IJARED 3(2), 127-137 © The Author(s) 2015 [email protected] www.emeacollege.ac.in ISSN:2348-3342

Many Voices of Dissent? A Study on the Perception of Ulamas in the Struggle against Portuguese in Malabar.

Jahfar Odakkal Department of History and West Asian Studies, EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotti,

Abstract: Tuhfathul Mujahideen,authored by Sheikh Zainuddin Maqdum, a renowned Islamic scholar of 16th century Kerala, can be considered as a classic text in the genre of resistance literature against colonialism. Along with other works of the same period such asTahriz and Fathul Mubin it represented the jihadic outlook of the contemporary ulamas.Apart from these,Tuhfa is the first historical work of Kerala authored by a Keralite.

The present study attempts to place Tuhfa as one of the pioneering work which heralded a long tradition of Anti-Colonial literature in Kerala. It also tries to evaluate the methods of struggle as propounded by the text and it's historical relevance.It is also intended to read the text both in the perspectives of the local community of Malabar and also in the broader perspective of wider Islamic world of the contemporary times.

Key words: Tuhfathul Mujahidin, Resistance Literature, anti Colonial Literature, Tahriz, Fathul Mubin

The colonial aggrandisements of Malabar region1 led to the natural origin of anti-colonial literary works. During the Portuguese interruptions in the Indian Ocean World in the sixteenth century, there were several counter attacks from the Asian communities. Historians are widely acknowledged the importance of such resistances, but they have not seriously analysed the ideas and motivations of the people on the basis of their own sources, despite the presence of numerous valuable materials2.

Those works aimed at inspiring and educating the people to build up native resistance movement in fighting out the colonial forces and their penetration into the land. From sixteenth century International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED)

Malabar, three texts against the Portuguese have been translated into European languages a) The most renowned Tuhfat al Mujahidin to Badi Akhbar al Burtugaliyyin by Ahmed Zayan al Din bin al Gazhali al-Malaybari(1853?) translated to Portuguese partly by David Lopez and into English byMJ Rowlandson and S Muhammad Husayn Nainar. It was also translated into Latin,aFrench, German, Spanish and Czech and into many Indian languages. b) Fath al Mubin by Qadi Muhammad bin Abd al Aziz (1617?) c) TahridbAhl al Iman of Zain al Shin Abu Yahya bin Ali(1522).

All the three texts have different different Literary specifications and historical significances as respective translators have elaborated. While schoolers of the pre modern Indian Ocean World use the Tuhfat widely, the other two texts have generally skipped their attention3.

Sheikh Zainuddin Maqdum’s Tuhfathul Mujahideen(1583) is viewed as a classic text in this genre. This work has won wider recognition as it contained trustworthy documents. The aim of the author in this work was to educate and elaborate the necessity of people’s resistance against the Portuguese colonial power in defence of ideology, livelihood as well as territorial integrity. This work also shed light on the other aspect of the medieval Kerala scenario.

The literary work finds its origin in the attempt to steer the general public to anti-imperialistic resistance based on the Quranic verses. The advent of Vasco da Gama in1498 laid the foundation of

128 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED) colonial occupation in Kerala effecting the fundamental changes in all the spheres of the society. Basically the aim of the Portuguese was to cut down the monopoly of the Arab overseas trade. The age long trade relation of Kerala with Arabia and came into a halt. The Portuguese monopoly replaced the medieval peaceful trade and coexistence. The peace and tranquility of ’s territory was vanished. No doubt that the entry of the Portuguese on the , particularly in Calicut opened up a new chapter of persicution and harsh treatment towards native and the to monopolize trade which already were in the hands of the Muslims. Calicut was inhabited by the foreign and native Moors,the richest that there were in all India4

The Portuguese were most fanatical against the Muslims of the Kerala coast. According to Zainuddin the position of the Muslims in Kerala was far better prior to the advent of Portuguese. He states that the Muslims were well treated by the respective Hindu rulers. He is very much concerned about the laws of the Muslim dominance in the foreign trade between the Middle-East and . With the loss of the trade he complains that the war spirit and religious belief of the local Muslims had gone to the lowest ebb. So he calls the Muslims of the land to wake up and wage relentless war against the Portuguese. The gradual growth of the Portuguese hegemony in the every field of Kerala society is clearly depicted in the Tuhfathul Mujahideen.

Tuhfathul Mujahideen can be considered to be one among the early manifestations of resistance movement against the European colonization endeavors in India. Sheikh Zainuddin hailed from the renowned Maqdum family from the in Malabar in northern Kerala. This family traced descend to migrants from Yemen who played a leading role in the spread of Islam in southern India. Sheikh Zainuddin rose to become a leading Islamic

129 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED) scholar. He spent ten years studying in Mecca where he also joined in Qadri order. Then he returned to Malabar almost four decades teaching at central mosque in Ponnani, then a major centre for Islamic studies in southern India.

As a prolific writer and eminent scholar of the time, Maqdum’s work were not only published from Kerala but also from other parts of the world such as Egypt, Singapore, and etc. Interestingly Tuhfathul Mujahideen which is considered to be his magnum opus was published in Arabic from Lisbon and later on translated into the languages of Portuguese, Latin, French, German, Spanish, English, Persian, Czech and to Indian languages such as Urdu, Gujarathi, Tamil, etc. The first English translation of Tuhfathul Mujahideen was by Major Rowlands of Fort St. George in the year 1898 from London. Amerson, James Brigs, Rocks, SMH Nainar were the other English translators of the work. David Lopez prepared the Portuguese translation of the work.

Tuhfathul Mujahideen consist of five sections including introductory part. The first chapter discuss in detail about the Islamic concept of Jihad followed by a look into the history of Muslim community in Malabar. It then describes the customs of the Hindu population of Malabar at the time. The final part narrates the history of the Portuguese in Malabar and the rise of naval force led by the Kunhali , from the arrival of the former towards the end of fifteenth century till the battle of in 1571.

In the introductory part of this work the author frames the reason which led him compile this narratives, mainly to urge the Muslims to fight against the foreign intruders who had occupied the territories. The first chapter discuss the merits of holy war (jihad)

130 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED) providing with the verses of the Quran and the sayings of the prophet. The author exhorts the whole section of Muslim community including women and children to wage a holy war against the non-believers. He observes that the fight is against the foreign occupation and atrocities committed by the Portuguese with the help of Muslim friendly Zamorin who is a no- believer. The author criticise Muslim sultans of the period for not taking interest in the affairs of the Muslims of the Malabar.

The second chapter of the work deals with the growth of . He writes of how the Hindu ruler of Malabar impressed with a group of Muslim pilgrims on their way to Ceylon, converted to Islam and accompanied them back to Arabia. There, shortly before he died, he instructed them to return to Malabar. They did, as they were told and the king’s governors welcomed them allowing them to settle along the cost and establish mosques. Gradually, he write, the Muslim community began expanding through the missionary efforts Sufis and traders. He observes that the relation between the Hindus and Muslims were traditionally cordial. Muslims played a vital role in the region’s economy. Hindu rulers were very tolerant and even played salaries for the Qasis and Islamic Mudaris in mosques.

The third chapter is about the tolerant attitude of the Hindu rulers in Malabar. He then discusses in the prevailing the Hindu custom s, caste system, pollution, marriage system, order of succession, polyandry, dress, warfare etc of the people of the Malabar. In fact this provides the vivid picture of the socio cultural condition of the Malabar in the 16th century. His observations about the Hindus of Malabar are remarkable for their sense of balance and sympathy. He notes with disapproval the deeply routed caste prejudices among the Malabar Hindus.

131 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED)

The fourth and final part of the book discusses the growth of Portuguese dominations in Malabar, in the broader background of the Kerala from1498 to 1583. This part of the book pure factual history. Sheik Zainuddin describes the reign of terror unleashed on Malabar Muslim by the Portuguese who were fired with a hatred of Islam and Muslims. He records the indiscriminate killing of Muslim, rapes of Muslim women, forcible conversions of Muslims to Christianity, destroying the mosques and building churches in the places and setting on fire Muslim shops and homes5.

Tuhfatul Mujahideen was instrumental in creating anti colonial consciousness among the native Muslims of Malabar. Copies of these tracts send to all leading mosques of Kerala during 17th century. Zainuddin's work was only a continuation of his senior Zainuddin Makhdoom 1 who wrote the first treatise to call for a holy war against the Portuguese, the Thahrid Ahl Al Iman Ala Jihad Abdat Al Sulban which means" an inducement to believers to fight against the worshippers of Cross".It gives a detailed catalogue of the atrocities of the Portuguese towards the Muslims and demands a holy war against them and explain it as obligatory to believers. Jihad becomes a common factor in all such Literary works of the period so that it has been projected as an apparatus of identity among the Mappila Muslims who engaged in revolts and resistance movements6. The traditional intellectuals such as '' and 'Ulamas 'and other Muslim religious functionaries lavishly utilized it and propagated among the common folk.

This anti colonial consciousness created by Sheik Zainuddin was later reflected in the continuous struggles against foreign domination in Malabar. In appealing to the Muslims of Malabar to launch jihad against Portuguese Sheik Zainuddin makes clear that this struggle is purely a defensive one, directed at only the

132 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED)

Portuguese interlopers and not the local Hindus or the Hindu , for whom he expresses considerable respects. This treatise is an indispensable source history of Malabar and would be invaluable to those interested in the history of Islam in . Much that Sheik Zainuddin says with regard to the legitimacy of struggle against foreign occupation and oppression finds power echoes today. This tradition continued by the succeeding generations of Malabar. It finds its expressions in various forms which have contributed to the rich tradition of anti colonial literature in Malabar. The works like Fathul Mubin of Khasi Muhammed of Calicut and Saiful Bathar of Mampuarm Alavi and uddathul umara of sayyid fasal thangal includes in this tradition of anti colonial literature. Following this, the tradition was fully expressed in the Mappilapattu and Arabi- Malayalm literature. Padapattu, a Malabari version of war songs is another variant of this tradition.

Kutubat Al Jihadiyya, a new Arabic treatise written around 1570- just before the Battle of Chaliyum between the Zamorins of Calicut and the Portuguese. The Muslim community of Malabar has produced certain war treatises inciting their audience to engage in holy war (jihad). The monograph tittled Kutubat Al Jihadiyya by Qadi Muhammad bin And al Aziz.It describes different Portuguese attacks on theMalabar Coast,for some of which the author himself was a witness.It explicates the mentality behind the anti Portuguese wars entangled between spiritual and material motivations.For it's narrative style and strong religious contents, Kutuba is an exceptional work compared with other texts of this genre that have been translated earlier7. Numerous formal and informal archives and private manuscripts collections inside and outside Malabar which still remain under utilized8

133 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED)

Only a few indigenous materials found a place in the studies: Apart from the celebrated work Tuhfa , there are many understudied literary manifestations which uphold even contrasting views of the struggle. Al Fath-hul-Mubeen li Samiri alladi yuhibbu-al-Muslimeen(The clear victory for the Zamorin who love Muslims) is a poetic work in Arabic written by Qazi Muhammad bin Ahmed of Calicut.It narrates an epoch making event in which the Muslims,the Nair warriors and the naval force of Zamorin under Kunhali Marakkars jointly attacked and savaged the Portuguese Fort at Chaliyum in 1571 CE.He dovoted this work to Zamorin. fathahul mubeen imparts the values of uncompromising anticolonial attitude and communal harmony.Khadi muhammed was deeply disappointed and infuriated by the renunciation of Muslim leaders like Suleiman Pasha, Bahadur Sha of Gujrat, Nizam Sha of Ahamed Nagar, Ali Adil Sha of Bijappur from anti portugese struggle. Though he accepted the facrt that Malabar Muslims are a part of world Muslim fratenity, he realized a nearby neighbour is far better than a far away relative. That is why we could see he was lavish in praising samutiri through out the book

Shaikh Zaindheen lived in a period which was a quagmire of portugese invasion.He witnessed the socio- political and cultural impacts of Portuguese rule. So he decided to fortify the ant colonial politics imparted by his own grandfather. He tried to bring out political planks for anti colonial resistance. Tuhfa cannot be read as a historic book detailing colonial invasion alone.it is a book which explores the micropolitics of colonialism, its pros and cons, specially notable for the enlighted stand it takes in prescribing practical and philosophical perspective for Muslims in colonial resistance.

134 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED)

The comparitative analysis of the three texts, Tuhfa, Fathul Mubin and Tahrid provides a clear view of the two divergent Jihadic concepts shared by learned Ulamas of the period. Shaikh Zainudheen and his grandfather Abu Yahya Zainudheen posses a common view of Jihad and collective action in which they locate the conflict with the Portuguese within the context of ‘Darul Islam’ i.e., the global Islamic world. Shaikh Zainudheen's allegation of Zamorin as a weak king, his condemnation of the lack of a real leader among Kerala Muslims and his dedication of the work Tuhfa to Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur are some of the instances to argue that Zainudheen was negotiating a plan with Deccan Sultanite to annex Kerala to their territory. But in contrast, , Qazi Muhammed’s works are concerned with specific group of local warriors rather than asking for assistance from the wider Muslim world. Qazi Muhammed is very particular in placing his Jihadic and historic visions under the limits of Zamorins kingdom whereas Shaikh Zainudheen wanted it in the broader perspective of Islamic world9. This article attempt to indicate a plurality of view points within learned Islamic circles during a time of profound crisis instead of producing unanimity of opinions or even a consensus. The one group of the learned Ulamas perceived the Mappila community as an integral part of the larger Muslim Community. It was the consolidation of the relationship between Muslims and Hindus far more important to the community than any association with the larger Islamic world.

1. The term Malabar is used in its pre colonial sense. Before the British Colonial administration made Malabar one of the administrative districts under the Madras Presidency,it was a term used (in its variants forms such as Malainadu, Malibar, Manibar and Ma-li-mo) to denote the whole coast and lands of the South-Western India, from the southern

135 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED)

bend of Konkan ,or Goa'n coast or Mount de Eli in the north to Cape comerin in the South.

2. Mahmood Kooria,Khutubat Al-Jihadiyya,A Sixteenth Century Anti Portuguese Sermon,in Malabar and Indian Ocean,editted ,Mahmood Kooria and Michael Naylor Pearson.Oxford University Press, p,64

3. Ibid, p, 64-65

4. Gasper Correa, The Three Voyages of Vasco da Game, Trans EJ Stanely, London,1849,p170

5. For the details of the content of the text, see translations in various languages (Malayalam, C Hamza and Velayudhan Panikkasseri)

6. Emergence of Islam in Kerala in 20th Century, Editted,Dr KKN Kurupp,Prof.E Ismail, Standard Publishers ,New Delhi,p90

7. Mahmood Kooria and M N Pearson,op cit,p71

8. Thahrid Ahl Al Iman Ala jihadi Adabat Dulhan,trans and edit KM Muhammad, Calicut, Other Books,2013,p19-48

9. Ayal Amar, The Rise of Jihadic Sentiments and the Writing Of History in 16th Century Kerala,in The Indian Economic and Social History Review Vol 1,111 No.3 p297-319

References

Ahmed SM, Indo-Arab Relation, New Delhi, 1998.

Dale Stephen Frederic, The of Malabar 1498-1992, Oxford, 1999.

136 International Journal for Advanced Research in Emerging Disciplines (IJARED)

Harlow Barbara, Resistance Literature, Methun, 1987.

Ibrahim Kunju AP, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1989.

______, Studies in Medieval Kerala History, Trivandrum, 1975.

Kurup KKN and KM Mathew, Native Resistance against Portuguese: The saga of Kunjali , Calicut, 2000.

Miller Roland, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, Madras, 1976.

Muhammed SM, Mappilas of Malabar, Calicut, 1983.

Nambiar OK, The Kunjalis: Admirals of Calicut, Bombay, 1963.

Subrahmanyam Sanjay, Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, London, 199

137