suggests that the project area has a high potential to contain previously undocumented Native American sites ranging temporally between the prehistoric and early historic period. The lower Kalamazoo River valley was heavily utilized by Native American populations given the juxtaposition of a variety of highly productive habitats including the Lake Michigan shoreline, aquatic and riverine habitats, the extensive marsh and wetland areas and the forested uplands. Odawa (Ottawa) and Pottawatomi groups that resided to the north in the Straits of Mackinac region dispersed into winter hunting territories in the south in the Grand and Kalamazoo River regions and early accounts from Allegan County report these groups were annual visitors to the lower Kalamazoo valley in the fall and spring before and after moving into the interior to spend the winter season (Johnson 1880; McDonnell 2015).

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The general absence of extensive or intensive development within much of the project area suggests that disturbance of the ground surface has not occurred in significant areas, further strengthening the potential for subsurface intact archaeological deposits to be present. The location of the project area within the coastal dune belt also provides a unique potential for buried Native American sites to be present. Based on the setting, buried prehistoric archaeological sites could be expected to have been buried by dune sands in interdune swales and back dune settings in areas located along the Lake Michigan coast to the south of Muskegon. While the potential exists for buried deposits, the absence of post-glacial uplift of the land surface in the region of southwestern Michigan resulted in the formation of sand dunes on older glaciofluvial deposits or on older lake shore deposits. These middle to late Holocene beach deposits and dunes were then subsequently eroded by the transgression of higher water levels resulting in limited potential for the survival of buried and/or stratified deposits in much of the foredune and beach deposits, but leaving the potential for buried deposits in interdune swales located inland from the beaches and foredunes and at higher elevations (Lovis, Arbogast and Monaghan 2012).

With regard to the Historic period occupation of the Singapore location, 20AE619, extensive archival and documentary information exists detailing the community plan, the individuals and companies involved in its founding and subsequent development, and the general historical arc of its existence and eventual demise. What is lacking in our understanding of the site; however, is any direct knowledge of location, nature, and extent of the physical remains that have been left behind. Archaeological features that are typically associated with 19th century communities include structural foundations and cellars, privies, refuse pits and/or trash dumps, fence lines and a host of other structures and facilities which often leave definitive subsurface traces of their former existence. The presence of several saw mills, and extensive dock and pier complex along the river front would also be expected to have left extensive traces of the locations of these structures. The platted area of Singapore extends over approximately 16 hectares (40 acres) of which the street grid covers 14.6 hectares (36 acres), the original mill location approximately 1.2 hectares (3 acres) and the community cemetery 0.6 hectares (1.6 acres) (Schmiechen 2010). The Singapore cemetery location is not depicted on the 1873 plat, however, archival evidence suggests that it was located to the east of the platted community at the end of the road (Dugout Road) which led to Saugatuck (Lane 1994:46). Clearly, the potential archaeological footprint of the Singapore site may be expected to have been extensive, though based on the available maps it is likely to be concentrated to the area just north of the river. This location is likely to contain, in the form of subsurface and surface archaeological features and deposits, evidence for a range of domestic and commercial activities that took place during the period of the town’s existence during the middle to late 19th century.

During the 1920s-1930s the rooftops and upper portions of several structures were visible protruding from the sands. While many believe these structures to represent buildings original to Singapore, it is likely that they in fact represent some of the cottages that were constructed during the late 1800s and which were partially buried by dune activity during the early 20th century (Lane 1994:49). Construction of the Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Structures between 1904-1906, resulted in the exposure of piles of slab lumber during the dredging operations which occurred very near the location of the original saw mill that was located in the southwest portion of Singapore on the north bank of the river. Dredge spoil excavated during the construction was deposited on the north bank of the river possibly capping any archaeological deposits of features beneath the dredge materials. In 1896, a smoldering fire was burning along docks of the old Singapore waterfront and during the fall of that year large quantities of lumber were reportedly salvaged from the location. Large sawdust piles were present at the two mill locations and were utilized up to the 1920s as insulation for ice that was cut from the Kalamazoo River during the winters. Some Singapore building foundations were evident at the surface in the early 1900s (Lane 1994:48). Observers also report seeing wood planks and sawdust exposed in the sandy river banks as late as the 1970s, and at least one shell midden has been reported to the northwest of the platted Singapore 29 town location (Kidorf, Grammer and Busch 2010:37). These reports and observations may be taken as an indication that substantial archaeological deposits related to the Singapore community are present within the North Shore of Saugatuck project area.

Regulatory Framework and Significance

In 1966, the United States Congress declared that the preservation of the nation’s heritage was in the public interest of it citizens and passed the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966 (16 U.S.C. 47 et seq.). The NHPA established a national policy of giving federal assistance for state and local governments and encouraged preservation of historic resources at the state and local level. The act also sought to ensure that impacts of development projects on historic resources are considered when federal projects are considered and undertaken. Section 106 of the NHPA requires federal agencies to consider the effects on historic properties which have been considered eligible or are listed on the NRHP. Section 36 CFR Part 800.4(b) of the act requires that federal agencies make reasonable and good faith efforts to identify cultural resources that may be affected by a given undertaking and to evaluate these resources for listing in the NRHP.

One of the primary goals of any archaeological, architectural or historical investigation is to provide an evaluation any historic properties that have been identified and to provide an assessment of their eligibility for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. The eligibility criteria for archaeological sites are described in 36CFR60, which established in 1981 the procedural requirements for listing properties on the NRHP. To be eligible, cultural resources must possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, feeling and association. The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) has four criteria by which historic structures and archaeological sites must be evaluated in order to determine their eligibility for listing therein. Properties may be eligible for the National Register if they A) are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad pattern of history, B) are associated with the lives of persons significant to our past, C) embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction, and D) have yielded, or are likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history. Typically, archaeological sites are evaluated under Criterion D, which indicates that to be eligible; a site must have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important to prehistory or history. Sites can be evaluated under this criterion at the local, regional, or national level of significance. Eligible sites, because of their significance, are managed to protect their integrity and preserve information content for the future.

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (USC 4331-4347) was passed by Congress to require federal agencies to review the impacts of their projects on the environment, including historic and cultural resources. Agencies are required to complete environmental assessments and in some cases more detailed Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) before a Finding of No Significant Impact can be issued for the proposed project.

In Michigan, the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) reviews permitted activities proposed or undertaken by other State agencies and has the ability to comment on the impacts of the proposed activities on historic resources, may request archaeological or architectural investigations be undertaken to identify historic properties that may be affected, and may ask that a covenant be placed on an historic

30 property to protect it from development or destruction (Michigan State Housing Development Authority, State Historic Preservation Office 2017).

In addition to the above summarized federal statutes concerning historic resources, one State of Michigan Attorney General Opinion may also apply to the North Shore of Saugatuck project. The State of Michigan Attorney General Opinion No. 6585, issued on 07 June 1989 is in regards to the accidental discovery of human remains. This opinion requires a local health department permit or court disinterment decree prior to the removal of the remains. The opinion further states that if a historic period cemetery is disinterred, the remains must be reinterred in a cemetery within or nearby to the local governmental unit within which it was found. The cost of disinterment and reburial should be at public expense unless identified next-of-kin are willing to cover the expenses. The opinion covers both prehistoric Native American and historic period burials and graves.

Recommendations

This brief overview of the natural and cultural setting of the North Shore of Saugatuck project area indicates that the approximately 121-hectare (300-acre) project area has the potential to contain a variety of cultural resources pertaining to both the Native American and Historic Euro-American occupation of the lower Kalamazoo River valley. One previously identified archaeological site, 20AE619, the Singapore town location, is within the proposed project area and one NRHP-listed property, the Saugatuck Harbor Navigational Structures, are located adjacent to the project area at the mouth of the Kalamazoo River. The spatial limits, nature and integrity of the deposits present at 20AE619 remain unclear; however, the site is listed on the Michigan State Register as a significant historic resource. Prior to any permitted landscape modification, a Phase I archaeological reconnaissance survey is recommended to better identify and assess the extent, nature and potential NRHP eligibility status of the 20AE619 site location and to identify and assess any other archaeological resources which may be present within the project area. Indeed, the necessity of obtaining federal or state permits that could be required would likely require a cultural resources survey and assessment of any identified archaeological sites and/or historic properties under the Section 106 regulations. Given the dynamic nature of the landscape consisting of a series of dunes and backdune areas, systematic shovel testing and targeted deep auger testing would be necessary to assess the potential for buried archaeological sites. It is also possible that a mechanical coring rig may be required to fully assess the potential for deeply buried deposits that could be present in specific settings within the property. Remote sensing techniques such as magnetometer or ground penetrating radar surveys would be potentially highly valuable in locating historic period remains associated with the Singapore location such as structural foundations, privies and other subsurface remains. Remote sensing would also be an important component of any investigation aimed at locating grave locations within the cemetery which was associated with the community. Only through a complete reconnaissance survey of the North Shore of Saugatuck project area will it be possible to identify portions of the project area which contain resources. Once the resources are identified each one will be assessed for their potential significance. Resources determined to be Not Eligible will need no further consideration in the development process, while resources determined Potentially Eligible or Eligible will require additional consideration to minimize potential adverse effects. Overall the project area has a high potential for significant resources but the absence of any field study within the project limits hinders the ability to pinpoint the locations of significant resources and the development of plans to minimize potential effects. Field studies are the next logical step in determine the specific locations of resources and their potential significance.

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