LIGHT RAILWAYS STUDENTS` PAPER. (ABRIDGED)>

Papers. WHIGHAM ON LIGHT RAILWAYS. 387

(Students’ Paper No. 469.) l

“ Light Railways.” By GEORGEHAY WHIGHAJI, Stud. Inst. C.E. LIGHTRAILWAYS in any country can, at the present time, only be described as railways constructed to a lighter standard than the mainlines in that country, and onwhich, consequently the maximum live load and speed allowed are less than on the main lines.The term is a comparativeone, andwhat is called a “light railway” in one country may rank as a heavyline in another. In the United Kingdom the designation, when applied to railways the powers for which were granted later than theyear 1896, merely refers to those railways the construction of which has been sanctioned by the Light Railways Commission. It is only in recent years that light railways have come much into favour either with the public or with engineers. Formerly it was thought that if a district could not support a heavy railway it would not pay to make a railway through it at all ; but several light railwayshave been constructed in this country throughdistricts which certainly couldnot have supported a heavierline, and the results have been most satisfactory. The Isle of Man light railways, which may be taken as an example, arevery substantially constructed with a gauge of 3 feet, the sharpestcurve being 10 chainsradius, and are worked on the staff system; signals are only used in a very primitive fashion, and there are no platforms, and yet the line carries a large traffic very safely, andreturns a dividend of 5 percent. The Corris Railway and the Festiniog Railway, both in Wales, might also be mentioned as examples of successful light railways, the former yielding a return of 6 per cent. on its capital. In Ireland light railwayshave not been so successful. TheIrish railwayshave certainly benefited the distriotsthrough which they pass to a very great extent, but they were constructed at such a cost that they do not pay. Their construction, and especially their working, is too similarto that of mainlines; had they been con-

1 This Paper was read and diacuaaed before a meeting of the Glasgow Association of Students of the Institution on 18 February, 1901. 2c2

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 388 WHIGHAM ON LIGHT RAILWAYB. [Seleoted structed and worked in a cheaper fashion they would probably have served the districts almost as well, besides being successful financially, and would also have encouraged the construction of light railways in that country. For the rapid development of local traffic a light railway can be made much more effective than a main line. Considering, for example, the case of a small town or village about 10 miles from an existing line, a light railway constructed to connect it with themain line could, by reason of itssharp curves andsteep gradients, wind about and touch small villages or large farms and factories along the lineof its route, which a heavy line, being run as straight andas level aspossible between its objectives, could not touch. Many districts which could not support a light railway of standard gauge might be able to support a line of, say, 2 feet 6 inches gauge. Of course there are arguments against a break of gauge in branch lines, but if a district cannot have the benefit of a heavy line it is better to have a light railway than none at all; and ifit cannot supporta light railway of the standard gauge it is better to haveone of a narrower gauge than none at all. TheInternational Railway Congress, after considering the subject of light railways, at meetings extending over a period of 10 years, have come to the conclusion that :- 6‘ When there is good reason to suppose that the traffic will not be heavy, all methods of construction tending to economy should be adopted, especially the use of narrow gauge, which among other advantages allows a reduction in weight of the plant that has to beconveyed there.” Railway construction of this class should not necessarily cease when a district cannotmake even the cheapest narrow-gauge railwaypay a dividend, provided it is for the benefit of the district, and the inhabitants guaranteeto pay some of the expenses. There is no reason why there should not be an item in the rates of a district for railway communication, just as for water ormain- tenance of roads, as a railway in nearly every case benefits either directly or indirectly all the inhabitants of the district, and adds to the. general prosperityof the place. A very completesystem of local railway communication has been adopted withgreat success in Belgium. In thatcountry, should the inhabitants of any district desire better railway communication, application is made to the “ National Society of Local Railways,” an institution under government supervision, which draws out a scheme for the railway, and presents it to the various government departments; and if approved by them the Society

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] WHIGHAM ON LIGHT RAILWAYS. 389 constructs the line. The great advantage of this system over our Light Railways Commission is, that in Belgium the railways are not worked by private companies for profit, but are constructed by the Society-the capital being subscribed as far as possible by private enterprise, and the remainder guaranteed by the Govern- ment-and when completed and equipped are let out to subsidiary companies for maintenance and working at a fixed rate per mile, but are always under the controlof the government Society. All the railways of this class being under one institution, the profits and losses of the various lines arebalanced one against theother, and the surplus, after payingdividend, is put into the reserve fund of the Society. These lines are allof metre gauge and thus there is a break of gauge at allconnections with main lines, and out of fifty- six lines inoperation at the endof 1893 only four lines showed a deficiency ; and, as it is the object of these railways to earn only the minimum dividend tomake themselves self-supporting, the rates charged are very low, and are fixed by the Society and not by the subsidiary working companies. The objects of the Govern- ment in organisingthese lines are set forth in following the extract’ from a document issued by the Society :- “Constructed, as a general rule, on the existing roads, and, in consequence, more economically than main railway lines, operated withthe greatest economy, andby means of cheaprolling stock, they will furnish thepeople with the means of transporting their products at the lowest possible price. By means of their junctions with the main railway lines, they will render access to them more convenient both for passengers and for goods. They will assist communication from village to village, andfrom village to the adjacent station. They will call into being new industries by affording them new outlets for their products. Finally, they will enable the farmer to procure at a cheap rate the fertilizers necessary to enable him to face foreign competition, and by the low cost of carriage, will open to him the markets of his own country, as well as those abroad. For many places, deprived, as it seemed, for all time of railway communication, these light lines will furnish an opportunity unhoped for, and possibly the last, of escaping from their fatal position of isolation.” Thus, while this country steadfastlyrefused, until 1896, even to give light railways a fair trial, nearly all the countries of the Continent havelong ago recognised the benefits which agricultural

“Light F&dways for the United Kingdom, India, and the Colonies,” by J. C. Mackay, F.G.S., Bssgc. M. Inst. C.E., p. 10. London, 1896.

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 390 WHIGHAM ONRAILWAYS. LIGHT [Selected and other thinly-populated districts derive from them, and year by year have added hundreds of miles to their already large net- work of this class of railway. Happily, since 1896 the construction of light railways has been undertaken more seriously in this country. In thatyear the Light Railways Act was passed, not only doing away with a great many Board of Trade restrictions, but also recommending that Government support should be given in some cases. It is true that so-called light railways were constructed in this country before that date, but they were still handicapped by excessive Board of Trade restrictions, and received no assistance in the wayof Government grants, except in the case of Ireland, where grantswere made under the Railways (Ireland) Act, 1889 and 1890, but, as already mentioned, these lines are far too heavy for the traffic which they carry, having cost generally S5,OOO to S6,OOO a mile ; and have to be worked too expensively to meet the Board of Trade regulations. Long before 1896 our ,colonies and dependencies had recogrlised the advantages of light railways, and had a considerable mileage of them constructed. Perhaps the portion of the British Empire which has taken most advantage of these lines, and worked them with most success, is India, although the guaranteed railways as awhole havenot been a financial success inthat country, on account of the high rate of interest guaranteed by the State till thecontract finishes. Thisprevents the State, which owns the railways, from obtaining any advantage from cheaper money and the improved credit of the country. Thus, the State has still to pay about 42 per cent. on its loans, while money could now be obtained at 3 per cent.,and, owing to the fall in theof exchange,rate the sum in rupees remitted to England, to pay the 42 per cent. interest in pounds sterling, is equivalent to payment of interest of over 61); per cent. on the total capital, converted at contract rate of exchange, which was 1s. 10d. to the rupee, while the present rate is Is. 4d. tothe rupee. Most of therailways have a very handsome surplus revenueover working expenses; in one case the working expenses were only 43 per cent. of the receipts, and in most cases they do not exceed 60 per cent.; a recent official ad- ministration Report showed that of the gross earnings of all the railways in India of 2 feet 6 inches or 2 feet gauge, on an average 55.4 per cent. was expended in working costs. Thus these lines may be able to pay 51); per cent. interest on capital in Indian cur- rency, or 4 per cent. sterling, at contract rate of exchange (and one metre-gauge line-the Jodhpore Railway-does pay 6 per cent. sterling interest), and yet there will be a deficit of 1 per cent.

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] WKIGHAM ON LIGHT‘ RAILWAYB. 39 1 This explains why there is a deficit on guaranteed railways in India with capital raised on sterling loans, even when the surplus revenue over working expenses appearsvery eatisfactory, and their financial unsuccess cannot, in any way,be held up as an argument against light railways, but rather thereverse, since, the less the capital the less will the total deficit be in those circumstances. In India all lines are designed at first to meet the traffic which it is estimated the district will supply during the first 15 years or 20 years. They are usuallymade to one of four standards. The main lines, of which over 10,900 miles have been constructed, are of 5 feet 6 inches gauge. Branching from these are first-class metre-gauge lines throughless populous and richdistricts. Through the poorer districts are second-class metre-gauge lines, the total length of themetre-gauge lines being about 8,000 miles;and lastly, 300 miles of special lines of 2 feet 6 inches or 2 feet gauge serve the very poor districts which could not possibly support a heavier line. As proof of the correctness of this system, while the cost of the narrow-gauge lines per mile has been on an average less than one-half that of the metre-gauge and the metre-gauge one-half that of the standard gauge, thetraffic on the several lines is almost directly proportional to their cost, and the net returnsper cent., after paying working expenses, are highest on the narrow gauge and about equal on the metre- and standard-gauge lines, which shows that the standards of construction of the different lines are wellproportioned to the traffic of the districts which they serve. So far as goods traffic is concerned, railways might almost be made to take the place of public roads. The main lines would correspond to themain highways throughout the country, running between the most important centres of industry; and the heavy branch-lines would serve the more isolated important towns, light railways taking theplace of country roads and serving small towns and villages. And further, as in Belgium, “ little railways,” or the lightest of light railways, might, when the physical conditions of the country admit of it, be led down the main streetsof the towns or villages, past the merchants’ doors ; and, in the case of farms or factories, private narrow-gauge linesor tramways might be led right into them, thus abolishing all cartage. AS an Austrian official railway journal says :- U Where, it may be asked, is the reasonable limit of light-railway constructionto stop ? Only at a point where there is no

“Light Railways for the United Kingdom etc.,” p. 11’

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 392 W3IUHAM ON LIGCtIT RA-&WAYS. @elected ‘cart left running, except upon rails, when the last wagoner has taken service as a railway fireman. For a manbfActuring centre, or, it may be, only a single factory, which is h dozen miles from ‘the nearest station,will, other things being equal, hardly be able to compete with a rival which avoids this dozen miles of cartage, or iith a mill which can load its produce direct, because it has a sihin‘g into its yard. Once started,the demand for more and more light railways,even for the shortest, distancesand the smallest villages, will press forward resistlessly.” The chief aim in railway construction, from a financial point of view, is to make the first cost such that the net profit will pay a good dividend. As the district becomes more developed, and the traffic increases to such dimensions that the light railway can no longer carry it, it becomes necessary to substitute a heavier line withheavier rolling-stock ; the discarded permanent-way and rolling-stock can be used in other districts during their development, and, by the very fact of having the light railway along its route, the main line can be laid down more cheaply than if it had been constructed at first, as the extra expense incurred by having to keep thetraffic going during thediversion is more than counter- balanced by the facilities afforded by the existing narrow-gauge line for the transport of materials, and there need be very little hindranceto traffic. By this method of construction in the development of poor districts, the railways will alwaysbe paying an interest on their capital ; and it is to be hoped that since the pioneer light railways have, in most cases in this country, proved satisfactory and profitable without the aidof Government grants, their construction will become more general since the Light Rail- ways Act, 1896, has been passed, which enables those grants to be made. The most important problem in connection with light railways is :-“ HOWto construct a light railway as cheaply as possible, consistent withcheap maintenance and working when it is finished.” The cost of a light railway depends lqainly on five conditions, viz. : (1) Gauge; (2) Curves and gradients; (3) Speed ; (4) Maxi- mum weight on axle ; (5) Station accommodation, signalling, and attentionpaid to appearances. Thefirst three conditions are reallydependent on one another. Theminimum curve-radius alloweddepends on the gauge and on the maximum speed at which trains are to be run. Having regard to the initial cost of construction only, there is not the slightest doubt that thesmaller the gauge the cheaper the railway will be to construct, as a very

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] 'WIGHA& ON LIGRT BAILWA3B. 393 considerable saving is effected in the earthworkson account of the reduced width of formation, and also inthe abutments and flooring of bridges, andin culverts and cross-drains. Also in railways where the speed is limited to, say, 20 miles an hour, the sharpest curve whichit is desirable to employfor a standard-gauge line would beof 8 chains radius,unless in exceptional circumstances, which corresponds to a minimum curve-radius of 5 chains on the metre-gauge and 2 chains ona 2 feet 6 inchesgauge. This question of minimum curve-radius is of very great importance in the saving of earthworks, especially in a hilly country, as the smaller the curves are themore nearly can the route of a railway be made to follow the contour of the ground, thus avoiding not only high banks and deep cuttings (and thereby shortening culverts and cross-drains) but also viaducts and tunnels. Also in going through towns and villages a narrow-gauge line, by reason of its sharper curves, may follow the line of the streets andavoid going through valuableproperty at sharp turns. The following Table,lpub- lished by the International RailwayCongress, shows the difference in cost due to difference of gauge in similar railways,of the same character, constructed through different conditions of country :-

l Cost per Mile. Nature of Country.

~ StandardGauge. 1 MetreGauge. '2 Feet 6 Inches Gauge.

l€ € €'€ € Level . . . . . 2,392 to 3,987 1 1,:95 to 2,551 1 1,260 to 2,057 i ' Very undulating . . 4,785 ,, 7,179 3,652 ,, 4,785 ~ 2,057 ,, 3,190 I I

,, hilly . . . . I 8,742 ,, 11,163 4,785 ,, 7,178 ~ 3,652 ,. 5,582 ,, mountainous . ~11,963,, 15,950 7,977 ,, 11,164 ' 5,183 ,, 7,976

In fairly easy country, as mightbe expected, there is not nearly so much saving permile asin hilly country, although in the percentage of savingthere is verylittle difference; butthis Table merely takes into account the difference in width of gauge, and assumes everything else, such asgradients and station accommodation, to be the same in each case. It is in the matterof curves, however, that most saving can beeffected. TheAuthor has taken the Leadhills Light Itailway as an example, and has drawnup an estimate of thesaving which could have been effected had it been constructed on the 2 feet 6 inches gauge, with

I " Light Railways for the United Kingdom etc.," p. 24.

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 394 WHIGHAM ON LIGHT RAILWAY& [Selected a minimum curve-radius of 2chains, instead of on the 4feet S& inches gauge, with10 chains as the minimum curve-radius. Thegradients are practically the same in both cases, andthe resultsshow a saving of 64 percent. in cost of bridges and viaducts, 48 per cent. in cost of culverts, 14 per cent. in cost of cross-drains, and 18 per cent. in cost of earthworks. The great saving in bridges and viaducts is accounted for by the fact that there are only two bridges on the line, and one large viaduct, which crosses awide ravineand cost $7,000 alone, andwhich could have been dispensed with entirely by the employment of 2-chaincurves, P culvertbeing substituted in its place. In the culverts, also, there is a very large percentage of saving, as most of these are built to carry the water in deepravines, of which there are a great number, and which the railway crosses on high banks, necessitatinglong culverts underneath, and by curving on a 2-chain curve right into these ravines the height of thebanks canbe greatly reduced andthe culverts shortened correspondingly. Against these savings must be put the increased length of permanent-way, witha corresponding increase in cost of maintenance, as by employing sharper curves the total mileage will be increased, but not to any very appreciable extent. In India it has been found that, on an average, there is a saving in cost of about S800 per mile, due to gauge, between the standard gauge of 5 feet 6 inches and the metregauge, the saving varying between 5200 and about$1,200 per mile, according to the physical features of the country. Another example of thegreat saving effected in hilly country by the use of a narrow-gauge railway is afforded by a section of the Southern and Western Railway of Queensland. Thisrailway runs from the seaboard, overa high range of hills, known as the Main Range, into the interior, and it was only after very strenuous opposition that the Government decided to construct it on a 3 feet 6 inches gauge; and at the inauguration ceremony the engineer stated that he had made a very careful estimate, and had found that, tocross this Main Range with a 4 feet S& inches gauge, with a minimum curve-radius of 8 chains, instead of the 3 feet 6 inches gauge and &chitin curve- radius, would, in the item of viaducts alone, have raised the cost from 56,000 to 535,000 per mile. Of course in very easy country the saving is not nearly so pronounced. While the small-gauge railway has every advantage over the full-gauge line, so far as initial cost of construction is concerned, the reverse is sometimes the case with respect to cheap maintenance and working ; in fact, from considerations of convenience in working the traffic, there

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] WHIUHAM ONRAILWAYS. LIGHT 395 aremany objections to abreak of gauge, andithese shouldbe carefully considered before the gauge is determined upon. In the first place, it is very inconvenient for passengersin some instances, and it necessitates transferring all goods at the junction, whichis really not a very serious matter, as, on most light railways inuse, it is done at a cost of about 2d. or 3d. per ton, which, unless after a short journey, is a small figure compared with the total freight charges. For a light railway connecting with existing full-gauge lines, even in a poor country, it has been found that the greatest economy in working expenses is secured byconstructing the lightest line possible, capable of carrying the main-line rolling- stock, but with lighter engines, and not to break the gauge, where the line is a short one, say, not exceeding 20 miles in length in an easy country, and 15 miles in rough country. It is only when a railway isof sufficient length in itself to be worked independently of the main line, and to createa paying local traffic along its own route, that it has been found desirable to have a break of gauge, as, after a journey of 25 miles or 30 miles, travelling at a reduced speed overa narrow-gaugeline, passengers willnot object to having to break their journey, and the cost of transferring goods will be small compared with the total freight charges. But each case must be considered on its own merits. TheInternational Railway Congress at Brussels passed the followingresolutions withregard to thegauge of lightrailways :- “ In order to encourage the development of light railways, the greatest possible liberty should be left them to choose the width of their gauge. Any gauge may suit local circumstances ; that is a problem for solution in each separate case, takinginto con- sideration the special circumstances of the country to be traversed andthe kind and importance of the traffic tobe acquired, as justifying more or less expensive maintenance. It is also advan- tageous to keep to certain recognized patterns which practice has already approved. The four ordinary standards, 4 feet 84 inches, metre, 2 feet 6 inches, and 2 feet are the only gauges which ought to be recommended.” Also at Paris some years later, the Congress concluded a discus- sion on theadvantages and disadvantages of transhipmentby expressing the belief that the experience of the last 4 years had fully confirmed the opinion expressed by the Congress at Brussels, “ That transhipment is by no means an obstacle to the development of narrow-gauge lines, nor to the great services they can render.”

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 396 WHIGHAM ON LIGHT RAILWAYS. [Selected Thereare several methods employed toreduce the cost of transhipmentas much as possible. One method is to havethe bodies of the narrow-gauge trucks made as boxes of such a size that two or four of them fit into the larger main-line trucks, and these boxes can be filled at the farm or factory and carted, or run on small bogies, tothe railway, where theyare put on to the frames of the light-railway rolling-stock, and at the junction they arelifted bodily into the main-line trucks, and thus the goods themselves are only packed once, and therefore are only liable to very little damage. Another method, which is adopted on some of the Continental railways for goods requiring special care, is to lay a truck-length of narrow-gauge permanent-way between the normal-gauge rails,but keeping the rails of the former about 1 foot above the latter. A cradle is then run into position on the narrow track under each axle of the wagon and they are moved forward together,the normal track falling downa short steep incline while the narrow track continues level, thus causing the axles of the wagon to rest on the cradles. The cradles are simple frames mounted on four wheels, with a pivot on the top, and they thus form two bogies for the main-line wagon. This method is more expeditiously worked thanthe former method, butthe cradles increase the tare of the wagon for the same load carried, and the former method has the advantage that the rolling-stock is much lighter and cheaper. Although these methods of trans- shipment have their advantages in special cases, it is generally found as cheap and more convenient simply to unload from one wagon to the other by raising the narrow-gauge line, so that the wagon-floors are at the same level, with a platform, also at the same level, between them ; except, perhaps, in thecase of minerals such as coal, in which case the small wagons may be run at a higher level over the main-line wagon and the minerals dropped bodily into the latter. Thusthe chief points in which a saving is effected bythe narrow-gaugeline using light rolling-stock,over thestandard- gauge line using the ordinary stock with lighter engines, are :- (1) Initial cost of construction, (2) maintenance, and (3) traction and rolling-stock. A break of gauge having been decided on, it becomes necessary to consider what gauge should be employed. This is a question to be settledby experience. In thiscountry perhaps the most suitable for local railways is the 2 feet 6 inches gauge. A railway on this gauge can follow the curves of almost any country road, and the goods-wagons suitable for such a line can be very easily

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] WHWHAM ON LIGHT RAILWAYS. 397 ha.ndled. On this gauge an engine of 20 tons can haul a load of 100 tons up a gradient of 1 in 50, the rails necessary for such an engine weighing about 30 lbs. per yard. Thequestion of permanent-wayis a very important one in connection with the construction of cheap railways, as it is the largestindividual item in the cost. If the rolling-stock of the main-line is to be carried, but not the engines, rails weighing not less than 50 lbs.per yard must be used, butwith the light rolling-stock usually employed on a 2 feet 6 inches gauge, a rail weighing 30 lbs. per yard is quite sufficient. Where chairs are not employed, steel sleepers shouldbe used if possible, as they keep the gauge much better and, althoughmore expensive at first, last three or four times as long ag creosoted wooden sleepers. A very good class of steel sleeper is used on the Indian railways. The sleepers arecurved on the top, being pressed into this shape, and have clips punched on the top and bent over to catch the rails, which are kept rigid by steel wedges, inserted between the rail and the clip, usually on the outside of the rail, but whenit is necessary to widen the gauge ingoing round sharp curves they are put on the inside of the rail. Sleepers of this class, 4 feet 6 inches in length, suitable for a 2 feet 6 inches gauge and rails weighing 30 lbs. per yard, cost about 2s. Ild. each, with wedges. With regardto the rolling-stock employed on narrow-gauge light railways, it is sometimes more satisfactoryto run small wagons carrying 5 tons or 6 tons, where the traffic is distributed throughout the length of the line, than to employ bogie-wagons carrying 10 tons, as the latter will probably be running empty over a considerable portion of the line, there being generally not enoughfreight to fill one of them at one station;the smaller wagons have also the advantage of being more easily shunted by hand. But when there is a heavy traffic, or a through traffic, there is a general tendency among railway companies to run a 10-ton wagon in place of two &ton trucks, as the initialcost is less. Also, the tare of the 10-ton wagonconstitutes, on an average,about 35 per cent. of the available load, while on the 5-ton truck it is generally as high as50 per cent. The most suitable locomotives are of thetank type,either four-wheel or six-wheel coupled, according tothe work to be done, but in all cases they should have more than four wheels, as otherwise they are very destructive to the permanentway, besides being unsteady. Perhaps the most suitable locomotive, unlessthe traffic is exceptionally heavy, is a four-wheel coupled engine, with a bogie.

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 398 WHIUHAN ON L1C)HT RAILWAYS. [Selected An engine of this class runsvery smoothly round curves,on account of the short wheel-base, and is veryeasy on the road. Thestations on light railways may be of avery simple description. No station accommodation is required, if the formation is merely raised to the sleeper-level, and this does away withstation employees. Theguard mayact as ticket-collector, and may alsogive out tickets, and, with the assistance of the driver and the fireman, may also act as porter at stopping-places, thusworking the trains after the manner of tramway-cars. Cheapness, in fact,must be the firstconsideration inthe working of light railways,as well as in their construction, as, no matter how great may be thesaving in their construction, this may be all wasted through excessive working-expenses. One of the most recently constructed light railways in this country is the Leadhills and Wanlockhead line ; in fact, it is not yet quite completed. This railway is one of the first constructed in Scotland under the Light Railways Act, 1896 ; the order was drawn up by the Light Railways Commission in 1897, but was not confirmed by the Board of Trade until 1898. The railway, as now constructed, is a very good example of a short branch-line serving a poor district, and worked by the same company as the main linewith which it connects. Thegauge is 4 feetinches, andthe sharpest curve is 10 chainsradius. Fencingis only erected to a very limited extent, the order only compelling the railway company to fence the line where required by the owners of any land,which atthe commencement of the orderwas cultivatedand enclosed. Gates need not be erected at level crossings where the line or road is not fenced, provided that, at the end of the fencing,gates, cattle-guards, or othersuitable contrivances be erected to prevent cattle from entering the line. The cattle-guards tobe used on this line at level-crossings, where the line is fenced, consist of a grid made of wooden bars of tri- angular section, 6 inches in height by4 inches in width at thebase. These are fastened, 2 inches apart, direotly on to the top of the sleepers, and parallel to the rails, Fig. 2. A fence is erected along either side of the grid, parallel to the rails and meeting the road- fence, so that it is impossible for cattle to enter the railway from the road, without crossing the grid, which they are afraid to do, asthey can obtain no foothold on thetriangular bars.These cattle-guards do away with gates, andlodge- and gate-keepers, and thus effect a very considerable saving. Where the railway severs the march of two properties, one of these guards will be erected in

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] WBIQHAM ON LIGHT BAILWAYB. 399 the line of the fence, to prevent cattle wanderingfrom one property to the other. The maximum speed allowed on this line is 20 miles an hour, reduced to 10 miles an hour when the train ispassing over curves of less than 9 chains radius, but, as the sharpest curve on the line is 10 chains, the maximum speed is thus 20 miles an hour, except at a level-crossing over a public road, where there are no gates, at which point the speed must be reduced to 10 miles an hour ;

warning-boards tothe public must be erected on the roadside, about 50 yards on either side of the railway, and posts must also be erected at the side of the line, at points 300 yards on either side of the level-crossing, warning the engine-driver toreduce the speed to 10 miles an hour. In the case of one public roadcrossing without gates, at Elvanfoot station, a bell must be erected, to ring whenevera train reaches a point 150 yardsdistant from the crossing, and to continue ringing until the train has passed the crossing. Thishas been accomplished by means of an electric

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Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] WHIUHAN ON LIGHT RAILWAYS. 401 treadle fixed to the rails. The permanent way consists of 80-lb. rails and 40-lb. chairs, which, as the maximum axle-load allowed is 14 tons, is excessive ; but these were supplied by the Caledonian Railway Company. With regardto station accommodation, it is not intended to provide either raised platforms or station build- ings, the platforms being made on a level with the sleepers. The signalling arrangements have not yetbeendefinitivelydecided upon, but they will be as simple as possible, as there will very seldom be more than one train on the line ata time, except in the case of excursions. Allthat is fixed by the Board of Tradein this respect is that at stations and stopping-places, where trains may cross or pass one another, there shall be a home-signal for each direction, at or near the entrance-points, which must be seen from a distance of a mile; otherwise distant signals must be erected, at thatdistance at least from the entrance-points.These signals may be workedfrom thestation or stopping-places, butevery signal-arm must be so weighted as to remain at danger in thecase of the connection between the lever and the armbecoming severed. Precautions must also be taken that the points and signals agree. Also it must be impossible for two conflicting signals to be lowered at thesame time. One of the most interestingfeatures of thisrailway is the grading, Fig. 2. Theline starts at a level of 895- feet above Ordnance datum, at Elvanfootstation, and rises to a height of 1,366 feet at 4 miles 64 chains, which gives a rise of 471 feet in that distance, or an average gradient of nearly 1 in 54. In this distance there is one continuous gradient of 1 in 50 for a length of 2 miles 22 chains, with the exception of 4 chains at a gradient of 1 in 66. There is also a stretch of 60 chains at a gradient of 1 in 40. Afterrunning level from thispoint past Leadhills Station, the line begins another very steepascent of 1 in 40, almost 1 mile in length, with the exception of 6 chains at a gradient of 1 in 300, upto the summit, at 6 miles 29 ahains, wherethe formation-level is 1,496 feet above Ordnance datum. This makes it the highest railway constructed in Scotland, and gives a total rise of 601 feet from Elvanfoot. After a few chains of level line at the summit, the line descends on gradients of l in 40, and 1 in 42, right into Wanlockhead, the total length of the line being 7 miles 10 chains. Therailway leaves the main line at Elvanfoot station. The passenger-trains start on a branchline which runs on to an extension of the present platform, so that the sleepers are on the same levelas the platform, whileanother branch crosses the [THE INST. C.E. VOL. CXLVII.] 2D

station access on the level andjoins the present sidings, Fig. 3. This is in accor- dance with a Board of Trade recommen- dationthatlight railways should be prevented, asfar as possible, from inter- fering with thework- ing of the main line, and shouldconnect withthe goods-sid- ~ i- 3 ings rather than with B themain line. The 5 goods-yard hadto be extended, and:a new loading - bankwall

j;. 2 constructed. After I 5 leavingthestation theline crosses the public road on the level, and runs along thesouth side of the Elvan Water, g theearthworks being light over this portion, till it crosses theriver, on a con- 3: crete-arch bridge of two spans of 50 feet on thesquare and 62 feet on the skew. Considerable saving was effected inthe construction of this bridge by doing away withhaunching, and building the two spandril-walls back from the face of the arch, and under each

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Papers.] WHIGHAM RAILWAYS.ON LIGHT 403 rail instead. Afterthis the line runs along between theriver andthe Leadhills road till it crosses thelatter on the level, without gates, the road having tobe slightlydiverted and raised atthis point. Theline then runs right up the Elvan valley, parallel to the road, andgradually rising above itin sidelongground. The hillsides of this valley are intersected by verydeep ravines or cleuchs,” one of which occurs at 2miles 38 chains, necessitating a veryhigh bank with a longculvert through it. In crossing these cleuchs ” a greatsaving would have been effected with a 2 feet 6 inches gauge and 2-chain curves, as by puttingin horse-shoe” curves of 2 chainsradius the railway could have been made to follow the contour of the ground right into the ravine, instead of having to cut across the mouth on a 10-chaincurve. After crossing thisLong Cleuch ” the railway continues along a very steep hillside which slopes right up from the road, the slope in some cases being almost 14 to 1, so that long dry-stone retaining-walls had to be erected to prevent the bank tailing on to the road, which is about 100 feet below the level of the railway at this point. All along this portion of the linemany cross-drains, consisting of fireclaypipes in concrete, had to be led under the line to take off the surface-water from the hillsides. At 4 miles 20 chains the most costly piece of work on the line is reached. This is a viaduct of eight spans, each of 50 feet, giving a total length of 470 feet. It is constructed over another of these very deep ravines, and the centre arch is about 80 feet in heightto rail-level. Theviaduct is constructed of concrete with terra-cotta brick facing, and throughout its entire length is on a curve of 10chains radius. In estimatingthe saving which could have been effected by constructing this line on a 2 feet 6 inches gauge the Author found that this viaduct, costing $7,000 in round figures, might have been dispensed with, as this is a very deep and wide ravine, and the line could have curved right into iton a 2-chain curve, necessitating only a 6-foot culvert, costing not more than $500. After this point the Elvan valley converges very suddenly into a narrow gorgecalled the Slack Hass,” and the hills are very steep and rocky, and again toe-walls had to be constructed to prevent the bank from tailing down the hillside on to the road. The cuttings here are mostly rock, but it isvery much split up and not difficult toquarry. Atthe summit of thevalley the line crosses thepublic road again on a concrete span of 20 feet. After getting through the neck of this valley the ground becomes more open, and the earth- 2D2

Downloaded by [ University of Liverpool] on [17/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. 404 WHIGHAM ON LIGHT RAILWAYS. [Selected Papers. work is fairly light ;as the line approaches Leadhills. Leadhills chiefly prospers on the labour employed in the lead-mines in the district, which were one of the primary causes of the construction of the railway, as their working has always been handicapped by want of railway communication. Afterleaving Leadhills the line continues on to Wanlockhead, another mining village, crossing at one point a horse tramway, connecting two lead-mines, on the level. Theearthworks at the summit, which is halfway between the twovillages, arethe heaviest on theline. Here there is a long cutting, mostly of rock, 25 feet in depth, on an average. Withthe exception of the crossing of another deep " cleuch " the earthworks are easy from this point to the present terminus of the line atWanlockhead. Although it has been shown that averymaterial savingcould have been effected by constructing this line to a 2 feet 6 inches gauge, with correspondingly sharper curves, this has been done merely for the sake of comparison, as anything but a 4 feet 8& inches gauge, on a shortline of this description, through a district which, it is expected, will be very quickly developed, would have been out of the question. In conclusion, the Author desires to thank his employers, Messrs. Formans and McCall, for permission to give theinformation contained in this Paper.

The Paper is accompanied by three drawings, from which the Figures in the text havebeen prepared.

LIGHT RAILWAYS STUDENTS` PAPER. (ABRIDGED)&gt;

LIGHT RAILWAYS STUDENTS` PAPER. (ABRIDGED)>