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1984

Log Cabin Studies: The Rocky Mountain Cabin, Log Cabin Technology and Typology, Log Cabin Bibliography

United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

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Recommended Citation United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, "Log Cabin Studies: The Rocky Mountain Cabin, Log Cabin Technology and Typology, Log Cabin Bibliography" (1984). Forestry. Paper 4. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/govdocs_forest/4

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Foresl Serv ic e

Intermountain Region • The Rocky Mountain Cabin Ogden, Utah Cull ural Resource • log Cabin Technology and Typology Re~ o rl No 9 LOG CABIN STUDIES By • log Cabin Bibliography Mary Wilson

- The Rocky Mountain Cabi n

- Log Ca bin Technology and Typology

- Log Cabi n Bi b 1i ography

CULTURAL RESOURCE REPORT NO. 9 USDA Forest Service Intennountain Region Ogden. Ut ' 19B4 .rr- THE ROCKY IOU NT AIN CA BIN By ' Ia ry l,i 1s on

eDITORS NOTES

The author is a cultural resource specialist for the Boise National Forest, Idaho . An earlier version of her Rocky Mountain Cabin study was submitted to the university of Idaho as an M.A. thesis .

Cover photo : Homestead claim of Dr. E. Watson, Fall Creek, Idaho Ida te unknown).

USDA Fores t Serv i ce Intermounta in Reg i on 1984 TABLE Cf COKTENTS LIST Cf FIGURES

Page Figure Page

EIIITORS NOTES ...... 1. Typical Rocky 'lountain Cabin ...... 2

"~STRACT...... ii 2. Floorplans of Eastern r.nerican Cabin TypeS ...... 11

Ar.I(lt(\jLEDGEMEN~...... ••• ..... •• ••• •••••• •• ••• •• •••••••• ... iii 3. Anglo-llestern r.abin...... 13 13 1. I~TRI'I)IICTION ...... 4. An91o-Western Cabin ...... 16 2. HISTORY OF LOG CONSTRUCTIO"...... 4 5. ~ysioqeOClraphic "ap of the Hestern United States ...... 35 3. r.rIJr.RAPHY OF THE QOCKY mJltTAIN P~r.ION...... 15 6. Reconstruction of a House in SUccase ...... 35 4. HISTORY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION...... 19 7. Roeky ~untai~ rahin wi th 1M Percent r.,sl'ole Extension .. 36 8. Rocky Mountain Cabin. Winter Floorplan ...... A. Indians and Explorers...... 19 37 B. The Fur Trade...... 21 9. Rocky ~untain r.abin. !iul'lMer F1 oorplan ...... C. ,..ining...... 24 38 D. Fanning and Ranching...... 26 10. Silll'1ond's Cabin. Stmner Occupation ...... E. Transportation...... 2B ~: ~~g~~~~;t' St;;~;~;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~~ 11. SifOl!1ond's Cahin ...... 38 12. Miner's Cabin in Heavy Snow...... 39 5. APCHITECTIIRE OF THE ROCKY I'UIlNTAIN CAII1N...... 33 13. I/inter Campsite ...... 39 6. PAST DOCliMEKTATlON...... 48 14. Scattergram of RMC Gahle Extensions ...... 41 7. vF.P~ACIlLAR TH E('IIIY...... 56 15. \lyle's Ranch. Ole Story Cabin ...... 42 8. ORI!;IH OF THE ROCKY MOUKTIAN CABIN...... 63 16. Frame Cabin...... 42 9. <;IJ~~Ry ...... 70 17. r,sml'orel Poof r.ahin ...... 44 NOTES.. •••• ••••••••• ••••••• ...... •••••••••••• .... 74 18. Shed Roof Cabin...... 44 IIF.FEREIICES CIT~Il...... 75 19. South and F.ast ~evations. 'orton raMn...... 45 20. Nineteenth Century Homestead...... 47

21. )9(1? Homestearl ...... 47 22. Olebo Cabin...... 49 23. Polygon of RMC Construction Ilates...... 53 JJ Page LI ST fJ' TABLES

24. RMC Distribution ftIIong \Iestern National Forests ••••.••• 55 25. Scattergran of !tiC Sizes, rtlrth Idaho ••••••••.•.•.••.•• 60 Table Page 26. r.eorgia Corncrib...... 65 27. Blthullding, ItInd Hine •••••••••••••.••••.•••.•••••••••• 65 1. rtltching Types Present...... 43 28. First Generation Type Dogtrot •••••••••• ••••••••• ,' ••...• 66 ?. Average Cabin Sizes by Use..... •••.••••••••• ••••••• •••• 51

29. Second reneration Type ~qtrot...... 66 1. Cahin \lsage, Rig Creek I'rainage •••••• •••••••••••••••••• 51 311. Cabin with Transitional roable Extension •.••••••••••• •.• 68 4. Cabin Types Present, Big Creek Drainage •••••••••••••••• 52 31. r.ahin wi th Transitional roable Extension •••••••..•••••.• 68 32. Liz Creek Cahin...... 69 33. Indian r.reek r.uard Station...... 69 34. 8rink Realty Office...... 72 35. Cat-in with Enclosed Extension •.•.•••.•.••••.•.••••••••• 72 ABSTRACT ACKNOWlEOGEftlENTS

While conducting fieldwork in southern Idaho during the SIJ1ll:1er of I wish to thank the National Forests of the Western United States 1980, I came upon nunerous examples of a t,Ype of cabin not previ­ for their cooperation in the gathering of data for this report, ously documented. This report attempts to determine how this type particularly Jerry Wyl iI!, Intermountain Regional Archeologist.

fits with other ~nown caMn types, and to find its place in present wi sh to t~ank John Ilartung for providing information and photos frOM

theories about Pmerican vernacular architectlJre. By making use of his research in the Payette National Forest of Idaho. Finall.v, I extant reports, historical photos, and archeological site forms, it want to rec09nize the l:niversity of Idaho's lahoratory of fonthro­

is apparent this cabin type can be found throughout the Rocky 'loun­ polO9Y for its assistance in the processing of graphic materials tain reaion. AlonQ with other \Iestern studies, this report attenpts appearing in thi s report.

to show that vernacular construction patterns in the Western United

States di ffer fran those present in F.astern study areas.

--fL I. INTRODUCTION

While employed as an archeologist at Boise National Forest during the summer of 1980, I became involved in a cultural resource project concerning the typological classification of log cabins. After reviewing the existing cabin literature and doing field surveys 1n the Forest, it became apparent that a cabin type CanMOn to southern Idaho had not previously been studied or recorded, that actually very 1 ittl e infonnation about cahi n construction in the United

States west of Texas was availahle.

Log cabins in the United States have generally been described as side-gab 1ed dwell i ngs with doors in the front and sornet imes rear walls with a fireplace centered along a gahled wall. While this description is val id for cabins in much of the eastern United States, a cahin type appearing in Idaho is, in many ways, quite different. Orientation of the structure is changed so that the gahle ends of the cahin face to the front and rear. A single door is usually off-centered in the front wall of the cabin with an iron stove replacing the fireplace along a gable wall. The most distinc­ tive feature of this cabin is the frontward extension of the gabled roof, 25 to 100 percent of the length of the cahi n, whic., fc:"ms a covered porch or work area (Figure 1). The first ail'! of this project is to describe this cabin type--to define its architectural attributes along with its geographical and temporal range.

1 N

Fig . 1. Cuta\'/ay axonometric drawing of a typical Rocky Mountain Cabin. Once descrihed, this infomation I--€comes im portant when used in conjuction with other studies to make hroader conclus io ns ahout human behavior. For example, in the field of vernacular archi­ tecture, the results of behavioral stuJies have stressed continuity and tradition over innovation. These works have i ncluded eval­ uations of log cabin construction. but as in t he area of archi­ tecture, the studies are overwh elminqly based on Eastern exafTlples. After an examination of settlement patterns in t he Rocky Mountain

Region, it becOTles ~pparent tha t Western cilhi ns di ffer frofTi thOSe of Eastern study areas, and the vernacular architectur e of Ue Rockies reflects these differences. It i s therefore the second aim of this report to determine the particular contribution of th~ Rody t.1ountain cahin to ~erican cahin constructioFl and to various theories of innovation in vernacular architecture .

The data used fo r this report ~ome from three primary sources: archeological site forms fran the northern third of Idaho . the historical resource survey of the RiC) Creek Drain age in central Idaho done by John Hartung, and i nfo rmation on cabin types gathered fran 27 Na tional Forests in 8 vJeste r'n Sta tes hy the author. Photo­ graphic information was also provided fran hi storical collections of the Univers it.v of Idaho and Wash; ngton Sta te Un ivers ity.

3 I I. HIS TORY Of LOG mils TRUC TinN (Kniffen and Glassie 1966 : 54). By the 17th century. log wa11 con­ struction of rural dwe11ings was almost universal for most of

The lise of wood to provide shelter dates ha ck to prehistoric times. Scandinvia. Finland. the Aaltic Provinces. and Pussia (Weslager

Probably the oldest fon~ of l og housing i s the use of vertical posts 1Q71 :85-811). se t close together . This practice seems to hav e origi nated i n the

Near East during the Neol ithic and spread across Euro pe as a part of While log technology was canmonly used across IIlJch of Europe. the the Neol ithic cu ltural canplex. By Late Neol ithic time s, vertical countri es responsible for IIlJch of the early colonization of the New

post building was the daninan t construction form in a11 of Europe World--France. the Netherlands. and England--did not have it as a except for the Far North, the Western f1editerranean, and the part of their cultural inventory. It was Sweden, probably the Woost

Atlantic coastal areas of England. Spaces left between posts were highly developed area in terms of log technology. that sent to North usu a11y filled wi th a wattle and daub mixtu re (stra", and sma11 American the first log cabin builders. New Sweden was founded on branches Inixed with clay or mud). In the colder areas of the La te Delaware Bay in 1638 by the Swedish West India Company. The site was

Neolithic , P'lsts we re set close enough togethpr in the around to primarily a fur trading colony of about 200 people, who were also ahu t each othe r for added insulation (Kniffen and Glassie 1966:43). engaged in raising cattle and cultivation (Shurtleff 1953 : 163-170). ftrcheol ogical exa l'l ples of loq construction hav e 1-een unearthed at Swedish log construction was characterized by logs left in the round

Breeze K.vawski, Ris~ u l in , and fran several other sites in the region with notches cut in the top or hath sides about a foot from the end. of the t-P.nd of the Lower Vistula ..nere traces of large rectangular produci ng an overhang a t the corners. Each log wa s grooved the houses, trapezoid in plan, ha ve been l oc ated. These sites date from entire length of its l'ottOM so that it could fit tightly on top of the Chalcolithic Stage, ahout 20(l(l Be (GiM hutas 1956: 11R) . the log below it (Kniffen and Glassie 1966:58).

The earl iest examp l es of construction using horizonta11y laid logs New Sweden was annexed by New Netherlands in 1655. and then claimed held t0gether by notched corners appear with the Magelmos i an culture by the British in 1664 fo11owing their conquest of New Netherlands. fran Mesol i thic Europe. Origina11y concentrated in Oerrnark. In spite of this political confusion. the Swedish colony remained southern Sweden, and northern r.ermany. the range of this technology cultura11y intact. As Engl ish settlenents grew up around New gr adually expanded . so by the end of t he Bronze age. horizontal logs Sweden. documents suggest cultural interc~ange took place between had renlaced vertical posts as the dominant construction form the groups, but English settlers continued to build thei r rough

4 Reginning in 1717 and lasting for 5(1 years, five successive waves of structures of frilfl1e and clapboard instead of adopting the easier and illl'1igration brought over 250,OOe Scotch-Irish to the New \/or1d stronger Swedish log construction techniques (Shurtleff 1953: (Wes1ager 1971 : 22C-235). The Scotch-Irish and f-ennans had ~ch in l!i3-pn) . ~e to their sMall poou1 ation and the strong cultural COO1'1on--similar histories of re1 igious persecution, economic unrest, integrity of the surrounding groups, the Swedish cabin builders had and warf~re. With these similarities, they soon became no1 itically 1 itt1e influence on the ~eve10pment or di ffusion of log construction a1 igned against the English (G1assie 1968:8). Being a very adapt­ techni~ues in North "oerican (Wes1ager 1971 : 150-202). able group, the Scotch-Irish were quick to imitate the Gennan con­

struction fonns, finding them superior to their native frame The diffusion of cabin technology i n Ilnerica can be traced to the dwellings constructed of stone or mud and covered with a thatched interaction of two different cultural groups. Beginning in 1681, roof (Shurtleff 1953: 178). the ouh1 ication of Penn's Prospectus influenced I11any Europeans from what is now Gennany and Switzerland to come to J\oerica. This Like the f.ennans, most of the Scotch-Irish settled oriqinally in diverse group, known collectively as the Pennsylvania [1utch, was far Pennsylvan ia. From Pennsy1 vania, the major direction of movement MOre n~erous than the Swedes, exerting a stronger and wider area of for these groups was southward along the Appalachians, with off- c ultural influence. TIlese r c ".,ans were also log cabin huilders, and shoots i n every direction. Eventually the huilding methods brought with them housing techniques readily adaptable to this practiced ~.v these two groups hecal'1e the dominant construction cnuntry of forests (Hes1ager 1971:7n8-215). Four different huilding I'1e thods for all of the Eastern United States south of New England, types found in North Ilnerica can be traced to definite regions of except for the thin Tidewater strip along the outer coastal r1~in Switzerland or GerMany (Shurtleff 1953:176). Pennsylvania r,ennan ( Kn iffen 1965:561). log work is characterized by logs notched near their end (no overhang), which produced box corner. Spaces be~ween logs were As log construction became established through time, distinctively chinked with clay, stones, poles, or shingles. The logs were Jllnerican plans with recognizable European anticedants began to be usually r ough or square hewn for easier hand1 ing and a more finished built in specific areas . TIle following section will describe some appearance (Kniffen and G1assie 1966: 59). of these.

The second important cultural grouo was the Scotch-Irish--Scotsmen who had ilTl11igrated to Ireland during the 16th and 17th centuries .

6 First, however, a few hasic te""s that will he used throughout this The only important r.erman house type, the central-chimney or study should he defined. "Cabin" denotes a small often tenporary continental log house, was se1dem constructed outside of Gennan

dwellln9, usually one roOM In size and not fTlOre than one and one­ sett1enents in Pennsylvania. The II10st important contributions of

half stories In height.. Ilhfle usually associated with log con­ this region, at least for this study, were Its single and double pen

struction, cabins of clapboard, adohe, hrick, sod, and stone have cahl n types (Kniffen 1963: 558-581). been built in different parts of the United States. In the Rocky

Mountain Region, the focus of this study, the vast majority of Single pen cabins frem the Mid Atlantic were the most numerous and

cabins were constructed of log, and when the tern "cabin" appears It Indeed bave become the typification of the "Pmerican log cabin."

will refer to a 10<1 dwelling unless otherwi se noted. It should also The two dOMinant forms have much in cOlllllon with each other: Both

be pointed out that log construction is a huilding technique, I1 0t a have side facing gables - the door in a wall, running parallel to specific architectural fo"". This can he seen in the way Many the ridgepole. Both usually have an external chimney in the center

cultures In Pmerica B'lhraced roerman log technology, but still used of one qahle end, contructed of hrick, stone, 10q, and/or c1a,v it to t..Jf1d their specific architectural fo""s . (Glassle 1963:341-343). The oldest of these is called the rectan-

9u1ar or O:Cotch-Irish cahln (Figure 7a). The dimensions of front

Now that log technology has heen established in North Pmerica, the and rear walls exceed that of side walls by at least five feet. direction of thi s study will turn to an exal'1lnatlon of its appli­ This cahin may consist of a single room or be unequally divided hy a

cation hy different peoples In diverse geographical areas. light partition Into two roems, the larger of which will contain the

Three cui tural source areas have heen recognized by geographers for fireplace and the door. A rear door, sometimes present, will be in

tbe Eastern United States. The New England tradition saw dwellings, line with the front door. This floor plan seB'lS to be directly

even from Its beginning, of exclusively frame construction. A related to that of stone and mud cahlns COlllllonly built around

synchronic series of house types developed, but basic construction Ulster, in Northern Ireland. In the United States, the rectangular

techniQues remained the same. The Tidewater South as a ..no1e also cahin 1o8S cemMOn1y found in areas ..nere the Scotch-Irish/Pennsylva­

continued this English tradition of frame construction. The third nian influence was the strongest - Into the Blue Ridge of North and fTlOst important source area for 109 technology Is the ~Id­ Carol Ina and Tennessee, and the Upper Pledll10nt of /obrth Carol Ina

Atlantic Region. It included in Its inventory the "I" house floor (Glassle 1968:353-355; Jordan 1978:10R). rlan, ..nich became the II10st corwnon house type frO'! the "id-At1antlc and on into the Midwest during much of the 18th and 19th centuries.

8 g The second fo"" is the square or Fnglish cabin (Fiqure 2b). Poughly 16-feet square, it is the traditional one-hay size of ancient English dwellings. It was introduced to "'er ica as a fral'le structure by English colonists. Once inland, however , /IlOst were of log construc- tion (r.lassie 1968:349-353); Jordan 1978:111).

Douhle pen cabins were also, a part of the 11id Atlantic tradition althou~h not as common. IIsuall.v two ren construction cal'le about through additions to ori9inally sinqle pen dwell inqs. The three b most COT1l'1On ways this was done was to abut. second ren aQainst the non-chir:l'1ey side of the first pen (simpl~ two pen); to build the second pen close enou9h to the first that they I'light hath share a

COl!1l'1on chimney (saddlebag); or to build the second pen far enough frOT1 the first so that a passageway wa s formed >:etween thP.l'1 hy joining both pens with a COl1ll!on roof (Dog-trot) (Fi~ure 2c). ---... ------...

As the ~erican frontier moved westward, cahin building continued in these already established forms until it reached the "Great I'cnerican f1esert" - the r,reat Plains that stretcb 2000 miles from Texas to ... __ ... _---_ ..... __ ... Alberta, and average 400 miles in width between the Mississippi c Valley and the Pocky ~untains. This vast treeless land saw loq construction spu!.ter and die for lack of material (Kalman and Vissar

Iq76: IS?). Put such traditions change slo"ly; while dwellings of sod and hay might have proved more oractical, log construction continued as long as it was nossib1e to build that wa.v (~'e1sch Fig. 2 . Floorplans of eastern American cabin types: a , rec tangular 1980:312). It has been noted that in most cases architectural form (Scotch) plan; b, square (English) plan; c, Dogtrot. endures longer through time than the use of specific I'lateria1s, Ixlt 11 10 on the fringes of the Plains, log construction continued even when

It meant altering trad1tlonal building forms. Whlle established

Ea s tern plans continued to be constructed frOO! Virginia to Cali­

fornia, a district cabin type began to .nake Its appearance on the

19th century ~erlcan Plains.

The "Anglo-western cahln," first rlocUl'lented by geographer Charles

Gritzner (1971), has several features different from earlier

Amer1can t.vpes. The MOst apparent change Is In the placB'lent of the doorway - moved from under an eave to a gahle end, thus turning the Fig . 3. Anglo-Western cabin along the Mi~souri River ; photo taken struct.ure so the gable faces forewarrl. The degree of slope In the in 1877 by David Carlisle (from Bealer and £11.15 , 1978). roof Is di minished, dropping In most cases ~elow 45°, and sometlnes

Is almost flat. And, whlle due more to technology than typology, the Iron stove alMost totally replaced the fireplace as the bullder's choice for heating and cooking (Figures 3 3nd 4).

Whlle Its definitive origin Is uncertain, several logical theories ahout the Anglo-western cabin have been proposed. According to

Roger Welsch, writing about Nebraska cabins, the movement of the door came ahout because " ... logs were scarce on the Plains and the wa lls we r e usually low - five to seven feet high - and a door In t he eave waul d have had to cut through the s111 and plate logs, lntro­ ducll1!J s tructural lnstabll1ty. So, the main door was often centered

In the gable end, thus taking advantage of ~ slightly higher wal1."

WeI sch suggests that roof slope was lowered because It took fewer logs, and could better support a sod roof, ComMon In that region Fig. 4. Anglo-Western cabin from min~n9 era of Dawson City, Yukon , (WeI sch 1980: 319). Another poss 1 bll1 ty outlined In a study of Texas built ca, 1900 (from Bealer and Ellis, 1978).

12 log building hy Terry Jordan, is that the absence of wood ","ought III. GEOr.RAPHY Of THE ROCKY MOIJNTAIN REGION about the construction of dugouts and semi-dugouts - dwell ings The Rocky l10untains make up only a short segment of the geologic partially excavated into a slope, with logs forming only the backbone of the Anericas that extends 1r.,OCO miles (16,000 km) superstructure. A gable entrance makes the best use of space in from Alaska to Patagonia. The United States part of this range such construction (Jordan 1978: 111,113). While the origin of constitutes a north-south harrier - the continental divide - front-gabled log structures goes back to ancient Europe (Gimbutas separating the interior Plains from the Intermountain plateaus 1963), prototypes can be found throughout the Ea stern lin ited Sta tes and the Pacific 110untain Systeon. The Pocky Ibuntains comprise in the fo"" of outbuildings. Specific techniques such as corner three provinces, each with distinctive land forms: the North, notching, appear to continue onto the Plains as westward extensions the Middle, and the Southern Rocky Mountains (Figure 5) . These, of estah1 ished Eastern traditions (\leI sch 1980: 3IQ). together with the Wyoming Basin, cover about 180,000 miles

(4fi6,non km), ""ich is between S-rercent and 10-percent of the

1and area of the Un i ted S ta tes •

The region's outstanding features include:

I. High peaks, ",any of which rise above 14,000 feet .

2. Great re1 ief; the summits of many or "ost of the ranges

are 5,000 to 7,000 feet (1,500 to 2,100 m) higher than

their respecti ve bases.

3. ~Iggedness, far exceeding that of the Appalachians.

4. Rocks of igneous, sedi",entary, and metamorphic origins

in diverse ~inds of uplifts and Nlsins.

15 14 5. Sha110w so 11 s and extensive areas of hare rock.

6. Extens ive stands of coni fer forests.

7. water supplies - it is the principal water source for a I I I I quarter of the country including the Plains to the east I I I I and deserts to the west. .------­I ...... - ...... J I I 8. Mineral wealth - considerable and varied. GRiATr------PLAINS I I I The three princioal divisions in the Rocky I'ountain syster1 each I -.... _--, have distinctive features. The Southern Rocky Mountains fonn I I :------the principal barrier to travel and May be crosse~ only through I I I I high passes. Oi fferences in mean annual tempera tures between I I ----,-__ LI ______t~e fl'()untain tops and the r.reat Plains av~rage about 35° F ~------(19° C) (the upper mountains have about the same temperature I I I I rdnge as much of Alaska) . Annual snowfa11 often exceeds 70 feet I I I (6 m). The timber line reaches up to about 11,500 feet, contain- I I I I in9 alti tudina11y hased zones of spruce, fir, and pine. ----'I

The Middle Rocky Mountains have levels of both temperature and

precipitation that are slightly lower than those of the ~uthern

Rockies. Both ea rly transcontinental routes--the Oregon and

Cal Hornia trail so-crossed the mountains in this region. The

Northern Rocky Mountain region, while not as high as either the Fig . 5. Physiographic map of the western United States (after Hunt, 1967). Southern or r,'iddle regions, is not topographica11y very different

from ther1. This region suppor ts the greatest population of the

16 17 IV. HISTORY Of THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN FEGION three. Milder temperatures are found with precipitation varying with altitude, but generally drier than the lower sections. In order to understand the architecture of the Rocky Mountain This region contains three times the wood reserves of the region, a brief history of its settle!l1ent 15 in order. Six groups Southern Rockies (Hunt 1967:245-276). which can be viewed as playing major roles in this process will be discussed separately. First, however, a look at their antecedents. Wi thin the Rocki es li e PIOunta i n pa rks - huge meadows, often of

considerable size. As well as providing the region's agricul­ A. Indians and Explorers tural base, these valleys are sources for some of the !'lajor Western rivers (Merk 1978: 240-241). At the time of contact the inhabitants of the Rocky Mountains were aboriginal populations thinly scattered throughout the region. Most helonged to the Shoshone linguistic fal'lil.v with individual groups including the Shoshone, Bannock, Paiute, and lite. Their occupation of individual sites was seasonal at best - spending summers In the mountains, and wintering along major water sources In the valleys and along the plateaus. While winter activities were fairly sedentary, summers were spent moving between temporary camps, taking advantage of diverse food sources (mainly hunting, fishing, and root

ga therl ng) (Sappington 1981: 13-15) •

£nthnoqraphic accounts of ahorlginal housing reflect the usually temporary nature of these dwellings. Winter shelter appears to have been ouite variable In form, described as "a sort of tipl !'lade of ryegrass" (Murphy and ltirphy 1960: 309); "shaped like haystacks and

cons tructed of branches of will OWS covered wi th long grass, so as to be warm and canfortable" (Irving 1977: 160); "made of rush mats

18 19 wrapped around cones of poles· (Farnham 1906:316) . Summer housing ~e to t~e mobile and very temporary nature of their t i Me spent in was even less substantial: "tops of (willows) have been bent over, the mountains, no structures of any pennanence were constructed. No and tied so as to fo"" a lodge; over these, there have probably been log structu res other than crude lean-tos, have been recorded stretched deer skins or blankets, to exclude the rays of the sun" (Hawgood 1967: 20-29, fi7-1!6). (Townsend 1906: 247).

B. The Fur Trade "iven our present knowledge of these neople, it does not appear the,v were cabin builders. Given their temporary nature, it would not The first people to bull d structures of any permanent nature were have been practical to expend the amount of work necessary to bull d those who came to the Rockies for the acquisition and trade of log structures. It does appear, however, that less substantial wood beaver pelts. This was usually set in motion \OI1en a company opened material s were used in house construction \OI1en available. a fort in a promising area where trappers, Indian and European,

could exchange fur for trade goods. The first westerners to venture into the Rocky Mountains were members of the Coronado expedition, in search of the riches of the The earliest company to establish forts i n the Rocides was the "Seven Cities of Cibola." The contingent consisted of three hundred English '\Jdson's flav r{)!T1pany. Founded in 1670, t\ldson ' s flay Company

Spaniards and perhaps a thousand Indians driving large numbers of was active in the Rocky Mountain region from the late 1700's up into cattle and sheep, all guided hy a Franciscan Friar named Marcos. the 184~'s. Its primary rival, the Northwest Company, merged with Between 1539 and 1542, their wanderings took them into \OI1at is now Hudson's Bay in 1821, making it by far the largest fur company southeast Colorado, northem Arizona, and northern New Mexico. operating in the area (Hawgood 1Q67:93-94). t\ldson's Bay posts

included the Rocky Mounta i n House on the north Saskatchewan River ,

The next exoedltion into the Qockies was headed by 'lewis and Clark the Kootenai House north of lake Windmere, the Kullyspel House on frOM 1804 to 1806. Their party, consisting of 30 westerners and 1 the Pend Oreille lake, and forts Col vile and Vancouver in what is

Indian, was the first non-aboriginal group to cross the Continental now Washington State (Johanson 1967:93-94). Oiv ide, passing through what is now Montana, the Idaho Panhandle, and into Washington and Oregon. A year later (1805) Zebulon Pike Prnerican companies also attemped to establish posts in the northern led an e xpedition into Colorado. In the next decade, more adven­ Rockies. The earliest of these loBS Fort Astoria, opened by Ashley turers followed thosp. first explorers into the uncharted mountains. in 1811 but shortl y captured by the British, and operated by

21 20 constructed hy men-Fowler Company (Ubbelonde and others 1972:38). Hudson's Bay until returned to AIlerica to IRI8. AIlericans continued While descriptions are few, given the cultural background of the to operate the fort until its abandoment in 1827. Other Prnerican builrlers, most were probahly huilt of log. From early drawings and canpanies set up forts in the area, hut with well-established COO1pe­ archaeological investiQations, Hudson's Bay dwell ings shared similar tition and the increasing se ttle!llent of the area, few were cons truct ion techn iQues - hewed logs were joined at the corners by successful. In 1846 permanent treaties ceded all lands helow the either heing pegged or grooved into vertical logs. 49th parallel to the United States after 28 years of joint owner­ ship, bringing to an end ~ritish control of area COMmerce (Clampitt The other participants in the fur tade were the actual trappers. 1889: 656-657). Along with the large nlJTlber of Indians involved, Prnericans, French

Canadians, and Mexicans were also represented. Most of the non­ In the southern Rockies, the earliest fur trade was in progress in Indian trappers stayed into the l'1Ountains year-round either as Colorado before 1807 by the Missou r i Fur COO1pany. The company was independents or "hired hands" for the fur companies. Pelts were not on the best of terms with the Spanish, who claimed owner-ship to usually brought in on a annual basi s to a fort, or in parts of the area, and open confrontations were taking place by 1815, Colorado, a "rendezvous" was assembled for trade and entertaiment continuing until P'exican independence in 1821. Permanent oosts (Ridge and Billington 1969 : 393). Even less is known about dwellings included Fort Robidoux on the r.unnison River, and Fort Block of the early trappers than those of the traders. Considering their (Ubhelonde and others 1972: ~1-38). AIlerican trappers atte!llpting to year-round occupation, the easy access to wood, and later examples avoid British to the north and the Spanish to the south, began which still survive, it is prohahle I'lOst of these dwellings were trappinq the Central Rocki es about lR24 (Rid~e and Bi 11 ington huilt of log. 1969:343) •

Recause of the huge profits to he made, overtrappi ng hegan to take Considering the cultural diversity of the groups involved, it is not i ts toll by 1840, pushing the beaver to the edge of extinction. surprising that the kind of dwell ings constructed varied widely. About the same time, furopean fashions began to change, with silk The larger forts and trading houses , constructed to provide storage, hats replacing beaver in popularity. While some trapping continued shelter and protection for employees, were typically "a palisaded on a sl'lall scal e and still continues today, the cOMhination of these outpos t of an empi re" (Johanson 1967: 127). The earl i est ment i on of two factors brought an end to large-scale fur-trading in the Rockies actual construction is from 1821 - a trading post "nine logs high" in the early lR40's (Ridge and Ril1ington 1969 :396).

22 23 C. Mining While exl sting at different times and places, life in and around the bnan towns seems to have had many similarities. Populations were

Probably the most illlportant force in the settlenent of the Rockies - very heterogenious - consisting of adventurers from the East, Civil and the kind of dwellings constructed there - was the quest for gold War draft-dodgers and later veterans from the South, and aliens from and silYer. The West's first gold boom cone in California in the all over the world. "The population was like a swarm of grass­ late 1840's. Next came discoyeries in the Washoe area of Nevada in hoppers ... gathering quickly in the area of a strike ... and 1858. The first strike within the Rocky fobuntain region came near disappearing with as much speed when the gold was exhausted" (Herk

Denyer that Sallie year (Hawgood 1967: 200-215). In 1859, 100,000 1978:417) . would-be miners from the East, the Midwest, and the Mississippi Valley began a migration to the Colorado gold fields although only Construction also followed similar patterns of growth. The first about half of thelll actually made it. Two other major strikes buildings constructed on a new field were usually canvas tents

followed within a 4-year period. In 1862, a gold strike was made in (Clampitt 1889:595). Log cabins soon followed, providing fairly the Solse BaSin, beginning a decade of booming mining activity in permanent struc tures tha t coul d be used for year-round habi ta t ion.

southern Idaho. The next year di scoveries were lOade in western In the actual cities, frame structures would begin to replace those fobntana, bringing in miners from both Colorado and Idaho (Hawgood of log as soon as a sawmill was opened. If a town lasted several 1967: 221-223). years, brick began to be used, especially for public and comt'1ercial buildings. This was particularly true in areas where fires had been

These gold fields seened to be playing out in the late 1860's, but a major problem. The final "step" in this process was the construc­ the 1870's brought new mineral booms to the mountain states. tion of stone and masonry buildings (Ubbelonde and others 1972:

Leadville and Cripple Creek in Colorado, and the Coeur d'Alene 78-79) • region of Idaho became centers of activity, this time In persult of silver ore. Montana.s also beginning the large-scale mining of ()jtside of the population centers, few 19th century bull dings were copper. In 1880, a new gold field opened up In the mountains of constructed of anythi ng other than log except in pl aces Ii ke Nevada Arizona (Ubbelonde and others 1972: 112-200). The final Rocky where wood was scarce and sawmills arrived very early (Browne Mountain gold rush came in the Yukon region of Alaska and Canada in 1861:155). Fran most accounts, these non-urban dwellings continued the 1890's. to be single pen structures. Some cabins saw only seasonal occupa­ tion, with miners working their claims in the mountains during the 24 25 sllTl!ler, and wfntering in the valleys; for others, occupation of several loopholes through which they could acquire vast trilcts of Rocl\)' Mountain cabins was year round. Most dwell ings were occupied land. Some families would go through seven or eight farms, holding for more than one mining season, but few miners intended these one long enough to acquire title then selling the property and structures to be for long-term occupation. A claim would be worked moving on. The major problem was that 160 acres proved to be too whfle it was producing gold, but when ·color" began to play out, the small a tract to be economically viable for agriculture. Acts to miner would move on to bufld again elsewhere. Some early cabins saw provide supplemental tracts for established homesteads were passed sever al successive occupations as the value of gold fluctuated, in 1873 and 1878 (Hawgood 1967:353-355). experiencing a cycle of refurbishing, occupation, and abandollnent.

The homestead, unlike the mining claim, was intended for fairly By the 1890's boom towns had either found other sources of livel i- permanent occupation, so the original cabin was temporary untfl a hood, or died out (Ubbelonde and others 1972:161). Mining that larger house could be built. Often these farms would be worked only continued consisted of professional operations with specialized until the soil was depleted, then the family would move on (this equipment and the capital to sink deep shafts, or small independent usually took several years). Many famil ies did not get a choice operations, usually in isolated areas (Johansen 1967:322). about moving or staying--due to their lack of original capital and

inexperience with farming practices necessary in the area. About D. Farming and Ranching two-thirds of the homesteads fafled before title could be awarded. Another force which helped to undermine the success of small farming One effect of the influx of miners into the Rockies was the initi- operations was the timber industry. At times early timber companies ation of agricul ture in the mountain parks and valleys (Merk would "hire" troublemakers to scare off l\anesteaders and jump their 1978:41R). Most early agricul tural enterprises were begun through claims (Hult 1952: 113). More often, timber companies would help a the Homestead Act of 1862. Under this legislation, any !merican foundering farmer payoff his claim so it could be legally purchased (citizen or alien fil ing for citizenship) over 21 and the head of a by the company . household could claim 160 acres of surveyed but unappropriated public lands. The original cost was S10; after 5 years, full title Ranching also grew along with the populations of early mining towns, would be granted for a small fee. This granting of title could be reaching its height in ColoradO about 1880. But over-grazing, accelerated--gained in only 6 months--by paying $1.25 per acre. profit-taking, and finally severe weather saw a collapse of the cow Unfortunately, the act had several faults : Land speculators found bonanza in the late 1880s. Large operations like those in Colorado

26 27 were not dupllcated in the northern Rocki es. Lf ke cattl e, sheep have made sizable contributions to its settl_nt. After a major

were also a great demand; flocks were well-establfshed in the gold strike had been made, it was s~times many years before a southern Rockies by the 1870s, a 1 ittle later in the north raflroad would reach the area, leaving wagon roads or often pack (Ubbelonde and others 1972:167-169). trafls to provfde the only available transportation (Ubbelonde and others 1972 : 120). If accessable to larger bodies of water, steam­

~e to the limited space and climatic extremes, inhabitants would boats were used to transport people and suppl ies, especially along often canbine 1 ivellhoods--raising crops on a few acres and herding the lakes and rivers of northernlldaho (Hult 1952:82-83). This lack small numbers of cattle or sheep. For this reason, farmers and of fast or economical transportation can be seen in some early ranchers in the Rocky Mountain region will be considered as a single construction--the use of local materials llke wooden pegs instead of group. iron nafls, leather instead of metal door hinges, and an absence of window glass. A metal drum or even rolled sheets of metal propped

The cabi ns constructed by farmers and ranchers differ 1i ttl e in upon bricks, a "Queen Anne stove," was used as a substitute for a appearance froo those of miners of the same area and time period. manufactured iron stove in some areas. Instead of a single or several males, the usual owners of mining cabins, homestead cabins were designed to be famfly dwellings and The need for a transcontinental raflroad had been recognized ever were usually larger than other cabins. The 10ft would often be since the discovery of gold fn California. Surveys began in 1853,

floored to provide a sleeping area for the children. ~tbuf1dings congressional approval followed in 1862. Large land grants for would also be different, reflecting specific subsistance patterns. three separate routes were set aside, but the diversion of capital Otherwise, few differences seem to exist in surviving archeological and the political instabfl ity brought on by the Civf1 War caused examples. With the exception of Forest Servfce cabins, early farm continued delays. Subsfdies were finally granted two corporations, structures are the most llkely to survive over time, for after the the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific, in 1863, with completion famfly has moved into more permanent quarters, the original cabin of this fi rst transcontinental line coming in 1869 (Clampitt 1889: usually remains for storage or for animal use. 91-96). 8y 1890, four railroads had been built over the mountains, prov iding rafl transportation to Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, and the E. Transportatfon western Montana-northern Idaho area (Hawgood 1967: 260).

Whfle never cCl11prfsing a large percentage of the population, those responsible for bringing raf1 service to the Rockies can be said to 29 28 Loggers were usually trans i en t • Because of small size and the Railroads not only provided transportation, they often induced inaccessablli ty of their holdi ngs, independent operators usually settlement. During the 1870' sand 1880' s, 1arge propoganda contracted for larger companies or mill operators, moving camp campaigns were launChed. Rail roads wanted to sell large tracts of continously to new areas for easy cu tti ng and hauling. Many loggers land they had been granted along right-of-ways, and even when not were "stump rangers" - homesteaders and miners wishing to supplement their own land, new settlers meant more business. Promotional their incomes. In some areas farmers made up 75 percent of timber staffs were maintained in Europe and major Eastern cities (Ridge and crews (Johansen 1967: 400-405). Due to their impermanence, loggers Billington 1969:623). Extravagant ' pamphlets put out in the 1880's have left little in the way of structural dwellings. Those which about mining opportunities brought people from all over the country remain are similar to the ones built by miners and homesteaders in into the northern Rockies (Hult 1952:26). While most of these the same area, although usually a little smaller in size. The settlers were no doubt unprepared for actual conditions, many stayed loggers' biggest contribution to log technology can be found in the as settlement of the Rockies accelerated. structures huilt for the transportation of logs, systems that

deserve study in their own right. f.~

G. The Fores t Service While major mining towns were not without at least one sa"",ill, full scale logging operations in the Rockies did not get under way before The most recent major influence on Rocky Mountain settlement has 1890 (Johansen 1967:403). The "second migration of the timher been the Federal Government, the Forest Service in particular. industry" took place about 1900, when timber barons who had Proposed in 1907, it was to remove millions of acres of land from previously concentrated operations in Michigan, Wi scons in, and the public domain, and institute restrictions that would hopefully Minnesota moved westward, bringing new 1i fe to decl ining mining lead to conservation, and disease and fire control. While bitterly towns like Coeur d'Alene (Hult 1952:79-80). Small operators would opposed by many Wes tern represen tat ives, the proposals became 1aw cut freely on the public domain, while larger companies would either virtually intact. Grazi ng fees were imposed, cutting 1imits were buy their land or take advantage of generous government land grants. set - all in an attempt to make these forests a permanent American A peak in timber production was reached about 1913, after which resource (Ubbe 1onde and others 1972: 276-278; Johansen 1967: 543-545). stricter government policies, the depletion of easily accessible timber, and some disastrous fires combined to restrict production.

30 31 Whlle the Forest Service "depopulated" many areas by repossessing v. ARCH ITECTURE nonproducing mineral claims and buying up homesteads, it also

brought at least seasonal occupation to som~ of the Rockies' most The first section of this report explored the or1gins of log tech­ remote locations. nology and its diffusion in North ftnerica as far as the Great Plans. The second section was concerned with the groups responsible for

Fire towers and guard stations from the first quarter of the bringing log technology to the Rocky Mounta1n region. Th1s part twentieth century stll1 stand throughout most Forests; the great wll1 look at how a specific cabin type resulted from the combination majority of these structures are constructed of log. Log construc­ of these factors. The typology of log structures in the Rocky tion of these government dwellings continued into the mid-twentieth Mountain region, particularly in the early stages of settlement, century. Whlle official i.iullding manuals were in existance from at appears in many ways a continuation of styles common to the Plains least the mid-1930's, bullders in many areas would apply these plans and eastern United States. Extant archeological examples, however, to existing local vernacular traditions. New Oeal legislation, attest to the evolution of a different, un1quely western cabin type specifically the CCC (Civllian Conservation Corps), also contributed in the latter stages of the nineteenth century. ~e to the fact to Forest Service construction. Their credits include roads, that the vast majority of surviving examples lie with1n this geo­ bridges, fire lanes, and parks, as well as dwellings (Ubbelonde and graphiC region, I will refer to thi s type as the Itlcky Itluntain others 1972 : 301). Cabin (RMC).

First, identifying attributes of this cabin type will be cataloged. Its close ties to the Anglo-Western Cabin cannot be denied: both typically have a front-facing gable, with a single door off-centered in the gable end: both have roof slopes usually under 45°; and both show the builder's preference of iron stoves over fireplaces. The probable reasons for these attributes being present in cabins from the Great Plains have already been di scussed. Why they continued to be popular in areas where wood was again plentiful indicates that there continued to be advantages in using those techniques.

33 32 ... The front-facing gable was useful on the Plains because It allowed ------!. ,f: , the construction of lower buildings , thereby using fewer logs. Its , ,,, , , "." " ,~ , (' .:-UII ,... ,., .... , primary advantage In the mountains was that It a110wed easier access . ,,,,,,,. .. - , , , '"' 11111 .. .. to the cabin door during periods of heavy snowfa11 - a door under an , ", ,~, , eave could prove difficult when snow began drifting or sliding off " . ;IT :-;i " "", ~'h " , • . , . the roof. A lowered roof angle meant not only easier construction, .u but a110wed snow to remain on the roof, providing added Insulation.

LIke Eastern fireplaces, stoves were tradltlona11y placed against a 1 gable wa11. Idea11y , the stove would be placed next to the door, as ~ close as possible to an exterior woodpile for easy access to fuel.

Because of the sma11 size of most of these cabins, the placement of Fig. (j. Recons truction of a house from the village of Succase near Elblag (afte r Gimbutas 1956). both the door and stove against the front wa11 I~eant the door could no longer be centered. Usua11y It was off-centered in symmetry with the stove. Examples of these cabins also continued to be buflt In the semi-dugout variation, due more to Its Insulatlve properties and the lack of level ground, than to a shortage of logs. These attri­ butes hel p to explain wby the Anglo-Western Cabin saw popularity in the RociIY Mountains, but the RociIY Mountain Cabin has an additional feature: the gable end of the roof extends to an average of 50 percent beyond the front of the cabin. The extension usua11y was so long that added support was neces~ary at its termination, this taking the form of vertical posts.

Front-gabled structures with roof extensions are not unique to the

RoeiIY Mountain area. Neolithic examples of vertical post structures with probable roof extensions have been archeologica11y located in Fig . 7. Ro cky Mo unta in Cabin with a gable extension nearing 100% the l ength o f the ac tual cabin; a Forest Service struc ture from ca . Northeastern Europe (Figure 6) (Glmbutas 1956:122,145). Historical 19 30 (from Ca rrey and Conley 1977).

34 35 exuples of such construction are present In Gennany, Sweden, and In summer, however, as temperatures moderate and activity beclllle Finland (Richards 1978: 109). The Megarons of Classical Greece al so more outdoor oriented, the living areas would change significantly made use of such construction (Moholy-Nagy 1957:84). In the United (figure 9). States, structures with a gabled roof projected above the door were C(Jllll()n throughout the eastern United States In the fonn of smoke­ ------. houses, stables, tool sheds, kitchens, corncribs, bake ovens, It> I I chicken coops, coal houses, spring houses, and washhouses (Figure 26) (Glassle 1968a:8,9). The use of this structure In the eastern 00 -Jji United States as an actual dwelling Is not docllllented. 1 .._-==-_.\ ---... Fig. 9. Rocky Mountain Cabin, SUmmer Floorplan. The RMC's extension Is distinctive fran these In several respects. The most obvious of these being its extreme length, sometimes 100 Ourlng the warmer months, activities were moved fran the cabin's percent beyond the actual length of the cabin (Figure 7). The "Inner" to Its "outer" room. Mobile furnlshlngs--usually storage second, and In typological tenns the most Important factor, Is the shelves and beds--were moved to the outer roan. The stove was use of the space beneath the extentlon. Historical and archaeo­ usually moved, but If this proved too difficult, a separate outdoor logical evidence strongly suggests this area was a living space, stove was "manufactured" fran a metal drum, rocks, bricks, or what- making the Rocky Mountain cabin In many ways, a two-roan cabin. ever material s were aVll1able. Nonmobl1e Interior furniture was This conclusion 15 based on photos of abandoned cabins and histor­ also replaced by outdoor counterparts--especlally tables, made large Ical photos of Inhabited structures. It can best be observed enough to provide a satisfactory work surface and often made too through seasonal variations In the living patterns of the cabin large to fit through the cabin door (Figures 10 to 12). This exterior residents. A "typical" winter floorplan Is shown In Figure 8. roan was In most cases fully floored and on the same level as the Inner roan (there are examples where both had dirt floors). Addi­ tional space for the outer room could be made by adding onto It a tent extension. The space Inside the gable extension saw different uses. In some ceses thl s area was left open at the front and used I I for exterior storage. If a large faml1y occupied the dwelling, the -~=--.----- Fig. 8. Rocky Mountain Cabin, Winter Floorplan.. 37 36 Fig. 10. Simond ' s cabin , Paye tte National Forest, Idaho. Note bed Fig. 12. 1880s miner ' s cabin, Boise National Forest, Idaho. Note on porch and gable extension opening to the outside; typical of miner's accessability provided by gable extension during heavy snowfall (from cabin during swnmer occupation (from Hartung, 1978). Jerry Wylie) •

Fig. 13. 1925 photo of winter campsite of A. B. curtis; cabin Fig_ 11. Simond's cabin, Payette National Forest, Idaho. note e ntirely buried by snow (from university of Idaho Historical Collection). outdoor atove in foreground (from John Hartung).

38 39 extension l«Juld often open frOlll the Interior direction, offering o 10 15 storage for interior belongings and sleeping space for children

(Figure 14). 30 -- - x -- 30

This cabin type also proved practical for seasonal occupation. The -x--x -- outer room continued to be the living area during the SUlll11er, with ------25 25 _____ x __ the inner room providing storage space for tool s and equipment x - during the winter. ---- x - x -- 20 ------x - x -- y. X --- 20 'lIch variation exists within the type Itself (Fig re 13). While the ----xx-- majority are made of log, frame structures also exist (Figure 15). x - x - Within log construction, the majority so far analyzed make use of x - x - - x-xx - x- square notching, a type present, but not cOOll1On east of the Rockies. 15 ------15

- ---x ---- - x- x -- x-- Examples can be found of Rocky Ibuntain Cabins made with saddle, half dovetail, full dovetail, 'V' notch, and box comer construction 10 ------10 techniques (Table 1).

o ______0

Extensi on length (ft.)

Fig . 14. Sc attergram of the cabin lengths and gable extension lengths in northe rn Rocky 40 Mountain cabins . 41 Notching Types Present In Rocky Mounta i n Cabins

Type No. Percent

Square 29 48.3%

Saddle ~4 23. 9%

Doveta i1 11.6% Fig. 15. Wy1e's ranch , Payette National Forest, Idaho. Note l~ IIV II story height of cabin and stove under extension (from John Hartung). 8. 3% Box Corner 6.6%

Other 1. 3%

TOTAL 60 100 .0%

Variations In roof styles Include simple ga ble, gambrel (Figure 16),

shed (Figure 17), and hip. The length of the gable extension Is

quite variable, but appears to average 50 percent the length of the

cabin. The most unusual variation involves cabins with gable

extensi ons on both ends of the cabin - at least two examples of this

exist in different parts of Idaho (Figures 18 and 19).

One area still not discussed about the RlI C is defining its difference Fig. 16. Twentiet n century frame homestead from Oregon (Hatton, 1977) • fran the Anglo-Western cabin; how long must the gable e xtension be

43 42 :r;: J[ J[ ,1:

Fig. 17. TWentieth century miner's cabin, Payette National Forest, Idaho. Note gambrel roof, exterior table, and dog sled leaning against front wall of cabin (from Hartung, 1978) .

, Ii

Pig. 18. Miner'. cabin, Payette National Forest, Idaho. Thia unique Fig. 19. SOuth and East elevations of Norton cabin, De Smet, Idaho. cabin features a ahed root (trom J ohn Hartung). Scale: one-eighth in. equals one ft.

44 45 for a cabin to qual ffy as one and not the other? While cabins with intennediate or transitional length gables occur in Idaho and else- where, I consider the defining attribute to be how the covered area was used - was it only a porch to cover firewood and tools, or was the area used by people as a 11ving and working space? This is best detennined when dealing with period photos, where the kinds of material goods appearing under the gable made this detennination possible (Figures 20 and 21). When one has no examples other than abandoned and often deteriorating structures whi ch offer no material clues, archeological excavation is probably the only method of detennination. Fig. 20. Ninetee nth century homestead, location unknown (from the Washington State Univer s ity Photo Collec tion).

Fig. 21. Homestead a l o ng the Middle Fork of the Salmo n River , Idaho . Photo from c a. 1902 (from Ca r rey and Conley, 1977). 46

47 VI. PAST DOCUMENTATION

References to Western cabin types are few; providing a date for the 1nception of this cabin type through historical sources has proved difficult. D. C. Beard, in his 1914 book Shelters, Shacks, and Shanties shows plans for the construction of a "Wyaning Olebo", described as having "a roofed-over open-air roan, or, if you'choose to call it, a front porch, veranda, stoop, piazza, or galley, according to the section of the country in ~ich you live ••• " (Beard 1914: 171) (Figure 22a). Bear¢ s example shows the gable extending 56 percent beyond the cabin. Another variation is presented by Beard, called the "Hoko River Olebo." This cabin, des igned for less severe cl imatic areas, has a smaller extens ion with roof supports that could be removed during nonsnow months (Beard 1914: 173-173) (Figure 22b). A Forest Service Handbook fran 1935 written by C. P. Fikes includes a similar floor plan and construction infonnation, al so a 56 percent gable extension (Fikes 1935: Plan C-I7). A more elaborate book on log building fran 1945 and co-authored by Fikes, has several examples of and variations on this plan 1n western Forest Service construction (Fikes and Groben 1945:21, 32, 38).

Another historical source is early photography. Ni neteenth century photos exist 1n which RMCs make the background for portraits of early frontier families. From the early twentieth century (1909), the Forest Service has been building cabins in the region, and nt.nerous photos of these early sites survive. The primary sources

48 Fig. 22. A Wyoming Olebo cabin (after Beard, 1914). of data for this report, however, are studies of physical remains.

The dating of extant structures without an oral infonnant or datable

photo is difficult. Many sites have been claimed and reclaimed Average Cabin Sizes by Usage, North Idaho Rocky Mountain Cabins. several times between 1860 and 1980, with structures being built,

al tered, and destroyed, leaving one unable to use claim records as

reliable dating mechanisms. Cabins have been known to appear In Percent Extension areas where official claims were never filed. The use of dendro­ Use Width Length of Length chronology (tree-ring dating) to provide cons truction dates for log Homesteads 15.6 19.6 50%

cabins has seen little application, but in appropriate areas may Mining 14.25 19.1 43% prove to be the most accurate dating method. Until a better system Logging 14.5 17.9 32% is developed, one cannot reI iably locate a "source area" for the Forest Service 12.7 14 54% RMC. Even now as structures continue to disappear unrecorded, it may be too late to find such a location.

No correlation appears to exist between a specific subsistence

method and this cabin type. Surviving examples were constructed by Cabin Usage Within the 8ig Creek Drainage, Idaho mi ners, homes teaders, ranchers, and loggers, as well as by the

Forest Service. lIlile it cannot be considered a detenninlng factor

by Itself, differences in average cabi n sizes appear when the s truc­ Use Number Percent tures are grouped according to their use (table 2). The following Mi ning 8 32% data, part of a study of historic structures in the 8ig Creek Homesteads 9 36% drainage of central Idaho, show a comparison of structures based on Forest Service 24% their architectural type and probable use. This study, done by John Loggi ng 8% Ha rtung In 1978, represents one of the very few extant reports that provides a detailed cataloging of structures anywhere in the western TOTAL 25 100% United States (Tables 3 and 4).

50

51 cabfn Types Present, Bfg Creek Drafnage, Idaho 60 - - 60 56

Cabfn Mfnes Homesteads Overall 50 - - 50

T~~ No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent Rocky Mountafn 9 38% 41% IB 38S 40 - - 40 Anglo-Western 8 33S 32S 15 32%

Eastern 7 ~ ..L ~ ..ll 2Q!. - 30 30 - 28 TOTALS 24 100% 22 100% 46 100%

20 - - 20

Based on present infonnatfon, the RMC seems to have ffrst appeared 13 fn the Rocky Mountafn Regfon at least 20 years after actual settle­ 10 - - 10 ment had begun. The earl fest datable cabfn fs from the 1880's. The domfnant constructfon period for RMCs came between 1900 and 1930, 0 0 with cabins still befng constructed thfs way into the 1950s 1880 to 1900 1900 to 1930 1930 to 1950 (Ffgure 23). Fiq. 23 . Temporal distribution of a sample of datable Rocky Mountain cabins .

The majority of cabins fllustrate

52 53 A di stinction is made in thi s f igure between Forests reporting the RMC present as Forest Service s truct ures only, and those possessing RMCs constructed for nongovernment purposes (Figure 24).

54 110. lu,ce roc •• t

Cahlorn1_ lU ...tII

Colorado 1 Cw\nl00n e , alo_tt Crande 4 S Whit. ~h'.r

13 IdAhO Bul .. , Cl •• ~.t.r 8 Panhandle 9 'ayette ~ 10 S.l.on @] II Tuqh••

"'>nt&na ® 1] ".ver", ••d Il Cuater 14 lAwh and <: 1.,'k ~ 3

Or~Qf'I is rre.-,nt 16 ~lh.ur 11 Ochoco tJ"1 ~ 18 Joqvo IUver tJ"1 19 u..t1l1a 20 u.pq ... I I Win ... 4

V• • hln9ton 22 Colville 1) Mt . ft.&kar 24 lit . Hood 2S ".11ow.· WhltaAn

IIyOalnq 26 IIrldqt:r*Teton 21 Jtedidn. Dow

o 300 ... 1 ~~---r~~--~,~'~--~' indicates RMCs occurring as both Forest Service and private structures; o JOO 111'1'1 "0" "0" indi.cat€s RMCs occurring as Forest Structures only; "6," indicates RMCs are not present in either form.

Fig. 24. Map and list of a sample of National Forests in the western United States, showing the distribution of Rocky Mountain Cabins. VI I. VERNACULAR THEORY By far the most comprehensive look at vernacular or folk traditions

in the United States comes from Henry Glassie. In his analysis of Ante:edents of the RMC could be "picked from pre-existing types with the East, three 'cultures' are recognized - the aC

a little imagina tion. From the viewpoint of an anthropologist, progressive), the popular (mass, normative), and the vernacular. however, the placement of this cabin type i nto theor ies of innova­ Fol k material generally displays major variation oyer space, minor

tion - the understanding of the process of change - is a more useful variation over time. Because of this, culture areas can be defined. approach. Building types are traditional (defined as being old and acceptable to the individual that produced it). The most important and un­

Most cabin-building in the United States, at least un til the last 20 changing vernacular component is form in systems that favor replica­

years, falls under the rubrick of "vernacular architecture," a term tion over innovation (Glassie 1968:4-8). In ~ later book concerned which should be defined before given further use. Eric Mercer, with folk areas in middle Virginia, Glassie further crafts these

writing about English vernacular architecture, provides three requ ire­ architectural traditions into a set of rigid rules for the planning ments: (I) houses of traditional form, built in traditional ways, and massing of structures. Wi thin any fol k area, the "acceptable'

built of traditional ma terials; (2) they are corrmon within, and types of architecture were surprisingly small - with success found peculiar to, one or more limited parts of the country; and (3) they in repetition, not originality (Glassie 1975:68,88,163). are small and mean in comparison to some of their neighbors (Mercer 1975:1) . A. APPLICATION

Sibyl Maholy-Nagy, writing specifically about North American Based on definitions provided by Mercer and Maholy-Nagy, I have architecture, gives four aspects that are empha s ized in vernacular listed four elements that I believe can be used by the disciplines buildi ng: (I) unsupplemented use of native materials and local of both anthropology and archi tecture to define exampl es of vernac- construction materials; (2) planning and massing as the result of ular construction: specific unduplicabl e functional requirements and site conditions, regudless of symmetry or generally accepted taste canons; (3) 1. Individual variation within prescribed traditions. absence of ornamentation that is not a part of the structure ; and 2. Limited geographic range. (4) identity of enclosing or enclosed space (Maholy-Nagy 3. Made by local builders using native materials. 1957: 72-73). 4. Absence of overt ornamentation.

56 57 found in the East, but not in the 19th century Rockies. This has Rocky Mountain cabin construction meets these requirements. !Juring been noted elsewhere in the West by Charles Gritzner, writing about this study, it was exceptional to find two cabins having exactly the

New Mexico architecture: "Fol k housing traditions generally invol ve same dimensions (Figure 25). Even with this diversity, the RMC's a high de9ree of consistency in both form and dimension • • • (but) log have much in common: all are square or rectangular in plan; most buildings represent a myriad of heterogenous forms and construction are buil t of horizontal logs hel d together by one of four notching methods . .. The creativity of individuals is readily apparent not types. Range appears to be 1 imited by the Rocky MOuntains to the only from village to village but within villages and even on single east and south, following the mountains north into Alaska and west farmsteads ... " (Gritzner 1971:56). This "experimentation" is into California. The primary construction material is provided by apparent in Rocky Mountain vernacular construction. forests of pine, fir, and cedar. The cabin's owner was usually t he builder. Finally, the plainness of these dwellings is obvious--no

If both "systems" represent vernacular construction, can their extra ornamentation is evident in any examples so far--none are diversity be explained? The group studied by Glassie can be painted (except a few with preservative materials). The only considered as having fairly closed cultural system. The area had nonfunctional item commonly found on PMCs is a set of deer or elk been settled with a stable population for 200 years, the majority of antlers on the gable's end. the inhabitants being of English or African ancestry. Most were invol ved in agriculture as 1TMJ1 ti-generational family enterprises When information on Rocky Mountain cabin construction is compared

(Glass ie 1975:5-7). In this kind of environment, there was time for with Glassie's findings concerning vernacular culture areas , several traditions t o grow and be perpetuated . problems become apparent. Glassie's definition of tradition does not apply because settlement of the area is not old, nor is its

In t he Rocky Moun tain region, cultural sys tems were far more open in architecture credited to any specific group from el sewhere . While na ture . Settl ement had been going on for about 50 years, much less form appears to rema in fai rly unchangi ng among Ea s tern vernacul ar time in many local ities. Or igi nal settl ers moved on to be replaced groups , major changes are observable in the vernacular str uctures of by new, a pattern whi ch made continuation of traditions difficult. the Ro ckies within the 30-year peri od 1865-1890. The continui "y of

Cul tural backgounds represented all geogra ph ic areas of the United form can al so be challenged in Plains construction, where t he use of logs as a construction material continued even when it is necessary Sta tes, and parts of f1Jrope, As i a, and Africa. 1/ The common element for t hese i nd i vidual s was their need to survive the harsh, to change form s to do so (Wel sch 1980 :319). A third probl em often unfamiliar climate. Th i s need for survival, along with no i nvolves the favoring of replication over i nnovation, a cha rac ti stic

58 59 o 10 15 20 establi shed cuI tural group to pressure the continuation of estab­ I I I I 30 30 lished forms, were two fact ors favoring experimentation and inno­ vation within the vernacular architecture of the area. After

several decades of experimentation, the RMC can be viewed as a step

X - - toward consistency on architectural form. To understand how this 25 25 came about, it wll1 be useful to explore the processes involved in

-X - innovation.

X----X The best source I have found for the study of change is Iilmer 20 X - 2 - 20 Barnett's "Innovation" (1952), and the following cOl1lllents represent X X Two sources provide the raw material s .; - X X - a brief summary of hi s ideas. ~ for innovation--the physical world, and the inventor's cultural .J:; ... - X 2 X '"c inventory. The mechanism of inventing is viewed as the alteration .." 15 - X 15 c and recombination of "configurations , " from pre-existing prototypes

~u - X - into new ideas tha t are qua li ta tivel y different from thi ngs tha t

were previously known. The potential for the formation of new ideas

10 10 is governed by two sets of factors--external conditions, and the internal wants of the individual. Once a new idea has found

expression, it must be adopted by others if it is to be perpetuated.

This is dependent upon the position and prestige of the original advocate, the acceptabll ity and des i rabil ity of the idea in terms of established norms, and finally, the personality and position of

potential acceptors.

o o Sources for the development of the RMC would be, physically, the Cubin width (ft.) cl imatic conditions--cold, snowy winters and warm, humid stmners-- Pig . 25. Scatterqram of northern Idaho Rockv Mountain i excludinq gable exte nsions. cab n s izes, and also a plentiful supply of wood for bullding purposes.

61 60 Culturally, the presence of people from diverse architectural VIII. ORIGIN OF THE ROCKY (o()UNTAIN CABIN

traditions who shared a familiarity with log construction. This

broad base of construction experience, along with the presence of no Without knowledge of a specific source area or datable cabins that

dominant tradition, and the need to find practical forms of shelter, demonstrate changes over time, determining a single prototype for

qual ify as external conditions favoring Innovation. For the tile RMC Is not possible, however, with the knowledge of groups

categories of i Ilvldual wants and advocate qualities, not enough settling the area and their previous bufldlng traditions, four

Information Is available on the Rl1C to make any useful comments. As posslbfl Itles can be suggested. Each of these represents one of

for acceptability, the RMC does not violate any general features of Barnett's suggested changes through which new Ideas are formed:

P

would allow its identification and probable acceptance by Rocky I. The elaboration of construction forms brought to the Mountain settlers. Rocky fobuntalns by Immigrants from northwest Europe. The Rocky Mountain region saw first generation settlement from Germany, Sweden, and Finland Y --areas where front-gabled

structures with modest overhangs were constructed. The

abflity of this cabin type to withstand the severe climatic

conditions was observed by other settlers who copied Its

form, exaggerating the overhang for additional protection.

2. The ass lmflation of eastern United States outbuilding types. The majority of settlers entering the Rocky fobuntlan region

were native-born P

extended front-gabled outbuilding Is quite common throughout

the mid-Atlantic and Southeastern United States. A settler

who constructed a traditional outbuflding might have noticed

advantages In Its overhang and used it In the construction

of hi s next dwe 11i ng--an idea then copi ed and el abora ted on

by others (figures 26 and 27).

62 63 3. Simplification of the Southern Dogtrot. The Dogtrot has the

distinction of being the only other ftnerlcan cabin type that

Incorporates an open living space as a part of Its design.

The Dogtrot first made Its appearance In 18th-century

Virginia and Tennessee, spreading to the Central Gulf Plain

where 1t became a COOl1lOl1 bulldlng form from Georgia Into

east Texas, and finding its way as far north as Indiana,

Illinois, and Iowa. The earliest Dogtrots were made by the

joining of two cllmlon single-pen cabins under one roof.

"Second generation" Dogtrots, however, saw their doors moved

to the facing gable walls, with windows moved to the front wall (Jordan 1978: 119-123). This later style of Dogtrot Fig . 26 . Georgia cor ncrib, ca. 1840 (from Bealer and Ellis, 1978 ) . waul d meet all the requ 1 rements of the RMC 1f only one of

the pens was deleted, leaving a single pen and connected covered area.

Several Dogtrots are known to have exl sted In central Idaho

( Fi gures 28 and 29). The presence of Southerners In early

Rocky /tluntaln settlement Is apparent from the names given

features In the area (Atlanta, Chattanooga, Leesvll1e).

limitations placed upon these people by geography and time,

along with t he need for reduced space, might have resul ted

In a slmpl 1flcatlon of this more complex form. Additional

suppor t for a Dogtrot origin comes from Alaska--cablns have

been observed where an original RMC had been altered by the

addition of a second pen, making the dwelling Into a Dogtrot.

From this viewpoint, cabi ns with small or tranSitional gable Fig. 27. Outbuilding, Hand mine compl ex , Payette National Forest, Idaho (from John Hartung). extensions might be viewed as further Dogtrot slmpl1flcatlons. 65 64 4. A purely local innovation. The Anglo-Western cabin type had

been established before Rocky Mountain settlement began. and appears throughout the region. usually with minimal gable

extent ions in both ends. In order to store more wood and

supplies outside the front of the cabin. the front gable was

extended. Gradually. as longer extensions were constructed.

use of the space beneath the gable increased. Numerous

examples of what might be termed "transitional oo extensions

can be found on cab ins throughout the Rocky Mountain region

(Figures 30 and 31) . Limits on the length of the extension

would be governed by the maximum length of available logs.

or possibly. by limiting the covered area to a size large examp~!9 ~f 28. f ' Ma~an mine building, Payette Na t i o nal Forest, Idaho' an a ~rs generation t ype of Dog tro t (from Jo hn Hartung).' enough to fulfill the needs of the builder. No standard-

Ization of extension lengths appears to have existed other

than those prescribed by the Forest Se rv i ce.

While it cannot really be considered as the source. the

Forest Service de serves me ntion because of its major role as

a diffuser of thi s ca bin type. The RMC became popular as a

Forest Service plan for guard stations and lookouts through­

out the Western United States (Figures 32 and 33 ). Construc-

t ion of these structures can be documented from IglO and

into the 1930' s . While much work still needs to be done In

the way of local studies before this relationship Is fully

understood, it appears to be a unique exam ple of a vernacular

building fo rm being spread by an age nt of the popular culture. Fig_ 29. Miner ' s cabin o n t h Gold F k R1 Boise, National Forest an e xample e f o r d ver , Cascade Range r Dis tric t, , 0 a secon gene r a t ion type of Dogtrot. yet the form remaining vernacular In nature.

66 67 Fig. )0. Cabin with minimal extension near Libby , Montana. Although o nly a small area js covered, note shel ves built under the window to make use of this space (from Guy Marden) . Fig . 32. Liz Creek cabin, Clearwater Na tional Forest, Idaho (from Gerald Franc).

Pig. )1. Hopkin ' s cabin, Middle Fork of the Salmon River, Idaho. Fig_ 33. Indian Creek Guard Station, Challis National Forest, Idaho Photo taJten CA. 1910, note large size of 109s used in cabin ' s construc tion (from Jerry Wylie). and ama~l stool under gable extension (from Carrey and Conley, 1977).

68 69 IX. SUMMARY the local climatic conditions. Fran these trials, a new type, the Rocky Mountain cabin, came into being and began to be duplicated

[ have attempted in this report t o document the existance 0 throughout the region.

previously unknown cabin type, and to find for this type a place in

the overall development of ""erican log technology. While research Although built with canmon attributes over a fairly limited geograph­

in the eastern United States has yielded several excellent studies ic area, the RMC never experienced a stand~rdization of fonn. No

about log cons truct ion and vernacular tradition s in archi tecture , "cul ture areas" can be defined in the Rockies due to the diversity

the western United States ha s received l ittle of this attention. and temporary nature of settlement patterns. The tennination point

Perhaps this lack of attention is attibutab1e to the fact t hat fr the construction of vernacular fonns is also not as well-defined

Western s tructures are not as old as t heir Eastern cou nterparts, a in the Rocky Mountain region as in the East. The period between

condition that ca n prove to be an adva ntage in that more examples World ~ar [ and World war II saw a transition fonn vernacular to

remain, thus making mo re accurate studies possible. At this time. popular construction in Middle Virginia (G1assie 1975 : 57). This

the Rocky Mounta i n cabi n is the la st documented cabi n type to appear tennination date probably holds true for most of the East. [n the

in North America (early examples date from about [890. with the Rockies. however. popular fonns appear almost from the beginn i ng of

height of construction coming in the [920's). As the construction settl ement in the cities. and vernacular fonns sti ll continue to be of vernacular s tructures continue s to decline. it may we ll be the constructed in rural areas. although t he i r numbers have decreased .

last definable type on this continent. The last decade ha s seen a renaissance in log construction t hrough

This 1 im ited s tudy has s hown that the concept used for the East of the country. the Rocky Mo untain region in particular. Sane of these defi ning culture areas to explain verna cular diversity (and simi­ are cabins trad i tional in notching and plan. others of modern design

larity) is not val id for the architecture of the Rocky Mountain with canpl ex notchi ng and contemporary plan (Figures 34 and 35).

West. Th e same proc esses appear to have been at work i n both areas , These structures . with few possi bl e exceptions. represent the but at different s tages of development. Rocky Mountain construction popular culture's rendition of vernacular styl es and are not them­ began br ingi ng in types that originated el sewhere (Eastern cabin selves folk in nature. This upsurge i n log building has brought types. the AnglO- We s tern. European types). and by builders experi­ renewed interest in the cabins of America's pa st and will hopefully menting with variations and recanbinations that might better suit aid in the continued examination of log construction in the United States . Much work remains to be done before the roles of the Ang1 0- 70 71 Western and Rocky Mountain cabin in the settlement of the Rocky

Mountain region can be fully understood . As these cabins continue

to fall, unrecorded, this task becomes more urgent.

It should also be the goal of those studying western cabins to apply their findings to theories about vernacular construction. This

approach will involve an interdisciplinary effort including archi- tecture, history, geography, and anthropology. Mchaeology will become an increasingly important tool as standing structures

Fig. 34. Brink Realty Office , Stanley , Idaho (from Jerry Wylie ). disappear. have attempted to incorporate into this report procedures used in these different disc ipl ines . I am hopeful the result of thi s study has been not only an identification of types,

but al so an attempt to understand man's dual natures of constancy

and innovation.

Fig. 35 . Bump's c abin , Paye tte National Forest , Idaho. Gabl e extension has been walled to make a second full room (from Carrey and Conley, 1977).

72 73 REFERENCES ClTEO

Barnett, Homer 1. The only Eastern vemacular structure that typ1cally possesses a 1953 Innovation. New York: MacGraw Hill. foreward-fac i ng gable is the Shotgun house of Lou isania, Bealer, Alex, and John 0 Ellis 1978 The Log Cabin. Barre, MA : Barre Publishing described by Fred Kniffen to be a long, narrow hou se one room Beard , O. C. width and from one to three rooms deep . A front porch fonned by 19 14 Shelter, Shacks , and Shanties. New Yor k: Charles Scribner's So ns . either a gable extension or by a shed addition i s very commo n Browne , J . Ros s (Kni ffen 1936: 186). 1861 "A Peep at lIashoe . " New Harper's fotlnthly Magazine 22: 155-156. Carrey , Jo hn, and Co rt Co nley 2. CJle of the best sources about the di stribution of 109 construc­ 19 77 A Guide to the liiddle Fork of the Sa l mo n and the Sh eepeater War. RIggins, 10: Backeddy Books. tion methods is provided by Kniffen and Glassie (1966:61). Th ey Cl ampi tt, John W. r eport square notchi ng to be a corner timbering fonn developed 1889 Ec hoe s from the Rocky Mountains . Chi cago: Belford, Cla r k, and Compa ny . by English inmigran ts to America , used instead of the Gennan "V" De Vi sser, John, and Harold Kalman notch . Sq uare notching is the commo nist fonn of corner timber­ 1976 Pi oneer Churches. New York: W. W. Norton and Compa ny. ing east of the Blue Ridge, particularly in the Virginia Fa rnham, Thoma s T. 1843 "Travel s in the Great Western Prairies , t he Anahua c and Piedmont (Kniffen and Glas5ie 1966:63). the Roc ky Mountains, and the Or egon Terr itory." In ~ Western Travels , 1748-1846 , volume 28 , edited by Ruben Gold Thwaltes. Cleveland : Arthur H. Cl ar k. 3. The presence of inmigrants from Germa ny and Sweden, along with Fickes, C. P. , editor 1935 "Con s true t ion and ffa i ntenance of Fores t Improvemen t s ." natives of the so utheastern United States living in the Rocky Region 1 Handbook, USDA Forest Service. Mountain region can be documented. The earliest comp lete census 1945 "Building with Logs." USDA Forest Serv i ce Mi scel laneou s Publication No. 579. for the State of Idaho from the year 1900 reports an overall Gla ss ie , Henry population of 57,666. Four-thousand , nine-hundred and fifteen 1963 "The Appalachian Log Cab in." Mountain Ufe and Work 39( 4): 5-14. or 8.5 percen t of these were originally from Gennany or Sweden , 1968 "T he Types of the Southern Mountain Cabin." Appendix and 7,542 (13 percent) reported thems elves to be natives of the of The Study of American Folklore, by Jan Bruvand . New York : W. w: NOrton . Southeas tern Un ited Sta tes. 1968 Pattern of the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States. Philadelphia: UnIVersity of Pen nsylvania Press .

75 74 1975 Folk Housing In Middle Virginia. Knoxville: University of Maholy-Nagy, Sibyl Tennes see Pres s • 1957 Native Geni us In Anonm;ous Architecture In North ,,"erlca. New York: Schokl n Boo s . Glmbutas, Hargla 1956 The Prehl s tory of Ea stern Eu rope . Cambr idge: The Peadbody Mercer, Eric MUseum. 1975 F.ngl ish Vernacular Architecture. London: Royal Commission on Hlstnrlcal Documents. 1963 The Sa lts. London: Thames and Hudson. Merk, Freder ick Grl tzner, Cha rl es F. 197B II : s tory of the Westward Hovement. New York: Alfred A. 1971 "Log Housing in New Mexico." Pioneer Pmerica . 3(2):60-63 Knopf . Hartung, John Murphy, Robe rt F., and Yoland Murphy 1960 "Shoshone Bannock Subsistence and Society." Anthropological 1978 · Oo cllT1 en tation of the Hi storical Resources In the Idaho Primitive Area, Big Creek Drainage . " Unpublished Master's Records 16(7): 293-33B . thesis, lillversity of Idaho, Moscow. Richards, J. H. Hatton, Raymond R. 1978 BOO Years of Finnish Architec ture. London: David and 1977 The High Desert of Central Oregon. Portland : Binford eha rl es. and Hort. Rid ge , "artin , and Ray A. Billington, editors 1969 Pmerica's Frontier Story. New York: Ho lt Rinehart and Hawgood, John A. 1967 ,,"erica 's Western Frontiers. New Yo rk : Alfred A. Knopf. Wi ns ton.

Hult, Ruby E. 1952 Steamboats in the Timber. Caldwell, ID: The Caxton Prlnters. Hunt, Charles B. 1967 PhysiOreography of the United States . San Francisco: W. H. reeman and Company. Shurtleff, Harold R. 1939 The Log Cabi n 1'1yth: A Stu~ of Early Dwell ings of the Northerica . Cambridge: Harvard Irving, Washington i!!!llish Colonies in 1837 The Adventures of Captain Bonneville. Bos ton: Thwayne Universlty Press . l'ii1iiTs her s . Townsend, John K. Johansen, Dorothy O. 1906 Narrative of a journey across the Rocky l'cJuntains to the Co lumbia River, and a vi sit to the Sandwich Islands , 1967 Empl re of the Co IllT1bfa . New Yo rk: Ha rper and Row. and Chile ; with a scientific appendix. In Early Western Jo rdan, Terry Travels 174B-1846, volume 21, edited by Ruben GOld lhwaftes. 1978 Texas LOt Buildings: A Folk Architecture. Austin: Clevel and: Arthur H. Clark. Unlversl y of Texas Press. Kniffen, Fred. Ubbelonde, Carl, Ma xi ne Benson, and Owane Smith 1935 "Loulsanla House Types." Annals of the Association of 1972 A Co lorado History. Boulder: Pruett Publishing Compa ny. ,,"erican Geographers 26(4): 179-193. Wel sch , Roger L. 1965 "Folk Housing: Key to Diffusion." Annals of the Association 1980 Nebraska Log Co nstruction: I~omentu m in Tradition. of Pmerlcan Geographers 55( 4) : 549-576. Nebraska History, Fall :310-355. Kniffen, Fred, and Menry Glassle We slager , C. A. 1966 "Building With Wood In the Eastern United States : A 1971 The Log Cabin in ,,"erica. Rutgers University Press. Time-Place Perspective." Geographical Review 56(1) ' 40-66. . 77

76 TABLE OF CONTENTS

~ 1. INTRODUCTION • 80

2. CORNER JOINTS BO

True Notchi ng. Types COIIII1On 3 B2

True Notching. Types Less COIIII1On 8 84

Other Log Construction t1ethods 10 89

LOG CABIN TECHNO LOGY AND TY POLOGY 3. FLOOR PLANS 12 91 By ...... flary Hil son 4. ROOF AND WINDOW CONSTRUCTION 18 97 REFERENCES CITED ...... 21 100

USDA Fores t Service Int ermou ntain Region 1984

.:p 1. INTRODUCTION B C log construction first begin in the Near Elst, sprelding ICroSS Europe as "'" / '\. a part of the Neolithic culture cCJllplex (Kniffen Ind Glassie 1966). This construction _thod IIIIIS first introduced in North _rica by Swedish emigrants about 1638. It 1liiiS, hoMever, not until 1671 thlt Gennan emi­ grants began to popularize log construction in the New ';'ork (Shurtleff 1939:176-178). This group, popularly known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, G along with large nllllbers of Scotch-Irish settlers, helped to make logs the dOllinant construction fonn for IIIOst of the eastern United States

south of New England by the end of the 16th century (Kniffen 1965: 561).

The following paper presents I brief sul1lllary of basic definitions for the conponents of log construction, In explanation of the way these components can be assembled, and floor plans most c(Jll1l()n to log structures bul1 t in

the United States. The aim is present an easy-to-follow reference source H J for those interested in log technology, with particular emphasis given

examples frOlll the western United States.

2. r.ORNEP JOINTS

The following diagrlllls (Figure 1) shows the basic tenninology given to l ogs used in construction. The first part (Figure 1a to g) deals with K L the parts of a notched log. The second part (Figure Ih to m) deals with • the exterior fonn of the log, MIlich 1liiY be altered either prior to or

after the construction of the log structure. logs left in the round Inay Fig. 1. lOQ Tenninology : a , crown; b, head; c, neck; d, dorsal notch; e. ventral · notch; f, dors~l si de; 9, ventral side; h, round; i, round hewn; also s'- vlriation by either being peeled for having bark left on the j, square hewn ; k, half log; I, hewn half log ; m, planked (from Jordan 1978) . exterior surf.ce of the logs In the finished structure. Figure 2 provides structural tellllinology used when discussing the parts of I log structure.

True Notching Types, ClIIIIIOn

Siddle Notch : The simplest notching methods, 1t Is Ilmost alWitys used on round logs .tIlch, for maximum tightness at the comer joints, should extend beyond the plane of the Witll. The saddle Is probably the mos t ancient fol'lll of comer notching. Wh11e replaced In popular usage by more cClllplex notches during ...ch of the 18th and 19th centuries, the saddle aglln bec~ the most clJllllOnly used notch for much of the United States during the 20th century (Figure 3a).

Three general variations exl st; notches can occur on the upper, the lower, or on both sides of a log. Lower notching only 15 the most effective for shedding Witter and Is the most cOlll1On variety. Other nanes for th15 notch Include groove-joi nt with round notch (Erhon 1937), and

coping and cutting (AI dr1tch 1934).

Squire Notch : Th15 method 15 simple to execute, but does not Interlock the logs as do most other types. Th15 probl. 15 often ranedled by the add1tlon of pegs or metal spikes. Wh11e square notching seems to have origi nated In Engl15h areas of Virginia during the 18th century, It 15 c_nly found today In 19th and 20th century structures frCIII the

wes tern liI1ted States. It can be found on h_ logs or rounded logs Flg. 2. Struc tural term i nology: a , eave be_i b. plate 101; 0, raft.r; d, purlin; e, r i dgepole; f . j oist; g . aill log; and h, tie be•• (Hutal.r, 1974). squired only on the ends (Figure 3b). Other _s for the squire notch F1g. 3.

a, saddle ; h, s quare ,' a d "v"

n C , nOtch. include lapped joint (Mackie 1972 ). corner joint (E ri xon 1937), and full lap (Hutslar 1972).

Full Dovetail Notch: This is one of the most complicated corner t imber­

ing methods requiring considerable skill to execute. Logs are l ocked in

both directions producing a bo x- like corner; the logs are usually hewn,

or at least squared at the ends . The doveta i1 wa s most popular in the

eastern United States in the late 18th century (Figure 4a ) . It is also

called chamber and notched (Sloane 1964) .

Half Dovetail rlotch: While probably a simplification of t he full dove-

tail notch, this corner timbering method wa s ea sier to execute and was

far more popular . This method wa s comMonly used throughout the southern

~nd central United States during the 19th century. Along with the saddle

notch , this type is described in 20th century Forest Service building

manuals, and can be found in Forest Se rvice s tructures from the we stern United States (Figure 4b) .

"V" No tch: This notch is executed by making V-notch cut into the bottom

of an upper log whi ch fits into the pointed crown of a lower log . The

cross-section of a rounded log appears pear-shaped when a "V" joint is used, a hewn log takes c., a gabled appearance. This notch is usually found in 18th century struc tures in the eastern United States, and can be

found in late 19th century s tructures in the West (Figure 3c) . Other name s for thi s notching type include steeple notch (Hutslar 197 2), saddle

(used by most Canadian authors) , saddle and rider (Sultz 1964), saddle in Fig. 4 . Notches! a, Full dovetail; '>, HalE dovetail; c , half notc h. notch (Aldritch 1934), groove joint (Erhon 1937), dog collar (Karni and Lev i n 1972). and sharp notch (Sloane 1964). -tt- 95 True Notching Types. Less COI1I1lon

Half Notch : A variation of the square notch. the half notch is sometimes

executed by Itself. but more often occurs in conjunction with square

no tching to help reposition and straighten the rows of horizontal logs

(Figure 4c) (Kniffen and Glassie 1966) . Also called tenant corner

(Sultz 1964 and 1969). corner joint (E r ixon 1937), half lap (Huts lar

1972). and square notch (Sloane 1964).

Do ub le Lock. This fonn of notching is cOOll11On to S,.eden and other parts

of Sc and i navia and can be found in the upper Great Lakes region of North

ftroe r ica and occasionally in other isolated areas settled by Scandinavian

emigrant s . III i le not common for cabin construction. this is the notc hing

fonn used i n "Li nc oln Logs " (Figure Sa) (Kniffen and Glassie 1966) .

Also called li p joint (Erixon 1937) . full double joint (Gritzner 19 69). and egg e rato (Ma c kie 19 72).

Single Lock: Thi s va r iation of the double lock notch has one large notc h

cut in t he bottom of the logs i ns tead of smaller notches cut on both the

to~ and bottom. Bo t h single and doubl e lock notches appear very similar

fr om outside exami nation ( Fi gur e 4b) (Kniffen and Glassie 1966). Al so

called common block (Ka r ni and Lev i n 1972 ) . lipped joint (Erixon 1937). and half do uble (Gr i tzner 1969 ) .

Diamo nd Notch : A compli cated design. the diamond notch involves cutting a "V· notch i n bo th the top and bottom of a log. It is quite rare (Fiyure Fi g. 5. Less cotllCon not ches: a , doub l e l ock; b, s ingle l ock, and c , Sc) (Kniffen and Glassl e 1966. Weslager 1969). diamond notch.

~ ?( Other Log Co nstruction Methods

False Notching: In this construction technique, logs are laid in even

tiers which do not effectively interlock with those immediately above or

below (Figures 6a and b). This method probably originated as an English

interpretati on of true corner timberi ng introduced to fmerica by the

Gennans and Swedes. Recogni zed types include the butt joint (coononly

used in modern cab i n manufacture) (Figure 6c), the lapped or reba ted

joint ( Figure 6d), and the tongue and groove joint, an exaggerated fom of a square notch (Kn iffen and Gl a ss i e 1966).

Mortise and Tenon : Also known as piece-sur- piece, this method can be

used with logs or planks . Vertically notched horizontal .. i rr. oers are

placed into the grooves of vertical timbers set a t regular i ntervals.

While this requi res more time and care than mos t construction methods , it

allows t he use of shorter timbers and puts no restrictions on the size of

the building. Most common in areas of French settlement, this method is

still used today in remote parts of Can ada (Figure 7a) (Attebery 1976 , ttotslar 1972, and Kniffen dnd Glassie 1966) .

Box Corner: This technique invol ves t he use of heavy planks to abut the ends of horlzontal 109S at the corners , usually spiked or pegged into

place. Thls may be left uncovered givlng the corner an indented "V" appearance (Figure 7b), or be covered by two or more addl tlona1 boards to

form the more standard squared corner appearance (Figure 7c) (Attebery Fig . 6 Corne r t erminology : a , true no t c hing ; b , false notching; c ,

1976, Knlffen and Glassie 1966). Other varlations lnclude the use of a butt joint; and d t j apped or r ebated Jo int .

't o vertical log to fill this outside corner (Figure 7d) or a single boa rd to abut the horizontal ends (Figure 7e) .

Post on Sill: The contemporary fom of the ancient stockade construction

(poteau. en terre) usually appears as vertical posts attached to a horizon­ tal board . If spaces remain between logs. these are filled with chinking c or waok strips (Figure 7f).

3. FLOOR PLAN S

Log structures. while quite usable in specffi c dimens ions. can usually be grouped into a few basic f100~ plans. This infomation can be impo rtant because floor plans generally s how less variation through time t han do other architectural elemen ts. Local conditions may necessitate the use of unfamiliar construction materials. but structures still may be laid out in a traditional way. Because of this. a structure's plan has been successfully used in some areas as a guide to its builders ethnic heritage. The majority of log structures constructed in the United

States are single or double pen in size. so these plans are given the most emphasi s . e d

In the following figures, a broken line indicates the position of ridge­ pole . The positions of windows and doors are not included due t o their variability; however. a door usually occurs in the structure's front wall

(the wall toward the botton of the page in the following drawings). F Lg. 7. Other corner-timbering methods : a. mortise and tenon; b. hog trough corner; c , covered box corner t d, corner post; e, lapped box corner;

and f I pos t on boa rd .

r I Single Pen : The gr~at majori ty of single pen dwell ings (those

constructed as a single four-sided unit) belong to one of four types. A square single pen dwelling has four walls of equal or near equal dimen­ B . EE], IT1 s ions (usually 16 feet to 18 feet per side). A si ngle door fa ces forward

in a non gab1ed wall . Also common is a singl e chim ney centered along a

gabled wall. While almost never reaching two full stories , a 10ft is

common, reached thr oug h a s teep corner sta irwell. This floor plan

appears to be Briti sh in (, rigin, first appearing in l og structur es east

of the Appalachians in tt,e 18th century . Through time , thi s plan has : I : d become popu lar in cabin construction throughout the United States a nd can m : : : I I I EEl be found in most geographic areas (F i gu r e 8a). Ia-__I ___ ..J

Also COOInon throughout the United States is the r ectangular si ngle pen,

in which the structu r e's width is grea ter than its depth. The dwelling may be single large room or is frequently divided into two roons of 1------+------1, unequal size by an interior partition. Like the square pen, the rectan- gular cabin may be up to one and a half stories in height. The ori gin of

this plan is traced to Scotch-Irish emigrants, occu rring most frequentl y

in the Upland South and Midwest (F igure Bb ).

From the Great Plains and into the Far \/e st , the si ngl e pe n most commo nly [------M------I [j-----B appears as a front-gabled structure with a singl e door in the front wall . h

In the "Anglo-western" cabin , a manufactured iron stove usually replaces the traditional chimney. This cabin type appears as a common dwell ing type in the United States in the mid-19th century (Figure 8c) . Fig. 8. Floor plans: a, rectangular single pen; b, square s ingle; c,

Anglo-Western cabin; d t Rocky Mountain cabin; e, central c~lmney house; f, Spanish-American; g, simple double pen; h, saddlebag; and ~, dogtrot. Other types of single pen structures can also be found, most reflecting

ethnic or geographic diversity. The large central- chimney hou se usually

reflects the builder's German heritage (Figure 8e). A front-gabled

structure with a corner chimney i s commo n i n areas where the Spanish- 1------b I'fnerican influence was s trong (Figure 8f) (Glassie 1968, Jordan 19 78 , f-----ll-----ll-----l . Gritzner 1969, Kniffen 1936, Wei sch 1980, and Muckel roy 1974).

Double Pen: As the name implies , thi s group of structures is made up of dwellings constructed of two four- sided units that, ,jhile not usually j oined , s hare a common roof . In the ba s ic double pen, a side of the first pen abuts a side of t he second pen along one of thei r ga~led walls.

This type is often cal led the "Cumberland House" denoting the geographic area of its greatest po r ularity (F igure 8g) .

Two other types of do uble pen structures are po pular in different parts c El::::.J-.--/ d of the country. In cool e r cl imates , the central chimney or saddlebag structure can be found (Figure 8h). In more temperate or hu mid climates, the Dogtrot cabin shows popularity (Figure 8il .

/'\Jltiple Pen s: Log structures of three or four pe ns do occur, but are far less cOl1lllon than one and two pen varieties. Mo st took form over time as additions were made to simpl er s tructures. Names for these types E reflect the overall form of the dwell ing and the amount of space left e between pens (Figure 9) . Anothe r very common way of add ing onto a log building is the addition of a shed s tructure usually of framed wood and usually along a nongabled wall (Jordan 1978). Fig. 9. Mor e complex floor ~ l an8: a , linear triple penj b , ellj C ,

saddle bag ell; d t dogtrot ell; e , 'T"; and t , dogtrot "T" (Jordan, 1978).

t7 1" 4 . ROOF AND WINDOW CONSTRUCTiON

~ : The following diagran on roof typology (Figure 10) illustrates

the most ccmnon roof fonns found on cabins in the United States. The

vast majority of log structures built possess a simple gabled roof

(Figure 10) . Some variation exi sts, however, especially among Western

structures. Other roof forms that can occur, but are not shown here,

include circular, hexagonal (eight-sided), pyramidal (an equilateral

hip-roofed structure), and a flat roof (no slope) .

Roofing materials can be quite variable . Sometimes two or more materials

were combi ned to cover a structure. If a structure was used for a number

of years, it may have had difficult materials used at different times.

Often , an old roof was left in place and new materials la id on top of it.

Roofing materi.l s that caul d be produced by the bull der i ncl uded s pl it

logs, split shakes , split shingles, sod, and thatched/straw. Wh ere c manufactured materials were available, roof can be found compo sed of

sawed planks, plywood, asphalt shingles, tar paper, and tin .

Windows: Two primary window types can be found in 19th and 20th century vernacular construction, they are sash-type (Figure lIa) and caselne nt­

type ( Figure lib) windows. The principal difference lies in the method used to open the window. Sash-type windows slide open, either vertically f or horizontally, along wooden 9rooves. Casement- type windows rotate open on hinges toward the interior or exterior of a structure. Much variation exists within both window types concerning overall window size and the Flg. 10. Roof t ypology: a, simp l e gable; b . multiple ~~~ ~e~~ o~ : nunber of glass panes. The basic terminology of window componen ts is gambrel; d . je rk in head (clipped gable); e , hip roof; and f . included in Figure 11. REFERENCES CITED [ a I Aldrich, Chil son D. 1934 The Real Log Cabin. New York: Haonillan. Dl Attebery, Jennifer Eastman 1976 Log Construction in the Sawtooth Valley of Idaho. Pioneer • Dl lImer ica 8 (1 ) : 36-46. f h Erhon, Si rgud 1937 The North European Technique of Corner Timbering. Folklli 1: 56-68.

Glassie, Henry , and Fred Kniffen ] 1966 Building with Wood in the Eastern United States: A T1me-Plac~ I Perspect ive. Ge ographical Review 56(1): 40-56.

Glassie, Henry 1968 Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States. II II Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. r b 1 Gritzner, Charles F. 1969 Spani sh Log Cons truction in New Hexi co . Doctoral di sserta ti on, Sash-type window Louisiana State University. Hutslar, Donald A., and Jean J. Hutslar 1972 The Log Architecture of Ohio. Oh io History 80(3 and 4). a r 1 Jordan, Terry c 1978 Texas Log Buildi nos : A Folk Architecture. Austin: University of Texas Press. I~~ i I~ e Ka rni, Michael, and Robert Levin 1972 Fi nn ish Log Cabins in Minnesota . North West Architect (3) :92-99. f d Kn i ffen, Fred 1936 Louisiana House Types. Annals of the Association of ,,"erican Geographers 26(4):179-193. 196 5 Folk Housing: A I<'ey to Diffusion. Annals of Association of lImerican Geographers 55(4):549-576.

Kniffen, Fred, and Henry Glassie ~~ 1966 Building with Wood in the Eastern Un i ted States. Geographical I~~ ~ 56(1):40- 56 . b r 1 Lev i n, Robert, and Michael Karni 1972 Finnish Log Ca bins in Minnesota . North West Architect (3)92-99. Ca.ement-type Window Mackie, B. Allen 1972 Building with Logs. Pr ince George, BC: Hairy Woodpecker Press. Fig. 11 . Window typology: at head; b. aill; c, rail.; d, .tiles ; e , lights or panes; f , jamb. ; 8. IlUtinl; h, meeting rail' (8 and h on ca.ement type only); i t mullion; j, hinge. (i and j on ca.e_Dt type only). Mucke1roy, f)jncan C. 1974 Ranching Hi s tory of the' hoerican We s t: Revita1Jzed Through the Preservation of Its Architecture. Pioneer Amerlca 6(2) : 34- 42.

Shurtleff, llaro1d R. 1939 The Log Cabin Myth: A Study of Early Dwellings of the English Colonies in North hoerlca. Cambridge : Harvard university Press. LOG CABI N B!Bl.lOGRAPIlY Sloane, Eric By 1964 A ItJseum of Early AIlerican Tools. New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Nar y Wilson Su1tz, Phillip W. 1964 From Sagebrush to Hay and Back Again. i'

1969 Architectural Values of Early Froniter Log Structures. In Forms Upon the Frontier : Fo1k1ife and Folk Arts in the United States. logan: Utah State un1verSity Press.

USDA Forest Service Intermountain Region 1984

~ /0 I INTRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS

This partially annotated bibliography Is not intended to be an exhaustive listing of works about log construction, but rather a representative INTRODUCTION • • • • • • • • • • s8.pltng of existing publicatIons . The 230+ listings are divided into six sections according to subject matter. 1. MAJOR INFORMATIONAL SOURCES

A special thanlu! for this bibUo~raphy to Jerry WyUe and Donald Hill This section includes works that can at this time be considered for making accessible the sources they have gathered over the years about the most important because of their methodology, typology, or log construction. just overall completeness.

2. THEORETICALLY VALUABLE SOURCES

This section includes works that form the basis for present methodology in this field. PerspectIves include those of geography, a nthropology, his tory, and architecture.

3. GENERAL SOURCES

Works in this section are primarily popular works, either very general in nature or part of a study emphasizing other subject matter .

4. REGIONAL STUDIF.S • • .

A. The West~rn United States

n. The Midwest and Plains Stat es 10

C. The Eastern and Southern United States 12

O. Outs ide the United Stat es 16

s. LOG CABIN CONSTRUCTION. MAINTENANCE. AND RESTORATION 19

6. BIBLIOCRAPHIES •••.••.• .•• 22

10 3 Part 1 - Major Informational Sources 1969 On corner-timbering . Pioneer America : 1 (1): 1-4.

Descriptions and illus tra tions of a ll major notching t ypes , with discussions a bo ut t heir origins , evolution, and relative merits. Bealer, A. W., a nd J . O. Ellis 1978 The log cabin: homes of the North American wilderness. NY: Clar kston Mackie, B. All en N. Potter, Inc. 19 72 Buildi ng with logs. Prince George, B.C.: Hairy Woodpecker Pub.

A nontechnical look at the log cabin i n America, from colonial times Mostly a "how-to" manua l, but provides information on French and to the present . Very well illustrated. Canadian building t echniques.

Beard , D. C. 197 7 Notches of a ll kinds . Prince George , B.C.: Uairy Woodpecke r Pub. 1914 Shelters. s hacks , and s hanties . NY : Cha rles Scribner' s Sons . Rock, Jim Contains numerous sketches of log, pole, and timber construction. 1980 Log cabins: horizontal log construc tion. Siskiyou County His t orical A very early look at this kind o f construction. Society TeC hnical Papers .

Dunfield, John D. Wr i tten for use as a traini ng guide for Klamath National Forest. 1974 Log cabin cons truction. (unpublished paper) Ottawa, Ontario . Stickley, Gus tav Er lxon, Slrgud 1912 Architectural development of the log cabin in Ame rica . New York : 1937 The North European tec hnique o f corne r timbering. Folkliv, 1: 56- 68. The Craft sman Pub. Co.

A major work detailing Nor thern European notch i ng - t echniques , Swanson, Wi lliam distributions, and c hange over time. 1948 Log Ca bins . New York : The Macmillan Company.

Fickes, C. P., and W. E. Crolen Weslager, C. A. 1957 Building with logs. U.S . For e st Service, misc . publication No . 579. 1969 The log cabin 1n America. Ru t gers University Press.

A primer for 20th century l og cabin cons truc tion with excellent line One of the mos t significant and tho rough books on the s ub ject : drawings and photos. includes histo ry, typology , illustrations.

Jordan, Terry 1978 Texas log buildings: a folk a r chitecture. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press .

A look a t Texas log cabins and their Germanic origins , as well as a study .i n me thodology .

Kniffen, Fred B. 1936 Louisiana house types . Annals of the Association of American Geographers 26: 179-193.

Important as an i nfo rmational source for floor-plan t e rminology , applicable for most of the United States .

Kniffen, Fred 8., and Henry Glassie 1966 Building with wood in the eastern United States: a time- place perspective. Geographical Review 56 (I): 40-66.

Probably the most important brief publication on cabin technology, it attempts to describe and interpret the establishment and west­ ward movement of cabin techno l ogy across eastern North Ame rica. Part 2 - Theoretically Valuable Sources Part 3 - Genera l Sources

(The following publications a re not directly written about log construc t ion , Barnett, Homer but do include some cabin information, or else are about cabins , but of a 1953 Innovation. New York: MacC raw Hill . very general nature.) An overlooked but important s ource in the analys is of change within culture . His theories are very applicable to vernacular archit ecture. Aldrich, Chi l son D. 1934 The r eal log cabi n. New York: Macmillan Co. Class ie, Henry 1968 Pattern in the material folk culture of the eastern United States . Brochner, George Philadelphia : Universi ty of Pennsylva nia Press. 1913 The revival of the l og cabin. New York : House and Carden. Defines and examines vernacular architecture in the eastern United Bruyere, C., and Bob Bruyere States, with an emphasis on origins and mechanisms for change . 1975 In harmony with nature. New Yo rk: Drake Publis hers, Inc. 1975 Folk housing in middle Virginia. Knoxville : University of Tennessee 1976 Co untry com f o rts . New York: Drake Publishers, Inc . Press. Fife, Austin Probably the most detailed s tudy of a vernacular architecture in 1957 Folklore of material culture on the Rocky Mountain frontier. existence. Looks a t changes in typology over a 200-year period in Ar izona Quarterly 13: 104-110. the a rchitecture of middle Virginia. Study includes both log and t ramc s truc tures . Gould I Mary Earl 1965 Early American life: households in Ame rica (1620-1850) . Kniffen, Fred B. Ruttland. Vermont : Tuttle Publisher! . 1965 Folk hous ing: a key to diffus ion. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 55 (4): 549-577 . Graves . Richard H. 1952 Bush hutmak ing: thatched huts. rammed earth. log cabins . Sydney: A geographer's view of vernacular types. It inc ludes a look a t J. M. Graves (dis tributed via Shakespeare Pres s). notching and cabin types (inc luding some front-gabled varieties) and traces the western diffusion of these varia bles (into the Guidori, Enrico Midwest only). 1977 Primitive architecture. New Yo rk: H. N. Abrahams.

Meyer, Doug l as K. Interesting c ross-cultural look at vernacula r building t raditions. 1975 Diffusion of the Upland Sout h folk housing into the Shawnee Hills of s outhern Illinois. Pioneer American 7 (2) : 56-66. Herring. Ethe l 1976 Echos of a log cabin . Win s t on-Sal em, N.C.: Hunter Publishe rs. A test of Classie ' 9 theories about changes q,nd diffusion as put forth in his Middle Virginia book. Hoover, Helen 1969 A elace in [he woods. New York : Alphred A. Knopf. Roberts, Warren E.

1972 Folk architecture in context: the folk museum. Proceedings of the Karasz I Lowka Pioneer American Society 1: 34-50. 1928 Log house in good t aste. House Beautiful 64: July issue.

Shurtleff, Harold R. Kemp, Ol iver 1939 The log cabin myth: a study of early dwe llings of the English 1908 Wilderness homes: a book o f log cabins. New York: The Outing colonists in No rth America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press . Publishing Co. (2nd ed ., 1911).

A separation of fact from fiction In the early architecture and Klammer, Paul W. materials of North American colonists ; very good source for t he 1963 Building with logs . Go pher Historian, Fall: St. Paul , Hinn . historical background of log housing in North America. Scully, Vin Labas tvi lle , .\nne 1962 The earth the t emple, and the gods . New Haven: Yale University Press. 19 76 Woodswoman . New York: E. P. Dutton and Co. Shepard, Augustus Merce r, H. C. 1931 Camps in the woods. New Yo rk ; Architec tural Publishing Company. 1923 The dating of old home s. Doylestown, Pa.: Bucks County Histor ical Society Papers , Vol. 5. Sloane, Eric 1954 American barns and covered br idges. 197 5 Ancient carpenter' s tools . Doylestown, Pa. : Bucks County Historic:!l New York: Funk and Wagnalls . Society (reprint) . 1964 A museum. of early American tools. New York: Funk and Wagnalls.

Mo rrison, Hu gh 1965 A reverence for wood . New York: Wilfred Funk, Inc. 19 52 Early Ame rica n architecture: colonial t o national period. Toronto : Ox ford University Press . 1967 An age of barns. New York : Funk and Wagnalls.

Mould, J ack Sunset Magazine Staff 1976 Stumpfarms and broadaxes . Seattle , Wa s h. : Handcock House . L975 Cabins a nd vacation homes. Menlo Park, Calif.: Lane Publishing Co.

Newton, Jane t Fos t e r 1976 The log cabin r enaissance; .Sunset Magazine, October : 74-83. 1944 Log cabin - o r frame? Antiques Magazine 46: Novembe r. Wa terman, Thomas T. Log cabins as public occasions; Annals of the Association o f American 1977 1950 The dwellings of colonial America . Chapel Hill, N.C. : University of Geographers: September . No rth Caroli na Press.

Or ians , G. Harrison Wiggington, Elio t; Editor 1955 My life in a log house; Northwest Ohio Quarterly 27 : Fall. 1972 The f oxfire book. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co.

Ows l ey I Fr a nk 1917 Baton Rouge : Louisiana State Unive r sit y The fox fire book IV. Ga rden City , N. Y.: Doubleday a nd Co.,/Anchor 1949 Plain folk of the old South. Press. Press. Williams, J o hn S. Peterson, Charles E. 1843 Our cabin; o r life in the woods. American Pioneer 2(10) : 435-439 . L976 Building early America. Radnor, Pa.: Chilton Book Company. An o riginal account of cabin construction on the Ohio frontier. Kildare, Maurice 1967 Old cabin corners; Relics, fall i ssue: 16-18.

Gives some unique l ayman t s t e rminology f o r notch names ; s hows s ome of the variation that exist s in we s t e rn building t ypes.

1970 Cabins west; Re lics 3(5) : 6-9, 28-29 .

Robinson, Cap tain S . 1927 The manner o f the bac kwoods ; House and Garden Magazine : May .

Rustrum, Calvin L96L The wilderness cabin. New York : Macmillan Co .

A gener a l overview of cabin a nd adobe techniques and variations .

Sale, Edith Tunis 1929 A little cabin of logs ; House Beautiful 65: Hay . ., Ha rtung, John A. Part 4 - Regional Studies 1978 Ooc~~_ E.!.....P.Fimi t'!y.!_ resources in the Idaho Pr imi t i ve Area, A. The We ! ": ern United St a t es Big Creek d..rainage. U:'lpublisbed theaia, University of Idaho, Fo restry Department.

A report documenting field inventories and oral history. Includes Attebery, Jennifer Eastman many photos of s tructures, both occupied and abandoned. 1916 Log construction in the Sawtooth Va lley of Idaho . Pioneer America J a ckson, J . B. 8(1): 36-46. 1975 A catalog of New Mexico building terms. Landscape 1(3): 31-32 . Beauvais, Robert 1972 New Mexico log resiJence of Stephan W. Dorsey. New Mexico A short glossary of Mexican architectural terms , both official a nd vernacular. Architecture Magazine, Nov./Dec . Mc Da nie l, M" rion, and Jerry Wylie Ca rlson, Axel R. 197 9 1977 Building a log house in Alaska . Fairba nks. Alas ka : Univers i ty of ~_ ~ural resource evaluation of Sater Cabin - Little Creek. Middle Ala ska Cooperative Extension Service. For\- Ranger District, Challis National Forest, Idaho . USDA, Forest Se rv ~ ce, Intermountain Region. Carrey, Johnny, and Cort Conley Mu cke lroy , Dun c&n C. h 17 The Middle Fork and the Sheepeater lia r. Riggins. Idaho: Backeddy 1974 Ranching history of the American West : Books. revitalized through the preservation of its architecture. Pioneer America 6(2): 34-42 . 1978 River of no return. Riggins, Idaho: Backeddy Books. Looks a t example8 of preserved Texas ranch houses, including dugouts, and vertical log construction. 1979 Sna ke River of Hells Canyon. Riggins. Idaho : Backeddy Books. Pe rry , Edga r All three of these Carrey/Conley books are informal histories, based mostly on ora l history of the areas discuss ed . Very good recent and 197 1 The oJ! J.E.&.....£!lM.!l. Tucson: The Arizona State Historica l Societ y . older photC'ls along with dates of construction for many of the s hown Pittma n, Leon Sidney structures give them s ome typological merit . 1973 ~~~~Y_~_L}E-e_19th c e.!!!~rJ_ _~ .k housing of the Mormons. Sa lt La ke Comstoc k. lIilliam Phillips City: Utah State Hi storical Society.

1915 Bungalows . camps I and mountain houses. William Comstock Co. Pr oenneke, Kei th. a nd Richard Proenneke 1973 One man 's wilderness. An chorage, Alaska : Fo nta na, Be r nard L. Co;pany-.------Alaska No rthwest Publishing 1967 The a r chaeology o f pos t - 18th century r anches in the United States . Historical Archaeology 1:60-63. Rice , Ed While not concerned with s tructures in particular, Fontana looks 1975 Buildi ng in the North. Fairbanks, Ala ska: Geophys ical I ns t itute , a t the r e l a tions between s truc tures , activities, and means of Universi t y of~ subsistence . Sc humann , DaVid R. 1976 Gritzoer, Charles F . B u il di n~ house 1088 in Alaska . Juneau, Alas ka : Division of 1969 Spanish log construc tion 1n New Mexi co. Doctoral disserta tion, State and Priva t e Forestry, USDA, Fores t Service . Louisiana St a t e Univer sity. Segger, Martin

A very compl ete s tu~y of bui lding t echniques and types in New Mexico. 1977 Lo g i dom survi vala in lIest Coast arch ite cture (1890-1930). Banff . Al berta : Ca nadi a n Log Struc tures Con f erence. 1971 Log housing in New Mexico. Pioneer America 3(2) : 60-63.

Discusses Mexican i nfluences in housing from the southwestern United States , emphas izing dif ferenCeD in form, function, and materials. r /11 II~ Sultz, Phillip W. B. The Midwest and Plains States 1964 FrOIO .agebruah to hay and baclt aga!p. American West 1(1) : 20-30.

A photo-e•• ay of log structures around Jackson Hole, Wyoming . Bonebrlght, Harriet 1969 Architectural value. of early frontier log structures. From Forms 1921 Reminiscences of Newcastle, lowa in 1848. Des Moines : State of Iowa upon the frontier: folltlife and follt arta in the United States. His t ory Dep t. Logan, Utah. Brandt, Lawrence R., and Ned E. Braatz Agatn dealinl with Jacuon Hole, Wyotl!ng. bat also discusses the 1972 Log buildings in Portage County, Wisconsin : some cultural implications. factors that _y have influenced structural design. Pioneer America 4(1) : 29-39. Dale, Edward E. Sutherland, K• • and J. Lock 1949 Adobe New Mexico. National Geoaraphic 96(6): December. 1945 From log cabin to sad house. Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 38(4) : December. Vaughan, Thoaaaa i Editor 1974 Space. style. and structure: build!n•• in northwest America (2 volumes) . Fisher, Oneita Portland: Oregon Hiat'orical Society. 1965 Life in a l og cabin . Annals of Iowa 37(8): 561-~73.

A thorough examination of Northwest bUild!ng styles from pioneer days Hudson, John to modern cities. 1975 Fr ontie r ho us ing in North Dakota. State Historical SOCie ty o f North Dakota: Fall. Woodward, Claire V. 1975 Ethnohiatory of Balter Cabin, Cl.c...... City, Oregon. Unpublished Hutslar, Donald A. , and J ean J. Hutsla r thesia, Portland: Portland State University. 197 1 The l og architecture o f Ohio. Ohio History 80(3 and 4).

Wylie, Jerry A major work documenting a 6-year s tudy . 1978 Cultural reeource evaluation of the Saclt (Kipp) cabin, Big Springs. Island Park Ranger District, T.rshee National Forest, ldah"" . USDA­ Irish, Jane Forest Service. Inte.rIIOUDtain Region. 1940 Log cabins of Iowa. I owa St ate Historical Socl~ty: WPA Fil e fl2 .

1979 A cultural resource. evaluation of the Cabin Creek Ranch. P!yette Karnl, Michael, a nd Robert ' .. e vin National Foreat. Appendices by R088i1110n and Sprague. Green. 1972 Finnis h log cabins in Minnesot a . North Wes t Architect May/JWle: 92-99. Attebery, Dalatr..-. H.artuna. and Wella. USDA-Foreat Service, Intermountain Region. Klamme r, Pa ul A. 1960 Collecting log cabins: a photogr aphe r' s hobby. Minnesota His t o ry 37 (2) .

Koc h, William 1974 Corner timbering a nd wood use in Kansas log struc tures. Manha ttan , Kan . : Kans as State Unive r sit y .

Mars ha ll. H'lI."q rd Wight 1971 The "thco l1sand ar. r es" log house, Monroe Co unty, I nd i ana . Pionee r America 3(1i: 48-56.

Meyer, DOlI'tlas K. 1975 Oiffusion o f folk houses in the Shawnee Hills of Illinois . Pioneer ADler ica: July.

Perrin, Richard W. E. 1967 The architecture of Wisconsin. Madison: The State His torical Socie ~ y o f Wisconsin.

1/3 I tel C. The East and the South Petersen, William J. 1960 A pioneer log cabin. Palimps est State Historicsl Society 41(11): November. Alexander, Drury 8., and Tod Webb Roberts, Warren E. 1966 Texas homes of the nineteenth century. Austin: The University of 1977 The too ls used in building log houses 1n Indiana. Pioneer America Texas Press. 9(1): 32-61. Alcott, John V. Schutte, John A. C. 1963 Colonial hootes in North Carolina. Carolina Charter Tercentenary 1973 Record of log house restoration - New Salem, Illinois. ~ Committee, Raleigh. State His torical Society. Arthur, E. R., and D. Whitney St auffer, Florence S. 1972 The barn. New York: New York Graphic Society. 1978 Conner Prairie pioneer settlement: a living museum . Early American Life 9(1): 38-41, 54. Baber, Adin, and Mary E. Lobb 1969 The Lincoln log cabins. Lincoln Herald 71(1): 19-26. Vlach, John W. 1972 The Canada home s t ead: a saddlebag l og house in Monroe Co unty, Bastian, Robert W. Indiana . Pioneer America 4(2) : 8- 17. 1977 Indiana folk architecture: a lower mid-western index. Pioneer America 9(2) : 113-136. 1895 The 'lId log house. Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society. Black, Patti Carr Welsch, Roger L. 1976 Mississippi piney woods architecture. Jackson: MissiSSippi State 1980 Neb raska log cons truc tion: momentum in tradition . Nebraska History , History Museum. fall: 310-335 . Bucher, Rober t C. Witzel, S. A. 1962 The continental log house. Pennsylvania Folklife 12 (4): 14-19. 1935 Log buildings. Madison: Agricultural Extension Service Circular 158, Un iversit y of Wisconsin. Conger, Roger N. 1954 Historic 108 cabins in McLennan County. Texas. Waco, Texas: Heritage Society o f Waco.

Connor , Seymor V. 1949 Log cabins in Texas. The Southwestern Historical Qusrterly 53(2): 105-115.

Durham, Walt. T . 1974 Wynnewood. Tennessee Historical Quarterly 33 (2): 48-56.

Dwyer, Charles P. 1872 The immigrant builder - or practical hints for the handyman. Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen, and Heffelfinger.

Franklin, James 1973 Castilian Springs preservation - Tennessee log complex. Chat t anooga, Te nn. : James Franklin and Associates.

Glassie, Henry 1963 The Appalachian log cabin. HoWltain Life and Work 39(4): 5-14 .

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1/" 1964 The s ..ller outbuildinS. of the southern lIIOuntains. Mountain Life Kelley, J. Frederick and Work. 21-29. 1924 Early domestic architecture of Connecticut. New Haven, Conn .: Yale University Press. 1965a A central chi_ey continenul log house. Pe:;nsylvania Folklife 18(2): 33-39. 1940 A s eventeenth century Connecticut log house. Old Time New England 1965b The old barn. of Appalachia. Mountain Life and Work, summer: 21-29. Society f o r the Preservation of Antiques : October. Kniffen, Fred B. 1968a Pattern in the ..terial folk culture of the ..stern United Statea. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Pre.s. 1936 Louisiana house t ypes. Annals of the Association of American Geogra phers 26 : 179-193.

1968b The types of the Bouthern .auntain cabin. Appendix C of Jan Bruvand' s 1966 The Study of _rican Folklore. New York: W. W. Norton. Building with wood in the eas t e rn Uni ted States: a time-place pe rspective. (coa uthored with Henry Glsssie) Geographical Review 56(1): 40-66. 1975 Folk housing in Middle Virginia. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. 1963 The physiognomy of rura l Lo uisiana . Louisiana His tory 4(4): 291-299 .

Giles, Henry E" Janice Holt Gi'les McMurty, R. Ge rald 1963 A little better than pI...., : the bibliography of a house. Boa ton , Hass .: Houghton Mifflin. 19 74 The Hardin Thomas House (Kentucky). Lincoln Herald 76(1) : 172-271. McRaven, Cha rles Heimsath, Clovis 1968 Pioneer Texas buildings - a leometry lesson. Austin, Texas : University 1978 Build ing the he wn log house. Hollister, Mo . : Mounta in Publis hing Service s. of Texas Press. Mantell, W. L. Hendershott I Allan 1937 Handicrafts in the southern highlands. New York : The Russell Sage 1976 Kentucky folk architecture. Lexing ton, Ky . : Kentucky Bicent e nnial Foundation. Bookshelf, University Press. OtMalley, James R., and John Br e nder Hulan, Richard H. 1975 The middle Tennessee dogtrot house. Pioneer America 7(2): 37-46. 1978 The two-st o r y log cabin in the Up land South. Popular Culture 11(4) : 904- 9 15 . Jeffers, Jack Rosenbe rger, Jesse Leonard 1975 Cabins o f the Blue Ridge: a photographic e ..ay. Virginia Cavalcade 24(3) : 116-123. 1923 The Penns ylvania Germans. Chicago : University of Chicago Press . Stuck, Goo dloe Johns ton, Francis B. 1941 The early architecture of North Carolina . Chapel Hill : University 1971 Log hOUSe< i n northwest Lo uisiana . Lo uisiana Studies 10(4): 225-237 . of North Carolina Press. 1978 Restoring a log house in De Soto Parish . North Louisiana Historical Jordan, Terry G. Association 9 (3) : 143-146. 1978 Texas log buildings: a folk architecture. Austin, Texas: University Thomas, James C. of Texas Press. 19 74 The log houses of Kentucky. Antiques 105: 791-798. 1976 Log timbering in Texa.. Pioneer America 8(1): 8-18. Wacker I Peter 0. , and Bob Trindel Fillsbury, R., and A. Kardo8 1969 The l og house i n New Jerse y - origins and diffusion. Keystone 1970 A field guide to folk architecture of the northeastern United States. Folklore Quarterly: Winter. Hanover I N. H.: Dart.outh Colleae Pre.l. Wells, Carol 1975 Earliest log cabins o f the Natchochites. North Louisiana Historical Association Journal 6(3): 117-122 .

l it Wealager. C. A. D. - Outside the United States 1955 Log houses in Pennsylvania during the seventeenth century . Pennsylvania History 5(22): 256-265. Able r , Thomas S. Willis. Stanley 1972 Log houses in southwest Virginia: tools used in their construction. 1970 Longhouse a nd palisade, northwest Iroquoian village of the seven­ Virginia Cavalcade 21 (4): 36-47. t eenth century. Ontario History 62: 17-40. Alnaes , Eyvind, e t al. Wi~;;;. EU~::ama folk houses. Montgomery, Ala.: Alabama Historical Commission. 1950 Norwegian architecture throughout the ages . Oslo, Norway: H. Aschehough and Co. Woods, John 1904 Two years residence in settiements on the English prairie. Early Arthur. Eric Ross Western Travels. 1748-1846. edited by Rueben G. Thwaites : 274-279. 1938 The early buildings of Ontario . Toronto, Ontario: Univers ity of Toron t o Press. Cleveland. Boethius, Gerda Zelinsky. Wilbur 1953 The log house in Georgia. Geographical Review 43(2) : 173-193. 1927 Studier i den Nordiska timme rbyggnadskonsten. Stockholm, Sweden. 1977 The Canadian log house. Prince George , B. C.

Bugge , Gunnar, and Chris tian Norborg-Schulze 1969 Early wooden architecture in No rway. Oslo, Norway: By ggekunst.

Bur caw, Geo rge E. 1973 The Saxon Ho use as a cultural index in European ethnography . Moscow, Idaho: University of Idaho Press.

Clemson, Donovan 1974 Living with logs: British Co lumbia's log buildings and rail fences. Sani chton, B. C.: Hancock House.

Erexon, Sirgud 1937 The north European technique of corner-timbering. Folkllv 1: 56-68 .

Gimbutas , Hargia 1956 The prehistory of Eas t e rn Europe. Cambridge, Mass.: The Peabody Museum.

1963 The BaI t s . London, England: Thames and Hudson.

Gowa ns, Alan 1958 Looking at architecture in Canada . Toront o, Ontario: Oxford University Press.

Gulle t, Edwin C. 1963 The pioneer farmer and backwoods man. Toronto, Ontario: Unive r s ity o f Toronto Press.

Hale, Richard W. 1963 The French side of t he log cabin myth. Mass. Historical SOCiety: 118-125.

WI Hansen, Hans Jurgen Roe, Frank Gilbert 1971 Architecture in wood. London, England: Fab e r and Faber. 1958 The old log house in western Canada. Alberta Historical Review 6 (2): 1-9. Hallerot, Bjorn 1965 Timmerhus. Falv Nya Boktryckeri, Artifbolag. Vriem , Halvor 1937 The ancient settlements of Finmark, Norway. Folkl1v 2, 3. Jacquet, Pierre 1963 The Swiss chalet. Zurich: Orell Fussl1. Wade, Jill 1971 Log construction at the Red River. Canadian Antiques Collector: Kavli, Guthorm, et al. 30-36, November/December. 1958 Norwegian archite cture - past and present. Oslo , Norway : Oreyers Forlag . Weslager, C. A. Laframboise . Yves 1952 Log structures in New Sweden during the seventeenth century. 1975 Ltarchitecture traditionalle au Quebec aux 17 a t 18 s i ecles. Montreal, Delaware History 5: 77-95. Quebec: Le s Editions De L'Homme. Winberry. John J. Lehr, John 1974 The log house in Mexico. Annals of the Association of American 1976 Ukranian vernacul ar architectu-:e in Alberta. Alberta Cultural H is~ Geographers 64:54-69. Resources Commi ssion (l). Wonders, William C. Mackie, B. Allan 1979 Log dwellings in Canada. Annals of the Association of American 1972 Building with l ogs. Prince Geo rge: Hairy Woodpecker Pub lications. Geographers 69(2) : 187-207.

19 74- The Canadian log house (annual publication). Prince Geo rge: Allan 1978 Hackie Publications.

Me r cer, Eric 1975 Englis h vernacular architecture. London, England: Royal Commission on His torical Do c uments .

Patterson, C. , and L. C. Patterson 1938 Pioneer days i n Ontario . Toronto, Ontario: Rye rson Press .

Rempel, John I. 1967 Building with wood and o the r aspect s of nine t eenth century buildi ng in Ontario . Toronto , On t ario : Unive rsit y o f To ronto Press .

Richardson , A. H. J. 1973 A comparative study of timbe r buildings in Canada . Ottawa , Ontario : Association for Preservation Technology .

Ritchie , T. 1967 Canada buildings - 1867-1967. To r onto , Ontario: University of Toronto Press .

1971 Plank wall f raming: a modern wall construction with an ancient history. Pape r 1347 , Division of Building Research. Ottawa , Ontario.

Roberts I Warren 1976 Some comments on log construc t ion in Scandi navia and the United States. Bloomington, Ind .: Indiana Fo lklore Institute, Indiana Universit y .

rr / )..1 Part 5 - Cons truc tion and Restoration Goodall, Harrison, and Renee Friedman 1980 LOl structures: preservation and problem-solving. Nashville, Tenn.: Society for State and Local History,

Anderson, L. o. Hard, Roger 1975 Wood house cons truction . Agricultural Handbook 73 . Washington: 1977 Build your own low-cost log house. Charlotte, Vt.: Garden Way Government Printing Office. Associates.

Angier, Bradford Hunt, Walter B. 1952 How to build your home i n the woods. New York: Sherida n House , Hart 1939 Rustic construction. Milwaukee, Wis. : Bruce Publishing Company. Publishing. 1939 How to build and furnish a loa cabin. New York: Collier - Macmillan Balkan, Donna Company (revised editions a180 1947. 1974). 1976 How t o build a l og house of 24 0 pine logs. Ontario Citizen: October 30. Hutslar, Donald A. Barton, Arthur 1974 Log cabin restoration; guidelines for the historical society . History 1941 Log cabin construction. Bulletin 22, Michigan State Extension Service. News (History Technical Leaflet 74).

Brimmer, Frank E. Jenkins, Thomas A. 1925 Camps. log cabins. lodges. and clubhouses. New York: D. Appleton 1976 Relocation and restoration of a North Carolina log home . Chapel Hill, a nd Company. N.C.: North Carolina Bicentennial Commission.

Bruette, William Arthur; Editor Lei tch, William C. 1934 Log cabins and cottages; how to build and furnish them, by practical 19 76 Hand-hewn: the art of building your own cabin. San Francisco: a r chitects and woodsmen. New York: A. Bruette. Chronicle Sooks.

I ncludes a section (pp. 8-39) originally published in 1889 under the Livingstone, Jeffery title of "Log Cabins," by William S. Wicks. 1955 Buil d your own swamer camp or cabin. New York: McGraw-Hill Company .

Coon, Milton C.; Editor Mason, Be rnard S. f and Frederick H. Kock 1964 Restoration and preservation of historic buildings. Building 1947 Cabins. cottages and summer homes. New York: A. S. Barnes and Resear ch 1 (5). Company.

Provides benchmark data for the documentation of historic structures. Meinecke, Conrad E. 1947 Cabincrafts a nd outdoor living_ Buffalo, N.Y.: Foster and Stewart. DeGroot, Rodney C. 1976 Your wo od can last for centuries. USDA. Washington: Government 1945 Yo ur cabin in the woods, a compilation of cabin plans and philosophy Printing Office. for discovering life In the gre.a t out-doors. Buffalo, N.Y.: Foster and Stewart Publishers. Oillion, Ralph P.; Editor 1938 Sunset t s cabin book. San Francisco: Sunset Magazine. Henderson, Tracey 1977 Log cabin kits - you can build them yourself. Western Liv ing Magazine, Fikes, C. P.; Editor May. 1935 Construction and maintenance of Forest improvements. Region 1 Handbook, U.S. Forest Service. Hunger, John W. 1949 How to build a log cabin. Detroit. Hich.: Griffen H. Hunger An excellent source of techniques , plans, and cons truction concepts utilized by the Forest Service throughout the Rocky Mountain west. Parker, J. B. 1932 Vacation cabins: a selection of small cabins for comfort . utility . 1957 Building with logs. U.S. Forest Service misc. publication 579. and economy. Memphis, Tenn. : Cooke Printing Company.

M

/~3 Phillips, R. A. G. Part 6 - Bibliographies 1976 Moving and erection of log buildings. Heritage Canada: November .

Roe , Frank Gilbert 1958 The old log house in western Canada. Alberta Historical Review Hill, Donald R. 6(2): 1- 9. 1978 Select bibliography list of log homes and related wilderness experiences. Not published; Hr. Hill a consultant for ~ Lfome Roft, J . W., and R. S. Smith Builders Guide: Huir Publishing Company, Rutland, Vt. 1975 Protection and preservation of wood in service. Vancouver : Western Fores t Produc ts Lab. While not annotated. this is one of the largest bibliographies available. Emphasis is with cabin construction; over 100 entries. Rowell, Black, Gjovlk, and Feist Host of these works are from popular and trade sources. 1977 Protecting log cabins from decay. Madi s on, Wis.: USDA-Forest Service; Forest Products Laboratory General Technical Report PPL-ll. Look, David W. 1975 Selec ·ed bibliogra phy on cottages and cabins . Washington: Office Rustrum, Calvin of Archat .... !ogy and Historic Preservation, National Park Service, 1972 The wilderness cabin. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. U.S. Dept. of the Interior.

St. George, R. A. The emphaSis on this bi~liography is on construction; it includes 1962 Protecting 108 cabins from insects in the eastern United States. many o lder listings; 31 references are sited; it i s no t annotated. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office No . 2104. 1975 Selected bibliography on log structures. Washington: Office of Scharff. Robert Archaeology and Historic Preservation, National Park Service, 1952 Co mplete 81.m1Der homes handbook. New York : Prentice-Hall . U.S. Dept. of the Interior.

Schutte, John A. C. Similar to Look I s other bibliography, but more emphasis on typology 1973 Record of log house restoration - New Salem, Illinois and regionAl s tudies, including those outside the United States. Springfield, Ill.: Illinois State Historical Society. Over 30 listings; it is not annotated.

Walton, Harry Walker, Richard 1. 1964 Ho", to build your cabin or vacation home. New York: Popular Science 1974 Log cabin construction (origin and history) : annotated bibliography. Book; Harper and Roe Publishers. Unpublished, at Anthropology Department, UniverSity of Idaho.

Warrick, John Includes 33 references covering construction, his tory. and regional 1949 How to build a log cabin. Detroit, Hich. : G. H. Hunger. studies; very useful annotations.

Wicks, William S. Wylie . Jerry, and Mary A. Wilson 1889 Log cabins: how to build and furnish them. New York: Forest and 1980 A selected log cabin annotated bibhography. Idaho Cultural Resource Stream Publishing Company. Handbook, Intermountain Region (4). Forest Service, USDA .

Witzel, S. A. Includes 51 references ; the most complete annota t ed bibliography 1935 Log buildings. Circular #158, Agricultural Extension Service. available . Emphasis on regional studies. the western United Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin. States in particular .

• U.I . Gvter_nt 'dntlns OUle- 1984 - 77 ..... 0"9212 .... I I J. {, CULTURAL RESOURCE REPORTS

USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region 324 25th Street, Ogden, UT 84401

Jerry Wylie and Tom Scott Editors

-No. 1- Archeological Reconnaissance Survey of the Bridger-Teton National Forest. George C. Frison (1975).

-No. 2- The Elk Ridge Archeological Project: A Test of Random Sampling in Ar­ cheological Su rveying. Evan I. DeBloois (1975).

- NO.3- lithic Sites of the LaSal Mountains, Southeastern Utah. Dee F. Green (1974).

- No. 4- Pahsimeroi Valley Longitudinal Subsistence-Settlement and Land Use Study. James C. Chatters (1976).

NO . 5- The Archeology of the Sheepeater Battleground and Redfish Overhang Sites: Settlement Model for Central Idaho. Joseph G. Gallagher (1979).

NO. 6 - An Overview of History in the Drainage Basin of the Middle Fork of the Salmon River. Mary P. Rossillon (1981).

-No.7- A Cultural Resource Reconnaissance of the Middle Fork Salmon River, Idaho, 1978. Ruthann Knudson and others (1 982).

NO. 8 - A Cultural Resource Overview of the River of No Return Wilderness, Idaho. Leslie Wlldesen (1982).

NO. 9- Log Cabin Studies. Mary Wilson (1984).

• (Out of pri nt)

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