Introduction ...... 1 The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ...... 1 A manned satellite ...... 2 The Saturn launch vehicle...... 3 NASA's long-term plan ...... 6 Conceiving the Apollo spacecraft ...... 7 The way to the Moon ± the mission mode ...... 9 Change of administration ...... 10 Seeking funding for Apollo...... 10 Kennedy's challenge ...... 11 The mode debate continues ...... 14 Saturn testing starts ...... 16 Mercury Mark II? ...... 17 Issuing contracts...... 19 Reorganization ...... 21 Deciding the launch vehicle ...... 21 The decision for Gemini ...... 23 Deciding the mission mode...... 24 Mission planning issues ...... 27 LEM design issues ...... 29 Ongoing changes ...... 30 Mueller takes charge...... 31 Kennedy's assassination ...... 34 Firming up the schedule ...... 34 Refining the docking system ...... 36 Refining the LEM ...... 37 Suit issues...... 40 Gearing up ...... 41 x Table of contents

Developing the Saturn V ...... 44 Preparing Apollo ...... 45 Setback and recovery ...... 49 Picking up the pace ...... 52 The first Saturn V flight ...... 53 Testing the LM ...... 53 Overcoming problems with daring plans ...... 55 Dress rehearsal ...... 60 The landing crew ...... 61

Saturn I: Development program ...... 63 Background ...... 63 SA-1: first flight test ...... 64 Completing Phase I ...... 65 Phase II testing...... 66 Conclusions ...... 69 The Saturn IB ...... 69

AS-201: A CSM on a ballistic arc...... 75 Background ...... 75 Launch preparations...... 75 Ascent phase ...... 76 Post-boost phase...... 79 Recovery ...... 79 Conclusions ...... 80 Mission objectives ...... 80 Mission timeline ...... 82

AS-203: Evaluating the S-IVB ...... 85 Background ...... 85 Launch preparations...... 85 Ascent phase ...... 86 Earth orbit phase ...... 88 Conclusions ...... 89 Mission objectives ...... 89 Mission timeline ...... 91

AS-202: Testing the CM heat shield ...... 93 Background ...... 93 Launch preparations...... 93 Ascent phase ...... 95 Post-boost phase...... 95 Recovery ...... 97 Conclusions ...... 98 Mission objectives ...... 98 Table of contents xi

Mission timeline ...... 99

Apollo 1: Cabin fire ...... 105 Background ...... 105 Vehicle history ...... 106 Accident ...... 106 Chronology of the fire ...... 111 Investigation...... 112 The cause of the fire...... 115

Apollo 4: First test of the Saturn V...... 121 Background ...... 121 Launch preparations...... 121 Ascent phase ...... 124 Earth orbit phase ...... 126 Recovery ...... 127 Conclusions ...... 127 Mission objectives ...... 127 Mission timeline ...... 137

Apollo 5: Unmanned test of the LM ...... 139 Background ...... 139 Launch preparations...... 139 Ascent phase ...... 140 Earth orbit phase ...... 140 Conclusions ...... 143 Mission objectives ...... 146 Mission timeline ...... 148

Apollo 6: Second test of the Saturn V ...... 151 Background ...... 151 Launch preparations...... 151 Ascent phase ...... 151 Earth orbit phase ...... 154 Recovery ...... 157 Conclusions ...... 157 Mission objectives ...... 165 Mission timeline ...... 168

Apollo 7: Testing the CSM in Earth orbit ...... 171 Background ...... 171 Launch preparations...... 172 Ascent phase ...... 172 Earth orbit phase ...... 173 Recovery ...... 180 xii Table of contents

Conclusions ...... 180 Mission objectives ...... 187 Mission timeline ...... 190

Apollo 8: Testing the CSM in lunar orbit ...... 195 Background ...... 195 Launch preparations...... 197 Ascent phase ...... 199 Earth orbit phase ...... 201 Translunar phase ...... 201 Lunar orbit phase...... 203 Transearth phase ...... 205 Recovery ...... 206 Conclusions ...... 207 Mission objectives ...... 215 Mission timeline ...... 218

Apollo 9: Testing the LM in Earth orbit ...... 223 Background ...... 223 Launch preparations...... 224 Ascent phase ...... 244 Earth orbit phase ...... 227 Recovery ...... 232 Conclusions ...... 232 Mission objectives ...... 233 Mission timeline ...... 248

Apollo 10: Testing the LM in lunar orbit...... 255 Background ...... 255 Launch preparations...... 256 Ascent phase ...... 256 Earth orbit phase ...... 259 Translunar phase ...... 259 Lunar orbit phase...... 260 Transearth phase ...... 263 Recovery ...... 264 Conclusions ...... 265 Mission objectives ...... 272 Mission timeline ...... 274

Apollo 11: Landing on Mare Tranquilitatis ...... 279 Background ...... 279 Landing site ...... 280 Launch preparations...... 285 Ascent phase ...... 286 Table of contents xiii

Earth orbit phase ...... 289 Translunar phase ...... 289 Lunar orbit and lunar surface phase...... 290 Transearth phase ...... 294 Recovery ...... 295 Conclusions ...... 296 Mission objectives ...... 298 Mission timeline ...... 319

Apollo 12: Landing in Oceanus Procellarum ...... 327 Background ...... 327 Landing site ...... 328 Launch preparations...... 329 Ascent phase ...... 329 Earth orbit phase ...... 333 Translunar phase ...... 333 Lunar orbit and lunar surface phase...... 334 Transearth phase ...... 338 Recovery ...... 338 Conclusions ...... 339 Mission objectives ...... 341 Mission timeline ...... 353

Apollo 13: In-flight abort ...... 361 Background ...... 361 Landing site ...... 362 Launch preparations...... 363 Ascent phase ...... 365 Earth orbit phase ...... 367 Translunar phase ...... 367 Abort ...... 368 Recovery ...... 371 Conclusions ...... 372 Investigation...... 372 Mission objectives ...... 375 Mission timeline ...... 385

Apollo 14: Landing in the Fra Mauro Formation ...... 393 Background ...... 393 Launch preparations...... 394 Ascent phase ...... 396 Earth orbit phase ...... 398 Translunar phase ...... 398 Lunar orbit and lunar surface phase...... 399 Transearth phase ...... 403 xiv Table of contents

Recovery ...... 403 Conclusions ...... 404 Mission objectives ...... 406 Mission timeline ...... 415

Apollo 15: Landing at Hadley±Apennine ...... 425 Background ...... 425 Landing site ...... 426 Launch preparations...... 427 Ascent phase ...... 430 Earth orbit phase ...... 430 Translunar phase ...... 430 Lunar orbit and lunar surface phase...... 432 Transearth phase ...... 436 Recovery ...... 436 Conclusions ...... 437 Mission objectives ...... 441 Mission timeline ...... 461

Apollo 16: Landing at Descartes±Caley ...... 471 Background ...... 471 Landing site ...... 472 Launch preparations...... 473 Ascent phase ...... 473 Earth orbit phase ...... 476 Translunar phase ...... 476 Lunar orbit and lunar surface phase...... 478 Transearth phase ...... 481 Recovery ...... 482 Conclusions ...... 483 Mission objectives ...... 495 Mission timeline ...... 497

Apollo 17: Landing at Taurus±Littrow ...... 507 Background ...... 507 Landing site ...... 508 Launch preparations...... 510 Ascent phase ...... 511 Earth orbit phase ...... 514 Translunar phase ...... 514 Lunar orbit and lunar surface phase...... 515 Transearth phase ...... 519 Recovery ...... 520 Conclusions ...... 520 Mission objectives ...... 522 Table of contents xv

Mission timeline ...... 536

In retrospect...... 547 Cancelled missions ...... 547 NASA's assessment ...... 548 The outstanding mystery ...... 548

Appendix ...... 551 Glossary...... 615 Bibliography...... 619 Index ...... 627