Japanese Civilization (Part 13) – Historical Periodization: a Fresh Look at Japan’S Economic History II –
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SPECIAL ARTICLE Japanese Civilization (Part 13) – Historical Periodization: A Fresh Look at Japan’s Economic History II – By Kawakatsu Heita Periodization from a New Angle: a single period. An explanation of the day Kyoto and Osaka prefectures, Assimilation of Civilization “Jomon (c.a. 10,000 B.C.-4 B.C.) – Yayoi respectively). Later the capital was (c.a. 4 B.C.-3 A.D.) – Kofun (c.a. 4 A.D.-7 moved by Emperor Kammu to One debate over historical periodiza- A.D.)” periodization scheme is beyond Nagaoka-kyo (784-794), but a series of tion among historical materialists has the scope of this article, but a very brief calamities prompted a further move to centered on the transition from feudal- note is called for. Beginning with the Heian-kyo. The fact that Heijo-kyo and ism to capitalism. Was the Edo period very oldest of their historical records, the Heian-kyo were modeled after Chang’an (1603-1867) pure feudalism, late-feudal Chinese used such terms as “wo” (short was highlighted, as all readers will be absolutism or incipient capitalism? That of stature), “wo ren” (short people) and aware, by the many emissaries dis- is the debate. If we take the Edo period “wo guo” (land of the short people) in patched to Tang China during those to be pure feudalism, that would put the referring to the periphery of the Japanese years (a total of 13 trips, plus three trips preceding Muromachi (1392-1573), archipelago and the people living there. that were canceled). Kamakura (1192-1333), Heian (794- But the group referred to as the “short The social life of the Japanese people 1192) and Nara (710-784) periods in people” also included the faces of people has been influenced by foreign “artifacts” the age of slavery. A huge number of living in places other than the Japanese that have made their way to Japan via sea scholars have been involved in this archipelago. That is not to say that the routes. And the “device” into which debate. An article giving an outline of country had no “face.” It simply means such “foreign artifacts” were placed was the debate was included in the Iwanami that the country had more than one face. Japan’s capital cities, such as Heijo-kyo Koza Nihon Rekishi (Iwanami Series on The navy of “Wo” was defeated at sea and Heian-kyo. It could be said, in gen- Japanese History). However, scholars in 663 in the Battle of Hakusonko by eral terms, that Nara (during the Heijo- passionately involved in this debate use the combined forces of Tang and Silla. kyo period) and Kyoto (during the the terms Kamakura period, Muromachi Within a half century after that battle, Heian-kyo period) were the “venues” for period, Edo period and the like without the term “Wo” (which first appeared in assimilation of artifacts from Chang’an. making any attempt to define them. In the first century History of the Former In other words, the Nara period and effect, they start out with a shared accep- Han Dynasty and remained current until Heian period were an age in which tance of the historical periodization the 7th-century History of the Sui Dynasty) Japan imitated the culture and material scheme that all Japanese accept as a mat- was abandoned by the Chinese, to be complex of Chang’an, the Tang capital ter of course, and then argue about how replaced in the History of the Tang in northwest China. to assign historical materialist labels to Dynasty by Japan’s modern name, During the Kamakura period of 1192 them. “Riben” (or “Nihon” in Japanese). to 1333, Japan was under bakufu So the first thing we must do is ask Everything begins from the defeat in the (shogunate) rule. Kamakura Japan was ourselves why the Nara – Heian – Battle of Hakusonko. In addition to the also influenced by Chinese artifacts, but Kamakura – Muromachi – Edo peri- country’s name, the term “tenno” in this case the artifacts came from odization scheme is so commonly (emperor) also came into use, the ritsu- coastal southeastern China, where the accepted among the Japanese people at ryo (penal codes and administrative laws) capital of the Southern Song dynasty large. system was introduced, a capital city was (1127-1279), Lin’an (modern-day The first point I would like to make is built with neighborhoods laid out in a Hangzhou), was located. In the Travels that Japan is the only country in the grid pattern, and the Kojiki (Records of of Marco Polo, Lin’an is referred to by world that names its historical periods Ancient Matters) and Nihonshoki Polo as a trading port called Kinzai. after the seat of its capital city functions. (Chronicle of Japan) were written. Hangzhou today is the capital of A second point worth noting is that These events culminated in the establish- Zhejiang Province. It is the southern Japan’s capital cities have always been ment of Heijo-kyo (710-784). All of terminus of the Grand Canal, which was built with the express purpose of devel- these elements were borrowed from the built during the Sui dynasty (581-618), oping a new society. Before expounding Chang’an model of Tang China (618- is situated at the mouth of a river, and is further on this point, it must be stressed 907). a key transportation hub facing the East that Japan did not originally have a capi- Heijo-kyo was actually preceded by China Sea. China has two very different tal city, and for this reason the biggest Fujiwara-kyo (694-710), but this city faces, aptly described in the Chinese say- turning point of all in Japanese history was so short-lived that it would seem ing “horses in the north, boats in the came when Japan’s first capital city was appropriate to regard Heijo-kyo as the south.” Northern China is oriented built. first of Japan’s capital cities. During the toward politics, and has a marked ten- It would be crude in the extreme to Heijo-kyo (Nara) period the capital was dency toward rule-bound formalism, lump all Japanese history prior to the moved temporarily to Kuni-kyo and while southern China, home of the great establishment of its first capital city into then Naniwa-kyo (located in modern- Chinese diaspora, is oriented toward 48 JAPAN SPOTLIGHT • March / April 2004 SPECIAL ARTICLE commerce and non-formalism. Nara five-temple system. Also in the group ment. Edo was renamed Tokyo, thus and Heian were the “venue” for assimila- were Shokoku-ji, Tenryu-ji and Tofuku- marking the beginning of the “Tokyo tion of the “northern Chinese” face of ji. As a result of these efforts, Kyoto period.” Bringing authority and power Tang-dynasty Chang’an, while Kama- became home to both the northern together in a single “venue” symbolized kura, in contrast, was the “venue” for Chinese artifacts of Heian Kyoto and the concentration in a single locus. Tokyo assimilation of the “southern Chinese” southern Chinese artifacts of Kamakura. became the venue for the assimilation of face. Southern Chinese artifacts, symbolized Western civilization. Prior to World Japan has a “five temple” system of most prominently by Zen, gardens and War II, the artifacts being assimilated Zen Buddhism (comprising five major tea, came to full flower in the Kitayama were European, and especially British; Zen temples, including Kencho-ji, culture of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and the after the war, the artifacts were Engaku-ji, and Jufuku-ji) modeled on Higashiyama culture of Ashikaga American. Looking at the big picture, the five-temple system of the Southern Yoshimasa. Chinese coins were the cur- then, the Tokyo period has been an age Song dynasty. The most noted aspects rency of the Muromachi period. Japan of assimilation of Western civilization. of Kamakura culture – such as Zen, gar- exported copper to China, where it was Japan’s imported artifacts come from dens and tea – were all introduced from minted into coins and exported back to many different places, but in terms of the Southern Song. There are reasons Japan. Chinese coins circulated in every origin, these artifacts can be broadly clas- why the artifacts of “southern China” corner of Japan. Japan freely bought sified as either Oriental or Occidental, came to be concentrated in Kamakura. Chinese artifacts using Chinese coins, each of which has its own cultural and Firstly, with the Southern Song under and was permeated with Chinese styles. material complex. During the Nara, pressure from northern rivals Jin (i.e. the The assimilation of Chinese artifacts that Heian, Kamakura and Muromachi peri- Jurchens), Liao, the Western Xia and got seriously underway during the Nara ods, artifacts made their way to Japan especially the Mongols, a steady stream period reached its zenith in Kyoto dur- from the Orient. These periods, taken of top Buddhist monks left China for ing the Muromachi period, and then the as a whole, could be called the Kyoto Kamakura. Among them were such Chinese style spread throughout Japan as period. Then during the Edo period leading lights as Foguang Guoshi, Lanxi imitation led to the appearance of “little Japan became independent from Daolong, Daxiu Zhengnian, Wuxue Kyotos” all over the country. Oriental civilization. Zuyuan and Yishan Yining. The process In general terms, then, the Eventually, the Tokyo period of was comparable to what happened in Muromachi period was an age in which assimilation of Western artifacts came to Europe when the Eastern Roman the borrowing of Chinese cultural arti- an end. The Plaza Accord of 1985 rep- Empire (also known as the Byzantine facts reached its peak.