Trees, Between Nature and Culture Naturopano

naturopaNo. 96 / 2001 • ENGLISH

Trees, between nature and culture naturopaNo. 96 – 2001 Editorial B. Rugaas ...... 3 Chief Editor José-Maria Ballester Director of Culture and Cultural Forests, a natural heritage and Natural Heritage Trees in Europe, past and present V. Demoulin ...... 4 Director of publication Maguelonne Déjeant-Pons Are Europe’s forests in danger? K. Prins ...... 6 Head of the Regional Planning Co-operation for the beneﬁt of European forests and Technical Co-operation MCPFE and Environment for Europe and Assistance Division P. Mayer and C. Wildburger ...... 8 Concept and editing Marie-Françoise Glatz Forests full of life WWF ...... 10 E-mail: [email protected] The European Diploma and forests F. Bauer ...... 12 Layout An example outside Europe Emmanuel Georges Trees and the law in Brazil P. A. Leme Machado ...... 13 Printer Bietlot – Gilly (Belgium) Man and wood Articles may be freely reprinted provided that reference is made to the source and The relationship between the human race and wood F. Calame ...... 14 a copy sent to the Centre Naturopa. The Countless things can be made with wood! P. Glatz ...... 15 copyright of all illustrations is reserved. The tree, the house and the landscape R. Ambroise ...... 16 The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not Klingenthal colloquy: forests and trees J-P. Ribaut ...... 17 necessarily reflect the views of the Council of Europe. Bruno Manser’s struggle: Bruno Manser Foundation ...... 17 Since 1993 Naturopa has been printed on chlorine-free paper. Viewpoints © Cover, Background: Radruz Church, The music of the forest ...... 18 Poland, T. Budzin´ski Vignette 1: Mountain ash, J-J.Alcalay/Bios Vignette 2: Beech logs, J-L. Klein Wooden architecture in Europe & M-L. Hubert Typology of wooden constructions in Europe S. Mentu ...... 20 Vignette 3: Half-timbered house, ecomuseum of Alsace, Protection of wooden architecture in central and eastern Europe J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert J. Bach Rasmussen ...... 22 Below: Wild cherry in bloom, J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert Restoration of wooden churches in Poland Background p. 18-19: J-L. Klein Why and for whom? D. Maczynski ...... 23 & M-L. Hubert Domestic wooden houses of Turkey C. Hersek ...... 24 Wooden heritage in towns of Latvia P. Blums...... 25

The “Europe, a common heritage” campaign Wooden culture throughout Europe A transnational project of the campaign N. Sanz...... 26 European co-operation: Finland, France, Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Turkey S. Mentu, F. Calame, D. Puodzivkiene, K. Chmielewski, G. Andersson and C. Hersek ...... 27 The social and professional role of wood craftsmen G. Andersson ...... 29 Romania – a land of living wood A. Barca ...... 30

Heritage issues at the Council of Europe ...... 30

The culture of wood J-M. Ballester ...... 32 Bern Convention action to promote biological diversity of forests E. Fernandez Galiano ...... 32 Towards a plant conservation strategy J. Smart ...... 33

The Centre Naturopa’s national agencies ...... 34 Editorial

Trees, between nature and culture C

There was a time when forests covered most of Europe. Since the Neolithic period humans have struggled to open up forests for their cultures and livestock, little by little gaining living space for themselves. This was a long and weary battle, won with the help of fire, the plough and the unceasing teeth and hoof of farm animals. The remaining patches of woodland in Europe have not only a great heritage value, but also a symbolic one. The forest is a representation of wilderness, of untamed nature with its unpredictable forces and its mystery. European forests are not purely a mythical space, but also a physical reality, a large part of our territory where the natural aspects of land dominate the man-made ones, where the wood production to meet our needs is compatible with the preservation of a great part of the biological diversity of our continent. They form the green heart of Europe. Even if most of our present forests are largely managed and not comparable with the old natural forests that once covered Europe, they are still the habitat of many species. Forest species contribute to about one-third of the biological diversity of Europe, as forest ecosystems represent the highest level of ecological structures, being complex and diverse in ecological function and form. They have a great heritage value, as areas for human recreation, as landscapes, as providers of ecological services (clean water, prevention of erosion, carbon traps to combat climate change, etc.) and as privileged stages of spiritual contentment. Forests have also been exploited for timber and other products – mushrooms, firewood, gathering of berries and nuts, game – for a very long time. The wide variety of wood from the different tree species has been used in many forms, for buildings, furniture, tools, arms, fencing. A superb wooden heritage has been created over the centuries in Europe, exploiting the beauty, suppleness or strength of wood. Wooden heritage reckons its years in centuries. Few materials can lay the same claim to versatility as wood. This historically sustainable material, while at the same time flexible in all its applications, has adapted itself since prehistoric times to a variety of monumental, creative and functional expressions throughout our Europe. The technical and cultural differences in its use have benefited from the capacity of wood to be transformed combined with its resistance to the erosion of time. Surviving for centuries in spite of irreversible decay, wooden heritage was made one of the key areas of reflection during the “Europe, a common heritage” campaign. This issue of Naturopa takes full advantage of the Council of Europe experience in the environmental field: biological diversity, landscape and spatial planning, together with the successful transnational project entitled “Wooden culture throughout Europe”. Experts, national committees and associations have together skilfully shaped the philosophy and knowledge at the basis of this project in a spirit of European co-operation. Although not denying the functional aspect of wood as a material, all the work presented here conveys some of the poetry implicit in its selection and in its symbolic meaning to those who shape it, decorate it, build with it or simply enjoy the fruits of the work of the virtuoso makers: from forest specialists to skilled artisans of musical instruments. We are dealing with a heritage that corresponds to the craftsmanship of construction, the sociability of various forms of culture and respect for the landscape. No doubt these contributions will establish the basis and arguments for a reflection serving to implement the European Landscape Convention, opened for signature by member states in Florence on 20 October 2000. The wooden heritage constitutes an asset whose artistic and cultural values exceed the age of creators and curators. European wooden heritage is a living heritage supporting one of the most threatened forms of cultural expression and preservation. Bendik Rugaas Director of Culture, Education, Youth and Sport Council of Europe

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 3 Forests, a natural her

J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert Trees in Europe, past and present

The presence, or absence, of the Currently, the only place where this accompanied by bushes which are main types of forest depends on a type of forest is found in any great also adapted to drought and which, number of fairly clear but constantly quantity is America’s Pacific coast. when conditions become too harsh changing climatic factors. As a result Here we find pines, firs and spruces for trees, particularly as a result of of the combination of these climate but also species which do not cur- human activity (repeated felling, for- changes and human activities, the vegetation that we see around us today is quite different from what it was in the (geologically speaking) very recent past.

The main types of European forest In 1968, the German phyto-geogra- pher, Jäger, showed that the potential range of the deciduous forest characteristic of much of Europe could be defined by the following parameters: more than 120 frost-free days, pre- cipitation over 500 mm, average Jan- uary temperature below 4°C and average July temperature above 15°C. A similar surface area is occupied by the same type of forest in eastern Asia and eastern North America and, although it is far from being the most widespread form of vegetation in the Potential zone of deciduous forest in Europe according to Jager’s climatic criteria world, deciduous forest is familiar to Since the Ice Age this forest also covers the extreme west where a coniferous forest has disappeared. In the south it is replaced by the Mediterranean forest, in the north large numbers of people because so by a boreal forest of conifers and to the east by the steppe. many of the world’s major cities are located in these zones. rently exist in Europe such as thujas est fires), end up being the only veg- Losing leaves in winter is costly for a and sequoias. etation, thus creating an expanse of tree. This option is only justified where scrubland. winters are too harsh to keep normal Climatically, this forest type should leaves. Furthermore, if summers are also be found in the extreme west of In eastern Europe, in Ukraine, the too short or too cold, deciduous trees Europe and it is noticeable that trees deciduous forest is dotted with pines cannot compensate sufficiently for imported from the Pacific coast such before thinning and finally giving way the lack of leaves in winter, and this as Sequoia sempervirens and the Sitka to a grassy steppe owing to a lack of gives conifers an advantage. Conifer spruce thrive in these areas. Fossils rain (less than 500 mm per year). needles resist frost and permit pho- have been found of similar trees exist- tosynthesis in all seasons, as soon as ing in Europe right up to the end of the Changes in Europe’s vegetation conditions allow. It is for this reason tertiary period but, as we will see fur- The last ice age ended only 10 000 years that northern Europe is a region of ther on, they were wiped out by suc- ago. At its height, 20 000 years ago, boreal forest, or taiga, which boasts cessive ice ages. northern Europe (the whole of Scan- very few species but occupies vast dinavia, most of the British Isles and tracts of Siberia and Canada. A fourth type of forest is found in northern Poland) were totally unin- southern Europe, which has a dis- habitable, being covered by a thick If winters are mild, there is no reason tinctive climate matched only by that icecap. South of the ice was tundra. for trees to lose their leaves. This is of California and some regions of the In western Europe, trees were found the case in oceanic climates where southern hemisphere. This is the only in the Iberian peninsula and even the ocean acts as a buffer reducing Mediterranean climate, which is a here they were so scattered that the the variation between summer and variant of the oceanic climate with only pockets of real forest left were in winter (winters are mild but summers long, hot and very dry summers. This the eastern Mediterranean, beginning are not very hot). In our latitudes the climate is still suitable for certain in Corsica and Sardinia, and around vegetation which is most suited to conifers (particularly pines), but they the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. this type of climate is a conifer for- are less abundant than flowering ever- est resembling the taiga in many green trees which are particularly The highly unsuitable conditions for ways but containing trees which, gen- adapted to summer drought such as trees in western Europe and the fact erally, are not resistant to winter cold. the holm oak and cork oak. These are

o 4 naturopa n 96 / 2001 itage KHM, Wien

that it was difﬁcult for vegetation to migrate southwards because of the Mediterranean and the east-west ori- entation of a number of mountain chains (the Pyrenees and the Iberian and North African chains) explains why Europe’s oceanic conifer forest failed to survive.

When the climate heated up again, Scots pine, birch, and other northern species were the ﬁrst to spread north- wards to replace the tundra and then repopulate the areas left bare as the glaciers melted. They were followed by an impoverished deciduous forest emerging from its refuges in the eastern Mediterranean.

Two species of oak, the Durmast and the common oak, were to dominate this forest and occupy not only the area where the climate was now ideal Deciduous forest opened up by extensive pastureland: a frequently observed landscape from the Middle Ages for this type of vegetation but also the to the 19th century (P. Bruegel – The peasant and the nest robber, 1568, Vienna, Museum of Art History) extreme west of Europe where they were no longer in competition with etation (except for coastal dunes, logging and extensive grazing and the oceanic conifers which had all some marshlands and the steepest became very sparse. died out in the ice age. Three-thou- cliffs), were transformed by human sand ﬁve-hundred years ago the beech activities into vast areas of arable land It was only in the last century that began to compete with the oak, and or pasture. Generally speaking, only governments saw the economic ben- thus appeared in northern Europe the least fertile or most inaccessible eﬁts of forest management and tim- only very recently, at a time when areas were left as forest. ber production as compared with Neolithic farmers had long since extensive grazing. The image we have begun to clear the most fertile land. From the Middle Ages on, except in today of a growing forest, created areas reserved for royal hunts, the above all by the dense conifer plan- Regions such as the plains and hills of forests which did not completely dis- tations we see around us, with agri- north west Europe, where the forest appear were given over to intensive culture confined to the most fertile was practically the only natural veg- soils, is very different therefore from the world of our ancestors, with its constant transitions between arable land, pastures and sparse, grazed forests. Vincent Demoulin Institut de Botanique, B22 University of Liège, B-4000 Liège Belgium Fax: (32) 4 3662853 [email protected]

J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert This article is a summary of the author’s contribution to the proceedings of a colloquy entitled “L’arbre entre nature et culture”, published in 2000 by the Sart- Tilman open air museum (University of Liège).

A boreal forest of conifers,

pines and reindeer lichen ground cover, Norway Forests, a natural heritage

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 5 Forests, a natural her

Are Europe’s forests in danger?

There is a common perception that What is a “forest”? Europe’s forests are in danger: pol- A forest can be defined as an ecosys- luted, shrinking, subject to fires, dis- tem, a type of land cover, or as a form ease and intense public pressure, over of land-use, and is sometimes a cut, losing biodiversity. Some of these legally binding land classification. perceptions are true, at least in part, Some definitions of “forest” include others demonstrably false. In this arti- only natural ecosystems, others cle I will attempt to summarise the include some land without any trees situation on the basis of public objec- at all. All of these definitions have tive data. Unfortunately, but their specific uses. However, the only inevitably, this “objective” data will feasible definition for international also distort the truth as it is collected statistics is one based on tree cover, at the national} level, and summarised i.e. what percentage of land is cov- for a continent as a whole, and thus ered by trees. The definition adopted, conceals wide variations between for- world-wide, by FAO, and used here, est types, climate conditions and other considers land with a tree cover of factors. over 10% as “forest”. Natural forests and plantations are both included, as This article is mainly based on the are areas temporarily without trees, recent publication Forest Resources of notably after harvest and before Europe, the Commonwealth of Indepen- regeneration. dent States (CIS), North America, Australia, Japan and New Zealand Are the forests shrinking? (UNECE/FAO, 2000), also known as Nearly one third of Europe is cov- TBFRA 2000, which brings together, ered by forest and over 40% of the than 5% of the forest is “undis- as a contribution to the global Forest CIS. Russia’s resource of 851 mil- turbed by man”. With the exception Resource Assessment 2000, led by lion ha is the largest in the world. of remote boreal and mountain FAO, the best available data on all Furthermore in Europe, since the areas, there have been no signifi- aspects of the forest resources in the beginning of the 20th century, with cant truly natural forest areas in region covered. The ultimate sources the exception of war time, Europe’s Europe for several hundred years, as are national forest inventories, whose forests have been expanding, the spread of agriculture cleared results have been standardised to fit through plantation programmes and, forests. Deforestation in Europe was international definitions. For further above all, natural extension onto for- stopped in most countries in the information, readers are referred to mer agricultural land. This counter- second half of the nineteenth cen- this publication, which is also available balances the loss of forest to other tury and the first years of the twen- on the UNECE Timber Committee uses, notably infrastructure and tieth. On the other hand most of website (http://www.unece.org/trade/ housing. It usually requires official Europe’s forests are considered timber/welcome). permission to transform forest land “semi-natural”, with mixed, mostly to other uses. In Russia, it is likely indigenous, species and no inten- This article presents data for Europe1 that the area of forest is roughly sive silviculture. In fact, they are a and the CIS2, following the United constant. key element of Europe’s cultural Nations classification. There are enor- landscape, and ecological heritage. mous differences between forest Are the forests natural? In Russia however, the vast major- conditions in these two regions, which In Europe, most of which has been ity of the forests, notably in Siberia, are made clear below. densely populated for millennia, less are truly “undisturbed”, natural ecosystems. Key data on forests of Europe and the CIS Are the forests being over-cut? Unit Europe CIS Just over half of the annual growth of Forest area 1000 ha 175 829 855 739 Europe’s forests is harvested, so that Forest cover % 31.1 40.1 the volume of wood contained in the Change in forest area 1000 ha/year + 128 .. Share of private ownership % 54.8 0.0 forests is growing steadily. In Russia, Share “undisturbed by man” % 4.5 87.7 only 14% of the growth is harvested. Harvest /growth ratio % 55.9 14.4 As a consequence, the forests of Carbon sequestered (increase in carbon store) Pg C/year 0.11 0.43 Europe and the CIS are sequestering Area certified (2001) 1000 ha 53 016 185 large amounts of carbon, about Natural regeneration % of total 31.1 37.7 540 million tons per year, compen- regeneration sating for about one third of the car- Area burned (average 1993-97) 1000 ha/year 194 845 bon emissions from deforestation in Source: UNECE/FAO the tropics.

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observable in some parts of Europe. lar species. At the genetic level, TBFRA However, measurements taken over 2000 found that nearly a third of for- the last decade or so, have revealed est regeneration in Europe was signiﬁcant defoliation over wide areas. considered natural regeneration. Fur- The signiﬁcance and causes of what thermore, of the planting material is clearly a multi-causal phenomenon used, 85% in Europe and 100% in are however not yet clear. Russia were of indigenous species.

The most recent annual forest condi- Are Europe’s forests certified? tion survey, by the ICP Forests, sum- Systems to certify that forest prod- marised its results as follows: ucts come from sustainably managed “Extreme weather conditions, para- forests have been one of the major Emportes/Jerrican sites and air pollution wreak havoc developments of the 1990s. As of on the crowns of a quarter of all trees. summer 2001, 53 million ha of forest … And despite steep cuts in sulphur in Europe had been certified by one pollution, past emissions continue to or other of the major competing sys- take their toll on forest soils. Both tems, FSC (Forest Stewardship Coun- nitrogen and sulphur cause acidifica- cil) or PEFC (Pan-European Forest Cer- tion when soils become saturated. tification). There has been exponen- The problem is particularly acute in tial growth of the area certified over central and western Europe, but less the past 3-4 years, which is expected so in Scandinavia and south western to continue. Europe.” Conclusions Is forest biological The above short overview indicates diversity decreasing? that unlike other areas, where defor- There has been widespread concern estation and unsustainable forest Forest fire in the Côte d’Azur region, France about reduced biological diversity, management are frequent, the situa- attributed to modern silviculture, tion of forests in Europe and the CIS Who owns the forests? notably even-aged monocultures, and is not as bad as frequently perceived: Over half of Europe’s forests are other pressures. It is not easy to define Europe’s forests are expanding in owned by private individuals, mostly or measure the status, and still less area, while harvest is much less than farmers, but increasingly by absent the changes, in biodiversity, on a growth, and action is being taken in urban owners, and a few forest indus- national or regional level. It is however many sectors to promote sustainable tries. The share of privately owned clear that the area of forest protected forest management, although there forest is increasing due to restitution for the conservation of biodiversity are of course several areas of serious and privatisation in transition is increasing. As there is so little truly concern, notably with regard to fire, economies. In the CIS however, all undisturbed forest to protect in and the consequences of pollution. forest is still publicly owned. Europe, attention is increasingly Kit Prins focused on biodiversity conservation Chief, Timber Section Are the forests threatened and enrichment in managed forests, UNECE Trade Division by fire and pollution? notably through protection and man- Palais des Nations CH – 1211 Genève 10 Fire is a significant problem in south- agement of key habitats for particu- Fax: 41 22 917 0041 ern Europe, where fragile Mediter- [email protected] ranean ecosystems, degraded over 1 Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzego- centuries and made more vulnerable vina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, by rural depopulation and tourism Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, pressures, as well as social tensions, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Lat- via, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, are prevented from re-establishing a the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Roma- sustainable productive path by periodic nia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzer- fires, which burn nearly 200 000 ha, land, the “former Yugoslav Republic of Macedo- nia”, Turkey, United Kingdom, Yugoslavia. on average, every year. Huge areas 2 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, burn every year in Russia, with cata- Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Russian Fede- ration, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbe- strophic fires in years of bad climatic kistan. conditions, such as 1998 when over J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert 7 million ha of forests were burnt. It is feared that the frequency of cata- strophic fire years in Russia could increase with climate change, leading to significant damage if protection is not improved.

It has been known for over a century that intense pollution can harm trees

and forests and this phenomenon is Cork oak, one year after a forest ﬁre Forests, a natural heritage

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H. Fougère/Bios Co-operation for the benefit of European MCPFE and Environment

MCPFE – The Ministerial Table: Strasbourg, Helsinki and Lisbon resolutions Conference on the Protection of the MCPFE of Forests During the last decade Europe has S1 European Network of Permanent Sample H2 General Guidelines for the Conservation taken major steps on the path towards Plots for Monitoring of Forest Ecosystems of the Biodiversity of European Forests sustainable development. One of the S2 Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources H3 Forestry Co-operation with Countries with S3 Decentralised European Data Bank on Economies in Transition processes that works towards this goal Forest Fires H4 Strategies for a Process of Long-Term Adap- is the Ministerial Conference on the S4 Adapting the Management of Mountain tation of Forests in Europe to Climate Protection of Forests (MCPFE). The Forests to New Environmental Conditions Change MCPFE is a high-level political initia- S5 Expansion of the EUROSILVA Network of L1 People, Forests and Forestry – Enhance- tive for the purpose of addressing not Research on Tree Physiology ment of the Socio-Economic Aspects of S6 European Network for Research into Forest Sustainable Forest Management only pan-European opportunities but Ecosystems L2 Pan-European Criteria, Indicators and Ope- also the threats related to forests. H1 General Guidelines for the Sustainable rational Level Guidelines for Sustainable Forestry concerns involve around 40 Management of Forests in Europe Forest Management European countries (including the European Community). In addition, a number of observer countries and tions including the development of ﬁve-year Action Plans. The 1996-2000 international organisations partici- many Europe-wide programmes and Action Plan was divided into 11 action pate in this initiative. networks created as a follow-up. The themes including one for forests. implementation of the protection and The MCPFE has always intended, and sustainable management of forests In the context of this Action Plan and still continues, to tackle the most rel- in European countries was initiated the follow-up work of the Helsinki evant forest and environment related through the Helsinki Conference. For Conference of the MCPFE, the “Work policy issues. Solutions are developed instance a reporting tool was set up Programme on the Conservation and in a joint and consensual effort. through the Criteria and Indicators for Enhancement of Biological and Land- Through three Ministerial Conferences SFM. In addition, co-operation scape Diversity in Forest Ecosystems on the Protection of Forests – Stras- between the east and west of Europe 1997-2000” (or Biodiversity Work Pro- bourg in 1990, Helsinki in 1993 and was fostered. Socio-economic aspects gramme) was elaborated as a joint Lisbon in 1998 – a series of common of SFM were put on the agenda of effort of the MCPFE and Environment instruments and measures for forests European forest policies through the for Europe in 1997. This programme and forestry were agreed on at min- Lisbon Conference and pan-European was subsequently endorsed by the isterial level. operational level guidelines for sus- ministers responsible for forests in tainable forest management were pro- Europe at the 3rd Ministerial Confer- Twelve resolutions were signed so far moted for the sub-national level. ence in Lisbon in 1998, and at the 4th addressing all pillars of sustainable Ministerial Conference of Environ- forest management (SFM). The know- The 12 resolutions adopted at the ment for Europe (Århus/Denmark, ledge of forest ecosystems was sig- three Ministerial Conferences and the June 1998). The implementation of niﬁcantly increased through the imple- related follow-up work is the result of the work programme was co-ordi- mentation of the Strasbourg resolu- a dynamic and co-operative approach. nated and discussed in an MCPFE ad One example being the co-operation hoc working group on “Biodiversity, with Environment for Europe – the Protected Areas and Related Issues”. ministerial process initiated by the The final report summarises infor- European Ministers of Environment. mation on 193 initiatives at supra- national, national and sub-national levels, which contribute to the imple-

P. Carbiener Environment for Europe and the collaboration with the MCPFE mentation of the respective actions The Environment for Europe process of the programme. is a political framework for co-operation on environmental protection in The co-operation of the MCPFE with Europe. It regularly brings together Environment for Europe is therefore Environment Ministers at pan-Euro- a good example of the importance of pean conferences to formulate envi- creating synergies when striving ronmental policy. In Soﬁa in 1995, at towards the protection and sustain- the 3rd Ministerial Conference, min- able management of Europe’s forests. isters endorsed the Pan-European Bio- logical and Landscape Diversity Strat- Implementation of work stages egy (PEBLDS) as a co-ordinating Through an evaluation of the imple- framework for efforts to conserve mentation of the Biodiversity Work nature and landscape throughout Programme, the MCPFE identiﬁed the Europe. The PEBLDS is structured into necessary steps regarding biodiver-

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sity. These include focusing on the work on protected and protective forest areas (PFAs) in the pan-European region with the intention to facilitate a common understanding among European countries. An MCPFE clas- siﬁcation of protected and protective forests has been produced, their selec- J-L. Le Moigne/Bios tion and the setting up of networks

of PFAs is still to take place. The J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert contribution to the improvement of biodiversity indicators – general work on the improvement of MCPFE indicators for SFM is currently being Bordeaux cepe mushroom Hazel grouse worked on – is another focus in this ﬁeld. Future Ministerial Conferences At the same time Environment for In proceeding towards the next Min- Europe has scheduled its 5th Minis- The implementation of ministerial isterial Conference of the MCPFE, terial Conference for May 2003 in decisions through an overall MCPFE which is scheduled for 28-30 April Kiev (Ukraine). Both processes have Work Programme is a key element of 2003 in Vienna (Austria), an initial reaffirmed the importance of their the MCPFE efforts and gives a clear discussion on emerging issues of high future co-operation with regard to for- picture of the achievements and fur- political relevance for the MCPFE has est biodiversity issues. This should be ther steps for the protection and sus- already taken place. This includes bio- highlighted once more at both the tainable management of forests in diversity issues, national forest pro- Ministerial Conferences in Vienna and the pan-European region. The struc- grammes, a further strengthening and Kiev in 2003. ture of the MCPFE Work Programme collaboration between eastern and follows the three aspects of sustain- western Europe and the importance The efforts made towards the pro- able forest management – the eco- of the manifold cultural and spiritual tection and sustainable management logical, economic and socio-cultural aspects of sustainable forest man- of forests in Europe up until now have dimensions – and deals with them in agement for future generations. In brought about a stimulating exchange a comprehensive way. However, suc- addition tasks related to the global of opinions and ideas. They have cessful work on the implementation forest debate could play an important enhanced mutual awareness and of the MCPFE Work Programme role. This includes the co-operation understanding of the multiple and would not be possible without co- of the MCPFE with the PEBLDS diverse problems and drawn atten- operation with existing international process in order to contribute to com- tion to the circumstances of the par- scientific and technical institutions mon European views and experiences ticipating countries, organisations and and organisations working in the ﬁeld in the forest-related debates of the institutions. And, most important, of forestry. Convention on Biological Diversity. have resulted in valuable achievements. Peter Mayer Head of the Liaison Unit Vienna Christoph Wildburger Expert on Conservation Issues

Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) Marxergasse 2 A-1030 Vienna, Austria Fax: +43 1 710 77 02 13 [email protected]

J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert http://www.minconf-forests.net

High altitude beech forest Forests, a natural heritage

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J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert Forests full of life

Since Europe was a forest, forest habitats are of the utmost importance for the continent’s animals and plants. For example, almost half of all species in Finland and Sweden, and two-thirds of all species in Poland, are regarded as forest dwelling species. H. Reinhard/Sunset In all, there are tens of thousands of forest species in Europe. They are mostly insects and invertebrates, as in the world in general. But the mon- archs of the European species are also forest dwellers. Large grazers like elk, forest reindeer, red deer and the last European bison live in the forests, as do the last bears. It is interesting and understandable that words and phrases associated with hunting, forests and silviculture are intertwined with many European languages. The largest of our livestock also originate from forests – aurochs and wild boar. These were tamed long ago and have been hunted by man from the Stone Age onwards.

The distinctive nature of European ecosystems is often forgotten. Many Pine marten dominant species of the European forests are virtually restricted to countries to safeguard their future. about to disappear from several Euro- Europe. Trees like European beech Moreover Europe is home to a num- pean countries, perhaps from the and holm oak are not found further ber of restricted range endemic whole continent. Europe has already east than the Black Sea or the Cau- species. lost the wild horse or tarpan and the casus. The English oak does not sur- European bison, which was later suc- vive further east than the Ural Moun- Species in trouble cessfully reintroduced to forests from tains, just on the border of Europe. The violent change in forests over the zoos. The capercaillie has also been European hornbeams still thrive in last few centuries is demonstrated by reintroduced in countries and areas the Caucasus but no further into Asia. the great number of species on the from where it had disappeared. verge of extinction. Many species are Habitats and plant associations are As part of a new UNECE/FAO assess- indeed very European and thus it is ment of the temperate and boreal solely the responsibility of European forests of the world (TBFRA 2000), unique data on forest dwelling species was gathered for the ﬁrst time. The number of threatened taxa is alarm- ingly high. Among mammals 20- 50 %, and among birds, 15-40 % of the forest dwelling species were cat- egorised as threatened. A typical Euro- pean country harbours dozens of endangered mammal and bird

The stag beetle is well defended against natural foes but not against manmade forest destruction, from an illustrated dictionary of natural history, 1833 Edimedia

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species! In many countries the pro- portion of endangered mammals and birds was over 40 %. The situation was almost as bad for the lichens, mosses and vascular plants, in some countries nearly half of the forest- associated lichen species were at risk.

In Europe, the Nordic countries have compiled the most up-to-date statistics on forest species threatened by extinction. These statistics make gloomy reading. In new lists of threatened species in Sweden and Finland, published in 2000, the forest is the habitat, together with cultivated areas, with the highest number of threatened species. Forestry poses the most imminent threat to the forest-dwelling species. Forest managers tend to be Brown bears still ﬁnd berries in the large forests of northern Europe tidier than nature likes, removing and the mountain ranges of continental Europe dead and hollow trees, fallen branches Alpine brown bear, Comte de Buffon, 1848 and the like. Edimedia

Many of the native tree species in decline in bird populations. Peninsu- Iberian lynx ﬁnds shelter amongst the Europe even seem to be endangered. lar European countries in particular scrublands of Spain and Portugal. The situation is most alarming in the have witnessed a loss in their bird Balkan peninsula, with Macedonia, species. A good example is the fate of The range of the bear, wolf and Bosnia Herzegovina and Albania each the woodpeckers in Europe: the high- Eurasian lynx extends to Fennoscan- having 10-20 different endangered est woodpecker diversity is now con- dia and the Baltic countries in the native tree species. There are several centrated in eastern Europe, espe- west. In southern and western Europe, reasons for this situation. Wych elm cially in mountainous areas. these large carnivores are only found and smooth-leaved elm have gone in some mountainous areas. The into decline due to Dutch elm disease. Europe’s large carnivores Carpathians are an especially impor- Wild forest fruit trees are in decline depend heavily on forests tant abode for them: the bear popu- because of forestry and a lack of pro- Europe’s largest populations of lynx, lation in these mountains accounts tection. Repercussions from the loss wolf, brown bear and wolverine are for almost 50 % of the European pop- and increasingly homogenous state to be found in forested areas. Also, ulation outside Russia. of European forests are shown in the the rare and extremely endangered The preservation of forests as a wilder- Capercaillie Stag beetle ness is extremely important for large carnivores. Furthermore intensive Wiping out suitable forest habitats has led The biggest beetle in Europe is a forest forestry expansion usually means the to the disappearance of the capercaillie from dweller. The stag beetle (Lucanus cervus) establishment of a road network many of its traditional areas in Europe. The has declined nearly everywhere, because which facilitates not only legal, but population in Scotland was already extinct it lives in old deciduous forests. The lar- by the end of the 1700s, although it was val development takes place in decay- also illegal, hunting. later reintroduced. Reintroduction has also ing oak wood – the larvae usually eat From “Insight into Europe’s been the only solution in parts of Germany wood for several years before developing Forest Protection”, WWF Report and some other European countries. fully. © Text 2000 WWF, all rights reserved The capercaillie needs relatively open conif- The stag beetle is close to extinction in the erous pine, fir or spruce forests. Bilberry Czech Republic and in several German undergrowth is important for the species, states, and entomologists report a decline the capercaillie and its chicks eat the berries in Hungary, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the chicks also eat insect larvae. In Switzerland and Sweden. In Italy, the situ- southern Europe, it is also found in hard- ation may be better. wood forests. The beetle is protected under the Habitats The Carpathians and the Alps are strong- Directive (Annex II) and the Bern Conven- holds for the central European population, tion (Appendix III). Habitat protection and which consists of increasingly isolated pop- a sufﬁcient amount of dead oak wood are ulations. If the area of suitable forests is the only way to save the stag beetle. The further reduced, local extinction and a species will probably fail to survive without reduction of the range of the species will be the preservation of large natural oak and the result. mixed oak forests. Forests, a natural heritage

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 11 Forests, a natural her

J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert The European Diploma and forests

The European Diploma of Protected Areas gin forests of times past that once covered Exemplary regions has been awarded since 1965 by the the plains of Europe. This timeless, unique Because of the quality of their heritage and Committee of Ministers of the Council of landmark forest with its very old and the status and prestige they enjoy, the Europe for ﬁve year renewable periods to remarkably large, majestic trees – a real areas holding the diploma are unique sites natural or semi-natural areas or landscapes sanctuary for wildlife including a whole for: of exceptional European interest from the range of large animals such as lynx, bison • conserving and managing in a sustain- point of view of biological, geological and and wolves – is a place of tales and leg- able way the biological diversity of forests landscape diversity which are protected and managed in a manner that ensures the long-term conservation of their natural and landscape assets. Most of the 60 holders of the diploma, which are located H. Lethier in 23 different countries, include forest ecosystems, and some actually consist almost entirely of forest.

Diversity of the forests Diploma holders relating mainly to forests include: • in western Europe, the Bayerischer Wald (Bavarian forest) national park on the German-Czech border and the nature reserve of Siebengebirge in Germany, the national park of Seitseminen in Fin- land, Muddus national park in Lapland, Boreal forest of the Kostomuksha Reserve, Russian Federation, beaver lodge in the foreground the national park of Port-Cros in France, the nature reserve of Sasso Fratino and ends, where traces of human presence and their landscape and symbolic the Abruzzi national park in the Apen- down through the centuries remain. aspects, while maintaining a key eco- nines in Italy. Dobroc˘sky´ national nature reserve in Slo- logical equilibrium; • in central and eastern Europe, the vakia is another example of an intact vir- • monitoring and studying natural national reserve of Berezinsky in Belarus, gin forest in the western Carpathians. processes and interactions, which offer the reserve of Kostomuksha in the Russ- valuable insights for developing nature- ian Federation, the transfrontier area of Such forests are part of Europe’s scien- friendly forestry methods; the national parks of Poloniny in Slova- tific, historic and cultural heritage. • educational promotion among the kia, Biescady in Poland and the increasing number of people seeking Carpathian biosphere reserve in Ukraine, Situation of the forests intact environments. this last being home to the largest virgin Analysis of the situation of the forests in beech plantations in Europe. the diploma-holding protected areas shows They are also regarded as special regions, that they vary greatly in terms of ecology, in particular in the case of forests outside The example of the Bialowiezá/ Belovezskaya status and purpose. protected areas, for: primary forest which extends across the • promoting methods of use of resources, territory of two national parks (Bialowiezá Some of the forests are worked on a lim- in particular for forestry, hunting and in Poland and Belovezskaya Puschka in ited basis, mainly for traditional pursuits. tourism, that cause the least disruption Belarus) deserves a special mention as it is In others, conservation only is important: to the forest ecosystem and are based on the last major vestige of the temperate vir- they are not worked in any way and are the principles of ecological management; left to develop naturally. These unworked • developing a partnership with local bod- forests are of great ecological value and ies and groups in order to increase their are vital to the conservation of the biodi- awareness of the irreplaceable heritage versity and genetic stock of Europe’s for- value of Europe’s forests. est heritage. The Bayerischer Wald national park is a particularly good example: forestry Françoise Bauer operations were gradually stopped and Council of Europe nature was left to develop according to its Directorate General IV own rules. The forest in Sasso Fratino Cultural and Natural Heritage Department reserve is another key example from west- Natural Heritage Division F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex ern Europe of nature having been allowed Fax: 33 (0) 3 88 41 37 51 to take control again. The establishment [email protected] of an integral reserve on the initiative of sci-

Bayerischer Wald National Park This article is based on details from the study of entists and foresters alike reﬂects an ambi- Dead wood is a characteristic element of natural forests forestry management in the European Diploma hol- tion of European signiﬁcance. ding regions by Didier Carbiener (1999).

o 12 naturopa n 96 / 2001 itage

An example outside Europe Trees and the law in Brazil

Brazil’s very name comes from a tree, the Permanent conservation forests PPL. Image/Sipa Image Pau-Brasil tree. Permanent conservation forests (florestas de preservação permanente) are designated In 2000, it was 500 years since white- to protect both water and mountain areas. skinned people had first set foot in Brazil. Examples of the requirements of the Code The original inhabitants were Indians who are that river banks have to be wooded lived in the forests and cleared the ground for a minimum width of 30 metres and Aerial view of the Amazon of trees only when really necessary. Their a maximum of 500 metres, while the agriculture was nomadic, although they areas around springs have to have ment and a fine, or six months’ to one did clear small areas. The colonisers started 50 metres of woodland. Mountains have year’s imprisonment and a fine) for any- to clear larger areas and to export the tim- to be wooded above 1,800 metres. No one failing to protect permanent conser- ber. During the colonial era, rules were laid payments are made for compliance. vation forests. The Act also created crimi- down on tree felling, such as the regula- Observance of the rules is frequently lack- nal liability for legal entities. tions on the Pau-Brasil tree, which date ing in urban areas, where watercourses from 1605. sometimes overflow as a result. The Protected Areas Act Brazil passed its Protected Areas Act in The Forestry Code was only drawn up in According to the first national report writ- 2000, terming such areas “conservation the 20th century. The first version came out ten for the Convention on Biological Diver- units”. Firms applying for permits to set in 1934, and the current one dates from sity, the area of forests cleared in the Ama- up inside the designated areas whose activ- 1965. Some amendments were made in zon region increased from 78 000 km2 in ities, according to an environmental impact 1989, 1999 and 2000. 1978 to 470 000 km2 in 1994, equivalent assessment, are considered likely to cause to 12% of the original area of Amazonia. significant damage to the environment, The Brazilian Constitution adopted in 1988 are obliged to contribute 0.5% of the sum turned the spotlight on the environment Statutory forestry reserves it is planned to invest in the creation or issue. Article 225 states that protected areas Statutory forestry reserves were created maintenance of the conservation units may only be altered or done away with by in order to conserve a percentage of the (nature parks, biological reserves, etc.). law. Any use that jeopardises the features surface area of each property as woodland. on account of which they were designated The figure is 50% to 80% in Amazonia Remedies as protected areas is prohibited. Brazil’s and 20% in other regions of Brazil. The Court action to protect the forests has Amazonian rainforest is part of its national reserves are created for an indefinite period become much more frequent over recent heritage. The conditions for any use of the and access is free of charge. The Brazilian years. “Civil public actions” were created forests must guarantee the preservation of president proclaimed a provisional meas- under Act No. 7.347/85. Applications may the environment, and this extends to the ure enabling the wooded percentage of be made to the courts by the public pros- use made of natural resources. reserves to be increased from 50 to 80% ecutor’s office, by environment or con- in Amazonia, but MPs are very reluctant to sumer protection associations or by the The content of the Forestry Code approve this measure because of the agri- authorities in charge of federal states, The Forestry Code instituted two categories cultural properties included. regions or municipalities. No-fault liability of specially structured forest management: for damage to the environment, introduced “permanent conservation forests” and Act No. 9.605/98 provides for criminal by the 1981 National Environment Policy “statutory forestry reserves”. penalties (one to three years’ imprison- Act, has led to many such forest protection cases being brought.

An obligation to provide information via the ofﬁcial press and regional newspapers has still to be introduced, however, as part of the procedure for obtaining permits to clear forests. Then, when permits are “trans- parent”, the public will have a chance to monitor the deterioration of Brazil’s ﬂora and fauna. Coskun Aral/Sipa Image Paolo Affonso Leme Machado Professor of environmental law, UNESP (Universidade Estadual Paulista – Rio Claro Biosciences Institute) and Methodist University of Piracicaba Author of “Direito Ambiental Brasileiro” (book on Brazilian environmental law) published by Malheiros, São Paolo, 2001 Rua Barão de Piracicamirim 787 13416-150-Piracicaba – SP – Brazil Fax: 55 19 433 49 73 Transport of timber

[email protected] Forests, a natural heritage

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 13 Man and wood

The relationship between the human race J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert

In this day and age, we are aware that the environment, and woodlands in particular, are only partly natural. Although town dwellers who visit woodlands have the impression that they are rediscovering their “roots” and getting back to nature, human inﬂuence has very much shaped their environment in virtually every Zintzmeyer/Jerrican wooded area. To find truly “natural nature”, they would have to go to one of the very few European sites of exceptional ecological interest, such as Slatiora, in Bucovina (Romania). There, nothing is regulated and there is no human intervention: all species and ages coexist, and dead trees merge with the ground as they rot in a joyous, centuries-old ecological balance. It is an impressive sight! Wooden mountain chalet

An extravagant use only making use of the branches. They difference in material availability from of forest resources left the tree trunks where they fell, one period to the next; it was just the In fact, it is largely human activity unable to cut them up or transport users idea of their buildings that dif- over the long term that determines them because of their size. The same fered. tree populations and species selec- ecological drama is being played out tion. This makes clear the meaning on a daily basis in the Sahel, involv- The use of timber for religious build- of the “culture of wood” idea. The ing the last of the giant baobabs. ings in central Europe often used to relationship of human beings with be the result of occupiers’ prohibi- wood has not always given rise to har- There are still certain regions where tions, such as that issued against the monious management of natural the illusion that wood is abundant Orthodox churches by the Catholic assets. We should not forget the sys- causes people to behave in ways that Hungarian authorities, for example. tematic clearing of whole forests back can hardly be described as econom- in Roman times, wherever it was ical. In the Carpathians, some “reso- In Romania during the latter part of decided to site towns, or during the nance spruce trees”, known for their the 20th century, the systematic use of search for both fuel and building good acoustic qualities for three hun- timber for house-building in mountain materials. dred years, are still going up in smoke areas was often just as much a reflec- on country dwellers’ fires. The same tion of an emblematic attachment to In the 17th century, peasants were kind of wood was systematically req- wood as a building material as it was still chopping down centuries-old uisitioned by the Austrian forestry of the constraints of an economy in beech trees in the mountain forests of authorities in the 19th century for use straitened circumstances. If country the Pyrenees, in southern France, but by the manufacturers of musical dwellers have the choice, they often instruments. prefer bricks and mortar, or even to imitate bricks and mortar by applying France’s extensive oak forests were cement to the outside of their homes. managed by the royal authorities between 1669 and the Revolution of Building with a living material 1789. Peasants were denied access, so Yet in many cases, builders deliber- they stole branches or built their ately opt to use wood, and do not use homes of other materials. This shows it because their desire for mineral P. Rocher/Jerrican that local people do not necessarily materials has been frustrated. Peo- make use of a “naturally available” ple who build with timber are using material just because it is present. a living material, with fibres that move Nature proposes, and human beings and breathe in a manner compara- dispose. In the 18th century, the ble with the human body. Various effects of an architectural style that societies offer plentiful examples of favoured the use of stone for building terms for describing wooden archi- were visible in Picardy in France, an tecture that point up the symbolic area where villagers had previously similarity between areas of the body built with wood or clay. There was no and parts of the timber home. Tradi-

o 14 naturopa n 96 / 2001 and wood «Touch wood» Valgran/Bios

tional rural homes in Lorraine are a strong role in terms of identity dur- based on a timber framework popu- ing the Austrian occupation, when it larly known as the man who stands came to play a valuable part in the and holds the building up (“l’homme affirmation of national feeling. The debout”). architect Stanislav Witkiewicz was a highly active advocate of wooden Vernacular architecture in some architecture in the early years of the French regions during the 17th and 20th century, regarding it as a typi- 18th centuries made use of a wooden cally Polish cultural expression. Wooden house frame to provide a ﬂexible arrangement of space and for the sake of As the 21st century began, interest bombs during World War II. In our building “mobility”. Timber houses in wooden architecture was again troubled times, I may be laughed at in regions such as Bresse and Alsace reviving in some countries of Europe. for pointing this out now that we have were regarded as movable, not Exposed wood is sought after for its seen the dreadful fate of the World immovable property. It was easy to warm appearance, its aesthetic qual- Trade Center, but it supports my argu- share them out or move them if the ities and its propitiatory value. People ment that wood can be used both tra- owner died or a new owner acquired “touch wood” as a symbolic gesture ditionally and in modern ways in our them. And many buildings can be when seeking protection. everyday existence speciﬁcally to pro- rolled along, or slid along on wooden tect human lives. rails, as observed by the working Concluding this brief piece, I should François Calame group on wooden culture held in May like to remind the reader that it is a Ethnologist at the Ministry of Culture and 2001, in Ieud, an attractive village of well-known fact that wooden archi- Communication Maramures, Romania. tecture holds up well in the face of Regional Directorate of Cultural Affairs, Upper Normandy earthquakes or bombardments. Some √ 2 rue Maladrerie Traditions and modernity buildings several storeys high were F-76000 Rouen In Poland, timber architecture in the flexible enough to stand up to the Fax 33 (0) 2 35 89 80 75 style of the Zakopane region took on shock waves and blasts caused by [email protected]

Countless things can be made with wood!

Bear in mind, though, that each type Broad-leaved woods fine grain which makes it highly suited of wood is better suited to some uses Some broad-leaved woods such as for turning. The European oak pro- than others. It would be pointless for ash have long solid fibres and so they vides the best wood to make barrels example to make a hammer or axe are used to make handles for tools or for the ageing of fine wines. handle with poplar wood since it sports equipment. Other trees such would break at the first blow. Simi- as the walnut, the cherry and the red In addition to solid woods, it is becom- larly, it would be a terrible waste to oak have coloured wood which makes ing increasingly common to use pan- use cherry wood as firewood. It is so very good furniture. The wood of the els made of wood fibre or wood par- beautiful that it is generally reserved lime tree is soft and so it is often used ticles in building and furnishing. A for furniture making. by sculptors. Maple wood has a very technique of heating wood while shielding it from air to prevent it from Conifers burning is used to make a new durable As a rule, the light, resistant wood of and waterproof material. conifers such as the fir, the spruce or the Douglas fir are reserved for The uses of wood are virtually unlim- construction and paper pulp is manu- ited and so much the better, as it is a factured using the by-products of the warm and noble material which stores milling process. Pine wood is easily up carbon and is naturally renewable.

impregnated and is used to make elec- Lecourieux/Jerrican Wood is indeed the future of mankind! tric poles. The durability of larch wood (in other words its ability to weather Philippe Glatz Regional Centre for Forestry Ownership the elements) makes it a favourite for (CRPF) Loire external construction work such as 50 rue de Roanne – F-42370 Renaison

balconies and curtain walls. [email protected] Man and wood

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 15 Man and wood B. Irrmann The tree, the house and the landscape

One spring morning on the RN7 main described by the first travellers and which planted when children are born so that road between Brignolles and Aix-en- we still enjoy today. they will put down roots in their region Provence in the south of France, a mon- of birth, the pine trees planted close to the umental growth far to the right caught A practised eye will take pleasure in dis- houses in Cathar country signifying that my eye and invited me to turn off the covering landscape and architectural cul- heretics would be given asylum, the tree road at the first opportunity and go and ture typical of every region in every of freedom. look at it from closer up. Two immense province in Europe: lime trees pruned in plane trees, pruned into a bowl shape the French style announce the beautiful In order to establish good relationships perhaps a hundred and fifty years ago, residences of the Paris basin, copses of between buildings, gardens and the coun- each raised four enormous main broad-leafed trees from which a cedar tryside, very simple compositions allow branches to the sky. Competing with one emerges surround Gascon farms perched every form of arrangement: an isolated another, they reached up as high as pos- on the hilltops, the avenues of cypress tree that acts as a signal, trees in pairs sible to get as much light as they could. trees in Tuscany … forming a leafy doorway, in a square to These magnificent trees, signalling the form an outdoor lounge, in half-moons presence of the house behind them, called The species chosen often give a history or in avenues. Pruning makes it possible lesson by telling us of the region’s and its to adapt a tree’s shape to the functions inhabitants’ relationship with the rest of one wants to give it, but the further away the world, like the monkey puzzle trees a tree moves from its natural bearing, of Chile that Breton sailors who had the more skill and discipline is required. rounded the Horn brought back to plant Pruning trees into a bowl shape or a cat’s

R. Ambroise in their gardens, the palm trees of South head, espalier screens, canopies, all these America that decorate the houses in the shapes create special atmospheres, char- Basque country, or the plane trees of the acteristic of a region’s image. South of France, immigrants that arrived from the Middle East in the 18th century Planting a tree will structure an area for and gradually supplanted the mulberry several generations. It is a commitment and elm trees to become one of the essen- to the future. So let’s take the time to look tial components of regional identity. around before we start planting. All one has to do in order to learn how to visu- Trees play a part in a number of traditions, alise and imagine the atmosphere that a beliefs and religions: the symbolic tree young plant will create when it matures out to you to come and take shelter, forming a sort of oasis of shade in the middle of the vineyards that grew right up to the Trees in rural areas verges of the road. In their various forms – standing alone or in tifunctionality, making a contribution in agro- lines, in hedgerows, in clumps or thickets, in nomic, energy, ecological, hunting, water-rela- Behind the gate framed by these two orchards, in grazing forests and wooded pas- ted and landscape terms. Those working the tures – trees in rural areas shape landscapes land must be made properly aware of hedgerows giants the farmhouse came into view, a and their identities... again. beautiful building like so many others in Trees standing alone (or in clumps): As the Lines of trees: As the survivors of felling ope- Provence. Just outside the entrance to focal point of arable land and meadows, they rations along roadsides and farm tracks, these stand out like beacons or places of shelter, remind us of the alleys leading up to castles the house, two other plane trees formed contrasting with and reinforcing the impres- and of formal gardens. Their darkness contrasts a bower on a more human scale, echo- sion of light given by the fields and pastures. with the surrounding light, and the openings ing the dimensions of the building. In Their significance in ecological and visual terms between the regularly spaced trunks point up and as places of shelter for livestock and smal- the features of the landscape. In areas with these closing days of winter, they still let ler species bears no relation to the small space large expanses of farmland, they direct our gaze the sun’s rays through, but in summer, they take up in the landscape. towards infinity, reinforcing the impression of the gentle shade of their leaves formed Orchard pastures: These are like “natural immensity. The way they are pruned and the living rooms”, carpeted in green and with tree species found vary between individual regions. a transition from the glare of the agri- trunks bearing a ceiling of foliage covered in Nowadays, these lines of trees and the grassy cultural landscape to the half-light inside blossom in the spring and fruit in the autumn. strips of land they stand on act as filters for sur- the rooms. Their more complex archi- They provide typical images of different regions, plus fertiliser and pesticides and provide shel- with apple trees in Normandy and mirabelle ter for smaller species. tecture was the result of regular prun- plum trees in Lorraine... Farmers who have Grazing forests, wooded pastures and agro- ing. rejected methods based on specialisation and forestry offer gentle borders and clearings, have modernised these complex systems pro- helping to form outstanding landscapes. The ducing both forage and fruit have made a wise frequent breaks between the bright areas of A house of stone and twice-times two business decision. farmland and the dark wooded areas symbolise plane trees, these were the ingredients Hedgerows: Sometimes cut low with just a few a transition that calls for contact between the that an enlightened 19th century farmer higher clumps left to provide shelter for live- two and bears witness to the interrelations bet- stock, they define property boundaries and ween farmers and foresters. These special, much combined in particularly harmonious structure the entire surrounding area, giving it appreciated environments have proved ideal fashion to make a contribution, as did so depth. When allowed to grow tall in Breton for the development of cross-country skiing in many others, to his era, to this Provençal bocages, they either provide protection or shut upland areas, while limiting the natural risks things in, depending on how you look at it. of erosion, fire and avalanches. Agroforestry is landscape culture that has been sung by They are pruned differently from region to a modern type of agriculture that can help create poets, admired by the greatest painters, region and offer an excellent example of mul- high quality contemporary landscapes.

o 16 naturopa n 96 / 2001 Bruno Manser’s struggle In 1984 Bruno Manser travelled to the Malay- from using wood derived from unethical logging sian state of Sarawak where he spent six years in the construction of their public buildings. Cavalli/Sipa Image living with the Penan tribe. He learnt the lan- Despite Bruno Manser’s commitment, des- guage and customs of this people, who are the truction of the rainforest continues unabated last on the island of Borneo to live exclusively all around the world. Dozens of species disap- from hunting and gathering. pear every day. The nomadic Penan people, who are in a more critical situation than ever, During the time he was there, he saw the living are still waiting for their traditional rights to environment of his Penan friends being gra- be recognised. dually laid to waste by the logging companies. Bruno supported the Penan in their fight to In 2000, Bruno Manser tried once again to visit resist this unscrupulous process of deforestation, his friends and organise a campaign to alert carried out with complete contempt for their world public opinion to their plight. It may be property rights, and helped them to organise that this cost him his life. He has not been seen peaceful protests in which they blocked the since 23 May 2000, two days after he crossed roads built (illegally) by the logging companies. the wooded border into Sarawak. In the end he was forced to flee Malaysia and was only able to re-enter the country by roun- Bruno Manser recently worked with Naturopa dabout means. contributing an article to issue No. 91 in 1999 is to open one’s eyes and benefit from all entitled “Forests – why should they be consi- the lessons landscapes give us. In Basel he set up the Bruno Manser Founda- dered a common heritage?” tion to support the Penan and other forest Régis Ambroise peoples. In 1993 he went on a hunger strike in Bruno Manser Foundation Agricultural engineer an attempt to halt timber imports from Malay- Heuberg 25 Landscape officer sia, but his campaign failed. Nonetheless, he CH-4051 Basel Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries did succeed in convincing hundreds of Swiss, [email protected] 19, avenue du Maine French and Austrian municipalities to refrain http://www.bmf.ch F-75732 Paris cedex 15 [email protected]

Forests and trees Klingenthal colloquy

Are trees and forests: to their health, including increasing • schemes aimed at encouraging atmospheric pollution. So what do direct contact between young peo- • essentially economic resources, pro- we do? ple and trees and forests to help ducing wood for carpentry, heating, introduce them to or remind them paper pulp and cooking, pharma- The 4th Klingenthal Symposium, on of the link between human beings ceutical products, rubber and food; the theme “The tree and the forest – and forests; • a source of various types of leisure from cultural symbol to planned extinc- • action by religious and spiritual activities and psychological well- tion?” addressed all of these environ- movements and other voluntary being, including human spiritual mental, economic and socio-cultural associations to promote a sense of needs; problems and made a series of rec- respect for Nature and the Creation • or an absolute necessity for the ommendations, emphasising the need through spiritual education and development of an exceptionally for universal application of sustain- development. rich biological diversity and for eco- able forest management principles. logical balance? It called in particular for: The approach of various religious groups and in particular the indige- They are of course a combination of • the introduction of legislation, nous peoples has been particularly all of these. There is indeed no doubt drawn up in consultation with all inspiring because all of their rela- that we underestimate the countless the interested parties and backed tionships with nature’s various com- functions that the vast diversity of up by independent monitoring ponents are imbued with respect. the plant world performs in the bios- mechanisms and possible sanctions; When will we adopt this attitude? phere. And yet the area of the world’s • eco-certification of wood, particu- Jean-Pierre Ribaut forests has shrunk significantly and larly tropical wood, giving details of Chair of the “Safeguarding and management continues to decline at a rate of 15 the species and its origins; of Creation” Commission million hectares per year, including • encouragement for the use of eco- Pax Christi 27 rue Rabié 14 million hectares in tropical certiﬁed wood; F-33250 Pauillac regions. In addition to this, existing • the introduction and application of forests now have to face major threats ethical rules; Man and wood

o 0naturopa n 96 / 2001 17 VIEWPOINTS

The music of the forest

Before giving a concert, violinists tune their instruments. Then the candidate must be given an audition … When they finally bring the bow into contact with the strings and begin to play, it is the echo of a whole forest that rings The instrument maker strikes the trunk with the flat of his out and gives such great pleasure to the audience. Between axe and listens. Some trees are naturally in tune, giving a the tree and the music there is a whole series of clear, strong, sustained note, while others sound a false note transformations, creating an extraordinary symbiosis or the sound is stifled at the first vibration. between nature and art. Finally, if the tree has a promising voice, the instrument However, it is not enough for a tree to be made of wood for maker removes a core of wood going right through to the it to take up a musical career! In this recruitment process heart of the trunk to ensure that the tree is in good health, there are many applicants but very few successful that there are no traces of fire, frost-crack or infestation by candidates. As with human beings, there are some families fungi or insects. This meticulous inspection prevents the of trees that have a natural flair for music. instrument maker from having a tree felled which does not come up to his or her standards. When it comes to making a violin’s sounding board, bass-bar and sound post, whose task is to relay instantaneously the However, there is still much to be done before the wood can sound waves created by the bow, the long and supple fibres of be made into a violin, guitar or harpsichord. the spruce (Picea) have no equal. However, for the neck, back and ribs which keep the sounding board under tension and Felled but not dead reflect the sound waves, the short, strong fibres of a broad- The best time to cut down a musically talented tree is in leaved tree such as the maple (Acer) are required. winter when it is in a deep sleep and its sap is no longer flowing. With the wood at its driest, it will dry out more Wind instruments are designed not to vibrate but to hold a quickly and there will be less risk of splitting. Once the tree column of air, and so quite a number of them are made has been cut down it is left on the ground with its branches using European or exotic types of wood which are among still on. This means that in spring it will still produce leaves the world’s hardest. Some of these even sink in water! Wood which, through photosynthesis, will empty it of all its water like this is the ideal material to enclose the musician’s breath before drying up themselves. After this it is time to collect and can have holes drilled in it without being weakened. the trunk and it is best to do this quickly because fungi, insects and other decomposers are quick to attack the wood. Choosing the tree Like modern day trappers, Quebec’s instrument makers Now comes the crucial and precarious stage of drying. Unlike usually buy their materials from specialist suppliers. a fine wine, a piece of wood is never too old or too dry to be However there are some who, as in Stradivarius’s time, will of use to an instrument maker. When wood dries out it go into the forest to find the ideal tree – a kind of perfection shrinks. If this shrinking takes place too quickly then, crack!, in wood! How then do they recognise the perfect candidate? it splits. If this happens our musical tree may end up as a board rather than on the boards. To save it from this sad First of all they look … fate, it is enough to coat the outsides of the pieces with a wax which prevents splitting, acting like a belt. The tree must be mature. A hundred or a hundred and fifty years old, sometimes more. It has to have a thick round trunk. The wood is now ready for its final transformation. And it is the instrument maker, guided by his experience, his patience, It has to have had an easy life: a well-drained soil, a position his enthusiasm and his skill, who will enable this piece of away from prevailing winds which may have distorted the maple or spruce to echo for more than a century! What a symmetry of its growth rings or caused it to grow twisted. noble destiny! Extract from the texts produced for the exhibition “Le bois qui chante” staged The trunk must be straight as this is the sign of a straight grain. by the Montreal botanical garden tree information centre. This exhibition, requiring an area of 100 m2, is available for hire. For information contact: [email protected] The bole must be free of branches and tall – the guarantee of a wood without knots.

The bark must be healthy and free of blemishes.

o 18 naturopa n 96 / 2001 M. Tremblay

Poster from “The music of the forest” exhibition TPH/Sipa Image Jerrican/Transglobe VIEWPOINTS

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 19 Wooden architecture D. Maczynski Typology of wooden constructions in Europe

As an easily available material – originally the only available means to span long distances in construction – wood was the dominating build- S. Mentu ing material in prehistoric Europe. Primitive huts with thatched roofs and walls built of timber posts and wattle-and-daub thatch evolved into the megaron, a single-room house with a hearth in the middle of the building. Starting from these simple constructions, the evolution of wooden architecture has taken various directions, funnelled by local conditions, such as climate, different kinds of timber available, society and culture. Fascinatingly, though certain traditions of carpentry long since vanished from the heartland of Europe, examples of these can still Pukkila manor, built in 1762, southwest Finland be found in the outskirts of the continent, even as living traditions. type being greatly blurred. Various building in the early Middle Ages due Wooden constructions have been construction types have been used to the increasing scarcity of timber. utilised in vernacular, urban, defen- within one region, sometimes even The lattice structure can be con- sive and religious architecture. Most within one building. structed of relatively short and poly- wooden fortifications have, not sur- morphous pieces of wood, and is prisingly, disappeared, but fortified The post-beam construction therefore well suited to regions with villages and fortresses with palisades The post-beam construction (stave limited forest resources. The verti- or log walls are known from the Iron building, Stabbau) in its pure form cal posts of the framework of a lat- Age until the end of the 17th cen- apparently has a prehistoric origin tice-work house, always rectangular tury. The vital role of wooden con- and has in its most impressive form in section, are made of stout timber structions in vernacular architecture been preserved in the earliest and supported with horizontal or is self-evident, as well as their pres- wooden churches (stavkyrkor) of Nor- diagonal beams. The interstices ence in many European towns. In way. The frame construction makes between them are filled with wattle- religious architecture the most use of massive round timber posts, and-daub, brick or stone. The whole impressive examples are the log which are connected with horizontal structure can be covered with plas- churches of eastern Europe and the beams. The walls consist of vertical ter, weather-boarding or tiles. A Nordic countries. The forms and plank surfaces, which are mounted structural system like this requires structural principles of traditional on a ground sill and bound with a a well developed proportioning and wooden construction have some- head plate. The timber-frame jointing technique to ensure the rigid- times also been adapted to modern construction (skiftesverk, Bohlenwerk) ity and durability of the construc- architecture. is also based on vertical posts rest- tion. Architecturally this construc- ing on a cross-tied timber frame. The tion provides for creating an orna- Two types of construction horizontal timbers or planks form- mental network on the facades, often According to the primary structural ing the walls are fitted into grooves replenished with various types of principles and building methods, the in the vertical posts. brickwork and decorative painting. historical wooden constructions in The lattice construction is typically Europe can be roughly divided into The lattice structure (half-timbering, used in vernacular buildings and two main categories: the variations Fachwerk, colombage) was already town houses, to a smaller extent also of post-beam construction and the used in a primitive form in the Lom- in religious architecture. log construction. Log construction, bardian plains and in the Danube which originally had been utilised all area in prehistoric times. As a ver- The log construction over the continent, gradually became nacular building style the lattice The log construction (blockwork, the prevailing type in the east, construction was used extensively Blockbau, chalet) is the major build- whereas the post-beam structures in central Europe, especially within ing type of the eastern parts of the dominated central Europe. Geo- Germanic and Anglo-Saxon territo- continent from the arctic region to graphical divisions like this are nev- ries. In northern Europe and south- the Carpathian mountains and the ertheless highly generalised: the ern parts of Scandinavia the new Alps. The use of log construction calls boundaries of the territories of each construction method replaced log for a good supply of long and straight

o 20 naturopa n 96 / 2001 in Europe

timber, and is therefore suited to areas with plentiful resources of coniferous wood. The horizontal wall timbers of a log house, either round S. Mentu or hewn, have to intersect and in most cases overlap at each corner of the building. A firm jointing is the key question of this simple construction. The solutions evolved for this purpose vary from rough one-sided notches to complex locking systems used in order to create even surfaces at the corners. Despite its simplic- ity, the log construction has been an extremely versatile building method, enabling the builders to reach large proportions and complex architectural forms. The wooden churches of east Europe and the Nordic countries are the best surviving examples Lyytikälä storehouse, 18th century vernacular architecture, Finland of this diversity of forms.

In the methods previously mentioned The building tradition covers a long Sakari Mentu the emphasis is on the construction period of European history and has Architect techniques of the building frame. A been adapted in different kinds of National Board of Antiquities Sturegatan 4 more complex typology is created, if cultures and architectural styles. A FI-00511 Helsingfors other building parts (roof construc- relatively good selection of case spe- Finland tions, roofing techniques, wooden cific studies on wooden construction Fax 358 9 40 50 94 20 vaulting, windows and doors) are is already available, but any survey sakari.mentu@nba.ﬁ included in the study. of general typologies has not yet been completed. This task will be Awaiting an inventory challenging for researchers and Delineating the typology of European experts, and an excellent opportu- wooden constructions, even without nity for international co-operation. defining precise categories, requires a certain degree of generalisation. J. Czajkowski

Baczal Dolny church dating from 1667, Sanok open air museum, Poland Wooden architecture in Europe

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 21 Wooden architecture

O. Leclerc/Pluriel Protection of wooden architecture Examples in central and eastern Europe

Many wooden houses have survived, but in bad condition The extent of the values of the natural and cultural heritage in central and eastern Europe – nature, architecture and urban environments – does not exist in a corresponding way in the

western European countries. Gener- J. Bach Rasmussen ally the values are in very bad condition – but still preserved. Take for example the wooden architecture esti- mated as being of international value in the countries in the northern part of Along the Baltic south coast there are many health resorts with beautiful wooden Europe. The landscape contains a lot summerhouses as for example in Jurmala, a region of particular interest, located on the coast close to Riga. of habitats and great bio-diversity and One of the threats to traditional wooden buildings today comes from the rich people from it is close to the ideal open agricultural Riga who want to live in the area – an attractive place to live located both near Riga and land that many western European near a broad sandy beach. The new owners either demolish existing wooden buildings (often in bad condition) or modify them, changing their traditional characteristics. countries are aiming for in nature pro- The overall protection of wooden summerhouses and hotels along the Baltic south coast tection. has to be linked to quality tourism development, preferably in environments with The increase of wealth in the first traditional – and often unique – wooden architecture. decades of post-war western Europe destroyed much fine and valuable archi- others are bad. But there are differences protection of the wooden houses must tecture. Protection thoughts were not between the situations, and reasons to be strengthened through: common. Valuable houses were “mod- be a little optimistic. The public is much • regional and local registrations of ernised” – which means radical more aware of the destruction of values houses and areas that are worth pro- changes, often complete clearance – for example through NGOs. And – tecting and description of local char- because new houses were preferred. what could be the most important rea- acteristics as a result of local resources, Cities were renewed due to traffic and son – protection of the typical and tra- influence from outside, etc. It is espe- commercial development and mainly ditional architecture is an important cially important to get an overview of without other considerations. Great part of the “new” national identity foun- wooden architecture, condition of the new roads and car parks brought total dation, which is especially important houses, etc. redevelopment of old town districts. for “new” independent nations. • starting interpretation activities and Welfare aims destroyed traditional and There is no doubt that the general wel- public debate often valuable architecture. fare increase must have first priority – • ensuring that the wooden architecture no one can question this. But other con- will be worked into official spatial siderations must be handled at the plans, e.g. municipal and county plans. same time. It means for example that These activities must be followed by ways must be found to change the old practical actions: legal protection of the houses to a modern standard without houses, support for various kinds of destroying architectural values. restoration work, etc. Seen from a point of view of geogra- phy and location there are various types Co-operation is needed J. Bach Rasmussen of wooden houses according to whether The most important action is to estab- the houses are in towns, in the coun- lish broad co-operation between all tryside and villages or for example along actors in the process: politicians and the coasts and lakes (summerhouses). civil servants from all levels of author- Various kinds of problems and threats ities, owners of the houses, experts in A traditional forester’s house in the Latvian countryside. Nearly everything is original in the house, but in very bad are connected to various areas, due to restoration and the public (NGOs). The condition. Note the shingles (unfortunately not preserved in the changes from public to private own- success of this co-operation, carried out many wooden houses) and the remains of a very rare wooden ership and other comprehensive in a democratic way, will give sustain- gutter. The house needs expensive investment for its restoration, which cannot be carried out by the owners or changes of society. Wooden houses are ability and stability to preservation tenants – and indeed will there be anyone in the future to carry often demolished in big town centres to works and – in the end – determine the out this task as rural populations move to the cities? be replaced by modern buildings success of protection of wooden archi- whereas the farmhouses in the coun- tecture in the former Soviet countries. Will the faults of the West tryside decay and are left by occupiers Johannes Bach Rasmussen be repeated? because of lack of local employment. Landscape architect and planner Will central and eastern Europe repeat Rasmussen & Witthoeft the same faults as the western coun- Buen 16 What can be done? DK – 2000 Frederiksberg tries before an effective protection effort Seen from the point of view of spatial Fax 45 38 71 09 59 can be made? Some signs are good – planning and regional development the [email protected]

o 22 naturopa n 96 / 2001 in Europe

Restoration of wooden churches in Poland Why and for whom?

Old sacred buildings which survived to our ditional concepts of beauty. They are fas- times constitute very important landmarks cinated by something which they consider in Poland’s cultural landscape. Some of to be “modern art”. Their old wooden them still have original interior decorations temple is abandoned and next to it they and furnishings. They are unique in Europe build a new brick one, often very ugly D. Maczynski and contribute to our national identity. and of no aesthetic value or identity. This trend is probably caused by watching Poland has one of the biggest collections popular TV series showing examples of of historical wooden temples in Europe. pseudo-modern architecture. However Most numerous are Roman Catholic they should not treat their old temple, churches, some of them dating back to the even if it is neglected and abandoned, as 15th century, numerous Orthodox their exclusive property. It belongs to the churches, Uniate church temples as well as whole nation and is often of unique artis- Protestant ones. You can also find wooden tic and historical value! Tartar mosques reminding us of the Islamic influence in Polish history. Unfortunately Living traditions all the wooden synagogues which repre- Do you happen to know the Polish Tatras Tarnoszyn church in Lublin, 1759 sented outstanding carpentry art were and the Podhale region? These are the destroyed during the second world war. places where traditions of wooden archi- we can admire their unique architectural tecture are still very much alive. Podhale, and artistic values. Essential restoration a mountainous region in the south of Recently one endangered Greek Catholic All wooden historical sacred monuments Poland, is famous for its beautiful wooden church dating from 1759 was success- are under conservationist protection. The Roman Catholic churches built by very fully moved from Tarnoszyn to the open scope and the pace of work depend on the talented artists. You should visit unique air museum in Lublin. It has been recon- amount of funds available. The state temples in Debno, Blizne, Binarowa, structed and still retains its sacred func- devotes considerable sums of money for Sekowa, Haczow, Lachowice, Orawka, tion for the Greek Catholic church parish projects which aim to save this fragile her- Lipnica Murowana i Szalowa. These although it is situated in the premises of itage. Unfortunately sometimes more churches have a very sophisticated tech- the museum. urgent needs limit this help to no more nical construction and were built with than a symbolic gesture. great precision. They have been recog- This successful preservation scheme for nised worldwide and nominated to be Polish historical wooden churches helps A good example of international co-oper- put on the Unesco World Heritage list. to save this rich cultural heritage in Europe ation in saving a unique wooden monu- The tradition of carpentry is passed down and for Europe. We need these pro- ment is the case of the Evangelic Augsburg from one generation to the next. Unfor- grammes to save this unique form of archi- Church of Peace in Swidnica which has a tunately young woodworkers cannot equal tecture, to educate people and teach them very interesting frame construction. Com- old masters. Sometimes they do not the original traditional techniques neces- prehensive, very well prepared and pro- understand traditional wooden con- sary to preserve these historical monu- fessional work is being carried out by Pol- structions and make serious mistakes. ments. ish and German specialists supervised by the Polish preservation authorities. The group of wooden Orthodox churches A threatened heritage is also very important. Located in the east- Needless to say the biggest danger to his- Of course there are also difficult situations ern regions of Poland they are very beau- torical wooden temples is fire and the when local people reject old values and tra- tifully composed in a landscape where lack of necessary fire protection systems, such as smoke detectors. Every year fires destroy some of these exceptionally fragile monuments. Smoke detection and alarm equipment is an absolute must to diminish the risk of losing these precious buildings together with their original inte- D. Maczynski D. Maczynski rior decoration and furnishings.

The preservation of wooden churches in Poland is a valuable contribution towards saving our common European heritage.

Dominik Maczynski Historical monument documentation centre Mazowiecka 11 PL – 00 –052 Warsaw Fax 48 22 826 93 57

Church interior dating from 1666 Procession, open air museum, Lublin [email protected] Wooden architecture in Europe

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 23 Wooden architecture

Domestic wooden houses of Turkey

Since very early times many different civili- sations have settled and developed in Turkey. The history of dwellings starts from the neolithic period. The construction of houses at “Çatalhöyük” (7000 B.C.) and at “Hacılar” (6500 B.C.) presents well developed structures. Anatolia has always been an important bridge between Europe and Asia in many aspects. Even today researchers can easily notice many similarities in the development of European and Turkish house cultures. There are also certain resemblances in the construction of wooden houses among the western and northern parts of Turkey and some parts of Europe.

A rich heritage Densely forested areas can be found mostly in the north, west and in some coastal regions of Anatolia. Therefore most of the Traditional village house examples of wooden houses are present in C. Hersek these regions. The “log houses” of Turkey are mostly situated on the hillsides along and are situated at over 4 000 different the pressure of housing development the Black Sea area of Anatolia and there sites. Such large numbers of houses pose becomes too strong. are many similarities in their constuction problems for the conservation of this valu- techniques and building forms with their able heritage. They bear witness to the last Time to act European counterparts. In Turkish timber- existing features of a past lifestyle. The Endeavours to protect such traditional set- framed houses we can observe similar inscriptions of the houses show that the tlement areas are unfortunately insufﬁcient types of construction systems and tech- oldest ones were built during the 17th cen- even though local authorities and repre- niques to European ones. Timber-framed tury whereas the majority of them are dated sentatives from the Ministry of Culture are houses are often seen along the Aegean, to the end of the 19th century. trying to encourage residents’ interest in Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts and restoration of their buildings and in learn- also in some parts of central Anatolia. How- In need of protection ing old construction techniques. There are ever the higly developed examples are In Turkey the rapidly increasing popula- many successful restoration projects which located in Istanbul and close surroundings. tion and a tendency towards modernisa- have been initiated by the government and tion and industrialisation are causing also by other public organisations. In Turkey At present we have about 45 000 regis- changes in the original characteristics of we have carpenters, restoration architects tered monuments and dwellings in our the settlements. Due to the use of modern and art historians with a knowledge of old country. Most of them are wooden houses techniques in building construction and in building techniques. After the big earth- repairs, the physical environment is losing quake catastrophe of 1999, the people of Timber-framed houses in Yorük village (Safranbolu, Turkey) its original characteristics. These Turkey began to realise the advantage of C. Hersek continuous changes have already the traditional type of wooden house. affected and contributed to the deterioriation of the orig- Traditional wooden houses are an impor- inal identity of our big tant cultural heritage that remind us of a cities. past life, which was healthy, comfortable and full of beautiful things. These have been For the same reasons, overtaken by today’s contemporary lifestyle. certain unacceptable But there is still time to stress that Europe developments have also has a common architectural heritage and taken place in areas of traditional wooden houses are one of the Anatolia. However these most important values that we have to hand changes and signs of down to future generations. destruction have not yet gone too far. There is Can M. Hersek still time to protect Gazi University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture some samples of our Department of Architecure cultural heritage by 06570 Maltepe / Ankara – Turkey intervening before [email protected]

o 24 naturopa n 96 / 2001 in Europe

Wooden heritage in towns of Latvia

The Republic of Latvia is situated on the south coast of the Baltic sea. With a territory of 64 589 km2 and 65 towns, the total number of inhabitants reaches 2.37 million of which 68 % live in towns. 44 % of the territory is covered by forests. The biggest ethno

– geographic regions are Vidzeme, Kurzeme, G. Yemeljanows Latgale and Zemgale. The capital of Latvia is Riga with 0.82 million inhabitants.

The oldest construction material Wood (fir tree, pine tree) is considered to be Late 19th, early 20th century dwellings Heritage Documentation Centre the oldest and, until the 13th century, the of Ludza, in eastern Latvia Matisa Street, Riga, built in 1870 only construction material in Latvia. The comparatively small territory was inhabited towns was irregular and unequal. The greater Nine other towns are of significant histori- by several Baltic and Finno-Ugrian tribes who development for economic needs during cal interest due to the wooden buildings built hill forts. Small townships developed the 17th and 18th centuries can be seen (30–35%) which have still maintained the close to these wooden castles but these were only in a few of them, for example, in the traits of the styles of 17th – 19th centuries. destroyed during the crusader invasions harbour towns situated on the Baltic sea against the Baltic peoples. Sometimes the (Liepaja, Ventspils, Riga), as well as in the The example of Riga Knights’ Order masonry castles were built at most important Kurzeme duchy towns of the The capital of Latvia, Riga, is also famous the same places. During the Middle Ages 17th century and both former historical cap- for its historical traditions of wooden build- eight Latvian towns were members of the itals Kuldiga and Jelgava. In other localities ings. In the fortified part of the city in the Mid- Hanseatic Union. These settlements, that there were small local centres, where devel- dle Ages wooden buildings were forbidden were planned to resemble European towns, opment was episodic and towns received but outside the fortification walls until the were still built in wood. The only exceptions their status much later. 19th century Riga developed as a wooden were fortification buildings, fortified Order and city. In the 20th century there were more bishops’ castles, as well as churches. Mer- A varied architecture than 12 000 wooden buildings in Riga. Since chants and tradesmen, who most often were In spite of the fact that Latvia is a small coun- 1904 the construction of wooden houses in immigrants from Germany, Poland and Rus- try, its architecture in towns has many the “new centre” of the city has been for- sia, mostly inhabited the towns. The major- regional differences. In the eastern region, bidden but today in the city centre as well ity of native inhabitants lived in the coun- which until the formation of the independ- as in the periphery several hundred mag- tryside, in villages or separate farmsteads, ent Republic of Latvia in 1918 was in the nificent wooden buildings dating from the and their number in towns up to the 19th cen- territory of Vitebsk (now the Russian Fed- second part of the 18th century to the early tury was quite small. The biggest landown- eration), the town planning as well as build- 20th century have been preserved. One can ers were German nobility and it was the ing styles were under the influence of some still see wooden buildings reflecting many noblemen who controlled the whole admin- Russian traditions. At the same time in the different architectural styles: architecture of istration in the territory outside the towns. This Kurzeme region one can detect the north Ger- peasants, baroque, classicism, empire, late historical fact explains the specific differ- many and Prussian influence. The origin of classicism, eclecticism and historicism, as ences between the ”national” countryside the builders and carpenters was also impor- well as art nouveau, national romanticism and “international” town architecture that tant. Thus the western part of the country and functionalism. This heritage has remained unchanged until the 19th century. was a traditional migration way for trades- remained due to the slow tempo of building Now it is quite difficult to find a settlement men between Germany and the north Baltic after 1914, and during the changes of the without wooden buildings, because the states, but in the eastern part and along the 19th and 20th centuries building was influ- masonry tradition from the Middle Ages is river Daugava, there were more builders of enced by the development of art nouveau only found in old Riga. The development of Polish and Russian nationality. The ancient masonry houses. building traditions of the Latvians still existed The originality of the architecture of Riga city and developed mainly in the countryside is the symbiosis of 19th century art nouveau and in villages in the form of wooden and wooden building, which reflects the churches, as well as outbuildings of manors. dynamics of the city development and is an

A. Meiers There are nine small towns in Latvia (dating integral trait of the city face. Riga historical from the 18th-20th century) in which the den- centre was included in the Unesco World sity of wooden buildings is about 75 %. To this Heritage list with one of the greatest values speciﬁc “wooden town” group one can also – the heritage of wooden architecture. add the biggest resort town in the Baltics, Jurmala, with 70 % of wooden summerhouses Peteris Blums (Swiss style, eclectic style and neo-style) built Architect State Inspectorate for Heritage Protection between 1880–1940. About 4000 of these M.Pils Street 19 Detail from a neo-renaissance building dating are remarkable buildings, and some 400 are LV-1050, Riga from 1890 at 62 Kalnciema Street, Riga considered as cultural heritage monuments. [email protected] Wooden architecture in Europe

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 25 The “Europe, a common

Wooden culture through Europe A transnational project of the campaign

Countries involved crafts provide a current context for the Experts from Finland, Lithuania, Roma- past, especially in countries where these nia, Turkey, France, Poland and Swe- traditions are the way of explaining the cur- den carried out the activities concerned. rent way of living after totalitarian sys- A. Barca tems. For many reasons, wooden mate- The 2nd Summit of Heads of State and rials are experiencing a significant renewal. Government, held in Strasbourg in 1997, When traditions have been interrupted, adopted an Action Plan which proposed the nostalgia of the past reinforces the the launch of a broad-ranging, aware- woodcrafts as well as the cultural signifi- ness-raising campaign on the cultural cance of ancestral techniques. and natural heritage of Europe. The “Europe, a common heritage” campaign Intentions was intended as a campaign where her- It was agreed that the scope of the proj- itage was considered as an exercise of ect should be broadened to include the citizenship and as a means of promot- whole set of problems implicit in the ing mutual knowledge and understand- conservation or restoration of the ing between communities. wooden heritage. Moreover a heritage preservation policy could only be effec- In the framework of that campaign, the tive if it were thoroughly incorporated Council of Europe launched a transna- within an overall development policy. tional project entitled “Wooden culture 18th church, moved to another village throughout Europe” in Romania on 24- The priorities for action and the general in the 19th century, Romania 28 June 2000. Wood is an essential programme of activities were based on a cultural material for many living tradi- conclusion coming from an evaluation Common values, common worries and tions and is a central link in a common questionnaire sent to the delegations common deficiencies are defined with- European area, from Scandinavia to cen- before the meetings. It was a very useful out forgetting the differences from one tral Europe, from Portugal to Georgia. tool to set up the basis for a first common country to another. The compensation After analysing the contributions from the reflection, as well as stimulating the inter- of assistance is actually the added value national committees in the campaign, est for European co-operation in this field. of this project. The enhancement of the it was clear that much attention was living aspect reinforces the interest in given to this subject. The campaign has Who prevents traditions co-operation and necessitates a clear been considered as a good framework from disappearing? definition of the concerned fields and for a global discussion, taking into The questionnaire focused attention on the different roles and responsibilities account the holistic concerns and cir- the legislative situation, on national of the actors involved in an integrated cumstances of the wooden heritage administrative procedures, as well as on conservation policy, at the same time which range from architectural details the social awareness-raising policies respecting the singularities as a rich to complex landscapes. related to the perceptions of the cultural expression of the European heritage. value of this heritage, giving access to Even if archaeological remains or ver- good quality day-to-day surroundings or In the framework of this project, three nacular architecture express the creative maintaining this quality. Special inter- meetings were organised. The first one force of wood over centuries, wooden est was addressed to training policies. took place in the Romanian region of heritage is mostly an active tradition. Tra- Countries are short of scientific institu- Maramures in June 2000, the second ditional wooden architecture and handi- tions which could take charge of the train- one in the Turkish region of Safranbolu ing and specialisation of experts, or stim- in September 2000, and the third one in ulate and organise the formulation of Järsöv county in Sweden in March 2001. varied artisan training. The pressure of industry, the rural exodus, the low degree The aim of bringing the questions of tra- of legitimisation of the crafts and the ditional wooden craftsmanship to a Euro- craftsmen led to the decay of tradition. pean level is partly to circulate or develop G. Andersson Questionnaires emphasised the risk of knowledge produced within national con- traditions becoming completely lost in texts, partly to increase the conditions for certain areas. taking advantage of techniques and methods that in many regions are still in use: The questionnaire sought essentially to ancestral savoir-faire needs to be matched define in terms of European co-operation with current management plans and con- what the European wooden heritage rep- tractual situations. By doing this there resents, to whom it belongs (to those would be many opportunities to learn who created it, to those who have an from the know-how of older wooden Two Romanian craftsmen hew a beam out of an oak tree trunk. interest in it) and how it is recognised craftsmanship but also to give local crafts- Workshop in Romania at the end of August 2001 by Europeans. men, citizens and others the opportunity

o 26 naturopa n 96 / 2001 heritage” campaign

to join the interpretation of it and the recounting of their own history. The framework of activities After the third meeting in Sweden, three actions some regions of Europe. To reflect on how to were defined as priorities for European co-oper- raise awareness of the social and economic As general co-ordinator of this project, I ation: value of wooden traditions in local commu- would like to thank the national com- nities; mittees involved in the project as well Action 1 -Workshops for craftsmen at woo- • to collaborate in developing methods for ana- as the representatives for their enthusi- den building conservation sites lysis and interpretation of wooden construc- In each participating country, a mobility pro- tions, based on knowledge of traditional crafts asm which is only matched by their gramme for training: crafts in wood for conser- in a “European atmosphere”. knowledge and savoir-faire, but I espe- vation/restoration was set up. A selection of conservation sites in the countries involved, as cially want to thank the Romanian arti- Action 2 – Inventory of religious, domestic “European places of know-how” was made. sans, Turkish families and Swedish farm- and civil built constructions The general objectives are: ers for their warm hospitality which A detailed inventory of religious, domestic and civil built constructions already protected by enabled us to participate in the immense • to analyse and record traditional building national laws, to be completed with actions of methods, to compare experiences and skills. richness of their heritage by opening the awareness-raising. This action is considered a To share ideas and methodologies on pre- doors to their daily life. first step to define an integrated conservation serving the wooden heritage. To encourage Nuria Sanz policy on protected wooden cultural heritage. General Coordinator of the “Wooden culture” practical exchange of information in situ, transnational projet providing a dialogue and consultation in a Coordinator of the “Europe, a common working situation; Action 3 – Inventory of professionals in heritage” campaign • to improve the conditions for taking advan- wooden heritage around Europe Council of Europe tage of techniques and methods representing Who is who? With the definition of skills and Directorate General IV a living tradition and that are still in use in conservation/restoration associated practices. F-67075 Strasbourg cedex [email protected]

European co-operation – Future workshops in Europe

2 rue Maladrerie – F-76000 Rouen In Finland In France Fax 33 (0) 2 35 89 80 75 The workshop in Finland will take place France has a large wood heritage, in terms [email protected] in Mieslahti village in the Kainuu region of both wooden architecture and furni- in north east Finland in June-July 2002. ture, and thriving wood-building skills. Kainuu has been chosen as the target Vernacular architecture in particular offers In Lithuania area because of the well-preserved local a wide diversity of local forms and prac- This workshop has been held from the tradition in log building, handicraft skills tices. In both rural and urban environ- 22 September – 2 October 2001. It was and forestry. The production of pine wood ments in various regions, houses are built organised jointly by the Ministry of Cul- tar, traditionally used as a surface treat- using timber framing (half-timbered ture of Lithuania and the Daugyvene ment for wooden buildings and boats, is houses), or, in mountain regions, log-pile cultural history museum with support also alive in the region. The international structures. from the Soros fund and some private working group will participate in the organisations. construction and use of a tervahauta (a The French Ministry of Culture is trying burning pit producing pine wood tar by to encourage European carpenters, archi- The workshop took place in Kleboniskis dry distillation) during the workshop. tects and heritage commissioners to village which is part of Daugyvene cultural exchange know-how. history museum. This village is typical of The proposed sites are farmsteads built central Lithuania, dates back to the royal in the early 19th century. The partici- A European training site is to be opened land reform in the 16th century, and is pants will learn about the Finnish log- in the Boucles de la Seine regional park now being rebuilt after the destruction of building tradition, wood-crafting and ver- in Upper Normandy in spring 2002. The its primary structure in the 20th century. nacular building types. A regional study site will be a traditional half-timbered A granary and a dwelling house (built in tour to water mills, peasant houses, crofts house with clay-filled spaces. 1885) will be transferred to Kleboniskis vil- and wooden churches will be arranged lage during the workshop. This working during the workshop. The information A training organisation, GRETA Vercors, procedure was influenced by the fact that about the Finnish wooden heritage will also wishes to fund and organise, with there are no possibilities to save valuable be completed during the return trip to the help of the Romanian Ministry of Cul- buildings in situ, and wooden country Helsinki by visiting wooden manor ture, a site where people can learn the tra- architecture is fast disappearing due to houses and churches. ditional techniques used in building the urban changes in the countryside of Sakari Mentu wooden houses and roofs (Romania). the rapidly growing east and middle Euro- Architect pean countries. A seminar about the prob- National Board of Antiquities François Calame lems of restoration and preservation of Sturegatan 4 Ethnologist at the Ministry of Culture and wood will be organised for local authori- FI-00511 Helsingfors – Finland Communication Fax 358 9 40 50 94 20 Regional Directorate of Cultural Affairs, ties during the workshop. The workshop sakari.mentu@nba.fiXUpper Normandy will be held in the museum which will The “Europe, a common heritage” campaign

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 27 The “ Europe, a common

remain open and the many visitors will have a chance to observe the restoration

of the buildings, which will be the best D. Puodziukiene advertisement for the popularisation of wooden building in society.

Dale Puodziukiene Architect Coordinator of the project Architecture and Construction Institute Tunelio 60, Kaunas – Lithuania E-mail: [email protected]

In Poland In Poland a lot of wooden churches with rich polychrome on the walls, ceilings, reta- Village house dated 1885 which will be transferred bles, and altars, sculptures and other to the Daugyvene museum reserve, Lithuania wooden furnishings are still preserved. The conservation of these wooden buildings The State Office for the Preservation of ferent types of forests and different types and interior decoration necessitates the Historical Monuments held a seminar of cultural environments. Discussions on skills and knowledge of many specialists. concerning integrated conservation restoration, differences and similarities approaches for the protected wooden in materials, techniques and history will A great number of qualified specialists heritage. Its aim was to enlarge the queries be organised. in many different branches connected of the workshops and to situate the dis- Göran Andersson with restoration of works of art are to be cussion in an overall approach, which Project manager found: restorers of painting and sculp- concerns polychromes, sculpture, fur- Timmerdraget – Centre for traditional log- ture, architects, building experts, engi- nishing, use and re-use of wooden pro- house construction Åsbygdens Naturbruksgymnasium neers, research librarians and craftsmen. tected monuments and sites. It took place 830 43 ÅS – Sweden from 10-14 October in Malopolska region, [email protected] an area rich in wooden protected churches noted above all for their poly- In Turkey chrome interiors (15th-19th centuries), Kastamonu, which is known as one of some of which are included in the Unesco the oldest settlements in Anatolia, has World Heritage list. been chosen as the workshop venue for October 2002. The city is located in the K. Chmielewski Krzysztof Chmielewski western Black Sea region of Turkey. The State Office for the Preservation of Historical settlement is situated along the creek and Monuments on both sides of a valley, one facing north V1 Ksawerow 13 and the other south. To the west of the LP 02656 Warsaw – Poland Fax: 48 22 848 53 53 city, on the hill surmounted by a fortress [email protected] where the old quarters remain, the organic pattern of the traditional settle- In Sweden ment is a typical example of an Ottoman The workshop will take place in the north- city. The entire city looks like an open ern parts of the province of Hälsingland air museum with its richly decorated tim- 17th century polychrome decorations, Biranowa, Poland in May 2002. This province is famous for ber-framed houses and many monu- the big economic rise during the 18th- mental buildings around the old com- Students can study at three university 19th centuries, mainly based on the grow- mercial centre. departments of restoration of works of art: ing of flax for different kinds of linen the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw and materials. In Hälsingland, as in all the Field studies on timber-framed buildings, Cracow and Torun university. The restora- northern provinces in Sweden, the pop- competitions, exhibitions, documentary tion of objects on a wooden support is an ulation consisted of independent farmers. studies and excursions will be included important part of lectures and practices. in the workshop. This period of relative economic wealth Can M. Hersek Cooperation within the framework of the in Hälsingland gave rise to big farms with Professor wooden culture programme between exceptional dwelling-houses, regarding Gazi University specialists from different countries is a real both the size of the houses and the rich- Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Department of Architecure chance not only to exchange experience ness of the interior design. 06570 Maltepe / Ankara – Turkey but also to discuss important problems [email protected] concerning conservation of wooden archi- The participants will take part in restora- tecture: the type and range of intervention of the different kinds of buildings tion in the original structure of a monu- that belong to these farms. There will ment, use of new materials and tech- also be possibilities, beside the restora- nology, removal of non-original elements, tion, for them to experiment with dif- range of possible reconstruction. These ferent kinds of Swedish log-house tech- problems still await adequate solutions. niques. There will be excursions to dif-

o 28 naturopa n 96 / 2001 heritage” campaign

The social and professional role of wood craftsmen It takes a long time for a tree to die. Yesterday this was of course just Men of the trade and craftsmen of ordinary, practical knowledge traditional carpentry and building handed down from one generation crafts know this. In one way a piece to the next, something that almost of solid wood never dies – it always everybody had to know about to get

reacts quickly to the surrounding by in everyday life. It represented G. Andersson conditions and adjusts to the air an unbroken chain of knowledge humidity. In modern construction about the trees in the forest to the this slow process of adjusting is a house or the furniture in the villages. major problem. Today’s solutions Only the particularly gifted, the spe- are to saw or chop the trees into cialised artisans, were entrusted with smaller pieces to get rid of tensions tasks like the interiors of churches and movements. The smaller pieces, and monasteries. like sawdust particles glued together are formed into different types of A wood craftsman Roofs covered with wooden shingles are still in use in board for better control. Modern The traditional working of wood is a Europe. Here, a Romanian craftsman cuts thin shingles methods require wood products that completely different outlook from are preferably as dead as stone, or the industrial and technological Ambassador of a region at least as concrete or iron. wood techniques and we must not Another important role for the crafts- lose two important factors of our man familiar with the old techniques Wood, an exclusive material cultural heritage from sight. and methods that should not be neg- This is the first thing we must bear lected is the role of ambassador at in mind. Yesterday’s craftsmen had True actor the local or regional level. Well to have this knowledge. Today this of our cultural heritage trained and with experience from knowledge is still needed within spe- From my point of view the crafts- different regions the craftsman can cial areas of the carpentry industry, men should not only be executors be a very good guide to historical for example interiors and solid wood of good restoration. In the context of awareness in the local community. furniture. But for the volume prod- preservation, where different pro- My experience is that the craftsman ucts of our modern society, like fur- fessions are involved, the craftsmen in many cases gains more respect niture and kitchen interiors for the familiar with the artisan tradition and speaks with much more author- ordinary man, solid wood and the are needed much earlier in ity in the local context than people knowledge it needed has lost almost the preservation and restoration whose knowledge is based on theory all marketable value. However in process. They are needed as inter- like myself. The authority of a gen- special cases, in exclusive architec- preters of their own cultural her- uine craftsman derives from his local ture, there still can be a demand – itage, representing the same kind of or regional roots. if the people involved know about logic that once created the historical Göran Andersson the potential of the craftsman’s tra- object or milieu. They can discover Project manager dition because traditional knowledge new and other values that the Timmerdraget – Centre for traditional log- about wood as a construction mate- untrained eye cannot see and add house construction campaign Åsbygdens Naturbruksgymnasium ” rial has become an exclusive know- other aspects to the evaluation of 830 43 ÅS ledge. our cultural heritage. Sweden [email protected] The open air museum of Skansen, Sweden Skansen was the first open air museum in nymous with open air museum in many the world. It was founded in 1891 by Artur countries. Hazelius in the Skansen park in the city of www.skansen.se Stockholm.

About 150 buildings have been moved from almost everywhere in Sweden to Skansen. Already from the beginning Skansen was meant as a “living museum” and therefore there are both people and animals in many of the different areas of the museum during summer time. Hazelius was mainly interested in the farming and Lapp cultures of the 18th -19th centuries.

Today there are buildings that also show the conditions of agricultural labourers and of the upper classes. Industrialisation Europe, a common heritage Skansen Museum archives during the 20th century is also displayed. “ The oldest building dates back to the 14th century. Today the word “skansen” is syno- The

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 29 The “ Europe, a common A. Barca Romania – a land of living wood

The wooden buildings of Romania The wooden architecture in Romania large areas the use of wattle-and-daub belong to the vernacular architecture is an art of monumental walls, in in a timber frame, or of unbaked earth of south-eastern Europe. Buildings sur- which the same material is used for bricks has been adopted. viving in situ or preserved in open-air both supporting and enclosing struc- museums give an indication of the geo- tures (blockbuilt system). Beams, Domestic architecture graphical extent of this wooden archi- rafters, shingles – so many faces of Regional differences appear mainly tecture, its evolution and the direction wood, which relate to the main prac- in details and relative proportions. of inﬂuences in its development. The tical functions of homestead con- The way in which the different parts typology of wooden buildings is constructions. This is an architecture of the construction are combined, its sistent throughout Europe. The characterised by ingenious methods vertical development and the speciﬁc Carpathian chain favoured the emer- gence of zones of cultural convergence. As it was not limited by political fron- tiers, wooden architecture knew more

ﬂexible borders, with structures and A. Barca constructional techniques largely the same over extensive areas.

Wood is an essential element of traditional architecture throughout Roma- nia, where extensive and rich forests have permitted the development of construction in solid timber. Wooden architecture in Romania cannot be con- fused with that of other parts of Europe. It is characterised by the union of a few simple volumes, and by techniques which bring out the qualities of the material. Complex harmonies emerge Traditional wooden Romanian house with half open porch and shingle roof from the relationship between the whole structure and its details. The of working and using wood as mate- form of the roof play a decisive role sculptural and pictorial qualities of the rial, and a skilful handling of volume in particularising domestic architec- forms and ornaments are enriched by and relief. The jointing of beams at ture. The body of the construction, the interplay of light and shade. All the the corners of the building, has many unimpeded by subdivisions, is char- elements are combined with purpose different forms, displaying not only acterised by its clear forms and the and forethought in a sober architec- technical proficiency but also a solidity of its masses. The roof, with ture, in keeping with its natural envi- remarkable expressiveness. its expressive silhouette, is an iden- ronment. tifying feature of village architecture. The construction of walls from solid The entrance to a wooden house is Fir, spruce, pine and oak timber continues until the middle of enriched by the creation of a half open The principal woods used in construc- the present century in mountain and porch space, which offers a concen- tion were fir, spruce, pine and oak. hill country. Analyses of forest soil, tration of important decorative sur- linguistic evidence and the detailed faces. Its well deﬁned volume is inte- descriptions of rural and urban build- grated structurally and aesthetically in ings left by foreign travellers in the the volume of the house. It is a mul- Romanian lands all support the view tifunctional intermediate space, the

A. Barca that wooden architecture was for- site of activity or rest, the place of merly widespread throughout the communication between house and present territory of Romania. The yard. Its horizontal character, punc- establishment of settlements by clear- tuated by the rhythm of the vertical ing areas previously covered by posts, suggests protection and the forests, agricultural and pastoral activ- organic nature of the house, which is ity, administrative measures imposed enclosed but at the same time open. in some villages, the uncontrolled exploitation of forests, rafting and the Religious architecture trade in timber, have combined to In Romania there are 1200 wooden produce a reduction in the number churches listed. The religious build- Wooden houses are still being built using the same techniques of constructions with timber walls: in ing occupies a special place in all rural as in the past: the building is laid out in pieces on the ground some zones architecture in solid wood settlements. It is surrounded by the and then assembled from the base upwards has disappeared altogether, and over churchyard and cemetery. Religious

o 30 naturopa n 96 / 2001 heritage” campaign

The workshop in Romania The ﬁne domestic and religious architecture, as well as the very vibrant situation of

A. Barca the traditional techniques, made Romania one of the most important European examples for built wooden heritage and skilled know-how. The ﬁrst workshop was held from 20-31 August 2001. The villages of the Salaj county were selected: Baica and Racas, about 550 km north of Bucharest. The programme was organised jointly by the Romanian Ministry of Culture and Cults, the museum of Salaj county and the Regio- nal Directorate of Culture. This ﬁrst “labo- ratory of European workshop methodology” demonstrated the sustainability of traditional building materials and technologies through the conservation of two existing historic buildings.

occur on metal and ceramic objects unearthed by archaeological excava- Interior of a farmhouse tions. The twisted line found on Bronze Age sickles is frequently seen architecture is more conservative, deep into the wood, engraving designs on the door frames of houses and with little diversity in the basic struc- on the surface or cutting them out churches. The same twisted rope ture, which remains horizontal, how- with the fretsaw. This enlivening of motif, carved in a single piece of wood ever it has room for variation in the the material involves processes and (a gate post or wall beam) guards the form and covering of the bell-tower, tools similar to those used in the entrance to the homestead or encloses which may be incorporated in the construction of buildings, but applied the body of the church like a belt. The body of the building, rising above the to relatively reduced volumes and sur- sun is represented by a rosette or by main roof. faces. Wood has proven to be an ideal a square inscribed in a circle. Often ground for designs and images evoca- associated with the cross, it is a recur- The peasant household as the church tive of the mysteries of existence. ring motif on gateposts and the door lie at the meeting point of the mate- Some motifs come out of the mists frames of churches, and over the rial and spiritual worlds. Decoration of antiquity, recalling the ancient prac- threshold and on the principal beam adds to the significance of created tices by which people sought to avert of houses. Pagan beliefs related to the objects. It enhances the built space, evil. Cosmic or zoomorphic symbols, cult of the sun and Christianity, with drawing on a traditional stock of signs of pagan or Christian origin, carved in the domestic dimension specific to and symbols. the wood of the gates, the heads of its eastern traditions, are thus united beams or the frames of doors and in the juxtaposition or even super- Decorative art in wood windows, put the dwelling under the imposition of the rosette, cross and The craft of decoration in wood calls protection of divine forces. The reper- star motifs. There is a clear syncretism on a series of techniques which have tory of architectural ornaments con- of symbols extended to the whole vil- been discovered and perfected over sists largely of geometrical motifs. lage. the years: sculpting in relief, carving Such representations sometimes The heart of the village is a territory surrounded by boundaries, taken pos- session of by an act of foundation, campaign the memory of which is kept alive in ” A. Barca A. Barca the community. This well chosen site ensures not only living conditions but also protection for its inhabitants, thanks to its natural qualities and the ritual acts by which its traditions are maintained. Ana Barca Art historian, inspector for monuments Department of Historical Monuments, Romanian Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs Bucharest, Piata Presei Libere 1, code 71321 Fax 0040 1 222 82 39 [email protected] [email protected] Europe, a common heritage

This newly built wooden church, erected “ on the site of one destroyed by ﬁre, respects the traditional plan Landscape in northern Romania, where natural and architectonic forms and built forms are in perpetual dialogue The

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 31 INFO – COUNCIL OF

The wooden culture

One of the aims of the “Europe, a com- and wooden architecture in our daily mon heritage” campaign was to search lives, everyday environment and her- our continent for cultures, traditions, itage. skills and lifestyles which reflected and F. Bruemmer/Bios embodied local identities, but were also We soon realised, too, that this was an focal points for cohesion and conver- area where shared interests made con- gence. Throughout the campaign, we tacts both easy and mutually reward- insisted on the need to launch or revive ing. And indeed, synergies are already cultures of history, town planning, land- being created and new forms of co- scape and religion – in short, cultures operation emerging. May the process of “otherness” – which could be traced continue, with exchange, understand- through the various elements, mate- ing and solidarity as its keynotes. May rial and non-material, which make up it help to bring us together, and help us our shared heritage. to develop a wood culture in Europe and beyond. For cultures like this, in all We soon found that wood – wood their everyday diversity, are among Orthodox chapel, Bialowieza, Poland culture, wooden architecture – was one the many building blocks of a Europe of the most promising areas of study. which really means something to indi- work encourages states to protect over 40 Our cross-sectoral project on wooden viduals – and as such represents a guar- types of threatened forest ecosystems, architecture, taking in both natural and antee of peace for the future. such as western palaeo-arctic fir forests cultural heritage, proved a notable José-Maria Ballester or Mediterranean pine woods. States are meeting-ground: wherever we looked Director of Culture and Cultural and Natural in the process of selecting appropriate – Scandinavia, the Baltic countries, the Heritage sites. Caucasus, the Balkans, central and east- DG IV – Council of Europe [email protected] ern or southern Europe – we were Apart from habitat protection, the made aware of the significance of wood Convention has focused its attention on species or groups of species of special relevance to forest ecosystems, such as wood-eating (saproxylic) invertebrates or threatened birds or mammals, such as Bern Convention action to promote those mentioned below.

biological diversity of forests Saproxylic invertebrates have been the subject of speciﬁc work under the Conven- The Convention on the Conservation of tion and the Council of Europe. The European Wildlife and Natural Habitats Committee of Ministers adopted Rec- ratiﬁed by the European Community and ommendation (88) 10 on the protection 44 States (including four African states) of saproxylic organisms and their had traditionally focused its attention on biotopes. This Recommendation encour- the protection of threatened species and aged forest practices aimed at protect- their habitats. It confers legal protection ing wood-eating insects, such as avoid- on all vulnerable and endangered forest ance of removal of dead wood and main- vertebrates, as well as on a number of tenance of ancient trees and fallen trees.

J. Gonzales Grande/Bios interesting forest invertebrates. Article 4 of the Convention provides legal protec- Some forest birds have been the object tion to the habitats of vulnerable and of action plans drafted by BirdLife Inter- endangered species. To help the conser- national and adopted by the Standing vation of forest biological diversity the Committee to the Convention. This Convention has created a network of includes globally threatened birds from Areas of Special Conservation Interest mountain forests and the Mediterranean (called “Emerald Network”) in which over plains (Cinerean vulture, imperial eagle, 30 states are participating, including those Spanish imperial eagle) and the most of the European Union through their own threatened birds from the forests of Imperial eagle on the nest Natura 2000 network. The Emerald Net- Madeira (Azores) and the Canary islands

o 32 naturopa n 96 / 2001 EUROPE – INFO

(Madeira laurel pigeon, dark-tailed lau- Europe arrived at the targets after hard rel pigeon, white-tailed laurel pigeon, blue work. They cover issues such as Impor- chaffinch and Azores bullfinch). These tant Plant Areas, protected area man- action plans are implemented by the agement, information exchange, capac- Bern Convention states and supervised ity building and development of the by a specific group of experts. Planta Europa Network.

Action plans for large forest carnivores (in At the conference Dr Jan Plesnik, chair- particular the European lynx, the Iber- man of the Subsidiary Body on Scien- Abruzzi National Park ian lynx, wolf, bear and wolverine) drafted tific, Technical and Technological by the Large Carnivore Initiative for Advice (SBSTTA) to the Convention on Europe (LCIE-WWF) have been endorsed Biological Diversity (CBD), announced by the Standing Committee of the that the European Strategy will become Convention and have given rise to a num- part of the emerging Global Strategy ber of interesting conservation initiatives for Plant Conservation which is being carried out by LCIE and the Bern Conven- developed under the CBD. tion. Eladio Fernandez-Galiano Planta Europa hopes that as the ﬁrst Head of the Natural Heritage Division regional plant conservation strategy Cultural and Natural Heritage Department produced, it will serve as an example for [email protected] Poster from the Abruzzi National Park other regions who wish to undergo the same process and ensure that the Global Strategy contains ’bottom up’ elements – for after all the CBD is designed to be implemented at national level. A reﬁned Towards a plant draft of the Strategy is shortly to be submitted to the CBD Secretariat for conservation strategy the SBSTTA meeting in November and to the Bern Convention Standing The botanists and plant conservation- The Strategy, being developed jointly Committee. Progress will be reviewed ists of Europe pulled off an amazing by the Council of Europe and Planta at the next Planta Europa conference to feat. They came together for the third Europa, contains both long term policy be held in Valencia, Spain in 2004. Planta Europa conference* on the directions and a set of medium term Dr Jane Smart conservation of wild plants in Pruhon- targets produced at the conference Executive Director ice, in the Czech Republic (23-28 June), through a highly participative process. Planta Europa and Plantlife International to develop a European Plant Conser- A series of workshops involving 157 21 Elizabeth Street London, SW1W 9RP vation Strategy. delegates from 38 countries across Fax: +44 (0) 20 7730 8377

* The Planta Europa conference was organised by Planta Europa, the Council of Europe and the Agency for Nature Conservation and Landscape protection of the Czech Republic.

Planta Europa has now been formally constituted as a programme of Plantlife Interna- tional. Governmental and non-governmental organisations involved in plant conservation are invited to join as

D. Fiat/Ecrins National Park Planta Europa partners. Please contact the Planta Europa co-ordinator, Liz Rad- ford, at the address above for details or see websites www.plantlife.org.uk or www.plantaeuropa.org Hafer/ Wollmatinger Ried Nature Reserve

Orange bulbil lily Forget-me-not INFO – COUNCIL OF EUROPE – INFO

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 33 National Agencies of the

Albania Croatia Germany Liechtenstein Environmental Protection Ministry for Environment Mrs Helga INDEN-HEINRICH Mr Alexander HAURI and Preservation Committee and Physical Planning Deutscher Naturschutzring eV Liechtensteinische Gesellschaft Ministry of Health Republica Austrija 20 Am Michaelshof 8-10 für Umweltschutz and Environmental Protection HR-10000 ZAGREB D-53177 BONN Im Bretscha 2 Rruga “Bajram Curri” Fax 385-1 537 203 Fax 49-228 35 90 96 FL-9494 Schaan AL-TIRANA E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: Fax: +423 232 52 63 Fax 355-42 652 29 [email protected] E-mai: E-mail: [email protected] Cyprus [email protected] Mr Antonis L. ANTONIOU Greece Environmental Service Andorra Mr Donald MATTHEWS Lithuania Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Mme Natalia ROVIRA Hellenic Society for Nature Protection Dr Danielius PIVORIUNAS Resources and Environment Ministeri de Medi Ambient 24 Nikis Street Land Use Planning Department CY-1411 NICOSIA Landscape Division EDF del Govern Fax 357-2 77 49 45 GR-105 57 ATHENS c/Prat de la Creu 62-64 Fax 30-1 32 25 285 Ministry of Environment AND-ANDORRA LA VELLA E-mail: [email protected] Jaksto g-ve 4/9 Czech Republic LT-2694 VILNIUS Fax 376-86 95 33 Dr Bohumil KU ERA ∏ Fax 370 2 22 08 47 E-mail: Agency for Nature Hungary [email protected] and Landscape Conservation Mrs Louise LAKOS E-mail: 4-6 Kali_nická Department of European [email protected] Austria CZ-130 23 PRAGUE 3 Integration and International Mr Michael KHÜN Fax 422-697 2423 Relations Luxembourg Verbindungsstelle der E-mail: [email protected] Ministry for Environment M. Jean-Paul FELTGEN Bundesländer beim and Regional Policy Ministère de l’Environnement Amt der Niederösterreichischen Denmark P O Box 351 18 Montée de la Pétrusse Landesregierung Ms Lotte BARFOD H-1394 BUDAPEST L-2918 LUXEMBOURG Schenkenstrasse 4 National Forest and Nature Agency Fax 36-1 201 28 46 Fax 352-478 6835 A-1014 WIEN Ministry of the Environment E-mail: E-mail: Fax 43-1 535 60 79 Haraldsgade 53 [email protected] [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] DK-2100 COPENHAGEN Ø Fax 45-39 27 98 99 Iceland Malta Mr John GRECH Belgium E-mail: [email protected] Mr Sigurdur Á. THRÁINSSON Ministry for the Environment Flemish Region: Ministry for the Environment M-FLORIANA De Heer Koen DE SMET Estonia Vonarstraeti 4 Mr Kalju KUKK Fax 356-23 99 05 AMINAL-Afd. Natuur ISL-150 REYKJAVIK Ministry of the Environment Graaf de Ferraris-gebouw 24 Toompuiestee Fax 354-562 42 80 Kon. Albert II-laan 20 – Bus 8 Moldova EE-0100 TALLINN E-mail: Mr Alecu RENITSA B-1000 BRUSSEL [email protected] Fax 372-62 62 801 Ecological Movement Fax 32-2 553 76 85 E-mail: [email protected] of Moldova E-mail: Ireland Republican Periodical [email protected] Finland Education and Marketing Ofﬁcer Publication Nature Ms Leena SALONEN Centre Naturopa National Agency 13 S. Lazo Str. Walloon Region: Ministry of the Environment Dúchas The Heritage Service 2004 CHISINAU M. Jacques STEIN P O Box 380 Department of Arts, Heritage Fax 373-2 23 71 57 Ministère de la Région Wallonne FIN-00131 HELSINKI and the Gaeltacht E-mail: DGRNE – Direction de la Nature Fax 358-9 1991 9323 6 Ely Place Upper [email protected] Avenue Prince de Liège 15 E-mail: leena.salonen@vyh.ﬁ IRL-DUBLIN 2 B-5100 JAMBES (Namur) Fax 353-1 66 16 764 Netherlands Fax 32-81 33 58 22 France E-mail: [email protected] me Drs Peter W. BOS E-mail: [email protected] M Véronique Ministry of Agriculture, Nature HERRENSCHMIDT Italy Conservation and Fisheries Direction de la Nature et des Paysages Brussels Region: Gian Luigi FERRETTI Division for International me Ministère de l’Aménagement du M NAULAERS Ministry of Agricultural Policy Nature Management Affairs territoire et de l’Environnement Institut bruxellois pour and Forestry P O Box 20401 la gestion de l’environnement 20 avenue de Ségur Via XX Settembre, 20 F-75302 PARIS 07 SP NL-2500 EK’s GRAVENHAGE Gulledelle 100 00187 ROMA Fax 33-1 42 19 25 77 Fax 31-70 378 6146 B-1200 BRUXELLES Fax 06 46 65 30 90 E-mail: veronique.herrenschmidt E-mail: Fax: 32-2 775 7611 @environnement.gouv.fr E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Bulgaria Georgia Norway Mrs Elizaveta MATVEEVA Mme Maka TSERETELI Latvia Ms Sylvi OFSTAD SAMSTAG Vitosha Park Environmental Policy Department Mr Uldis CEKULIS Ministry of Environment Ministry of Environment Ministry of the Environment and Vides Filmu Studija (Wildlife and Myntgaten 2 and Water Natural Resources Protection Environmental Film Productions) P O Box 8013 DEP 22 Bul. Maria Luiza 68a Kostava St. Pils iela 17 N-0030 OSLO BG-1000 SOFIA 380015 TBILISI LV-1050 RIGA Fax 47-22 24 95 60 Fax: 359-2 988 56 76 Fax: 995-32 333 952 Fax: 371-750 3589 E-mail: E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

o 34 naturopa n 96 / 2001 Centre Naturopa J-L. Klein & M-L. Hubert

Poland Spain Turkey Mr Marcin HERBST Mme Carmen CASAL FORNOS Dr Osman TAS˛KIN National Foundation for Ministerio de Medio Ambiente Turkish Association for the Environmental Protection Secretaria General Técnica Conservation of Nature Ciol´ka 13 (l.p) Centro de Documentación and Natural Resources PL-01 445 WARSCHAU ambiental Menekse sokak 29/4 Fax 48-22 656 6542 Despacho BS 09 TR-06440 KIZILAY-ANKARA E-mail: Plaza San Juan de la Cruz s/n Fax 90-312 417 95 52 [email protected] E-28071 MADRID E-mail: [email protected] Portugal Sweden Prof. Helena FREITAS Mr Ingvar BINGMAN Ukraine Liga para a Protecção da Natureza Head of Information Dr Tetiana HARDASHUK Estrada do Calhariz de Benfica 187 Department Green Ukraine P-1500-124 LISBOA Swedish Environmental National Ecological Centre Fax 351-21 778 3208 Protection Agency P O Box 89/7, 39 E-mail: Blekholmsterassen 36 Predslavynska St [email protected] S-106 48 STOCKHOLM 252150 KYIV Fax 46-8 698 14 85 Fax 38-044 269 9925 Romania E-mail: Mrs Adriana BAZ [email protected] United Kingdom Directorate of Nature and Mr John ANGELL Biological Diversity Conservation Switzerland Department of Environment me Ministry of Waters, Forestry and M Marie GARNIER and Transport Environmental Protection Pro Natura European Wildlife Division, Bd Libertatii 12, Sector 5 Wartenbergstrasse 22 Species Conservation Branch RO-70542 BUCURESTI CH-4052 BLE Tollgate House, Houlton Street Fax 40-1 41 00 282 Fax 41-61 317 91 66 GB-BRISTOL BS2 9DJ E-mail: E-mail: Fax: 44-117 987 8182 [email protected] [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Russian Federation The”former Dr Nina DOBRYNINA Yugoslav Republic International Relations of Macedonia” Department Mr Aleksandar NASTOV Ministry of Natural Resources Office of the National Agency B. Grusinskaya str. 4/6 “Naturopa” 123812 MOSKAU Ministry of Environment Fax 7-095 943 0013/951 7061 Dresdenska Street 52 MK-91 000 SKOPJE San Marino Fax: 389-91 366 931 Mr Paolo RONDELLI E-mail: Dipartimento Territorio [email protected] Ambiente ed Agricoltura Contrada Omerelli 43 47890 San Marino (RSM) Fax 378 0549 88 2473 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Slovakia CORRESPONDENTS Ms Zuzana JURICKOVA Belarus Monaco Department of Nature and Mr Vladimir F. LOGINOV M. Patrick VAN KLAVEREN Landscape Protection Institute for Nature Resources Conseiller technique du Ministre Ministry of the Environment Exploitation and Ecology Plénipotentiaire chargé de Nám. π. ∑túra 1 Staroborysovkyi trakt 10 la Coopération Internationale SK-812 35 BRATISLAVA 220023 MINSK pour l’Environnement Fax 421-7 5956 20 31 Fax 375-172 64 24 13 et le Développement E-mail: Villa Girasole jurickova.zuzana@flora.lifeenv.gov.sk Israel 16 boulevard de Suisse International Affairs MC-98000 MONACO In order to receive Slovenia Ministry of the Environment Fax 377-93 50 95 91 Naturopa, Ms Helena KRIVEC P O Box 34033 E-mail: [email protected] please contact Ministry of Environment and 95464 JERUSALEM Spatial Planning Fax 972-2 653 5934 USA the National Agency Dunajska cesta 48 US Fish and Wildlife Service for your country SI-1000 LJUBLJANA Department of the Interior Fax 386-61 178 7424 WASHINGTON DC 20240 (see list opposite). E-mail: Fax 1-703 358 2849 [email protected] National Agencies of the Centre Naturopa

o naturopa n 96 / 2001 35 Council of Europe Cultural and Natural Heritage department Regional Planning, Technical Co-operation and Assistance division F-67075 Strasbourg cedex Fax: 33-(0)3 33 41 27 15 E-mail: [email protected] Web: http://www.nature.coe.int The Council of Europe is an intergovernmental organisation which was founded in 1949. Its aim is to work towards a united Europe based on freedom, democracy, human rights and the rule of law. Today the Organisation comprises 43 member states and is thus a privileged platform for international co-operation in many ﬁelds such as education, culture, sport, youth, social and economic affairs, health and, not least, regional planning, landscape and natural and cultural heritage. The “Naturopa” magazine, published since 1968, is intended to raise awareness among European citizens and decision makers of the importance of sustainable development in Europe by focusing on its unique heritage. From 1968 to 2000 “Naturopa” concentrated on promoting nature conservation, sustainable management of natural resources and the development of a multidisciplinary approach to environmental issues. In 2001 “Naturopa” has progressively introduced new themes such as cultural heritage and landscape preservation in a perspective of sustainable development and enhancement of the quality of life. “Naturopa” is published twice yearly in the two ofﬁcial languages of the Organisation (English and French). In order to receive “Naturopa” regularly, please contact the National Agency in your country (see list of addresses pp.34-35). Next issue: Heritage and sustainable development

ISSN 0250 7072