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Endangered Status for 49 Species from the Hawaiian Islands; Proposed Rule

Vol. 80 Wednesday, No. 189 September 30, 2015

Part II

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and ; Endangered Status for 49 From the ; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR www.regulations.gov. This generally • Inadequate existing regulatory means that we will post any personal mechanisms to prevent the introduction and Wildlife Service information you provide us (see Public and spread of nonnative plants and Comments, below, for more . 50 CFR Part 17 information). • Stochastic events such as [Docket No. FWS–R1–ES–2015–0125; FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: landslides, flooding, drought, and 4500030113] Field Supervisor, Pacific Islands Fish hurricanes. • Human activities such as RIN 1018–BB07 and Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, , HI 96850; by recreational use of anchialine pools, dumping of nonnative fish and trash Endangered and Threatened Wildlife telephone at 808–792–9400; or by into anchialine pools, and manmade and Plants; Endangered Status for 49 facsimile at 808–792–9581. Persons who structures and artificial lighting. Species From the Hawaiian Islands use a telecommunications device for the • deaf (TDD) may call the Federal Vulnerability to due to AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Information Relay Service (FIRS) at small numbers of individuals and Interior. 800–877–8339. occurrences and lack of regeneration. • Competition with nonnative plants ACTION: Proposed rule. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION and nonnative . SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Executive Summary The effects of climate change are Wildlife Service (Service), propose to likely to exacerbate the impacts of these Why we need to publish a rule. Under list 10 species, including the threats, and may become a threat in the the Act, if a species is determined to be band-rumped storm-petrel future. an endangered or threatened species (Oceanodroma castro), the orangeblack We will seek peer review. We will seek throughout all or a significant portion of Hawaiian ( comments from independent specialists its range, we are required to promptly xanthomelas), the anchialine pool to ensure that our designation is based publish a proposal in the Federal shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), and seven on scientifically sound data, Register and make a determination on yellow-faced ( anthracinus, assumptions, and analyses. We will our proposal within 1 year. Listing a H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. invite these peer reviewers to comment species as an endangered or threatened kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana), and on our listing proposal. Because we will species can only be completed by 39 species from the Hawaiian consider all comments and information issuing a rule. Islands as under the This rulemaking proposes to list of we receive during the comment period, Endangered Species Act (Act). If we the 49 species from the Hawaiian our final determinations may differ from finalize this rule as proposed, it would Islands as endangered species. These this proposal. extend the Act’s protections to these species are candidate species for which Information Requested species. we have on file sufficient information DATES: We will accept comments on biological vulnerability and threats Public Comments received or postmarked on or before to support preparation of a listing We intend that any final action November 30, 2015. Comments proposal, but for which development of resulting from this proposed rule will be submitted electronically using the a proposed listing rule had been based on the best scientific and Federal eRulemaking Portal (see precluded by other higher priority commercial data available and be as ADDRESSES, below) must be received by listing activities. This proposed rule accurate and as effective as possible. 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing reassesses all available information Therefore, we request comments or date. We must receive requests for regarding status of and threats to the 49 information from the public, including public hearings, in writing, at the species. land owners and land managers, other address shown in FOR FURTHER The basis for our action. Under the concerned governmental agencies, the INFORMATION CONTACT by November 16, Act, we can determine that a species is scientific community, industry, or any 2015. an endangered or threatened species other interested parties, concerning this ADDRESSES: You may submit comments based on any of five factors: (A) The proposed rule. We particularly seek by one of the following methods: present or threatened destruction, comments concerning: (1) Electronically: Go to the Federal modification, or curtailment of its (1) The biology, range, and population eRulemaking Portal: http:// or range; (B) overutilization for trends of these species, including: www.regulations.gov. In the Search box, commercial, recreational, scientific, or (a) Biological or ecological enter FWS–R1–ES–2015–0125, which is educational purposes; (C) disease or requirements, including habitat the docket number for this rulemaking. ; (D) the inadequacy of requirements for feeding, breeding, and Then, in the Search panel on the left existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) sheltering; side of the screen, under the Document other natural or manmade factors (b) Genetics and ; heading, click on the Proposed affecting its continued existence. These (c) Historical and current range, Rules link to locate this document. You 49 species are experiencing population- including distribution patterns; may submit a comment by clicking on level impacts as the result of the (d) Historical and current population ‘‘Comment Now!’’ following current and ongoing threats: levels, and current and projected trends; (2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail • Habitat loss and degradation due to and or hand-delivery to: Public Comments urbanization; nonnative, feral ungulates (e) Past and ongoing conservation Processing, Attn: FWS–R1–ES–2015– (hoofed mammals, e.g., pigs, goats, deer, measures for these species, their 0125, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, black-tailed deer, mouflon, cattle); , or both. MS: BPHC, 5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls nonnative plants; wildfire; and water (2) Factors that may affect the Church, VA 22041–3803. extraction. continued existence of these species, We request that you send comments • Predation or herbivory by which may include habitat modification only by the methods described above. nonnative, feral ungulates; ; slugs; or destruction, overutilization, disease, We will post all comments on http:// ants; and wasps. predation, the inadequacy of existing

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regulatory mechanisms, or other natural Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER Cyperus neokunthianus (NCN), or manmade factors. INFORMATION CONTACT). Cyrtandra hematos (haiwale), Deparia kaalaana (NCN), Dryopteris glabra var. (3) Biological, commercial trade, or Public Hearing other relevant data concerning any pusilla (hohiu), Exocarpos menziesii threats (or lack thereof) to these species Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for (heau), Festuca hawaiiensis (NCN), and existing regulations that may be one or more public hearings on this remyi (nanu), addressing those threats. proposal, if requested. Requests must be stemmermanniae (NCN), Hypolepis (4) Empirical data or other scientific received within 45 days after the date of hawaiiensis var. mauiensis (olua), information describing the specific publication of this proposed rule in the Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens impacts of climate change on the Federal Register (see DATES, above). (ohe), Kadua (previously Hedyotis) habitat, life history, and/or ecology of Such requests must be sent to the fluviatilis (kamapuaa, pilo), Kadua these species, for example, the species’ address shown in the FOR FURTHER haupuensis (NCN), Labordia lorenciana biological response, or likely response, INFORMATION CONTACT section. We will (NCN), Lepidium orbiculare (anaunau), to changes in habitat resulting from schedule public hearings on this Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis climate-change related changes in proposal, if any are requested, and (NCN), Myrsine fosbergii (kolea), ambient temperature, precipitation, announce the dates, times, and places of latifolium (aiea), drought, storm severity, or level. those hearings, as well as how to obtain haleakalae (holei), (5) Additional information concerning reasonable accommodations, in the Phyllostegia brevidens (NCN), the historical and current status, range, Federal Register and local newspapers Phyllostegia helleri (NCN), Phyllostegia distribution, and population size of at least 15 days before the hearing. stachyoides (NCN), Portulaca villosa these species, including the locations of Peer Review (ihi), Pritchardia bakeri (Baker’s loulu), any additional populations of these Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. In accordance with our joint policy on species. molokaiense (enaena), Ranunculus peer review published in the Federal hawaiensis (makou), Ranunculus Please include sufficient information Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), with your submission (such as scientific mauiensis (makou), Sanicula during the public comment period we sandwicensis (NCN), journal articles or other publications) to will seek the expert opinions of allow us to verify any scientific or involutum (iliahi), diffusa ssp. appropriate and independent specialists diffusa (NCN), Schiedea pubescens commercial information you include. regarding this proposed rule. The Please note that submissions merely (maolioli), lanceoloideus purpose of peer review is to ensure that (anunu), (anunu), stating support for or opposition to the our listing determinations are based on action under consideration without nelsonii (popolo), Stenogyne scientifically sound data, assumptions, kaalae ssp. sherffii (NCN), and providing supporting information, and analyses. The peer reviewers have although noted, will not be considered Wikstroemia skottsbergiana (akia). The expertise in one or more of the 49 candidate status of these species was in making a determination, as section species’ biology, habitat, life-history 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et most recently reaffirmed in the needs, vulnerability to threats, and other December 5, 2014, Review of Native seq.) directs that determinations as to physical or biological factors. whether any species is an endangered or Species That Are Candidates for Listing threatened species must be made Previous Federal Action as Endangered or Threatened (CNOR) (79 FR 72450). ‘‘solely on the basis of the best scientific All 49 species proposed for listing as On May 4, 2004, the Center for and commercial data available.’’ endangered species are candidate Biological Diversity petitioned the You may submit your comments and species (79 FR 72450, December 5, Secretary of the Interior to list 225 materials concerning this proposed rule 2014). Candidate species are those taxa species of plants and animals, including by one of the methods listed in the for which the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 27 of the 49 candidate species listed ADDRESSES section. We request that you Service (we or Service) has sufficient above, as endangered or threatened send comments only by the methods information on their biological status under the provisions of the Act. Since described in the ADDRESSES section. and threats to propose them for listing then, we have published our annual If you submit information via http:// under the Act, but for which the findings on the May 4, 2004, petition in www.regulations.gov, your entire development of a listing regulation has the CNORs dated May 11, 2005 (70 FR submission—including any personal been precluded to date by other higher 24870), September 12, 2006 (71 FR identifying information—will be posted priority listing activities. The current 53756), December 6, 2007 (72 FR on the Web site. If your submission is candidate species addressed in this 69034), December 10, 2008 (73 FR made via a hardcopy that includes proposed rule include the following 10 75176), November 9, 2009 (74 FR personal identifying information, you animal species: The band-rumped 57804), November 10, 2010 (75 FR may request at the top of your document storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro), the 69222), October 26, 2011 (76 FR 66370), that we withhold this information from orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly November 21, 2012 (77 FR 69994), public review. However, we cannot (), the November 22, 2013 (78 FR 70104), and guarantee that we will be able to do so. anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris December 5, 2014 (79 FR 72450). We will post all hardcopy submissions hawaiana), and seven yellow-faced on http://www.regulations.gov. bees, , H. Background Comments and materials we receive, assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. Hawaiian Islands Species Addressed in as well as supporting documentation we kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana; and this Proposed Rule used in preparing this proposed rule, the following 39 plant species: will be available for public inspection Asplenium diellaciniatum (no common Table 1A (plants) and Table 1B on http://www.regulations.gov, or by name (NCN)), Calamagrostis expansa (animals), below, provide the common appointment, during normal business ( reedgrass), Cyanea kauaulaensis name, scientific name, and range (by hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife (NCN), Cyclosorus (previously Hawaiian Island) for the 49 species Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Christella) boydiae (kupukupu makalii), addressed in this proposed rule.

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TABLE 1A—CANDIDATE PLANT SPECIES PROPOSED FOR LISTING AS ENDANGERED SPECIES

Scientific name Common name Hawaiian Island

Asplenium diellaciniatum ...... No common name (NCN) .. . Calamagrostis expansa ...... Maui reedgrass ...... , Maui. Cyanea kauaulaensis ...... NCN ...... Maui. Cyclosorus boydiae ...... kupukupu makalii ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, . Cyperus neokunthianus ...... NCN ...... Maui (H). Cyrtandra hematos ...... haiwale ...... . Deparia kaalaana ...... NCN ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, Kauai (H). Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla ...... hohiu ...... Kauai. Exocarpos menziesii ...... heau ...... Hawaii, (H). Festuca hawaiiensis ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Gardenia remyi ...... nanu ...... Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Kauai. Huperzia stemmermanniae ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis ...... olua ...... Maui. Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens ...... ohe ...... Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai. Kadua fluviatilis ...... kamapuaa, pilo ...... Oahu, Kauai. Kadua haupuensis ...... NCN ...... Kauai (H). Labordia lorenciana ...... NCN ...... Kauai. Lepidium orbiculare ...... anaunau ...... Kauai. Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis ...... NCN ...... Hawaii, Maui, Oahu. Myrsine fosbergii ...... kolea ...... Oahu, Kauai. ...... aiea ...... Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu, Kauai (H). Ochrosia haleakalae ...... holei ...... Hawaii, Maui. Phyllostegia brevidens ...... NCN ...... Hawaii (H), Maui. Phyllostegia helleri ...... NCN ...... Kauai. Phyllostegia stachyoides ...... NCN ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, Molokai. Portulaca villosa ...... ihi ...... Hawaii, Maui, , Lanai, Molokai, Oahu (H), Kaula (H), (H), (H). Pritchardia bakeri ...... Baker’s loulu ...... Oahu. Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense ..... enaena ...... Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu (H). Ranunculus hawaiensis ...... makou ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Ranunculus mauiensis ...... makou ...... Hawaii (H), Maui, Molokai, Oahu (H), Kauai. Sanicula sandwicensis ...... NCN ...... Hawaii (H), Maui. Santalum involutum ...... iliahi ...... Kauai. Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa ...... NCN ...... Maui, Molokai. Schiedea pubescens ...... maolioli ...... Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai. Sicyos lanceoloideus ...... anunu ...... Oahu, Kauai. Sicyos macrophyllus ...... anunu ...... Hawaii, Maui (H). Solanum nelsonii ...... popolo ...... Hawaii, Maui (H), Molokai, (H), Pearl & Hermes, Kure, Midway, , Nihoa. Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii ...... NCN ...... Oahu (H). Wikstroemia skottsbergiana ...... akia ...... Kauai. (H) = historically known from island, but not observed in the past 20 years.

TABLE 1B—CANDIDATE ANIMAL SPECIES PROPOSED FOR LISTING AS ENDANGERED SPECIES

Common name Scientific name Hawaiian Island

Band-rumped storm-petrel ...... Oceanodroma castro ...... Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe (H), Molokai (H), Oahu (H), Kauai, Lehua. Yellow-faced ...... Hylaeus anthracinus ...... Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... ...... Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Oahu (H). Yellow-faced bee ...... ...... Maui (H), Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... ...... Maui (H), Lanai (H), Molokai. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus kuakea ...... Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... Hylaeus longiceps ...... Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu. Yellow-faced bee ...... ...... Oahu. Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly ...... Megalagrion xanthomelas .. Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai (H). Anchialine pool shrimp ...... Procaris hawaiana ...... Hawaii, Maui. (H) = Historically known from the island, but not observed in the last 20 years

The Hawaiian Islands over a volcanic ‘‘hot spot,’’ an ongoing more volcanoes, over several hundred process over the last 40 million years thousand years, with several million The State of Hawaii consists of eight (Clague in Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 37). years passing before activity ended and ‘‘main’’ larger Hawaiian Islands, and a The Pacific plate is currently moving the volcano became extinct (Clague in long chain of older, eroded islands and northwestward at about 4 inches (in) (9 Juvik and Juvik 1998; pp. 38–39). referred to as the Northwestern centimeters (cm)) per year (Clague in Haleakala volcano, forming east Maui, Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). These islands Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 38). Each island last erupted in 1790, and is considered are formed as the Pacific plate passes was formed from eruptions of one or dormant. Kilauea volcano, on the island

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of Hawaii, has been erupting (29 kilometers (km)) off Hawaii Islands’ an island within the next 200,000 years continuously since 1983. Loihi southeast coast, has infrequent (Clague in Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 45– Seamount, at 3,200 feet (ft) (975 meters eruptions, earthquake swarms nearly 46). (m)) below , and 19 miles (mi) every year, and is destined to emerge as

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands The island of Kauai, the northernmost Hawaii State Seabird Sanctuary (Juvik extend more than 1,000 mi (1,600 km) of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is and Juvik 1998, pp. 3–6). Kaula Island beyond Kauai and include (from 552 sq mi (1,430 sq km) in area (Foote (158 ac (64 ha)), also known as Kaula southeast to northwest) Nihoa Island et al. 1972, p. 3). Kauai’s highest Rock, is small, crescent-shaped, 550 ft (171 acres (ac) (69 hectares (ha))), elevations are over 5,000 ft (1,500 m), (167 m) high, and lies southwest of (46 ac (19 ha)), French and the island’s summit is one of the Niihau. Currently, Kaula is used for Frigate Shoals (an with multiple wettest areas on earth, receiving over gunnery and inert ordnance target islets totalling 0.1 square (sq) mi (0.2 sq 400 in (11,278 millimeters (mm)) of practice by the U.S. Navy (Harrison km)), (2 islets, 6 ac annual rainfall. The island is over 5 1990, p. 193; Hawaii Range Complex (2.5 ha) with 940 sq mi (2,435 sq km) million years old, and erosion has FEIS 2008, p. 3–124). of surrounding reef), (mostly created dramatic canyons (Waimea The island of Oahu (600 sq mi (1,557 submerged), Laysan Island (1,016 ac Canyon) and cliffs on the Na Pali Coast. sq km)), the third oldest and third (411 ha)), (364 ac (147 Kauai has been severely affected by largest of the eight main Hawaiian ha)), (submerged hurricanes, most recently by Hurricane Islands, is located southeast of Kauai reef with 7 sandy islets totaling 89 ac Iniki in 1992. The privately-owned and northwest of Molokai (Foote et al. (36 ha)), (2.5 sq mi (6 sq island of Niihau (43 mi (69 km) 1972, p. 19; Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 7). km), consisting of three islands: Sand, southwest of Kauai) was formed from a Two shield volcanoes ceased erupting Eastern, and Spit), and (4 sq single volcanic shield, is slightly about 1 to 2 million years ago, forming mi (10 sq km), with two islands: Green younger than Kauai, and has unique two mountain ranges, the western and Sand, totaling 213 ac (86 ha)) (Juvik geographic features such as intermittent Waianae range and the eastern Koolau and Juvik 1998, p. 304). All of the NWHI lakes. Niihau is relatively arid (20 to 40 range, with a central plateau connecting except Kure Atoll are within the U.S. in annual rainfall) because it lies in the them. These mountain ranges are Fish and Wildlife Service’s Hawaiian rain shadow of Kauai and lacks the oriented perpendicular to the trade Islands National Wildlife Refuge or elevation needed to intercept moist air winds, so that distinctive leeward and Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. carried by the prevailing northeast trade windward climates result, with the arid In 2006, all of the NWHI were winds, which would generate rain if Waianae range in the rain shadow of the designated as the Papahanaumokuakea forced to sufficiently high altitude by Koolau range, which receives most of Marine National Monument mountains (orographic rainfall) (Stearns the orographic rainfall (Juvik and Juvik (Monument); in 2010, the Monument and McDonald 1947, p. 31). However, 1998, p. 7; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 39). was inscribed as a World Heritage Site. Kona storms (storms from a southerly The maximum elevation on Oahu is at The Monument is managed in direction) provide some rainfall. the summit of the Waianae Mountains partnership by the Department of Although only 1,280 ft (390 m) high, (4,025 ft (1,225 m)) (Wagner et al. 1999, Commerce’s National Oceanic and there are precipitous sea cliffs on the pp. 39–41). Rainfall on the island ranges Atmospheric Administration, the northern coast. Lehua Island from less than 20 in (500 mm) to more Department of the Interior, and the State (geologically part of Niihau), a crescent- than 250 in (6,350 mm) per year. This of Hawaii. shaped tuff cone (284 ac (115 ha)), is a island supports the largest population in

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the State, nearly one million people 1998, p. 55). Lower elevations on drier conditions to prevail in the (World Population Review 2015, in windward east Maui receive as much as leeward saddle area and in high- litt.). The flora and fauna of Oahu have 404 in (1,026 cm) annual rainfall elevation areas. The west, or leeward, undergone extreme alterations because (Giambelluca et al. 2013, p. 1). side of the island (Kona) is in the rain of past and present land use and other The island of Kahoolawe (45 sq mi shadow of the mountains, but does activities. (116 sq km)), the smallest of the eight receive convection-driven rainfall in the The island of Molokai (260 sq mi (673 main Hawaiian Islands, is located south afternoons, resulting in greater than sq km)), the fifth largest of the eight of east Maui, and was formed from a expected annual rainfall (50 to more main Hawaiian Islands, lies southeast of single (Clague in Juvik than 100 in (127 to 254 cm)), which Oahu. The island is formed from three and Juvik 1998, p. 42; Juvik and Juvik supports mesic forest (Mitchell et al. shield volcanoes, resulting in the east 1998, pp. 7, 16). The maximum 2005, pp. 6–71–6–91). and west Molokai Mountains and the elevation on Kahoolawe is 1,476 ft (450 Kalaupapa Peninsula (Juvik and Juvik m) at the summit of Puu O Moaula Nui An Ecosystem-Based Approach To 1998, pp. 11, 13). The taller and larger (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 15–16). Assessing the of east Molokai Mountain rises 4,970 ft Kahoolawe is in the rain shadow of the 49 Species in the Hawaiian Islands (1,514 m) above sea level and comprises Haleakala and is arid, receiving no more In this document, we have analyzed roughly 50 percent of the island’s area than 25 in (65 cm) of rainfall annually the threats to each of the 49 species (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 11). (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 16; Mitchell et individually to determine the Precipitous cliffs line the windward al. 2005, p. 6–66). The island was appropriate status of each species on its coast and deep valleys dissect the inhabited as early as 400 A.D., with own merits under the Act. However, coastal area. Annual rainfall on the small fishing villages established along because many of these species, and windward side of the island is 75 to the coast. It was used briefly as a penal particularly those that share the same more than 150 in (200 to more than 375 colony, for grazing by sheep and goats, habitat types (ecosystems), share a cm) (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, and for cattle ranching, until 1941, similar suite of threats, we have p. 50). when the United States declared martial organized the 49 species addressed in The island of Lanai (140 sq mi (364 law throughout Hawaii, leading to the this proposed rule by common sq km)), the sixth largest of the eight use of the island as a training ground ecosystem for efficiency, to reduce main Hawaiian Islands, is located and bombing range (Kahoolawe Island repetition for the reader, and to reduce southeast of Molokai and southwest of Reserve Commission (KIRC) 2015, in publication costs. west Maui. Lanai was formed from a litt.). In 1990, the island was placed In addition, as an ancillary benefit of single shield volcano and is located in under the administration of the assessing the threats to the 49 species the rain shadow of the west Maui Kahoolawe Island Reserve Commission. using shared ecosystems as an Mountains (Clague in Juvik and Juvik The grazing, ranching, and bombing organizational tool, we have laid the 1998, p. 42). Lanaihale is the highest activities had a serious impact on the groundwork for better addressing threats point at 3,366 ft (1,027 m), with annual environment, resulting is substantial to these species, should they be listed. rainfall on the summit of 30 to 40 in (76 loss of soil through accelerated erosion In the Hawaiian Islands, native species to 100 cm). Annual rainfall is much less, (KIRC 2015, in litt.). After an extensive occurring in the same habitat types 10 to 20 in (25 to 50 cm), over the rest 10-year cleanup by the U.S. Navy, depend on many of the same physical of the island (Giambelluca and unexploded ordnance remains on one- and biological features and the Schroeder 1998, p. 56). third of the island, including successful functioning of specific The island of Maui (729 sq mi (1,888 surrounding waters (KIRC 2015, in litt.). ecosystems to survive. Because species sq km)), the second largest of the eight The island of Hawaii, the largest, that share ecosystems face a suite of main Hawaiian Islands, is located highest, and youngest of the eight main shared threats, managing or eliminating southeast of Molokai and northwest of Hawaiian Islands, is also the these threats holistically at an Hawaii Island (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. easternmost and southernmost island in ecosystem level is more cost effective 14). It arose from two shield volcanoes the chain. At 4,038 sq mi (10,458 sq and should lead to better resource resulting in formation of the west Maui km), it comprises approximately two- protection for all native species. This Mountains, which are about 1.3 million thirds of the land area of the State of approach is in accord with the primary years old, and the east Maui Mountains Hawaii, giving rise to its common name, stated purpose of the Act (see section (Haleakala volcano), about 750,000 the ‘‘Big Island.’’ Five large shield 2(b)): ‘‘to provide a means whereby the years old (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14), volcanoes make up the island: Mauna ecosystems upon which endangered which are connected by the central Kea at 13,796 ft (4,205 m) and species and threatened species depend Maui isthmus. The highest point on at 5,480 ft (1,670 m), both extinct may be conserved.’’ west Maui is Puu Kukui at 5,788 ft volcanoes; Hualalai at 8,270 ft (2,520 On all the main Hawaiian Islands, (1,764 m), which receives 400 in (1,020 m), a dormant volcano; and vegetation on land with rich soils was cm) rainfall per year (Juvik and Juvik (13,677 ft (4,169 m)) and Kilauea (4,093 cultivated and altered by the early 1998, p. 14; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 41). ft (1,248 m)), both active volcanoes Hawaiians and, more recently, East Maui’s Haleakala volcano last (McDonald et al. 1990, pp. 345–379; 59 converted to commercial agricultural erupted only 200 years ago and is FR 10305, March 4, 1994; U.S. and urban use (Gagne and Cuddihy considered dormant (Juvik and Juvik Geological Survey (USGS) 2012, pp. 1– 1999, p. 45). Intentional and inadvertent 1998, p. 14). Haleakala is higher in 2). Hawaii Island has a greater range of introduction of alien plant and animal elevation (10,023 ft (3,055 m)) than Puu climatic zones than any other island in species has also contributed to the Kukui, and since it is geologically the State, with the highest and lowest reduction in range of native vegetation. younger, lacks the diverse vegetation of temperatures, and coastal to alpine Throughout this proposed rule, the the older . Annual ecosystems (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 22; terms ‘‘alien,’’ ‘‘feral,’’ ‘‘nonnative,’’ and rainfall is about 35 in (89 cm) at the Wagner et al. 1999, p. 38; The Nature ‘‘introduced’’ all refer to species that are highest elevations, above the trade wind Conservancy of Hawaii (TNCH) 2007). not native to the Hawaiian Islands. Most inversion, resulting in a dry cinder The windward slopes receive the most of the candidate species included in this desert (Giambelluca and Schroeder rainfall, but orographic effects cause proposed rule persist on steep slopes,

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precipitous cliffs, valley headwalls, and encroachment by nonnative plant and proposed rule: anchialine pool, coastal, other regions where unsuitable animal species. lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland topography has prevented urbanization Each of the 49 Hawaiian Islands wet, montane wet, montane mesic, and agricultural development, or where species is found in one or more of the montane dry, subalpine, dry cliff, and inaccessibility has limited 11 ecosystems types described in this wet cliff (see Table 2). TABLE 2—THE 49 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS SPECIES AND THE ECOSYSTEMS UPON WHICH THEY DEPEND

Island Species Hawaii Maui Kahoolawe Lanai Molokai Oahu Kauai Niihau Lehua Kaula NWHI

Plants: Asplenium diellaciniatum ...... MM ...... Calamagrostis expansa ...... MW ...... MW ...... Cyanea kauaulaensis ...... LW ...... Cyclosorus boydiae ...... LW ...... LW, MW ...... MW ...... Cyperus neokunthianus ...... LW ...... Cyrtandra hematos ...... MW ...... Deparia kaalaana ...... LM, LW ...... LM, LW ...... LM, LW ...... Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla ...... MW ...... Exocarpos menziesii ...... LM ...... LM ...... MM ...... MD ...... Festuca hawaiiensis ...... MD ...... MD ...... Gardenia remyi ...... LM, LW ...... LW ...... LM, LW ...... LM, LW ...... Huperzia stemmermanniae ...... MW ...... MW ...... Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis ...... MW ...... Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens ...... LW, MW ..... LW MW ...... LW, MW ...... LW, MW ..... LM, MW, ...... MM. Kadua fluviatilis ...... LW ...... LM ...... Kadua haupuensis ...... LM ...... Labordia lorenciana ...... MM ...... Lepidium orbiculare ...... LM ...... Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis ...... MW, MM .... MW ...... LM ...... Myrsine fosbergii ...... LM, LW ...... LM, LW, MW ...... Nothocestrum latifolium ...... LD, LM, DC ...... LD, LM, DC LM ...... LD, LM, DC DC ...... Ochrosia haleakalae ...... LM, LW ...... LM, MM, DC ...... Phyllostegia brevidens ...... MW ...... LW, WC ...... Phyllostegia helleri ...... LW, MW, ...... WC. Phyllostegia stachyoides ...... MW, MM .... MW, MM ...... MW ...... Portulaca villosa ...... C, LD, MD .. C, LD ...... C, LD ...... LD ...... LD ...... C, LD ...... C ...... C ...... C Pritchardia bakeri ...... LM ...... Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var...... C ...... C ...... C ...... C ...... molokaiense. Ranunculus hawaiensis ...... MM, MD, SA SA ...... Ranunculus mauiensis ...... MM, MD ..... MW, MM, ...... MW, MM, WC MW ...... MW, MM ...... WC. Sanicula sandwicensis ...... MM, MD, SA MM, SA ...... Santalum involutum ...... LM, LW ...... Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa ...... LW, MW ...... MW ...... Schiedea pubescens ...... LW, MM, ...... WC ...... LW, MW, WC ...... WC. Sicyos lanceoloideus ...... LM, DC ...... LM, MM ...... Sicyos macrophyllus ...... MM, MD ..... MW ...... Solanum nelsonii ...... C ...... C ...... C ...... C ...... C Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii ...... LW ...... Wikstroemia skottsbergiana ...... LW ...... Animals: Band-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma DC ...... DC, WC ...... C ...... C ...... C ...... DC, WC ...... C ...... castro). Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus anthracinus) .. C, LD ...... C, LD ...... LD ...... LD ...... C ...... C ...... Yellow-faced bee Hylaeus assimulans) ...... C, LD ...... C ...... LD ...... C, LD ...... Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus facilis) ...... C, LM ...... LD, LM ...... C ...... C, LD, LM ...... Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus hilaris) ...... C, LD ...... C ...... C ...... Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus kuakea) ...... LM ...... Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus longiceps) ...... C, LD ...... C, LD ...... C, LD ...... C ...... Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus mana) ...... LM ...... Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly AP, C * ...... AP, LD * ...... C,* LM * ...... C,* LD * ...... LM * ...... C * LD,* LM * ...... (Megalagrion xanthomelas). Anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris AP ...... AP ...... hawaiana). C = Coastal ecosystem; MW = Montane Wet ecosystem; DC = Dry Cliff ecosystem; LD = Lowland Dry ecosystem; MM = Montane Mesic ecosystem; WC = Wet Cliff ecosystem; LM = Low- land Mesic ecosystem; MD = Montane Dry ecosystem; AP = Anchialine Pool ecosystem; LW = Lowland Wet ecosystem; SA = Subalpine ecosystem; * = with species-specific water pool or pond.

Hawaiian Islands Ecosystems in this proposed rule. These ecosystems are mixohaline (brackish), with are described below. typically ranging from 2 parts Eleven distinct ecosystems per thousand (ppt) to concentrations Anchialine Pool (anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, just below that of sea water (32 ppt), lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane The anchialine pool ecosystem is although some pools are recorded as mesic, montane wet, montane dry, found on Oahu, Molokai, Maui, having salinities as high as 41 ppt subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) on the Kahoolawe, and Hawaii Island. (Maciolek 1983, pp. 607–612; Brock et main eight Hawaiian Islands and NWHI Anchialine pools are land-locked bodies al. 1987, p. 200). Because all anchialine currently harbor or historically harbored of water that have indirect underground pools occur within coastal areas, they one or more of the 49 species under connections to the sea and show tidal are technically part of the coastal consideration for listing as endangered fluctuations in water level. These pools ecosystem (see below) with the same

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climate conditions and many of the associated vegetation (Gagne and reported currently or historically from same applicable and overlapping habitat Cuddihy 1999, pp. 54–66). Biological this ecosystem are: the orangeblack threats. However, we are addressing this diversity is low to moderate in this Hawaiian damselfly (Maui, Molokai), ecosystem separately because of the ecosystem, but may include some the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus uniqueness of the anchialine pools and specialized plants and animals such as anthracinus (Hawaii Island, Maui, the biota that occurs within them. nesting seabirds, the endangered plant Kahoolawe, and Lanai), H. assimulans Over 80 percent of the State’s Sesbania tomentosa (ohai) (TNCH (Maui, Lanai, and Oahu), H. facilis anchialine pools are found on the island 2006), and endangered in the (Lanai and Oahu), H. hilaris (Maui), and of Hawaii, with a total of approximately NWHI (e.g., the Nihoa finch (Telespyza H. longiceps (Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) 600 to 650 pools distributed over 130 ultima) on Nihoa Island). The following (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). sites along all but the island’s plants proposed as endangered in this Lowland Mesic northernmost and steeper northeastern rule are reported currently or shorelines. On east Maui, eight locations historically from this ecosystem: The lowland mesic ecosystem is along the north and south coasts have Portulaca villosa (Hawaii Island, Maui, found on all the main Hawaiian Islands anchialine pools (some containing more Kahoolawe, Oahu, Lehua, and Kaula), except Kahoolawe and Niihau, and than one pool, e.g., the anchialine pool Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. includes a variety of grasslands, system at Ahihi-Kinau Natural Area molokaiense (Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and shrublands, and forests, generally below Reserve (NAR) consists of dozens of Oahu), and Solanum nelsonii (Hawaii 3,300 ft (1,000 m) elevation, that receive pools) (The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Island, Maui, Molokai, Niihau, and the between 50 and 75 in (130 and 190 cm) 2009, pp. 2–3). Characteristic animal NWHI) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The annual rainfall (Gagne and Cuddihy species within the anchialine pool following animals proposed as 1999, p. 75; TNCH 2006). Native ecosystem include (e.g., endangered in this rule are reported biological diversity is high in this shrimps, prawns, amphipods, and currently or historically from this system (TNCH 2006). The following isopods), molluscs (e.g., snails, sea ecosystem: the band-rumped storm- plants proposed for listing as slugs, and bivalves), and other petrel (Kahoolawe, Molokai, Oahu, and endangered in this rule reported invertebrates adapted to the pools’ Lehua); orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly currently or historically from this surface and subterranean habitats (TNC (Hawaii Island, Lanai, and Molokai); the ecosystem are: Deparia kaalaana 2009, pp. 1–3). Generally, vegetation yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus (Hawaii Island, Maui, and Kauai), within the pools consists of various (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Exocarpos menziesii (Hawaii Island and types of algal forms (blue-green, green, Oahu), H. assimulans (Maui, Lanai), Gardenia remyi (Hawaii Island, red, and golden-brown). The majority of Kahoolawe, and Oahu), H. facilis (Maui, Molokai, and Kauai), Joinvillea Hawaii’s anchialine pools occur in bare Molokai, and Oahu), H. hilaris (Maui, ascendens ssp. ascendens (Kauai), or sparsely vegetated fields, Lanai, and Molokai), and H. longiceps Kadua fluviatilis (Kauai), K. haupuensis although some pools occur in areas with (Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu). (Kauai), Lepidium orbiculare (Kauai), various ground cover, , and Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis species (Chai et al. 1989, pp. 2–24; Lowland Dry (Oahu), Myrsine fosbergii (Oahu and Brock 2004, p. 35). The anchialine pool The lowland dry ecosystem is found Kauai), Nothocestrum latifolium (Maui, shrimp, Procaris hawaiana, and the on all the main Hawaiian Islands and Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu), Ochrosia orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, includes shrublands and forests haleakalae (Hawaii Island and Maui), Megalagrion xanthomelas, which are generally below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) Pritchardia bakeri (Oahu), Santalum proposed for listing as endangered elevation that receive less than 50 in involutum (Kauai), and Sicyos species in this rule, are reported (130 cm) annual rainfall, or are in lanceoloideus (Oahu and Kauai) (TNCH currently or historically from this otherwise prevailingly dry substrate 2007; HBMP 2010). The following ecosystem on Maui and Hawaii Island conditions that range from weathered animals proposed for listing as (Kensley and Williams 1986, pp. 417– reddish silty loams to stony clay soils, endangered in this rule reported 437; Hawaii and Mapping rocky ledges with very shallow soil, or currently or historically from this Program (HBMP) 2010). relatively recent little-weathered lava ecosystem are: the orangeblack (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67). Areas Hawaiian damselfly (Lanai, Oahu), and Coastal consisting of predominantly native the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus facilis The coastal ecosystem is found on all species in the lowland dry ecosystem (Maui, Lanai, and Oahu), H. kuakea of the main Hawaiian Islands and the are now rare and are best represented on (Oahu), and H. mana (Oahu). NWHI, with the highest native species the leeward sides of the islands (Gagne diversity in the least populated areas and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67; TNCH 2006). Lowland Wet and associated islets. The coastal Native biological diversity is low to The lowland wet ecosystem is ecosystem includes mixed herblands, moderate in this ecosystem, and generally found below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) shrublands, and grasslands, from sea includes specialized animals and plants elevation on the windward sides of the level to 980 ft (300 m) elevation, such as the Hawaiian owl () and main Hawaiian Islands, except for generally within a narrow zone above Santalum ellipticum (iliahialoe, coastal Kahoolawe and Niihau (Gagne and the influence of waves to within 330 ft ) (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. Cuddihy 1999, p. 85; TNCH 2006). (100 m) inland, sometimes extending 1220–1221; TNCH 2006). The following These areas include a variety of wet farther inland if strong prevailing plants proposed for listing as grasslands, shrublands, and forests that onshore winds drive sea spray and sand endangered in this rule reported receive greater than 75 in (190 cm) dunes into the lowland zone (TNCH currently or historically from this annual rainfall, or are in otherwise wet 2006). The coastal ecosystem is ecosystem are: Nothocestrum latifolium substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This typically dry, with annual rainfall of (Maui, Lanai, and Oahu) and Portulaca system is best developed in wet valleys less than 20 in (50 cm); however, villosa (Hawaii Island, Maui, and slopes on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, windward rainfall may be high enough Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu). Maui, and Hawaii Island (TNCH 2006). (up to 40 in (100 cm)) to support mesic- The following animals proposed for Native biological diversity is high in associated and sometimes wet- listing as endangered in this rule this system (TNCH 2006). The following

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plants proposed for listing as 2006). This system is found on Kauai, this area, fog drip is an important endangered in this rule reported Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island moisture source (Gagne and Cuddihy currently or historically from this (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 97–99; 1999, p. 110). The following plants ecosystem are: Cyanea kauaulaensis TNCH 2007). Native biological diversity proposed for listing as endangered in (Maui), Cyclosorus boydiae (Hawaii is moderate, and this habitat is this rule reported currently or Island and Maui), Cyperus important for Hawaiian forest birds historically from this ecosystem are: neokunthianus (Maui), Deparia (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 98–99; Ranunculus hawaiensis (Hawaii Island kaalaana (Hawaii Island, Maui, and TNCH 2006). The following plants and Maui) and Sanicula sandwicensis Kauai), Gardenia remyi (Hawaii Island, proposed for listing as endangered in (Hawaii Island and Maui) (TNCH 2007; Maui, Molokai, and Kauai), Joinvillea this rule reported currently or HBMP 2010). ascendens ssp. ascendens (Hawaii historically from this ecosystem are: Dry Cliff Island, Maui, Molokai, and Oahu), Asplenium diellaciniatum (Kauai), Kadua fluviatilis (Oahu), Myrsine Exocarpos menziesii (Hawaii Island), The dry cliff ecosystem is composed fosbergii (Oahu and Kauai), Ochrosia Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens of vegetation communities occupying haleakalae (Hawaii Island), Phyllostegia (Kauai), Labordia lorenciana (Kauai), steep slopes (greater than 65 degrees) in brevidens (Maui), P. helleri (Kauai), Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis areas that receive less than 75 in (190 Santalum involutum (Kauai), Schiedea (Hawaii Island), Ochrosia haleakalae cm) of annual rainfall, or are in diffusa ssp. diffusa (Maui), S. pubescens (Maui), Phyllostegia stachyoides otherwise dry substrate conditions (Maui and Molokai), Stenogyne kaalae (Hawaii Island and Maui), Ranunculus (TNCH 2006). This ecosystem is found ssp. sherffii (Oahu), and Wikstroemia hawaiensis (Hawaii Island), R. on all the main Hawaiian Islands except skottsbergiana (Kauai) (TNCH 2007; mauiensis (Hawaii Island, Maui, Niihau, and is best represented along HBMP 2010). Molokai, Kauai), Sanicula sandwicensis the leeward slopes of Lanai, Maui, the (Hawaii Island and Maui), Schiedea Waianae Mountains of Oahu, and Kauai Montane Wet pubescens (Maui), Sicyos lanceoloideus (TNCH 2006). A variety of shrublands The montane wet ecosystem is (Kauai), and S. macrophyllus (Hawaii occur within this ecosystem (TNCH composed of natural communities Island) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). 2006). Native biological diversity is low (grasslands, shrublands, forests, and to moderate (TNCH 2006). The bogs) at elevations between 3,300 and Montane Dry following plants proposed for listing as 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas The montane dry ecosystem is endangered in this rule reported where annual rainfall is greater than 75 composed of natural communities (one currently or historically from this in (190 cm) (TNCH 2006). This system grassland type, shrublands, forests) ecosystem are: Nothocestrum latifolium is found on all of the main Hawaiian found at elevations between 3,300 and (Maui, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai), Islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas Ochrosia haleakalae (Maui), and Sicyos (TNCH 2006). Native biological where annual rainfall is less than 50 in lanceoloideus (Oahu) (TNCH 2007; diversity is moderate to high (TNCH (130 cm), or are in otherwise dry HBMP 2010). The band-rumped storm- 2006). The following plants proposed substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This petrel is reported currently or for listing as endangered in this rule system is found on Maui and Hawaii historically from the dry cliff ecosystem reported currently or historically from Island, and is best developed in the on Hawaii Island, Maui, and Kauai this ecosystem are: Calamagrostis saddle region between mountains on (TNCH 2007). expansa (Hawaii Island and Maui), Hawaii Island, with rich native plant Cyclosorus boydiae (Maui and Oahu), communities (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, Wet Cliff Cyrtandra hematos (Molokai), pp. 93–97; TNCH 2007). The following The wet cliff ecosystem is generally Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla (Kauai), plants proposed for listing as composed of shrublands on near- Huperzia stemmermanniae (Hawaii endangered in this rule reported vertical slopes (greater than 65 degrees) Island and Maui), Hypolepis currently or historically from this in areas that receive more than 75 in hawaiiensis var. mauiensis (Maui), ecosystem are: Exocarpos menziesii (190 cm) annual rainfall, or are in Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens (Hawaii Island), Festuca hawaiiensis otherwise wet substrate conditions (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, (Hawaii Island and Maui), Portulaca (TNCH 2006). This system is found on and Kauai), Microlepia strigosa var. villosa (Hawaii Island), Ranunculus all the main islands except for Niihau mauiensis (Hawaii Island and Maui), hawaiensis (Hawaii Island), R. and Kahoolawe (TNCH 2006). Native Myrsine fosbergii (Kauai), Phyllostegia mauiensis (Hawaii Island), Sanicula biological diversity is low to moderate brevidens (Hawaii Island), P. helleri sandwicensis (Hawaii Island), and (TNCH 2006). The following plants (Kauai), P. stachyoides (Hawaii Island, Sicyos macrophyllus (Hawaii Island) proposed for listing as endangered in Maui, and Molokai), Ranunculus (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). this rule reported currently or mauiensis (Maui, Molokai, Oahu, and historically from this ecosystem are: Subalpine Kauai), Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa Phyllostegia brevidens (Maui), P. helleri (Maui and Molokai), S. pubescens The subalpine ecosystem is composed (Kauai), Ranunculus mauiensis (Maui (Molokai), and Sicyos macrophyllus of natural communities (grasslands, and Molokai), and Schiedea pubescens (Maui) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). shrublands, forests) at elevations (Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) (TNCH between 6,500 and 9,800 ft (2,000 and 2007; HBMP 2010). The band-rumped Montane Mesic 3,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall storm-petrel is reported currently or The montane mesic ecosystem is is seasonal, between 15 and 40 in (38 historically from the wet cliff ecosystem composed of natural communities and 100 cm), or are in otherwise dry on Maui and Kauai (TNCH 2007). (forest and shrublands) found at substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft Native biodiversity is not high in this Description of the 49 Hawaiian Islands (1,000 to 2,000 m), in areas where system, but contains specialized Species annual rainfall is between 50 and 75 in invertebrates and plants adapted to dry, The Act directs us to determine (130 and 190 cm), or are in otherwise exposed conditions (Gagne and Cuddihy whether any species is an endangered mesic substrate conditions (TNCH 1999, p. 107). Because rainfall is low in species or a threatened species because

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of any factors affecting its continued species’ continued existence in the game animals, but public hunting does existence. We summarize, below, the future. not adequately control the numbers of biological condition of, and factors ungulates to eliminate habitat Plants affecting, each of the 49 species to modification and destruction, or to assess whether each species should be Asplenium diellaciniatum (no eliminate herbivory by these animals listed as endangered or threatened. common name (NCN)), a terrestrial or (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; Hawaii The summaries below include only epipetric (growing on rocks) fern in the Administrative Rule—Hawaii brief lists of factors affecting each spleenwort family (Aspleniaceae), is Department of Land and Natural species. Each of these factors is fully endemic to Kauai (Palmer 2003, p. 117). Resources (HAR–DLNR) 2010, in litt.). considered, in detail, in the section This fern has extremely variable frond Nonnative plants in the Kawaiiki area, ‘‘Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 morphology, depending on age, such as asiatica ( tail), Species Proposed for Listing,’’ below. development, and possibly microhabitat Lantana camara (lantana), and ( and Aguraiuja, pers. obs. in Sphaeropteris cooperi (Australian tree Climate Change Vulnerability Lorence et al. 2013, p. 167). Stipes Assessment for Hawaiian Plants fern), compete with A. diellaciniatum (stalks joining the stem to the blade) and and modify and destroy its native Twenty-eight of the plant species rachis (blade midribs) are black or habitat, and displace it and other native proposed for listing and described purple-black to maroon and shiny. Hawaiian plant species by competing below were evaluated for their Blade divisions are entire to shallowly for water, nutrients, light, and space, or vulnerability to climate change as part or deeply cut into lobes or twice- they may produce chemicals that inhibit of a comprehensive vulnerability divided, with free veins that seldom join growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. analysis of native Hawaiian plants, as to form a vein network (Lorence et al. 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in indicated in Table 3 (Fortini et al. 2013, 2013, p. 170). Hillebrand (1888, pp. Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood 134 pp.). This analysis used ‘‘climate 621–622) recognized this species as 2013, in litt.). Additionally, the small envelopes’’ (geographic ranges Lindsaya laciniata (Botanischer Garten number of individuals of A. encompassing suitable climate for each und Botanisches Museum (BGBM) 2014, diellaciniatum may limit this species’ species, as defined by temperature and in litt.). Brackenridge also interpreted ability to adapt to environmental moisture (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 17)) Diellia as lindsaeoid (ferns having change. developed from field records by Price et morphological characteristics of those in The remaining occurrences of al. (2012) to project each species’ the Lindsaea) (1854, pp. 218– Asplenium diellaciniatum and its potential range in the year 2100. The 220), followed by other Hawaiian habitat for its reintroduction are at risk; location and spatial extent of these authors, and this fern was described as A. diellaciniatum numbers are observed future ranges, and their overlap with Diellia laciniata in Rock (1913, p. 59) to be decreasing on Kauai, and both the current ranges, allows calculation of a and in Wagner (1952, pp. 11, 57–63). species and its habitat continue to be vulnerability score. Estimates of Palmer did not recognize D. laciniata as negatively affected by modification and vulnerability based on climate-envelope separate from D. erecta (2003, p. 117). destruction by ungulates and by direct modeling are conservative in that they Molecular phylogenetic studies by competition by nonnative plants, do not take into account potential Schneider et al. (2005, pp. 455–460) combined with predation by nonnative changes in interspecific interactions placed Diella within Asplenium, and ungulates. We find that this species such as predation, disease, pollination, with further taxonomic reassessment should be listed throughout all of its or competition. This study provides a (Lorence et al. 2013, pp. 167, 170–171), range, and, therefore, we find that it is landscape- or island-scale picture of this species is recognized as Asplenium unnecessary to analyze whether it is potential climate-change vulnerability diellaciniatum. Little is known of the endangered or threatened in a of Hawaiian plants; the results are less historical distribution of this species. It significant portion of its range. clear at finer spatial scales (Fortini et al. was described from a collection from Calamagrostis expansa (Maui p. 42). However, all 28 of these plant ‘‘Halemanu,’’ the Knudsen homestead reedgrass), a perennial in the grass species scored moderately or highly area on western Kauai. This fern is family (), is known from the vulnerable in the analysis because of found in the montane mesic ecosystem islands of Maui and Hawaii (O’Connor their relative inability to exhibit the at Kawaiiki, approximately 4.5 mi (7 1999, p. 1509; Wagner and Herbst 2003, possible responses necessary for km) southeast of the original collection p. 59). This species was described by persistence under projected climate site (Palmer 2003, p. 117; HBMP 2010; Hitchcock (1922, p. 148) and is change (Fortini et al. 2013, 134 pp.). Lorence et al. 2013, p. 167) in 2 recognized as a distinct taxon in These responses include the migration occurrences, once totaling O’Connor (1999, p. 1509) and in Wagner response (dispersal and establishment approximately 100 individuals (TNCH and Herbst (2003, p. 59), the most in new areas beyond their current 2007; HBMP 2010; Lorence et al. 2013, recently accepted taxonomic treatments distribution), the microrefugia response p. 167; however, currently, there are for this species. Historically, (persistence in topographically complex only 31 mature and 9 juvenile Calamagrostis expansa was known from areas that are less exposed), individuals (Wood 2013, in litt.; PEPP wet forest, open bogs, and bog margins evolutionary adaptation response 2014, p. 33). at 17 locations on East Maui, and in a (morphological changes in response to Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer large occurrence covering nearly the the changing environment), and (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) entire summin on West Maui, and was toleration response (adaptation to modify and destroy the habitat of discovered in 7 occurrences totaling environmental changes through Asplenium diellaciniatum on Kauai, approximately 750 individuals on the phenotypic plasticity). Therefore, if the with evidence of the activities of these island of Hawaii in 1995 (O’Connor species is moderately to highly animals reported in the areas where A. 1999, p. 1509; HBMP 2010; Smithsonian vulnerable, then the likelihood of its diellaciniatum occurs (HBMP 2010; National Museum of Natural History persistence with the impacts of climate Wood 2013, in litt.). Feral pigs, goats, (NMNH) Collections 2014, in change is low, and the environmental and black-tailed deer may also forage on litt.). Currently, this species is known changes associated with climate change A. diellaciniatium (HBMP 2010). from 13 occurrences totaling fewer than are likely to become a threat to these Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as 750 individuals from both islands. On

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the island of Maui, there are 2 likely to further exacerbate these threats. landslides and flooding may impact this occurrences in the west Maui We find that this species should be species (Oppenheimer and Lorence Mountains (approximately 100 listed throughout all of its range, and, 2012, pp. 20–21). Because of the threats individuals) and 7 occurrences in the therefore, we find that it is unnecessary described above, we find that this east Maui Mountains (totaling about 200 to analyze whether it is endangered or species should be listed throughout all individuals), in the montane wet threatened in a significant portion of its of its range, and, therefore, we find that ecosystem (Wood 2005, in litt.; TNCH range. it is unnecessary to analyze whether it 2007; Welton 2008 and 2010, in litt.; Cyanea kauaulaensis (NCN), a shrub is endangered or threatened in a Fay 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; in the bellflower family significant portion of its range. Oppenheimer 2010 in litt.; Agorastos (Campanulaceae), is endemic to Maui Cyclosorus boydiae (previously 2011, in litt.). On the island of Hawaii, (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 15). Christella boydiae) (kupukupu makalii) there are 3 occurrences in the Kohala This species is 6.5 to 13 ft (2 to 4 m) is a small to medium-sized member of Mountains (totaling approximately 400 tall, and is distinguished from other the thelypteroid fern family individuals) and 1 occurrence of a few Cyanea species by its many-branched (Thelypteridaceae), with reclining or individuals in Hawaii Volcanoes habit, with branches often rooting when erect stems and a large, tangled mass of National Park, in the montane wet coming in contact with the soil. Leaves roots that form a holdfast (Pukui and ecosystem (Perry 2006, in litt.; TNCH are glabrous and narrow (2 to 3 in (5 to Elbert 1986, p. 186; Palmer 2003, pp. 2007; HBMP 2010). 7 cm) wide), clustered near the end of 87–88). In 1879, Eaton (pp. 361–362) Feral pigs modify and destroy the the branches, are white and named it for the original collector, Miss habitat of Calamagrostis expansa on tubular, and fruit are bright orange E.S. Boyd, calling it Aspidium Maui and Hawaii, with evidence of the (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. (Cyrtomium) boydiae, for those plants activities of feral pigs reported in the 15–23). Cyanea kauaulaensis is occurring on Oahu. In 1888, Hillebrand areas where C. expansa occurs on east recognized as a distinct taxon by (p. 572) described two varieties, A. Maui, and on Hawaii Island in the Oppenheimer and Lorence (2012, pp. cyatheoides var. depauperatum, Kohala Mountains and in the Waiakea 15–23). occurring on the islands of Hawaii and Forest Reserve of Hawaii Volcanoes Cyanea kauaulaensis occurs on Oahu, and A. cyatheoides var. National Park (Hobdy 1996, in litt.; leeward west Maui, on talus or basalt exaltatum occurring on Kauai. Iwatsuki Medeiros 1996, in litt.; Perlman 1996, in boulder-strewn slopes along perennial moved the two species to the genus litt.; Wood 1996, in litt.; Perry 2006, in at 2,400 to 3,000 ft (730 to 900 Thelypteris in 1964 (Iwatsuki 1964, p. litt.; HBMP 2010). Ungulates are m), in the lowland wet ecosystem 28 in Medeiros et al. 1993, pp. 87–88; managed in Hawaii as game animals, (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer Palmer 2003, pp. 87–88). In 1999, but public hunting does not adequately and Lorence 2010, pp. 17–18). Wagner (W.H., et al.) moved the genus control the numbers of ungulates to Associated native species include those Aspidium to Cyclosorus and recognized eliminate habitat modification and within (ohia) lowland wet two varieties: Cyclosorus variety destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by forest, with herbaceous plants, ferns, boydiae on Oahu and Cyclosorus variety these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in and some riparian plants (Oppenheimer kipahuluensis on Maui (Wagner et al. litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Rats and Lorence 2010, pp. 17–18). This 1999, pp. 153, 156–157). In 2003, have been noted by biologists to affect species was first collected during a Palmer returned the species to Christella C. expansa at Laupahoehoe Natural botanical survey in 1989. Further and did not recognize any varieties Area Reserve (NAR) on Hawaii Island, surveys (in 2008, 2009, and 2011) (2003, pp. 87–88). Following Smith (et by consuming seeds (HBMP 2010). revealed more individuals, and study of al. 2006, p. 716), Christella was merged Nonnative plants compete with this the collections indicated that it was a into Cyclosorus. Cyclosorus boydiae is species, and modify and destroy native new species of Cyanea. Currently, C. the most recently accepted scientific habitat, negatively affecting C. expansa kauaulaensis is known from Kauaula name for this fern. Typical habitat for on east and west Maui and Hawaii Valley (approximately 50 individuals) Cyclosorus boydiae is exposed, rocky, or Island. Additionally, the small number and Waikapu Valley (12 individuals) moss-covered banks of courses in of individuals may limit this species’ (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. dense-wet Metrosideros-Acacia (ohia- ability to adapt to environmental 15–16, 20). koa) forest, at 4,300 to 4,400 ft (1,300 to change. Climate change may result in The greatest threats to this species 1,350 m), with other native ferns, alteration of the environmental currently are the low numbers of grasses, and dwarfed woody species, in conditions and ecosystem that support occurrences and individuals, its limited the lowland wet and montane wet this species. The species, which already range, poor seedling recruitment, and ecosystems (Hillebrand 1888, p. 572; is affected by multiple stressors, may be loss of pollinators and dispersal agents Medeiros et al. 1993, p. 87; Wagner unable to tolerate or adapt to projected (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 20). (W.H.) et al. 1999, p. 156; TNCH 2007; changes in temperature and moisture, or Rats and slugs are noted as a threat to HBMP 2010). may be unable to move to areas with Cyanea kauaulaensis by herbivory and Historically, this fern was known more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini seed predation (Oppenheimer and from near sea level to 4,400 ft (1,350 m) et al. 2013, p. 68). Lorence 2012, p. 20). Additionally, on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island The remaining occurrences of nonnative plants modify and destroy (Hillebrand 1888, p. 572; Medeiros et al. Calamagrostis expansa and habitat for native habitat and outcompete native 1993, pp. 86–87; Palmer 2003, pp. 87– its reintroduction are at risk; C. expansa species, negatively affecting C. 88). Currently, Cyclosorus boydiae is populations are decreasing on Maui and kauaulaensis and its habitat found only at higher elevations on Oahu Hawaii Island, and this species (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 20). and east Maui, in 7 occurrences totaling continues to be negatively affected by Although feral ungulates are present on approximately 400 individuals (Palmer habitat modification and destruction, west Maui, the known occurrences of C. 2003, pp. 87–88; Oppenheimer 2008, in and by direct competition from kauaulaensis are likely not at risk from litt.; Fay 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; nonnative plants, combined with ungulates because of their location in Welton 2010, in litt.). On east Maui, herbivory by nonnative ungulates and extremely steep and rugged terrain; there are 5 occurrences (approximately rats. The effects of climate change are however, because of the terrain, 360 individuals) in the lowland wet and

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montane wet ecosystems, and on Oahu, nonnative plants, and herbivory by litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). there are 2 occurrences in the Koolau ungulates. The effects of climate change Additionally, nonnative plants degrade Mountains in the montane wet are likely to further exacerbate these and destroy native habitat and ecosystem, totaling 40 individuals threats. We find that this species should outcompete native species, also (Palmer 2003, pp. 87–88; Wood 2007, in be listed throughout all of its range, and, negatively affecting habitat of C. litt.; Kam 2008, in litt.; Oppenheimer therefore, we find that it is unnecessary neokunthianus on west Maui. Currently, 2008 and 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; to analyze whether it is endangered or there are no known extant individuals; Welton 2010, in litt.; Ching 2011, in threatened in a significant portion of its however, if it is extant, low numbers litt.). The historical occurrence of C. range. make this species more vulnerable to boydiae on the island of Hawaii was Cyperus neokunthianus (NCN) is a extinction because of the higher risks found in the lowland wet ecosystem in the sedge family from genetic bottlenecks, random (HBMP 2010). (Cyperaceae). Culms are three-sided, 16 demographic fluctuations, and localized Feral pigs modify and destroy the to 47 in (40 to 120 cm) tall, with short catastrophes. habitat of Cyclosorus boydiae on Maui and slightly thickened rhizomes. Leaves Habitat for any remaining individuals and Oahu, with evidence of the are shorter than to as long as the culm, of Cyperus neokunthianus, and for its activities of feral pigs reported at three with flat or curved margins and reddish reintroduction, is at risk; the species occurrences of C. boydiae on east Maui brown to dark brown sheaths. continues to be negatively affected by and at two occurrences on Oahu. are umbelliform (with a habitat modification and destruction by However, on east Maui, two of the five short axis), open to moderately dense, nonnative animals and plants. We find occurrences are provided protection in bearing numerous spikelets ( that this species should be listed Haleakala National Park (Wood 2007, in clusters). Achenes (fruit) are oblong, 3- throughout all of its range, and, litt.; Wood 2013, in litt.; HBMP 2010; sided, and about 1 in (2 mm) long therefore, we find that it is unnecessary Kawelo 2011, in litt.). Ungulates are (Koyama 1999, p. 1420). to analyze whether it is endangered or managed in Hawaii as game animals, Cyperus neokunthianus was threatened in a significant portion of its but public hunting does not adequately previously recognized as Mariscus range. control the numbers of ungulates to kunthianus, following the taxonomic Cyrtandra hematos (haiwale), a shrub eliminate habitat modification and treatment of Koyama (1990, p. 1420). In in the African violet family destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by 1997, Strong and Wagner (p. 39) (Gesneriaceae), is endemic to Molokai these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in following Tucker (1994, p. 9), and more (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762). This litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). recently Wagner and Herbst (2003, pp. species is 1 to 6.5 ft (0.3 to 2 m) tall, Historical occurrences of C. boydiae on 52–53; 2012, p. 81), moved all Hawaiian with minimally branched stems. The Oahu have dramatically declined in species of Mariscus to Cyperus, and leaves are in whorls of 3 to 4 per node, numbers or disappeared as a result of provides the most currently accepted often closely spaced and borne on the habitat alteration, landslides and taxonomic treatment of this species. upper 5 to 8 nodes. Flowers are solitary, flooding, nonnative plant species Cyperus neokunthianus occurs in white with a greenish calyx, and invading lower elevation stream riparian areas of the lowland wet narrowly tubular. Flower stalks are 0.3 courses, and man-made stream ecosystem on west Maui (Wagner et al. to 0.4 in (8 to 10 mm) long, and tubes diversions (Medeiros et al. 1993, p. 88; 1999, p. 1420; TNCH 2007; HBMP are about 0.7 in (18 mm) long (Wagner Palmer 2003, p. 88). Nonnative plants 2010). Historically, this species is et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762). Cyrtandra such as Tibouchina herbaceae known from Honokohau Falls at 2,800 hematos is recognized as a distinct (glorybush) modify and destroy native ft (854 m) and Waihee Valley (HBMP taxon by Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 760, habitat of C. boydiae, and outcompete 2010; Global Biodiversity Information 762), who provide the most recently this and other native species for water, Facility (GBIF) database 2014). This accepted taxonomic treatment of this nutrients, light, and space, or a species was last observed in 1996. species. Cyrtandra hematos occurs in nonnative plant may produce chemicals Currently, there are no known wet forest at 3,400 to 3,800 ft (1,030 to that inhibit growth of other plants individuals in the wild; however, 1,150 m) on eastern Molokai, in the (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; Vitousek et Waihee Valley and Maui County lands montane wet ecosystem (Wagner et al. al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. have been suggested as potential habitat 1999, pp. 760, 762; HBMP 2010; TNCH 74; Wood 2013, in litt.). Herbivory by for further surveys (PEPP 2013, p. 32; 2007). Historically, this species was feral pigs negatively impacts this PEPP 2014, p. 59). known from the Plateau, Kawela, species (HBMP 2010). Climate change Feral pigs modify and destroy the and Kahuoahu Valley on Molokai may result in alteration of the habitat of Cyperus neokunthianus on (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762). environmental conditions and west Maui, with evidence of the Currently, approximately 30 individuals ecosystems that support this species. activities of feral pigs reported in the are known from Kapulei, but this Cyclosorus boydiae, which already is area where this species was last occurrence has not been monitored affected by multiple stressors, may be observed (HBMP 2010). Habitat since 1999 (USFWS Rare Taxon unable to tolerate or adapt to projected modifications resulting from activities Database, in litt.). changes in temperature and moisture, or of feral pigs that affect C. neokunthianus Feral pigs and goats modify and may be unable to move to areas with include direct destruction of this destroy the habitat of Cyrtandra more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini species and other native plants, hematos on Molokai, with evidence of et al. 2013, p. 72). disruption of topsoil leading to erosion, the activities of these animals reported The remaining occurrences of and establishment and spread of in the areas where this species occurs Cyclosorus boydiae and habitat for its nonnative plants. Ungulates are (USFWS Rare Taxon Database, in litt.). reintroduction are at risk; C. boydiae managed in Hawaii as game animals, Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as populations are decreasing on Oahu, but public hunting does not adequately game animals, but public hunting does Maui, and Hawaii Island, and the control the numbers of ungulates to not adequately control the numbers of species continues to be negatively eliminate habitat modification and ungulates to eliminate habitat affected by habitat loss and destruction destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by modification and destruction, or to by ungulates, direct competition with these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in eliminate herbivory by these animals

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(Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– This fern is historically known from fern family (Dryopteridaceae). Fronds DLNR 2010, in litt.). Additionally, the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii, are 1.5 to 12 in (4 to30 cm) long and nonnative plants modify and destroy on rocky stream banks and in wet forest, densely clustered, with very thin stipes, native habitat of C. hematos and in the lowland mesic and lowland wet and fertile when small. Blades are 2- to outcompete this and other native ecosystems (Oppenheimer and 3-pinnate, with winged rachises, and species for water, nutrients, light, and Bustamente 2014, p. 103; Palmer 2003, marginal to submarginal sori (clusters of space, or a nonnative plant may produce pp. 109–111; PEPP 2014, p. 95; HBMP sporangia, the spore-bearing chemicals that inhibit growth of other 2010; TNCH 2007). Deparia kaalaana (reproductive) structures of ferns, along plants (USFWS Rare Taxon Database, in was presumed extinct on all three the blade edge). This species is litt.). This species may experience islands where it previously occurred recognized as a distinct taxon by Palmer reduced reproductive vigor due to low until one individual was discovered on (2003, p. 144). Habitat for Dryopteris numbers and lack of regeneration, east Maui, growing along a perennial glabra var. pusilla is deep shade on leading to diminished capacity to adapt stream on the western side of a small rocky, mossy streambanks in wet forest to environmental changes, and thereby pool with other native ferns and at about 4,000 ft (1,200 m), in the lessening the probability of long-term herbaceous plants (Oppenheimer and montane wet ecosystem on Kauai persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. Bustamente 2014, pp. 103–107; PEPP (Palmer 2003, p. 144; TNCH 2007; 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). 2014, p. 95). Feral pigs modify and destroy habitat HBMP 2010). Historically, D. glabra var. The reasons for this species’ lack of pusilla was known from the Kawaikoi regeneration in the wild are unknown at of Deparia kaalaana by facilitating the spread of nonnative plants, which stream area (HBMP 2010). Currently, this time. Climate change may result in this species is known from fewer than alteration of the environmental converts vegetation communities from native to nonnative (Oppenheimer and 250 individuals in the Alakai conditions and ecosystem that support Wilderness Preserve (including the this species. Cyrtandra hematos, which Bustamente 2014, p. 106; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63). Ungulates are Kawaiko stream area) on Kauai already is affected by multiple stressors, (National Tropical Botanical Garden may be unable to tolerate or adapt to managed in Hawaii as game animals, (NTBG) Herbarium Database 1995, in projected changes in temperature and but public hunting does not adequately litt.; HBMP 2010). moisture, or may be unable to move to control the numbers of ungulates to areas with more suitable climatic eliminate habitat modification and Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla is at risk regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 72). destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by from habitat degradation by nonnative these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in The remaining occurrences of plants and feral ungulates, loss of litt; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Cyrtandra hematos and habitat for its reproductive vigor, and the species’ Nonnative plants such as Blechnum reintroduction are at risk. The known vulnerability to climate change. Habitat appendiculatum (NCN), Clidemia hirta individuals are restricted to a small area modification and destruction by (Koster’s curse), Hedychium on Molokai and continue to be nonnative plants and feral ungulates is gardnerianum (kahili ginger), Prunella negatively affected by habitat an ongoing threat to Dryopteris glabra vulgaris (selfheal), and Rubus argutus modification and destruction by var. pusilla. Although most individuals (prickly Florida blackberry) are capable ungulates, and by direct competition occur in the Alakai Wilderness Preserve, of displacing all of the riparian habitat only portions of the Preserve are fenced with nonnative plants combined with elements, such as native plants, in the predation by nonnative ungulates. The to prevent ungulate incursion. area where D. kaalaana occurs. Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as low number of remaining individuals Nonnative slugs such as Derocerus may limit this species’ ability to adapt game animals, but public hunting does laevis and Limax maximus are common not adequately control the numbers of to environmental changes. The effects of in the area and can consume young climate change are likely to further ungulates to eliminate habitat plants (Joe and Daehler 2008, pp. 252– modification and destruction, or to exacerbate these threats. We find that 253). Climate change may induce eliminate herbivory by these animals this species should be listed throughout frequent and severe drought or cause (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– all of its range, and, therefore, we find extreme flooding events, and may DLNR 2010, in litt.). In addition, the that it is unnecessary to analyze impact the habitat and D. kaalaana limited number of occurrences and few whether it is endangered or threatened directly (Chu et al. 2010, pp. 4887, 4891, in a significant portion of its range. 4898). A single catastrophic event may individuals lead to a diminished Deparia kaalaana (NCN), a small, result in extirpation of the remaining capacity to adapt to environmental terrestrial fern in the ladyfern family individual. changes, thereby lessening the (Athyraceae), is recognized as a distinct The remaining occurrence of Deparia probability of long-term persistence, and taxon by Palmer (2003, pp. 109–111) kaalaana and habitat for its a single catastrophic event may result in and Christenhusz et al. (2012, p. 16). reintroduction are at risk, and both the extirpation of remaining occurrences. Fronds (fern leaves) are 6 to 12 in (15 species and its habitat on Hawaii, Maui, Climate change may result in alteration to 30 cm) long, sometimes bearing and Kauai continues to be negatively of the environmental conditions and plantlets at the end of the rachis (the affected by modification and destruction ecosystem that support this species. midrib of the fern blade, which is the by nonnative ungulates, and by direct Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla pusilla expanded part of the frond above the competition with nonnative plants, may be unable to tolerate or respond to stipe). Stipes (the stalk of the frond combined with herbivory by nonnative changes in temperature and moisture, or joining the stem to the blade) are straw- ungulates and slugs. We find that this may be unable to move to areas with colored and sparsely scaly. Blades are species should be listed throughout all more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini oblong-lanceolate, with 9 to 11 pairs of of its range, and, therefore, we find that et al. 2013, p. 74). Because of these pinnae. This species is distinguished it is unnecessary to analyze whether it threats, we find that this species plant from D. marginalis by its smaller, short- is endangered or threatened in a should be listed as endangered stalked and obliquely arranged pinnae, significant portion of its range. throughout all of its range, and, ultimate segments, and veins (Palmer Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla (hohiu) therefore, we find that it is unnecessary 2003, pp. 109–111). is a small, terrestrial fern in the wood to analyze whether it is endangered or

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threatened in a significant portion of its goats are still being removed from alternate (many flowers on one range. within the fenced area (Evans 2015, in branch), with a flattened rachis (main Exocarpos menziesii (heau) is shrub litt.; Nadig 2015, in litt.). Any axis) with flat hairs. The fruits are in the sandalwood family (). individuals of E. menziesii outside of ellipsoid, dorsally compressed, and Individuals are from 2 to 6.5 ft (0.5 to fenced exclosures or outside of the approximately 0.2 in (5 mm) long 2 m) tall. Stems are densely branched managed area are at risk. Occurrences (O’Connor 1999, p. 1547). Festuca toward the ends, with conspicuously and numbers of individuals have hawaiiensis was treated by Hillebrand maroon-tinged tips. The leaves are declined on the island of Hawaii (HBMP (1888, pp. 534–535) as an introduced usually scale-like, with occasional 2010; Thomas 2014, in litt.), once species, F. drymeia; however, F. oblanceolate, foliaceous leaves 0.4 to 0.6 widely distributed from the south to the hawaiiensis is currently recognized as a in (10 to 14 mm) long. Flowers are red west sides of the island, and are now distinct taxon in O’Connor (1999, p. and drupes are reddish brown to red at restricted to two locations;, 1547), the most recently accepted maturity, ovoid, 0.3 to 0.4 in (7 to 10 consequently E. menziesii may Hawaiian plant taxonomy. mm) long, with a small terminal beak experience reduced reproductive vigor Typical habitat for this species is dry partially embedded in a yellow, fleshy, due to reduced levels of genetic forest at 6,500 ft (2,000 m), in the receptacle (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1218). variability, leading to diminished montane dry ecosystem (O’Connor 1999, Exocarpos menziesii is recognized as a capacity to adapt to environmental p. 1547). Historically, F. hawaiiensis distinct taxon by Wagner et al. (1999, p. changes, thereby reducing the occurred at Hualalai and Puu Huluhulu 1218), who provide the most recently probability of long-term persistence on the island of Hawaii, and possibly at accepted taxonomic treatment of this (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman Ulupalakua on Maui; however, it is no species. This species occurs in and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010). longer found at these sites (O’Connor Metrosideros shrubland or drier forest Fire is a potential threat to this species; 1999, p. 1547). Currently, F. hawaiiensis areas, and on lava flows with sparse although the U.S. Army has constructed is only known from PTA on the island vegetation, from 4,600 to 6,900 ft (1,400 firebreaks and has standard operating of Hawaii (HBMP 2010). These to 2,100 m), in the montane dry procedures in place for prevention and remaining four occurrences are within ecosystem on the island of Hawaii suppression of wildfires at PTA, an area of less than 10 square miles (26 (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1218; TNCH wildfires may encroach from other areas square kilometers) and total 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically, this (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in litt.). The approximately 1,500 individuals (U.S. species was also found in the lowland small number of individuals outside the Army Garrison 2013, in litt.; Evans mesic (Lanai and Hawaii Island) and occurrence at PTA may limit this 2015, in litt.). montane mesic ecosystems (Hawaii species’ ability to adapt to by feral goats, Island) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). environmental change. Climate change sheep, and mouflon is a threat to the Exocarpos menziesii is historically may result in alteration of the habitat of Festuca hawaiiensis. These known from the island of Lanai environmental conditions and ungulates browse on native plants such (Kaiholena Gulch) and was formerly ecosystems that support this species. as grasses, and likely browse on F. more wide-spread on the island of Exocarpos menziesii may be unable to hawaiiensis. Ungulates are managed in Hawaii (from Kahuku Ranch in the tolerate or respond to changes in Hawaii as game animals, but public south to Hualalai and Puukapele on the temperature and moisture, or may be hunting does not adequately control the leeward slopes) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. unable to move to areas with more numbers of ungulates to eliminate 1218; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. habitat modification and destruction, or Currently, there is 1 scattered 2013, p. 76). to eliminate herbivory by these animals occurrence of fewer than 20 individuals The remaining occurrences of (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– on the slopes of Hualalai and Exocarpos menziesii and suitable DLNR 2010, in litt.). Feral ungulate approximately 1,800 individuals in the locations for reintroductions are at risk management is incorporated into the U.S. Army’s Pohakuloa Training Area from habitat modification and U.S. Army’s PTA management plan. (PTA) on the island of Hawaii (PEPP destruction; from herbivory, by feral These plants are provided some 2013, pp. 10, 33; Thomas 2014, in litt.; goats, mouflon, and sheep; and from the protection within fenced management Evans 2015, in litt.). There are no small number of remaining occurrences. units in the training area; however, known occurrences of this species on Fire is a potential threat to this species. goats were recently removed from Lanai today. The effects of climate change are likely within fenced areas (Evans 2015, in litt.; Feral goats, mouflon, and sheep to exacertbate these threats. Because of Nadig 2015, in litt.). Any individuals of modify and destroy the habitat of these threats, we find that this species F. hawaiiensis outside of fenced Exocarpos menziesii on Hawaii Island, should be listed throughout all of its exclosures or outside of the managed with evidence of the activities of these range, and, therefore, we find that it is area are at risk. Nonnative plants, such animals reported in the areas where this unnecessary to analyze whether it is as setaceus ( species occurs (USFWS Rare Taxon endangered or threatened in a setaceum, fountain grass), are Database 2015, in litt.). Ungulates are significant portion of its range. naturalized in the area, and outcompete managed in Hawaii as game animals, Festuca hawaiiensis (NCN) is a F. hawaiiensis and other native plants. but public hunting does not adequately cespitose (growing in tufts or clumps) Occurrences and numbers of control the numbers of ungulates to annual in the grass family (Poaceae) individuals are declining on the island eliminate habitat modification and (O’Connor 1999, p. 1547). This species of Hawaii, and F. hawaiiensis likely destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by has numerous erect culms (stems or experiences reduced reproductive vigor these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in stalks) 2 to 5 ft (0.5 to 1.5 m) tall, due to reduced levels of genetic litt; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). Feral branching above the base, which are variability, leading to diminished ungulate management is incorporated glabrous to slightly hairy. Sheaths are capacity to adapt to environmental into the U.S. Army’s PTA management open and blades are flat and smooth, 10 changes, thereby reducing the plan. These plants are provided some to 16 in (25 to 40 cm) long, and 0.1 to probability of long-term persistence protection within fenced management 0.5 in (0.3 to 1 cm) wide. Branched (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman units in the training area; however, feral inflorescences are composed of 6 to 8 and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010).

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Fire is a potential threat to this species, Historically, this species was found of their activities are reported at the especially because of the ingress of on the island of Hawaii at Wao Kele O occurrences of G. remyi in the Molokai nonnative grass species. Although the Puna NAR, Waiakea Forest Reserve FR (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by these U.S. Army has constructed firebreaks (FR), Pahoa, and Hakalau Nui. On Maui, ungulates is a likely threat to G. remyi, and has standard operating procedures this species was known from Wailuaiki as they browse on leaves and other parts in place for prevention and suppression and Waikamoi in the Koolau FR, and of almost any woody or fleshy plant of wildfires at PTA, fires may encroach from Papaaea and Kipahulu. On species. Nonnative plants modify and from other areas, exacerbated by fuel Molokai, this species was known from destroy native habitat of G. remyi and loads provided by nonnative grasses Keopukaloa, Pukoo, Honomuni, Halawa, outcompete this and other native plant (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in litt.). and Kaluaaha (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, for water, nutrients, light, and space, in Climate change may result in alteration this species ranged across the island, areas where G. remyi occurs on Hawaii of the environmental conditions and and was known from Halelea, Kealia, Island, Kauai, Maui, and Molokai ecosystems that support this species. Moloaa, and Lihue-Koloa FRs, including (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Perry Festuca hawaiiensis may be unable to Hanakapiai Valley, Mahaulepu, and east 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; tolerate or respond to changes in Wahiawa Bog. Currently, Gardenia HBMP 2010). Landslides are a threat to temperature and moisture, or may be remyi is known from 19 occurrences the occurrences and habitat of G. remyi unable to move to areas with more totaling approximately 90 individuals ranging from Honopue to Waipio in the suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Kohala Mountains on Hawaii Island 2013, p. 76). Molokai, and Kauai (Wood 2005, in litt.; (Perry 2006, in litt.). Lack of pollination The remaining occurrence of Festuca Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Perry was suggested as the cause for abortion hawaiiensis and habitat for its 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; of immature fruits that were seen among reintroduction are at risk; F. hawaiiensis Agorastos 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; plants at Wao Kele O Puna FR on the occurences have decreased on Hawaii Perlman 2010, in litt.). On Hawaii, island of Hawaii (PEPP 2010, p. 73). Island, as it no longer occurs at Hualalai individuals occur in Puu O Umi NAR Similarly, Agorastos (2011, in litt.) and Puu Huluhulu, and the species may (12), Wao Kele O Puna (3), Waiakea FR reported no viable seed production in be extirpated from Maui. This species (1), and in Kohala NAR (1 individual in the wild or within ex situ collections at continues to be negatively affected by poor health and threatened by habitat Volcano Rare Plant Facility and no habitat modification and destruction by modification and destruction and recruitment in the wild among the 14 ungulates and by direct competition competition with Melastoma sp.). On individuals observed on the island of with nonnative plants, combined with east Maui, there is 1 individual at Hawaii, for unknown reasons. Predation herbivory by ungulates, especially on Kipahulu, and on west Maui, there are of seeds by rats is reported as a threat Maui. Fire is a potential threat to the 2 individuals at Honokohau drainage, to individuals on Kauai (NTBG 2008, in species and its habitat. The effects of an occurrence of 21 individuals at litt.). Climate change may result in climate change are likely to further Honolua peak, and 9 individuals at alteration of the environmental exacerbate these threats. Because of Honokohau-Hononana ridge conditions and ecosystems that support these threats, we find that this species (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; this species. Gardenia remyi may be should be listed throughout all of its Welton 2009, in litt.). The number of unable to tolerate or respond to changes range, and, therefore, we find that it is individuals in the Molokai FR declined in temperature and moisture, or may be unnecessary to analyze whether it is from 20 to 4 over a period of 5 years unable to move to areas with more endangered or threatened in a (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.). suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. significant portion of its range. Currently, on Molokai, there are 2 2013, p. 76). Gardenia remyi (nanu) is a tree in the coffee family (). This species individuals within the Molokai FR, 1 The remaining occurrences of is 10 to 43 ft (3 to 13 m) tall with individual at Manuahi ridge, and Gardenia remyi and habitat for its branches that are quadrangular and possibly 1 remaining individual at reintroduction are at risk. Gardenia covered with fine, short, sticky hairs. Mapulehu. On Kauai there are 6 remyi continues to be negatively Leaves are clustered towards the tips of individuals at Limahuli, 14 at Kalalau, affected by habitat modification and the branches, broadly elliptic to ovate, 1 at Puuauuka, 2 at Puu Kolo, 1 at destruction by ungulates, and by direct 4 to 10 in (9 to 24 cm) long, 2 to 4 in Waioli Valley, 1 at Kahili, and 6 at competition from nonnative plants, (5 to 10 cm) wide, with a glabrous upper Waipa (NTBG 2008, in litt; Perlman combined with herbivory by ungulates surface and dull lower surface. Flowers 2010, in litt.). and seed predation by rats. Natural are fragrant, solitary, with a 6- to 8- Habitat modification and destruction events such as landslides are a threat to lobed white corolla. Fruit are orange, by feral pigs, goats, and deer negatively occurrences on the island of Hawaii. round to ellipsoid, 1 in (3 cm) in affects Gardenia remyi and areas for its Pollination and seed production are diameter, with small seeds (Wagner et reintroduction (Perry, in litt. 2006; PEPP observed to be limited. Low numbers of al. 1999, p. 1133). Gardenia remyi was 2008, p. 102; HBMP 2010). Feral pigs individuals (90 total individuals described by Mann (1867, p. 171). This and signs of their activities have been distributed across 4 islands) makes this species is recognized as a distinct taxon reported at occurrences of G. remyi in species more vulnerable to extinction in Wagner et al. (1999, p. 1133), which the Kohala Mountains and at Wao Kele because of the higher risks from genetic provides the most recently accepted O Puna on the island of Hawaii; the bottlenecks, random demographic taxonomic treatment of this species. Halelea and Lihue-Koloa FRs on Kauai; fluctuations, and localized catastrophes. Typical habitat for G. remyi is mesic to the West Maui FR and West Maui NAR, The effects of climate change are likely wet forest at 190 to 2,500 ft (60 to 760 and the Puu Kukui Preserve on Maui; to exacerbate these threats. Because of m), in the lowland mesic (Kauai, and the Molokai FR. Goats and signs of these threats, we find that this species Molokai, and Hawaii Island) and their activities are reported at the should be listed throughout all of its lowland wet ecosystems (Kauai, occurrences of G. remyi on the island of range, and, therefore, we find that it is Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island) Kauai at the Kalalau Valley, and on the unnecessary to analyze whether it is (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1133; TNCH island of Molokai in Pelekunu Preserve endangered or threatened in a 2007; HBMP 2010). and the Molokai FR. Axis deer and signs significant portion of its range.

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Huperzia stemmermanniae (NCN) is and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010). of individuals, leading to diminished an epiphytic, hanging fir-moss (a fern Climate change may result in alteration capacity to adapt to environmental ally) in the club moss family of the environmental conditions and changes, and thereby lessening the (). Sterile stem bases are ecosystems that support this species. probability of long-term persistence unforked or once-forked, short, usually Huperzia stemmermanniae may be (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman less than 6 in (15 cm) long, green to pale unable to tolerate or respond to changes and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate yellow, with fertile terminal strobili in temperature and moisture, or may be change may result in alteration of the (fertile leaves). The strobili fork at an unable to move to areas with more environmental conditions and acute angle and the branches are usually suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. ecosystems that support this species. straight (Palmer 2003, pp. 257–259). 2013, p. 77). Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis Huperzia stemmermanniae was first The remaining occurrences of may be unable to tolerate or respond to described as Huperzia stemmermanniae and habitat changes in temperature and moisture, or stemmermanniae by Medeiros and for its reintroduction are at risk. The may be unable to move to areas with Wagner (Medeiros et al. 1996, pp. 90– known individuals are restricted to a more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini 96). Kartesz (1999, in NatureServe small area on Hawaii Island, and this et al. 2013, p. 78). Explorer 2014, in litt.) moved the species continues to be negatively The remaining occurrences of species to the genus Huperzia. Currently affected by habitat modification and Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis this species is recognized as a distinct destruction by ungulates. The low and habitat for its reintroduction are at taxon in the latest treatment (Palmer numbers of individuals H. risk. Nonnative plants modify and 2003, pp. 257–259). This species is stemmermanniae may reduce the destroy native habitat, and also epiphytic on rough bark of living probability of its long-term persistence. outcompete native Hawaiian plants. or fallen logs in Metrosideros The effects of climate change are likely This variety is moderately vulnerable to polymorpha- forest on east to further exacerbate these threats. the impacts of climate change, and the Maui and the island of Hawaii, at 3,200 Because of these threats, we find that small number of remaining individuals to 3,800 ft (975 to 1,160 m), in the this species should be listed throughout may limit this variety’s ability to adapt montane wet ecosystem (Medeiros et al. all of its range, and, therefore, we find to environmental change. Because of 1996, p. 93; Palmer 2003, pp. 257, 259; that it is unnecessary to analyze these threats, we find that this plant TNCH2007; HBMP 2010). There is little whether it is endangered or threatened should be listed throughout all of its information available on the historical in a significant portion of its range. range, and, therefore, we find that it is range of this species. Huperzia Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis unnecessary to analyze whether it is stemmermanniae was first collected in (olua) is a small terrestrial member of endangered or threatened in a the bracken fern family 1981, from two occurrences totaling 10 significant portion of its range. (Dennstaedtiaceae), and is recognized as Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens individuals in Laupahoehoe NAR on the a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003, pp. (ohe) is an erect, perennial herb in the island of Hawaii, and was mistakenly 168–169). This variety is a miniature Joinvillea family () identified as H. mannii (Medeiros et al. form of H. hawaiiensis. Fronds are 2.5 (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1450). This 1996, p. 93; HBMP 2010). Currently, to 10 in (6 to 25 cm) long; rhizomes are subspecies is 5 to 16 ft (2 to 5 m) tall. approximately 30 individuals occur in slender, 0.04 to 0.1 in (1 to 3 mm) in Leaf blades are narrowly elliptic, up to the Laupahoehoe area on the island of diameter; and parts are covered with 32 in (80 cm) long and 6 in (16 cm) Hawaii. One individual occurred in chainlike, acute-tipped, tan hairs. wide. Both leaf surfaces have scattered Kaapahu Valley on east Maui, but this Fronds are fully fertile at their smallest bristles, with the lower surface also individual has not been relocated since size (Palmer 2003, pp. 168–169). sparsely to moderately pubescent. Fruit 1995 (Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis are 0.2 in (6 mm) in diameter (Wagner in litt.; HBMP 2010; Conry 2012, in occurs in mesic and wet forest, but et al. 1999, p. 1450). Joinvillea litt.). predominately in the montane wet ascendens ssp. ascendens was described Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle ecosystem (Palmer 2003, pp. 168–170). by Brongniart and Gris (Brongniart modify and destroy the habitat of This species is historically known from 1861, pp. 264–269), and is recognized as Huperzia stemmermanniae on Maui, Eke Crater, Kapunakea, and Puu Kukui, a distinct taxon by Wagner et al. (1999, and feral pigs modify and destroy the on west Maui (Palmer 2003, pp. 168– pp. 1450–1451), who provide the most habitat of this species on Hawaii Island 170). Currently, 5 to 10 individuals are recently accepted taxonomic treatment (Medeiros et al. 1996, p. 96; Wood 2003, known from openings between bogs of this subspecies. Joinvillea ascendens in litt.; HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral above 5,000 ft on west Maui, and a few ssp. ascendens occurs in wet to mesic pigs, goats, cattle, and axis deer is a individuals occur at Hanawi on east -Acacia koa potential threat to H. stemmermanniae. Maui (Maui Nui Task Force (MNTF) lowland and montane forest, and along Nonnative plants modify and destroy 2010, in litt.). intermittent streams, at 1,000 to 4,300 ft the forest habitat that supports the Nonnative plants modify and destroy (305 to 1,300 m); in the lowland mesic native species upon which this the habitat of Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. (Kauai), lowland wet (Oahu, Molokai, epiphytic plant grows, and drought may mauiensis on east and west Maui Maui, and Hawaii Island), montane wet also negatively affect this species and its (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010, in litt.). (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and habitat (Medeiros et al. 1996, p. 96; Nonnative plants also displace this and Hawaii Island), and montane mesic Perry 2006, in litt.; HBMP 2010). other native Hawaiian plant species by ecosystems (Kauai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP Huperzia stemmermanniae may competing for water, nutrients, light, 2010). experience reduced reproductive vigor and space, or they may produce Historically, this subspecies was due to reduced levels of genetic chemicals that inhibit growth of other found in widely distributed occurrences variability, leading to diminished plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, capacity to adapt to environmental Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Maui, and Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010). changes, thereby lessening the Stones 1990, p. 74; MNTF 2010). This On Kauai, this subspecies was wide- probability of long-term persistence fern may experience reduced ranging across the mountains and into (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman reproductive vigor due to low numbers coastal areas (HBMP 2010). On Oahu,

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this subspecies was known from the germinate in cultivation, the seedlings and in open shrubland with sparse tree summit area of the Waianae Mountains, rarely survive to maturity, with a loss of cover in the lowland mesic ecosystem and ranged along the entire length of the individuals through attrition. It is (Wood 1998, in litt.; TNCH 2007). On Koolau Mountain range. On Molokai, uncertain if this rarity of reproduction is Oahu, K. fluviatilis occurs along rocky this subspecies was known from the typical, or if it is related to habitat streambanks in wet Metrosideros forest eastern half of the island ranging from disturbance (Wagner et al. 1999, p. from 820 to 1,990 ft (250 to 607 m) in Pelekunu Preserve and east to Halawa 1451). Climate change may result in the lowland wet ecosystem (HBMP Valley. On west Maui, it occurred in the alteration of the environmental 2010; TNCH 2007). summit area, and on east Maui, it conditions and ecosystems that support Historically, Kadua fluviatilis was ranged on the northeastern side from the this species. Joinvillea ascendens ssp. known from the island of Kauai in at Koolau FR south to Kipahulu Valley. On ascendensascendens may be unable to least 5 occurrences ranging from the Hawaii Island, it occurred almost tolerate or respond to changes in north coast across the central plateau to island-wide. Currently, Joinvillea temperature and moisture, or may be the south coast, and from the island of ascendens ssp. ascendens is still found unable to move to areas with more Oahu in at least 11 occurrences in the on the same islands, in 56 occurrences suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. northern Koolau Mountains, ranging totaling approximately 200 individuals 2013, p. 76). from Koloa Gulch to Waipio (HBMP (HBMP 2010; Conry 2012, in litt.). On The remaining occurrences of 2010). Currently, this species is known Kauai, this subspecies is no longer Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens and from only 11 occurrences totaling known from the east and south side of habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. between 400 and 900 individuals on the the island (since the 1930s), but there The known individuals continue to be islands of Kauai and Oahu (Wood 2005, are approximately 10 known negatively affected by habitat p. 7; NTBG 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). occurrences on the north side of the modification and destruction by On Kauai, K. fluviatilis is known from island. On Oahu, this subspecies no ungulates, compounded with possible two locations: Hanakapiai on the north longer occurs in the southern Koolau herbivory by ungulates and rats. The coast and Haupu Mountain on the south Mountains (range reduction since the small number of remaining individuals, coast. On Oahu, K. fluviatilis is no 1930s), about 12 of the 20 known smaller distribution, and poor longer found in the most northern and occurrences remain, with the range and recruitment in the wild may limit this southern historical locations in the numbers of occurrences remaining subspecies’ ability to adapt to Koolau Mountains, and currently ranges about the same (6) in the Waianae environmental changes. Because of in the north from Kaipapau to Helemano Mountains. On east Maui, the known these threats, we find that this (HBMP 2010; U.S. Army database 2014). occurrences have decreased from 12 to subspecies should be listed throughout Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy habitat of Kadua fluviatilis 4 (since the 1980s); on west Maui, 1 all of its range, and, therefore, we find (HBMP 2010). Evidence of the activities formerly large occurrence has decreased that it is unnecessary to analyze of feral pigs has been reported at the to approximately 40 individuals (since whether it is endangered or threatened Hanakapiai and Haupu occurrences on 1980), with 1 other occurrence in a significant portion of its range. Kadua fluviatilis (previously Hedyotis Kauai, and at all of the Oahu approximately 2 mi to the east. On fluviatilis) (kamapuaa, pilo) is a occurrences (Wood 1998, in litt.; HBMP Molokai, the number of occurrences has climbing shrub in the coffee family 2010). Feral goats and evidence of their increased to 20, but these are restricted (Rubiaceae) family. Plants are foetid activities have been observed at to a much smaller central area of the when bruised. Stems are cylindrical and Hanakapiai on Kauai (HBMP 2010). island (range reduction since the 1930s). slightly flattened, 1 to 8 ft (0.3 to 3 m) Herbivory by feral pigs and goats is a On Hawaii Island, the known long, with short lateral branches. Leaves likely threat to K. fluviatilis. Nonnative occurrences have decreased from 17 are widely spaced, papery, elliptic- plants modify and destroy native habitat locations to 2 since the 1950s (HBMP oblanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, 3 to 7 of K. fluviatilis and outcompete this and 2010; Oahu Task Force Meeting (OTFM) in (8 to 17 cm) long, and 1 to 2 in (3 other native species for water, nutrients, 2014, in litt.). to 5 cm) wide. White flowers are fleshy light, and space, or a nonnative plant Nonnative ungulates modify and and waxy, with several small, sac-like may produce chemicals that inhibit destroy habitat on all of the islands glands between corolla lobes. Capsules growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. where Joinvillea ascendens ssp. are woody, strongly quadrangular or 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in ascendens occurs (Oppenheimer 2006, winged, 0.5 in (1 cm) long, and 0.5 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood pers. comm.; Moses 2006, in litt.; (1 cm) in diameter. Seeds are 1998, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Kadua Welton and Haus 2008, p. 16; HBMP translucent reddish brown, wedge- fluviatilis is negatively affected by 2010; Perlman 2010, in litt.). Herbivory shaped, and minutely reticulate (netted) landslides on Kauai (HBMP 2010). by feral pigs, goats, deer, and rats is a (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1142–1144). Climate change may result in alteration likely threat to this species. Many First described as Kadua fluviatilis by of the environmental conditions and nonnative plant species modify and Forbes (1912, p. 6), this species was ecosystems that support this species. destroy habitat, and outcompete this moved to the genus Hedyotis by Fosberg Kadua fluviatilis may be unable to subspecies (HBMP 2010). Randomly (1943, p. 90), and was recognized as a tolerate or respond to changes in occurring natural events, such as distinct taxon in Wagner et al. (1999, temperature and moisture, or may be landslides, are a likely threat to the pp. 1142–1144). Terrell et al. (2005, pp. unable to move to areas with more occurrences of J. ascendens ssp. 832–833) placed Hedyotis fluviatilis in suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. ascendens on Kauai and Molokai synonymy with Kadua fluviatilis, the 2013, p. 78). (HBMP 2010). Fire is a potential threat earlier, validly published name, and this The remaining occurrences of Kadua to this species in the drier areas of the is the currently accepted scientific fluviatilis and habitat for its Waianae Mountains of Oahu (HBMP name. Typical habitat for this species on reintroduction are at risk. Numbers of 2010). This subspecies is usually found Kauai is mixed native shrubland and occurrences and individuals are as widely separated individuals. Metrosideros forest at 750 to 2,200 ft decreasing on Oahu and Kauai, from 16 Seedlings have rarely been observed in (230 to 680 m), in the lowland mesic occurrences to 11, and from over 1,000 the wild, and, although mature seeds ecosystem (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010), individuals to between 400 and 900

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individuals (HBMP 2010; Oahu Task this species’ ability to adapt to remain (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). Force Meeting 2014, in litt.). This environmental change. Because of these Because of these threats, we find that L. species continues to be negatively threats, we find that K. haupuensis lorenciana should be listed throughout affected by habitat modification and should be listed throughout all of its all of its range, and, therefore, we find destruction by feral pigs and goats, range, and, therefore, we find that it is that it is unnecessary to analyze stochastic events such as landslides, unnecessary to analyze whether it is whether it is endangered or threatened and direct competition from nonnative endangered or threatened in a in a significant portion of its range. plants, combined with herbivory by significant portion of its range. Lepidium orbiculare (anaunau) is a nonnative ungulates. Climate change is Labordia lorenciana (NCN) is a small small, many-branched shrub in the likely to further exacerbate these threats. tree in the Logania family (Loganiaceae). mustard family (Brassicaceae). Because of these threats, we find that Individuals are 10 to 13 ft (3 to 4 m) tall. Individuals are 2 to 4 ft (0.6 to 1 m) tall this species should be listed throughout The bark is grayish brown and mottled (St. John 1981, pp. 371–373; Wagner et all of its range, and, therefore, we find white or dark brown. Leaves are al. 1999, p. 409). Glabrous leaves are that it is unnecessary to analyze opposite, chartaceous (papery), and thin and crowded at the stem apex, not whether it is endangered or threatened hairy. Flowers, functionally unisexual, very fleshy and usually elliptical, in a significant portion of its range. are green, forming unbranched cymes. occasionally lanceolate or oblanceolate, Kadua haupuensis (NCN) is a shrub Fruit mature to brown capsules 1 to 1.5 3 to 7 in (6 to 17 cm) long, with rounded in the coffee family (Rubiaceae). This in (25 to 37 mm) with ellipsoid 0.08 to serrate margins. White flowers are in species is subdioecious (male and 0.12 in (2 to 3 mm) seeds (Wood et al. indeterminate racemes with branches female flowers on separate plants, with 2007, pp. 195–197). Labordia lorenciana subtended by linear, leaf-like bracts (1 sporadic hermaphroditic flowers), 3 to 5 was discovered and validated by Wood in (2 cm)) long, with fine, short hairs. ft (1 to 1.5 m) tall, with erect, brittle et al. (2007, pp. 195–199). This species Seeds are reddish brown, orbicular (the stems and glabrous branchlets with occurs on the island of Kauai at 3,800 name L. orbiculare is in reference to the minutely hairy nodes. Older branches ft (1,160 m), in forest in the montane seed shape) with pale, membranous- are brown with longitudinally fissured mesic ecosystem (Wood et al. 2007, pp. winged margins (Wagner et al. 1999, p. bark. Leaves are oblong to lanceolate or 197–198). Currently, there are four 409; St. John 1981, pp. 371–373). lanceolate-ovate and glabrous or known individuals in Kawaiiki Valley. Lepidium orbiculare was resurrected sparsely hairy, 1 to 5 in (3 to 12 cm) Additional surveys for L. lorenciana from synonymy with L. serra and is long and 0.4 to 1 in (1 to 3cm) wide, have not been successful; however, recognized as a distinct taxon by with conspicuous reticulate veins. experts believe this species may occur Wagner and Herbst (2003, p. 13). This Petioles are narrowly winged. Flowers in other areas (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). species occurs in mesic forest on Mt. are white or greenish-white with a Labordia lorenciana is at risk from Haupu, on the island of Kauai, in the purple tint. Fruit capsules produce habitat modification and destruction lowland mesic ecosystem (Wagner et al. numerous brown or blackish seeds and herbivory by nonnative mammals, 1999, p. 409; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, (Lorence et al. 2010, pp. 137–144). displacement of individuals through p. 34; TNCH 2007). Historically, Kadua haupuensis is recognized as a competition with nonnative plants, Lepidium orbiculare species was known distinct taxon by Lorence et al. (2010, stochastic events, and potential from widely scattered occurrences on pp. 137–144). There is no historical problems associated with small Kauai (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 409). information for this species as it was populations. Feral pigs and goats Currently, there is one occurrence of recently discovered and described modify and destroy the habitat of fewer than 50 individuals at Mt. Haupu (Lorence et al. 2010, pp. 137–144). Labordia lorenciana (Wood et al. 2007, (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 19; PEPP 2014, Kadua haupuensis was discovered in p. 198). Ungulates are managed in p. 34; Smithsonian Institution 2015, in 2007, just below and along cliffs in an Hawaii as game animals, but public litt.). isolated area on the north face of Mt. hunting does not adequately control the Feral pigs have been documented to Haupu, on southern Kauai, from 980 to numbers of ungulates to eliminate modify and destroy habitat of other rare 1,640 ft (300 to 500 m), in the lowland habitat modification and destruction by and endangered native plant species at mesic ecosystem (TNCH 2007; Lorence these animals. Predation of seeds by rats the same location on Mt. Haupu, Kauai et al. 2010, pp. 137–144). Currently, is a likely threat to this species (Wood (Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140); therefore, there are no known extant individuals et al. 2007, p. 198). Competition with we consider that activities of feral pigs of K. haupuensis in the wild; however, nonnative plant species, including also pose a threat to Lepidium there are 11 individuals of this species Lantana camara, Passiflora tarminiana orbiculare. Nonnative plants degrade propagated from collections from the (banana poka), Psidium cattleianum native habitat and outcompete native wild plants. (strawberry guava), and Rubus argutus, plants, are found at the last known Feral pigs modify and destroy the is a threat to L. lorenciana, as these location of L. orbiculare. Landslides are habitat of Kadua haupuensis on Kauai nonnative plants have the ability to an additional threat to this species. (Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140). Predation spread rapidly and cover large areas in Lepidium orbiculare may experience of fruits and seeds by rats is a potential the forest understory, and can reduced reproductive vigor due to threat. Landslides are an additional outcompete native plants (Smith 1985, reduced levels of genetic variability, threat to this species at its last known pp. 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in leading to diminished capacity to adapt occurrence. Nonnative plants such as Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood to environmental changes, and thereby Caesalpinia decapetala (wait-a-bit) and et al. 2007, p. 198). Randomly occurring lessening the probability of long-term Passiflora laurifolia (yellow granadilla), natural events, such as landslides, flash persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. and various grasses that modify and floods, fallen tree limbs, and fire, are a 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; destroy native habitat and outcompete likely threat to L. lorenciana where it PEPP 2014, p. 34). native plants are found at the last occurs on Kauai (Wood et al. 2007, p. The remaining occurrence of known location of K. haupuensis. The 198). This species may experience Lepidium orbiculare and habitat for its small number of remaining individuals reduced reproductive vigor as there is reintroduction are at risk; the species in propagation, and no known no in situ seedling recruitment and a continues to be negatively affected by remaining wild individuals, may limit very small number of individuals habitat modification and destruction by

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feral pigs, and by direct competition Oahu that is compounded by the low widely scattered occurrences along the from nonnative plants. Natural events number of individuals (Kawelo 2010, in Koolau Mountains summit ridge (48 such as landslides are a threat to the litt.). Climate change may result in individuals) (lowland mesic and only known occurrence of the species alteration of the environmental lowland wet ecosystems) (HBMP 2010). (HBMP 2010). The small number of conditions and ecosystems that support On Kauai, this species was once widely individuals may limit this species’ M. strigosa var. mauiensis. This variety scattered in the northwest and central ability to adapt to environmental may be unable to tolerate or respond to areas, but is currently known from only change. Because of these threats, we changes in temperature and moisture, or 55 remaining individuals in those same find that this species should be listed may be unable to move to areas with areas (Wood 2005 and 2007, in litt.; throughout all of its range, and, more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini HBMP 2010). therefore, we find that it is unnecessary et al. 2013, p. 82), and the effects of Myrsine fosbergii is at risk from to analyze whether it is endangered or climate change are likely to exacerbate habitat modification and destruction by threatened in a significant portion of its the threats listed above. Because of nonnative plants and animals; herbivory range. those threats, we find that this plant by feral pigs and goats; the displacement Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis should be listed throughout all of its of individuals through competition with (NCN) is a terrestrial, medium-sized fern range, and, therefore, we find that it is nonnative plants for space, nutrients, in the bracken fern family unnecessary to analyze whether it is water, air, and light; and the low (Dennstaedtiaceae), with fronds to 40 in endangered or threatened in a number of individuals. On Oahu, (100 cm) long. This variety is extremely significant portion of its range. evidence of the activities of feral pigs hairy, with the stipes, rachises Myrsine fosbergii (kolea) is a branched has been reported at all summit (midribs), costae (frond rib), and entire shrub or small tree in the myrsine populations (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, fronds covered with uniform, jointed family (Myrsinaceae). This species is 7 evidence of the activities of feral pigs hairs with pointed tips. The rachises are to 13 ft (2 to 4 m) tall, with dark reddish has been reported at the centrally often zigzag (Palmer 2003, p. 186). This brown, glabrous branches and glabrous, located occurrences (Wood 2005 and fern was originally described as narrowly elliptic leaves clustered at the 2007, in litt.; HBMP 2010), and evidence Microlepia mauiensis by Wagner (1993, tips of the branches (dark green with of the activities of feral goats has been pp. 73–75) from a collection made at dark purple bases). Flowers are perfect reported at the north-central Hanaula, west Maui. In the most recent or possibly unisexual (dioecious), occurrences (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by treatment of all Hawaiian ferns, Palmer arising on short woody knobs among the feral pigs and goats is a likely threat to (2003, p. 186) recognizes this entity as leaves. Drupes are purplish black, M. fosbergii (Wood 2005 and 2007, in an endemic variety of the indigenous globose, 0.2 to 0.4 in (6 to 9 mm) in litt.; HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants Microlepia strigosa. Typical habitat for diameter (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 940). compete with M. fosbergii, and modify Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis is Myrsine fosbergii was described by and destroy its native habitat on Oahu mesic to wet forest at 1,400 to 6,000 ft Hosaka (1940, pp. 46–47). This species and Kauai (HBMP 2010). The small (425 to 1,830 m), in the lowland mesic is recognized as a distinct taxon in number of remaining individuals may (Oahu), montane mesic (Hawaii Island), Wagner et al. (1999, p. 40), Wagner and limit this species’ ability to adapt to and montane wet (Maui and Hawaii Herbst (2003, p. 35), and Wagner et al. environmental change. Climate change Island) ecosystems (Palmer 2003, p. 186; (2012, p. 53), the most recently accepted may result in alteration of the TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Little is taxonomic treatment of this species. environmental conditions and known of the historical locations of There is some question whether ecosystems that support this species. Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis; individuals found on Kauai are in fact Myrsine fosbergii may be unable to however, it had a wide range on the M. fosbergii; if they are not, this species tolerate or respond to changes in islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu would be endemic to Oahu, with fewer temperature and moisture, or may be (HBMP 2010). Currently, Microlepia than 50 known individuals (Lau 2012, unable to move to areas with more strigosa var. mauiensis is known most pers. comm. in Conry 2012, in litt.). suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. recently from nine occurrences totaling Typical habitat for Myrsine fosbergii on 2013, p. 82). The effects of climate fewer than 100 individuals on the Oahu is Metrosideros-mixed native change are likely to further exacerbate islands of Oahu (15 to 20 individuals), shrubland, at 2,200 to 2,800 ft (670 to the threats listed above. Because of Maui (fewer than 20 individuals last 850 m) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 940; these threats, we find that M. fosbergii observed in 2007), and Hawaii (35 HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007). Typical should be listed throughout all of its individuals last observed in 2004) habitat on Kauai is Metrosideros- range, and, therefore, we find that it is (Palmer 2003, p. 186; Lau 2007, pers. Diospyros (ohia-lama) lowland mesic unnecessary to analyze whether it is comm.; Oppenheimer 2007 and 2008, in forest and Metrosideros-Cheirodendron endangered or threatened in a litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; Ching 2011, (ohia-olapa) montane wet forest, often significant portion of its range. in litt.). on watercourses or stream banks, at 900 Nothocestrum latifolium (aiea) is a Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis is to 4,300 ft (270 to 1,300 m), in the small tree in the nightshade family highly threatened by habitat lowland mesic, lowland wet, and (). Individuals are 33 ft (10 modification and destruction by feral montane wet ecosystems (TNCH 2007; m) tall, with a gnarled trunk, rigid pigs and goats (Oppenheimer 2007, in HBMP 2010; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 53). ascending branches, and young parts litt.; Bily 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Myrsine fosbergii was historically with yellowish-brown pubescence. The Herbivory by feral pigs is a likely threat known from the Koolau Mountains of thick, pubescent leaves, usually to M. strigosa var. mauiensis Oahu at the Puu Lanihuli and Kuliouou clustered toward the ends of the (Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.; Bily 2009, summit ridges (HBMP 2010). This branches, are seasonally deciduous. in litt.; HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants species was never observed or collected Flowers occur in clusters on short spurs degrade habitat and outcompete M. on Kauai before 1987, but is assumed to and have a greenish-yellow corolla with strigosa var. mauiensis on Maui have been there historically. Currently, the corolla tube about twice as long as (Oppenheimer, in litt. 2007). M. fosbergii is known from 14 the calyx. Berries are yellowish-orange, Hybridization with other varieties of occurrences, totaling a little more than succulent, and depressed-globose Microlepia is a threat to this species on 100 individuals. On Oahu, there are (Symon 1999, p. 1263). Nothocestrum

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latifolium was described by Gray (1862). habitat at all known occurrences. Fire is (HBMP 2010). Currently, O. This species is recognized as a distinct a potential threat to this species. Low haleakalae is known from 4 occurrences taxon in Symon (1999, p. 1263), the numbers of individuals may limit this totaling 15 individuals at Makawao FR most recently accepted taxonomic species’ ability to adapt to and Auwahi-Kanaio on the island of treatment of this species. environmental change. Climate change Maui, and from 4 occurrences (Alakahi Typical habitat for this species is dry may result in alteration of the gulch, Honopu Valley, Kalopa gulch, to mesic forest in the dry cliff (Kauai, environmental conditions and and Laupahoehoe) on the island of Oahu, Lanai, and Maui), lowland dry ecosystems that support this species Hawaii, totaling 16 individuals (Pratt (Oahu, Lanai, and Maui), and lowland (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 83), and the 2005, in litt.; Medeiros 2007, in litt.; mesic (Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui) effects of climate change are likely to Oppenheimer 2008, in litt.; HBMP ecosystems (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). further exacerbate the threats listed 2010). Historically, Nothocestrum latifolium above. Additionally, for unknown On Hawaii, the status of the was known from Waieli, Kaumokuni, reasons, there is an observed lack of individuals at Alakahi Gulch is and Kupehau gulches, and Makua regeneration in N. latifolium in the wild uncertain after a strong earthquake in Valley, in the Waianae Mountains of (HBMP 2010). Because of these threats, 2006; the individual found at Kailikaula Oahu; the Kawela and Kapaakea gulches we find that this species should be Stream was last observed in 2011, and on Molokai; from Koele, Kaohai, and listed throughout all of its range, and, is vulnerable to landslides (Hadway Maunalei Valleys on Lanai; and from therefore, we find that it is unnecessary 2013, in litt.), and the individual at the southwest rift zone of Haleakala on to analyze whether it is endangered or Kalopa has not been confirmed since Maui (HBMP 2010). This species was threatened in a significant portion of its 1999 (Agorastos 2010 and 2011, in litt.; never observed or collected on Kauai range. Conry 2012, in litt.; Hadway 2013, in before 1986, but is assumed to have Ochrosia haleakalae (holei), a tree in litt.). More than 100 propagated been there historically, and the current the dogbane family (), is 7 individuals have been outplanted at status of this individual is unknown. On to 27 ft (2 to 8 m) tall. The elliptic leaves Kipuka Puaulu and Kipuka Ki in Hawaii the island of Oahu, there is one are clustered three or four per node. Volcanoes National Park; however, individual in Manuwai Gulch, one Tubular white flowers occur in survivorship of these individuals is individual at Kaluaa could not be relatively open inflorescences. Robust, unknown (Pratt 2005, in litt.; Agorastos relocated, and the three individuals ovoid drupes are yellow or plum- 2007, pers. comm.; Bio 2008, in litt.; located at west Makaleha were found to colored, streaked with brown, and often HBMP 2010; Pratt 2011, in litt.; Conry have died (Moses 2006, in litt.; Starr have irregular ridges at maturity due to 2012, in litt.). Feral pigs and goats 2006, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2006, pers. differential thickening of the exocarp modify and destroy the habitat of O. comm.; HBMP 2010; Kawakami 2010, in (outermost layer of the fruit) (Wagner et haleakalae on Maui and Hawaii Island, litt.; Kawelo 2010, in litt.; Welton 2010, al. 1999, p. 218). Ochrosia haleakalae and goats and cattle modify and destroy in litt.; Ching 2011, in litt.; was described by St. John (1978, pp. the habitat of O. haleakalae on Maui Oppenheimer 2011, in litt.). On 199–220). This species is recognized as (Medeiros 1995, in litt.; Oppenheimer Molokai, at least four individuals were a distinct taxon in Wagner et al. (1999, 2004, in litt.; Pratt 2005, in litt.; observed in 2009, above Makolelau; p. 218), the most recently accepted Agorastos 2007, pers. comm.). In dry however, their current status is taxonomic treatment of this species. areas, the possibility of wildfires unknown (Moses 2006, in litt.). There Typical habitat for this species is dry to affecting the habitat of O. haleakalae is are 18 occurrences totaling mesic forest, sometimes wet forest, and exacerbated by the presence of approximately 1,600 individuals on east often lava, at 2,300 to 4,000 ft (700 to introduced plant species such as and west Maui (Ching 2011, in litt.). 1,200 m), in the dry cliff (Maui), (kikuyu One occurrence on east Maui is the lowland mesic (Maui and Hawaii grass) (HBMP 2010). In addition, largest, consisting of as many as 1,500 Island), lowland wet (Hawaii Island), nonnative plant species modify and individuals (HBMP 2010). On Lanai, and montane mesic (Maui) ecosystems destroy habitat and outcompete native none of the individuals in the (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 218; HBMP 2010; plants, including O. haleakalae (HBMP occurrence near the State Cooperative TNCH 2007). On east Maui, this species 2010). Climate change may result in Game Management Area at Kanepuu occurs in diverse mesic forest (Medeiros alteration of the environmental could be relocated in 2011 (Duvall 2011, et al. 1986, pp. 27–28; TNCH 2007; conditions and ecosystems that support in litt.; Oppenheimer 2011, in litt.). Also Medeiros 2007, in litt.). On the island of this species. Ochrosia haleakalae may on Lanai, no individuals within the Hawaii, O. haleakalae is known from be unable to tolerate or respond to Kanepuu Preserve (Kahue Unit) were gulches and valleys in the Hamakua changes in temperature or moisture, or found during surveys in 2012, although district and from Metrosideros may be unable to move to areas with there are plans to continue surveying polymorpha-Pisonia sandwicensis more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini the area and other suitable habitat (PEPP (ohia-papala kepau) mesic forest in the et al. 2013, p. 83). This species may 2012, p. 129). The species’ range on Kohala Mountains (Perlman and Wood experience reduced reproductive vigor each island has decreased dramatically 1996, in litt.; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 218). due to reduced levels of genetic since 2001 (Kawelo 2005 and 2010, in Historically, Ochrosia haleakalae was variability resulting from low numbers litt.; Oppenheimer 2011, in litt.; HBMP known from two islands, Maui and of indivuals, leading to diminished 2010). Hawaii. On Maui, the species was capacity to adapt to environmental Feral pigs (Oahu, Maui, Kauai), goats known from the Koolau FR and changes, and thereby lessening the (Maui, Kauai), mouflon and sheep Makawao FR, the northern slope of probability of long-term persistence (Lanai), axis deer (Lanai, Maui), and Haleakala, and from Auwahi and Kanaio (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman black-tailed deer (Kauai) modify and on the southern slopes of Haleakala and Pilson 1997, p. 361). destroy habitat of Nothocestrum (HBMP 2010). On the island of Hawaii, Ochrosia haleakalae is at risk from latifolium (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by this species was known from valleys in habitat degradation and loss by feral these animals also poses a threat to this the Kohala Mountains (Pololu, pigs, goats, cattle and nonnative plants; species. Nonnative plants outcompete Honopue, and Waipio) and from Kalopa the displacement of individuals due to N. latifolium, and modify and destroy gulch on the eastern (Hamakua) slope of competition with nonnative plants for

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space, nutrients, water, air, and light; changes in temperature and moisture, or karvinskianus (daisy fleabane), Psidium herbivory by feral pigs, goats, and cattle; may be unable to move to ares with guajava (common guava), and various and the small number of remaining more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini grasses, modify and destroy native individuals; and moderate vulnerability et al. 2013, p. 84). habitat and outcompete native plants, to the effects of climate change. The The remaining occurrences of and are found at the last known location effects of climate change are likely to Phyllostegia brevidens and habitat for its of P. helleri (HBMP 2010). This species further exacerbate these threats. Because reintroduction are at risk. Only two may experience reduced reproductive of these threats, we find that this species individuals are known to persist at the vigor due to reduced levels of genetic should be listed throughout all of its occurrence on Maui; no individuals variability, leading to diminished range, and, therefore, we find that it is have been observed recently on Hawaii capacity to adapt to environmental unnecessary to analyze whether it is Island. Tthe species continues to be changes, and thereby lessening the endangered or threatened in a negatively affected by habitat probability of long-term persistence significant portion of its range. modification and destruction by (Barret and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman Phyllostegia brevidens (NCN) is a ungulates and nonnative plants, and by and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate scandent (climbing) subshrub in the direct competition from nonnative change may result in alteration of the mint family (). Stems are plants, combined with herbivory by environmental conditions and glabrous, and ovate leaves are 3 to 5 in ungulates and slugs. The effects of ecosystems that support this species. (7 to 13 cm) long, also glabrous or climate change are likely to further Phyllostegia helleri may be unable to sparsely minute-haired. Leaf margins exacerbate these threats. We find that P. tolerate or respond to changes in are dentate to serrate. There are 14 to 20 brevidens should be listed throughout temperature and moisture, or may be white, tubular (with a longer lower lip) all of its range, and, therefore, we find unable to move to areas with more flowers per unbranched , that it is unnecessary to analyze suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. with bracts 1 to 2.5 in (2 to 6 cm) long, whether it is endangered or threatened 2013, p. 84). very minutely-haired along nerves, and in a significant portion of its range. The remaining occurrence of minutely glandular-dotted. Nutlets are Phyllostegia helleri (NCN) is a weakly Phyllostegia helleri and habitat for its about 0.2 in (6 mm) (Wagner et al. 1999, erect to climbing shrub in the mint reintroduction are at risk. The numbers pp. 814–815). Phyllostegia brevidens is family (Lamiaceae). Stems have small, of individuals are decreasing on Kauai, recognized as a distinct taxon by curved hairs. Leaves are thin and as this species was wide-ranging on the Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 814–815), the somewhat wrinkled; ovate; 4 to 6 in (1 island, extending from the north and most recently accepted taxonomic to 14.5 cm) long, with uneven, shiny east sides throughout the central treatment of this species. This species crinkly hairs; with or without plateau, and is now known from only occurs in wet forest on the islands of inconspicuous glandular dots, and one occurrence of 10 individuals. These Maui and Hawaii at 2,900 to 3,200 ft serrate margins. Tubular flowers are 10 individuals continue to be negatively (880 to 975 m), in the lowland wet white with lavender-tinged lobes, with affected by habitat modification and (Maui), montane wet (Hawaii Island), the upper lobe shorter than the lower destruction by ungulates and nonnative and wet cliff (Maui) ecosystems (Wagner lobe. Nutlets are 1 in (2.5 cm) long plants, direct competition by nonnative et al. 1999, pp. 814–815; TNCH 2007; (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 816–817). plants, and by seed predation by rats. HBMP 2010). Phyllostegia helleri is recognized as a Natural events such as landslides may Phyllostegia brevidens is historically distinct taxon in the Manual of damage or destroy the remaining 10 known from Hilo FR, Mauna Kea, and Flowering Plants of Hawaii (Wagner et individuals. The small number of Kulani on Hawaii Island; and from al. 1999, pp. 816–817), the most remaining individuals may limit this Kipahulu Valley on Maui (Haleakala recently accepted taxonomic treatment species’ ability to adapt to National Park) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. of this species. Habitat for Phyllostegia environmental changes. The effects of 815; HBMP 2010; Smithsonian helleri is ridges or spurs at 2,800 to climate change are likely to further Institution 2014, in litt.). Currently, 4,000 ft (860 to 1,200 m) in diverse wet exacerbate these threats. Because of there is one known occurrence of two forest on Kauai, in the lowland wet, these threats, we find that P. helleri individuals on the island of Maui (PEPP montane wet, and wet cliff ecosystems should be listed throughout all of its 2009, p. 90; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 46; (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 817; TNCH 2007; range, and, therefore, we find that it is PEPP 2014, p. 136). HBMP 2010). unnecessary to analyze whether it is Feral pigs, sheep, mouflon, and cattle Historically, Phyllostegia helleri was endangered or threatened in a on Hawaii Island modify and destroy wide-ranging on the island of Kauai, significant portion of its range. the habitat of Phyllostegia brevidens, extending from the north and east sides Phyllostegia stachyoides (NCN) is a and feral pigs modify and destroy throughout the central plateau (Wagner weakly erect to climbing subshrub in habitat on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. 136). et al. 1999, p. 817; HBMP 2010). the mint family (Lamiaceae). Stems have Nonnative plants outcompete P. Currently, this species is limited to 1 forward-facing hairs; leaves are brevidens on Maui. Herbivory by slugs occurrence of 10 individuals in Wainiha somewhat wrinkled and lanceolate to poses a threat to the remaining Valley (PEPP 2014, p. 35). ovate, 8 in (20 cm) long and 3 in (8 cm) individuals on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. Feral pigs and goats modify and wide, with both surfaces moderately to 136). In addition, natural events such as destroy the habitat of Phyllostegia sparsely hairy. The lower leaf surface is landslides are a potential threat to the helleri on Kauai (HBMP 2010). usually moderately glandular-dotted. occurrence on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. Herbivory on fruits and seeds by rats The upper lip of the tubular white 136). The small number of remaining negatively affects the remaining flower is tinged pink. Nutlets are 1 in (3 individuals may limit this species’ individuals (HBMP 2010). The only cm) long (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 823). ability to adapt to environmental known occurrence of this species is Phyllostegia stachyoides is recognized change. Climate change may result in located at the base of cliffs, and as a distinct taxon in the Manual of alteration of the environmental landslides are an additional threat Flowering Plants of Hawaii (Wagner et conditions and ecosystems that support (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants, such as al. 1999, p. 823), the most recently this species. Phyllostegia brevidens may Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), Rubus accepted taxonomic treatment of this be unable to tolerate or respond to rosifolius (thimbleberry), Erigeron species. Phyllostegia stachyoides occurs

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in mesic to wet forest at 3,600 to 4,600 its reintroduction are at risk. The known island of Hawaii, there are five ft (1,000 to 1,400 m), in the montane wet individuals are restricted to small areas occurrences in the Pohakuloa Training (Hawaii Island, Maui, and Molokai) and on west Maui and Molokai, and Area, totaling 10 individuals (Evans montane mesic (Hawaii Island and continue to be negatively affected by 2015, in litt.). Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, habitat modification and destruction by Axis deer (Maui and Lanai), mouflon, p. 823; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). ungulates and by direct competition sheep, and goats (Lanai), and cattle Phyllostegia stachyoides is with nonnative plants, combined with (Hawaii Island) modify and destroy the historically known from the eastern and herbivory by slugs and rats. The small habitat of Portulaca villosa (HBMP central Molokai, west Maui, and widely number of remaining individuals may 2010). These animals may also forage ranging occurrences on Hawaii Island limit this species’ ability to adapt to directly on this species. Nonnative (north and south Kona, Kohala, and environmental changes. The effects of plants compete with and modify and Hawaii Volcanoes National Park) climate change are likely to further destroy native habitat of P. villosa; (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 823; HBMP exacerbate these threats. Because of displace this species and other native 2010). Currently, P. stachyoides is these threats, we find that this species Hawaiian plants; and pose a threat to known from seven occurrences, totaling should be listed throughout all of its the known occurrences on Hawaii 20 individuals. Occurrences on west range, and, therefore, we find that it is Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Maui, at Honokokau, Puu Kukui, unnecessary to analyze whether it is Molokai (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; Luakoi, and Lihau, total about 15 endangered or threatened in a Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and individuals. Those on Molokai occur at significant portion of its range. Stone 1990, p. 74). Portulaca villosa , Hanalilolilo, and Kumueli Portulaca villosa (ihi) is a perennial occurs in drier coastal and lowland (total of 5 individuals). Several herb in the purslane family habitats, all of which are at risk from individuals resembling P. stachyoides (Portulacaceae). The taproot is fleshy to wildfires. Some coastal habitat includes were observed at Kaohe on Hawaii woody, with stems prostrate to weakly exposed cliffs, which erode and cause Island; however, their identity is not yet ascending and 12 in (30 cm) long. The rockfalls in areas where P. villosa occurs confirmed (PEPP 2012, p. 156.). small leaves are linear to oblong and (Kahoolawe), posing a threat to this Feral pigs, goats, and axis deer modify pale grayish green. White or pink species (HBMP 2010). This species may and destroy the habitat of Phyllostegia flowers are in groups of three to six experience reduced reproductive vigor stachyoides on Maui, with evidence of arranged in small bunches at the ends due to low levels of genetic variability, the activities of these animals reported of the branches. The fruit capsules of P. leading to diminished capacity to adapt in areas where this species occurs villosa are 0.2 in (5 mm) long and to environmental changes, and thereby (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants such as contain dark reddish-brown seeds lessening the probability of long-term Erigeron karvinskianus, Tibouchina (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1074). Portulaca persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. herbacea, and villosa is recognized as a distinct taxon 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). (Maui pamakani) compete with P. by Wagner et al. (1999, p. 1074), the Climate change may result in alteration stachyoides, modify and destroy its most recently accepted taxonomic of the environmental conditions and native habitat, and displace other native treatment of this species. Portulaca ecosystems that support this species. Hawaiian plant species (Smith 1985, pp. villosa occurs on dry, rocky, clay, lava, Portulaca villosa may be unable to 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in or coralline reef sites, from sea level to tolerate or respond to changes in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). 1,600 ft (490 m), in the coastal (Lehua, temperature and moisture, or may be Herbivory by slugs and rats on leaves Kaula, Oahu, Kahoolawe, Maui, and unable to move to areas with more and nutlets of P. stachyoides poses a Hawaii Island) and lowland dry (Oahu, suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. threat to this species at known locations Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and 2013, p. 86). on Maui and Molokai (PEPP 2014, pp. Hawaii Island) ecosystems, and one The remaining occurrences of 140–142). On Maui, stochastic events reported occurrence in the montane dry Portulaca villosa and habitat for its such as drought pose a threat to small, (Hawaii Island) ecosystem (Wagner et reintroduction are at risk; the number of isolated occurrences of P. stachyoides, al. 1999, p. 1074; TNCH 2007; HBMP occurrences have decreased on Oahu, and rockfalls and landslides pose a 2010). Lanai, and Hawaii Island, and the threat to occurrences on Molokai (PEPP Portulaca villosa is historically species continues to be negatively 2014, pp. 140–142). This species may known from all the main Hawaiian affected by continued habitat experience reduced reproductive vigor Islands except Niihau and Kauai modification and destruction, and by due to reduced levels of genetic (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1074). Portulaca competition from nonnative plants. variability, leading to diminished villosa has been observed on the small Because of its small and isolated capacity to adapt to environmental islets of Kaula and Lehua (west of Kauai remaining occurrences, natural events changes, and thereby lessening the and Niihau), and from Nihoa (NWHI); such as rockfalls, landslides, and probability of long-term persistence however, their current status is wildfires may pose a threat to this (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman unknown. This species has not been species. The small number of remaining and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate observed on Oahu since the 1960s, individuals may limit this species’ change may result in alteration of the when it was locally abundant at ability to adapt to environmental environmental conditions and Kaohikaipu Island (HBMP 2010). changes. The effects of climate change ecosystems that support this species, Portulaca villosa is known from are likely to further exacerbate these through flooding and drought. Molokai at Kauhako Crater (a few), from threats. Because of these threats, we find Phyllostegia stachyoides may be unable east Maui on Alau islet (2 individuals), that this species should be listed to tolerate or respond to changes in from west Maui at Lihau (about 24 throughout all of its range, and, temperature and moisture, or may be individuals), and from Kahoolawe at therefore, we find that it is unnecessary unable to move to areas with more Puu Koaie, Aleale, and above Kamalio to analyze whether it is endangered or suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. (fewer than 15 individuals) (MNTF threatened in a significant portion of its 2013, p. 84). 2010, in litt.). On the island of Lanai, range. The remaining occurrences of two individuals were observed at Pritchardia bakeri (Baker’s loulu) is a Phyllostegia stachyoides and habitat for Kaohai in 1996 (HBMP 2010). On the small to medium-sized palm in the palm

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family (Arecaceae). This palm species, and the small number and reduced Kallstrom 2008, in litt; HBMP 2010). endemic to Oahu, is 23 to 30 ft (7 to10 range of remaining individuals, we find Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as m) tall, with a smooth, grayish trunk 8 that this species should be listed game animals, but public hunting does to 10 in (20 to 25 cm) in diameter. Its throughout all of its range, and, not adequately control the numbers of crown contains up to 40 ascending to therefore, we find that it is unnecessary ungulates to eliminate habitat stiffly spreading leaves, 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to to analyze whether it is endangered or modification and destruction, or to 0.9 m) long and wide, on 1 to 2 ft (0.3 threatened in a significant portion of its eliminate herbivory by these animals to 0.6 m) leaf stalks. The leaf blades are range. (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– glossy green above and silvery grayish Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium DLNR 2010, in litt.). Additionally, below. The flower and fruit stalks have var. molokaiense (enaena) is a perennial nonnative plants, such as Atriplex up to three long primary branches that herb in the sunflower family semibaccata (Australian saltbush), are nearly equal in length to the leaf (). This species has prostrate Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass), and when in flower, but greatly exceed the stems 4 to 12 in (10 to 31 cm) long, with Prosopis pallida (kiawe), compete with leaf length when in fruit. Fruit are densely white woolly pubescence on the and displace this and other native shiny, black, and spherical, up to 2 in entire plant. Leaves are spatulate to Hawaiian plants by competing for water, (5 cm) long and 2 in (4 cm) wide when narrowly obovate, 0.3 to 0.8 in (7 to 20 nutrients, light, and space, or they may mature (Hodel 2009, pp. 173–179; Hodel mm) wide. Whitish to pale yellow produce chemicals that inhibit growth 2012, pp. 70–73). Pritcharida bakeri is flower heads occur in terminal, leafless of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180– recognized as a distinct taxon by Hodel clusters (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 321). 250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy (2009, pp. 173–179; 2012, pp. 70–73), First described by Sherff and Degener and Stone 1990, p. 74; Moses 2009, in the most currently accepted taxonomic (1948) as an infraspecific taxon in the litt.). This variety may experience treatments of this species. Pritchardia genus Gnaphalium, Wagner (1997) reduced reproductive vigor due to low bakeri occurs in the lowland mesic moved the entire species to levels of genetic variability, leading to ecosystem in the Koolau Mountains on Pseudognaphalium. This variety is diminished capacity to adapt to Oahu, at 1,500 to 2,100 ft (457 to 640 recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner environmental changes, and thereby m), in disturbed, windswept, and et al. (1999, pp. 321–322) and Wagner lessening the probability of long-term mostly exposed shrubby or grassy areas, and Herbst (2003, p. 8), the most persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. and sometimes on steep slopes in these recently accepted taxonomic treatments 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). areas (Hodel 2012, pp. 71–73). of this species. In evaluating the status Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Pritcharida bakeri was first described as of botanical varieties for listing as molokaiense occurs on a sea cliff on a new species in 2009 by Hodel (pp. threatened or endangered or threatened west Maui, and rockfalls and landslides 173–179). This palm occurs on the under the Act, we consider them to be pose a threat (HBMP 2010). Climate northern end (Pupukea) and southern equivalent to subspecies (43 FR 17910, change may result in alteration of the end (Kuliouou) of the Koolau Mountain April 26, 1978, see p. 17912). Typical environmental conditions and range, on the island of Oahu (Bacon et habitat for Pseudognaphalium ecosystems that support this species. al. 2012, pp. 1–17; Hodel 2012, pp. 71– sandwicensium var. molokaiense is Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. 73). Currently, occurrences total strand vegetation in dry consolidated molokaiense molokaiense may be approximately 250 individuals (Hodel dunes, in the coastal ecosystem (Wagner unable to tolerate or respond to changes 2012, pp. 42, 71). et al. 1999, p. 321; TNCH 2007; HBMP in temperature and moisture, or may be Habitat modification and destruction 2010). unable to move to areas with more by feral pigs affect the range and Historically, this variety was found on suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. abundance of Pritchardia bakeri. Rats Molokai (Halawa Valley and 2013, p. 86). eat the fruit before they mature (Hodel Waiahewahewa Gulch), on Oahu (on the The remaining occurrences of 2012, pp. 42, 73). Nonnative plants coast between Diamond Head and Koko Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. compete with and degrade and destroy Head, and along the Waimanalo coast), molokaiense and habitat for its native habitat of P. bakeri and displace on Maui (Wailuku area), and on Lanai reintroduction are at risk; individuals this species and other native Hawaiian (along the Munro trail) (HBMP 2010; no longer occur on Oahu and Lanai. plants by competing for water, MNTF 2010, in litt.). Currently, Occurrences on Maui and Molokai nutrients, light, and space, or they may Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. continue to be negatively affected by produce chemicals that inhibit growth molokaiense is known only from habitat modification and destruction by of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180– Molokai on the northwestern coast at ungulates, and by direct competition 250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy Ilio Point (as many as 20,000 with nonnative plants. The small and Stone 1990, p. 74). Stochastic individuals, depending on rainfall) and number of remaining occurrences may events such as hurricanes modify and Kauhako Crater (a few individuals), and limit this species’ ability to adapt to destroy the habitat of P. bakeri, and can from northwest coast of Maui at Waiehu environmental changes. The effects of damage or kill plants. This species may dunes (scattered individuals) and Puu climate change are likely to further experience reduced reproductive vigor Kahulianapa (5 to 10 individuals) exacerbate these threats. Because of due to low levels of genetic variability (Moses 2006, in litt.; Starr 2006, in litt.; these threats, we find that this species caused by seed predation by rats and Kallstrom 2008, in litt.). This variety should be listed throughout all of its widely separated occurrences, leading was last observed on Lanai in 1960, and range, and, therefore, we find that it is to diminished capacity to adapt to on Oahu at Diamond Head (5 unnecessary to analyze whether it is environmental changes, and thereby individuals) in the 1980s (HBMP 2010). endangered or threatened in a lessening the probability of long-term Goats and axis deer modify and significant portion of its range. persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. destroy the habitat of Ranunculus hawaiensis (makou) is an 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. erect or ascending perennial herb in the Hodel 2012, p. 73). molokaiense, with evidence of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). This Based on our evaluation of habitat activities of these animals reported in species is 2 to 6.5 ft (0.6 to 2 m) tall with degradation and loss by feral pigs and the areas where this plant occurs (Moses fibrous roots. Stems are densely covered nonnative plants, fruit predation by rats, 2006, in litt.; Starr 2006, in litt.; with golden or whitish hairs. Basal

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leaves are twice compound, with persistence (Barret and Kohn 1991, p. 4; R. mauiensis is known from 14 leaflets lanceolate and the terminal leaf Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). occurrences (totaling approximately 200 largest and irregularly toothed and Climate change may result in alteration individuals) on three islands: Kauai, lobed. The yellow, glossy flowers are of the environmental conditions and Maui, and Molokai. On Kauai, R. numerous in branched open cymes and ecosystems that support this species. mauiensis is found at Kalalau-Honopu contain a scale-covered nectary at the Ranunculus hawaiensis may be unable (34 individuals), Nualolo (12 base. Fruit are numerous and are to tolerate or respond to changes in individuals), Kawaiiki ridge (4 margined with a narrow wing (Duncan temperature and moisture, or may be individuals), Nawaimaka (1 individual), 1999, p. 1088). Ranunculus hawaiensis unable to move to areas with more and Nawaimaka stream (2 individuals) was described by Gray (1854) and is suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. (Perlman 2007, in litt.; Wood 2007, in recognized as a distinct taxon by 2013, p. 86). litt.; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2011, p. 161; Duncan (1999, p. 1088), the most The remaining occurrences of PEPP 2013, p. 177). On Molokai, there recently accepted taxonomic treatment Ranunculus hawaiensis and habitat for are two individuals in Kamakou of this species. Typical habitat is mesic its reintroduction are at risk; the known Preserve; however, these plants were forest on grassy slopes and scree, and in individuals are restricted to small areas not relocated during recent surveys open pastures, at 6,000 to 6,700 ft (1,800 on Maui and Hawaii Island and (PEPP 2010, p. 105; Bakutis 2011, in to 2,000 m), in the montane mesic continue to be negatively affected by litt.). Oahu occurrences have not been (Hawaii Island), montane dry (Hawaii habitat modification and destruction by observed since the 1800s (HBMP 2010). Island), and subalpine (Hawaii Island feral ungulates, and by direct On west Maui, this species is found at and Maui) ecosystems (Medeiros 2007, competition with nonnative plants, Kapunakea Preserve (5 individuals), pers. comm.; Pratt 2007, in litt.; Duncan combined with predation by ungulates. Pohakea Gulch (5 individuals), Lihau (5 1999, p. 1088; HBMP 2010; TNCH Drought and erosion pose a threat to the individuals), Kauaula Valley (1 2007). occurrence on Maui. The small number individual), and Puehuehunui (34 Historically, Ranunculus hawaiensis of remaining individuals may limit this individuals); and on east Maui, this was wide-ranging on the island of species’ ability to adapt to species is found at Waikamoi Preserve Hawaii, from Kona, Hualalai, Mauna environmental changes. Because of (20 individuals), Makawao Forest Kea, and Kau. On Maui, this species was these threats, we find that this species Reserve (30 individuals), Kahikinui (10 known from Haleakala National Park should be listed throughout all of its individuals), and Manawainui (10 (HBMP 2010). In the 1980s and 1990s, range, and, therefore, we find that it is individuals) (PEPP 2013, p. 177; this species numbered several hundred unnecessary to analyze whether it is Perlman 2007, in litt.; Wood 2007, in individuals on both islands. Currently, endangered or threatened in a litt.; Bily 2007, pers. comm.). Hawaii there are six occurrences totaling 14 significant portion of its range. Island occurrences have not been Ranunculus mauiensis (makou) is an individuals on Hawaii Island (Hakalau observed since 1980 (HBMP 2010). NWR, Puu Kanakaleonui, Kolekole erect to weakly ascending perennial Gulch, Kahuku, Kapapala FR, and herb in the buttercup family Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, black- Kipahoe NAR) (Bio 2008, in litt.; PEPP (Ranunculaceae). This species is 2 to 6.5 tailed deer, and cattle modify and 2008, p. 108; Pratt 2008, in litt.; HBMP ft (0.5 to 2 m) tall, with stems sparsely destroy the habitat of R. mauiensis on 2010; Agorastos 2011, in litt.; Imoto to densely pubescent with scattered Kauai, Molokai, and Maui, with 2013, in litt.). On Maui, a few whitish hairs. Basal leaves are evidence of the activities of these individuals were observed on a cliff in compound with ovate leaflets with the animals reported in the areas where this the Waikamoi Preserve in 1994; terminal leaflet being the largest and species occurs (PEPP 2014, pp. 155–156; however, this occurrence was not irregularly serrate. Yellow flowers are HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in relocated in further surveys (PEPP 2013, few, in branched loose cymes. Fruit are Hawaii as game animals (except for p. 177). Additionally, no individuals numerous in a globose head and have cattle), but public hunting does not were re-observed in Haleakala National smooth faces (Wagner et al. 1999, p. adequately control the numbers of Park (DLNR 2006, p. 61). 1089). Ranunculus mauiensis was ungulates to eliminate habitat Feral pigs, mouflon, and cattle modify described by Gray (1854) and is modification and destruction, or to and destroy the habitat of Ranunculus recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner eliminate herbivory by these animals hawaiensis on Hawaii Island, with et al. (1999, p. 1089), the most recently (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– evidence of the activities of these accepted taxonomic treatment of this DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants animals reported in the areas where R. species. Typical habitat for R. mauiensis modify and destroy the native habitat of hawaiensis occurs (HBMP 2010). These is open sites in mesic to wet forest and R. mauiensis, and displace this species ungulates, and rats, may also forage on along streams, at 3,500 to 5,600 ft (1,060 and other native Hawaiian plants by R. hawaiensis. Nonnative plants, such to 1,700 m), in the montane wet (Kauai, competing for water, nutrients, light, as Holcus lanatus (common velvet Oahu, Molokai, and Maui), montane and space, or they may produce grass), Ehrharta stipoides (meadow mesic (Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and chemicals that inhibit the growth of ricegrass), and various grasses that Hawaii Island), montane dry (Hawaii other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; modify and destroy native habitat and Island), and wet cliff (Molokai and Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and outcompete native plants have been Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010; PEPP reported in areas where R. hawaiensis p. 1089; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). 2014, p. 155). Herbivory by slugs (Maui) occurs (HBMP 2010). Drought and Historically, Ranunculus mauiensis and seed predation by rats (Maui, Kauai) erosion pose a threat to the last known was known from five islands: Kauai are both reported to pose a threat to R. occurrence of R. hawaiensis on Maui (Kuia, Kokee, and Na Pali Kona), Oahu mauiensis (PEPP 2014, pp. 154–155; (PEPP 2013, p. 177). This species may (Waianae Mountains), Molokai HBMP 2010). Stochastic events such as experience reduced reproductive vigor (Kamakou, Kalae, Waikolu, and drought (Maui), landslides (Kauai), and due to low levels of genetic variability, Kaluaaha), Maui (Puu Kukui, fire (Maui) are also reported to pose a leading to diminished capacity to adapt Kapunakea, Pohakea, Olinda, Kipahulu, threat to R. mauiensis (HBMP 2010). to environmental changes, and thereby Waikamoi, and Puu Alaea), and Hawaii Erosion is a threat to occurrences on lessening the probability of long-term (Kealakekua) (HBMP 2010). Currently, Maui and Kauai (PEPP 2014, p. 155–

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156). This species may experience Affolter 1999, p. 210; TNCH 2007; The remaining occurrences of reduced reproductive vigor due to low HBMP 2010). Sanicula sandwicensis and habitat for levels of genetic variability, leading to Sanicula sandwicensis is historically its reintroduction are at risk; the known diminished capacity to adapt to known from the islands of Maui individuals are restricted to a small area environmental changes, thereby (Haleakala) and Hawaii (Mauna Kea, on Maui and continue to be negatively lessening the probability of its long-term Mauna Loa, and Haulalai) (Constance affected by habitat modification and persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. and Affolter1999, p. 210). Currently, destruction by feral goats and by direct 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). there are fewer than 20 individuals of S. competition with nonnative plants. Climate change may result in alteration sandwicensis on east and west Maui Stochastic events such as drought, of the environmental conditions and (MNTF 2010, in litt.; PEPP 2011, pp. flooding, and fires all pose threats to ecosystems that support this species. 162–164). This species has not been this species. The small number of Ranunculus mauiensis may be unable to observed on Hawaii Island since the remaining individuals may limit this tolerate or respond to changes in 1990s (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010, in species’ ability to adapt to temperature and moisture, or may be litt.). environmental changes. Because of unable to move to areas with more Feral goats modify and destroy the these threats, we find that this species suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. habitat of Sanicula sandwicensis on should be listed throughout all of its 2013, p. 86). Maui, with evidence of the activities of range, and, therefore, we find that it is The remaining occurrences of these animals reported in the areas unnecessary to analyze whether it is Ranunculus mauiensis and habitat for where this species occurs (PEPP 2011, endangered or threatened in a its reintroduction are at risk, the known pp. 162–164). Ungulates are managed in significant portion of its range. Santalum involutum (iliahi) is a shrub individuals are restricted to small areas Hawaii as game animals, but public or small tree in the sandalwood family on Kauai, Molokai, and Maui, and hunting does not adequately control the (Santalaceae). This species is 7 to 23 ft continue to be negatively affected by numbers of ungulates to eliminate (2 to 7 m) tall, with yellowish-green to habitat modification and destruction by habitat modification and destruction, or grayish-green leaves that are thinly ungulates, direct competition with to eliminate herbivory by these animals chartaceous and often appearing nonnative plants, and herbivory and (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– droopy. The flowers are cream to predation by slugs and rats. Because of DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants purple, or greenish with a purple its small, isolated occurrences, modify and destroy the habitat of S. interior (Harbaugh et al. 2010, pp. 827– landslides, drought, and erosion may sandwicensis, and displace this species 838). Santalum involutum, originally also have negatively impact this species. and other native Hawaiian plants by described by St. John in 1984 (pp. 217– The small number of remaining competing for water, nutrients, light, 226), was not recognized by Wagner et individuals may limit this species’ and space, or they may produce al. (1999, p. 1218); however, genetic ability to adapt to environmental chemicals that inhibit the growth of analyses conducted by Harbaugh et al. changes. Because of these threats, we other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; (2010, pp. 827–838) revived this species find that this species should be listed Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and as a valid taxon. Habitat for Santalum throughout all of its range, and, Stone 1990, p. 74; PEPP 2011, pp. 162– involutum is mesic and wet forest on therefore, we find that it is unnecessary 164). Those nonnative plants observed Kauai, at 400 to 2,500 ft (120 to 750 m), to analyze whether it is endangered or to directly affect S. sandwicensis and its in the lowland mesic and lowland wet threatened in a significant portion of its habitat are Ageratina adenophora, ecosystems (TNCH 2007; Harbaugh et range. odoratum (sweet al. 2010, pp. 827–838). Historically, this Sanicula sandwicensis (NCN) is a vernalgrass), Epilobium ciliatum species was known from northern Kauai stout, erect, perennial herb in the (willow herb), Holcus lanatus, Pinus at Kee, Hanakapiai, and Wainiha, and parsley family (Apiaceae). This species spp., Prunella vulgaris, and Rubus from southern Kauai at Wahiawa, but is 8 to 28 in (20 and 70 cm) tall, with argutus (PEPP 2011, pp. 162–164). Seed has not been observed in these areas for multiple, profusely-branched stems predation by rats is likely to adversely 30 years (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 835). arising from the rootstalk. The basal affect this species (HBMP 2010). Currently, approximately 50 to 100 leaves are numerous, chartaceous, Stochastic events such as drought, individuals occur in isolated forest orbicular, 1 to 5 in (3 to 12 cm) wide, flooding, and fires are all reported to pockets in Pohakuao and Kalalau and palmately 3-parted or 5-parted pose a threat to this species (PEPP 2011, valleys (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 835). nearly to the petiole. The yellow flowers pp. 162–164). Erosion is a threat to Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer are umbellately arranged in terminal occurrences on Maui (PEPP 2011, pp. modify and destroy the habitat of clusters of 2 to 5 stalks, with up to 20 162–163). This species may experience Santalum involutum on Kauai, with flowers. Fruit is ovoid, 0.2 in (4 mm) reduced reproductive vigor due to low evidence of the activities of these long, and covered with stout, hooked, levels of genetic variability, leading to animals reported in the areas where this bulbous prickles (Constance and diminished capacity to adapt to species occurs (Harbaugh et al. 2010, Affolter 1999, p. 210). Sanicula environmental changes, thereby pp. 835–836). Ungulates are managed in sandwicensis is recognized as a distinct lessening the probability of its long-term Hawaii as game animals, but public taxon by Constance and Affolter in persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. hunting does not adequately control the Wagner et al. (1999, p. 210), the most 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). numbers of ungulates to eliminate recently accepted taxonomic treatment Climate change may result in alteration habitat modification and destruction, or of this species. Sanicula sandwicensis of the environmental conditions and to eliminate herbivory by these animals occurs at 6,500 to 8,500 ft (2,000 to ecosystems that support this species. (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– 2,600 m) in shrubland and woodland on Sanicula sandwicensis may be unable to DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants the islands of Maui and Hawaii Island, tolerate or respond to changes in modify and destroy the native habitat of in the montane mesic (Hawaii Island temperature and moisture, or may be S. involutum, and displace this species and Maui), montane dry (Hawaii unable to move to areas with more and other native Hawaiian plants by Island), and subalpine (Hawaii Island suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. competing for water, nutrients, light, and Maui) ecosystems (Constance and 2013, p. 88). and space, or they may produce

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chemicals that inhibit the growth of et al. 1999, p. 512; HBMP 2010; TNCH environmental changes. Because of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; 2007). these threats, we find that this Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa was subspecies should be listed throughout Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010). historically found on the islands of all of its range, and, therefore, we find Nonnative plants reported to modify Molokai and Maui. On Molokai, this that it is unnecessary to analyze and destroy habitat of S. involutum are: subspecies was known from Kawela to whether it is endangered or threatened Psidium guajava, P. cattleianum, Waikolu valleys; on Maui, it was wide- in a significant portion of its range. Lantana camara, Rubus argutus, ranging on both the east and west Schiedea pubescens (maolioli) is a Hedychium gardnerianum, Clidemia mountains (Wagner et al. 2005, p. 106). reclining or weakly climbing in the hirta, (molasses Currently, S. diffusa ssp. diffusa is pink family (). This grass) (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 836). known from east Maui in six species is glabrous except for the Herbivory and seed predation by rats is occurrences (fewer than 50 individuals inflorescence which has dense, purple- reported to pose a threat to S. involutum total), in a much smaller range, from tinged hairs. The stems are 3 to 20 ft (1 (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 836). Wildfire Puu o Kalae to Keanae (spanning about to 6 m) long with internodes usually 2.5 is a potential threat to this species in 5 mi (8 km)). On Molokai, there were to 5 in (6 to 12 cm) long. Opposite, mesic areas (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. two occurrences totaling fewer than 10 leathery, narrowly lanceolate leaves are 836). This species may experience individuals, one at west Kawela Gulch, sometimes purple-tinged, especially reduced reproductive vigor due to low and one on the rim of Pelekunu Valley, along the midrib. The tiny flowers are levels of genetic variability, leading to last observed in the 1990s (HBMP 2010). perfect and are arranged in open cymes diminished capacity to adapt to Feral pigs modify and destroy the 12 to 20 in (30 to 50 cm) long (30 to 88 environmental changes, thereby habitat of Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa flowers) with purple hairs, and green to lessening the probability of its long-term on Maui and Molokai, with evidence of purple bracts and . Capsules are persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. the activities of these animals reported 0.1 in (3 mm) long (Wagner et al. 1999, 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). in the areas where this subspecies p. 519; Wagner et al. 2005, pp. 99–102). The remaining occurrences of occurs (PEPP 2014, p. 159; HBMP 2010). Schiedea pubescens was described by Santalum involutum and habitat for its Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as Hillebrand (1888, pp. 31–32), and is reintroduction are at risk; the known game animals (except for cattle), but recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner individuals are restricted to a small area public hunting does not adequately et al. (1999, p. 519), and in the Schiedea on Kauai and continue to be negatively control the numbers of ungulates to monograph by Wagner et al. (2005, pp. affected by habitat modification and eliminate habitat modification and 99–102), the most recently accepted destruction by ungulates, direct destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by taxonomic treatments. Schiedea competition with nonnative plants, and these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in pubescens occurs in diverse mesic to by herbivory and fruit predation by rats. litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). wet Metrosideros forest at 2,000 to 4,000 The small number of remaining Nonnative plants modify and destroy ft (640 to 1,220 m), in the lowland wet individuals may limit this species’ the native habitat of S. diffusa ssp. (Maui and Molokai), montane wet ability to adapt to environmental diffusa, and displace this subspecies (Molokai), montane mesic (Maui), and changes. Because of these threats, we and other native Hawaiian plants by wet cliff (Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) find that this species should be listed competing for water, nutrients, light, ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 519; throughout all of its range, and, and space, or they may produce Wagner et al. 2005, p. 100; HBMP 2010; therefore, we find that it is unnecessary chemicals that inhibit the growth of TNCH 2007). to analyze whether it is endangered or other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; Schiedea pubescens was historically threatened in a significant portion of its Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and found on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, range. Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010; PEPP and Maui. On Molokai, this species was Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (NCN) is 2014, p. 159). Herbivory by slugs and found from Kalae to Pukoo ridge; on a reclining or weakly climbing vine in seed predation by rats are both reported Lanai, it was known from the Lanaihale the pink family (Caryophyllaceae). This to pose a threat to this subspecies summit area, and on Maui, it was species is woody at the base, and (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 159). This known from the western mountains at glabrous or nearly so below, with subspecies may experience reduced Olowalu, Kaanapali, and Waihee, and a purple-tinged hairs. Lanceolate to ovate reproductive vigor due to low levels of possible occurrence the eastern leaves are 2 to 5 in (4 to 12 cm) long. genetic variability, leading to mountains at Makawao (HBMP 2010). Inflorescences have 20 to 90 flowers diminished capacity to adapt to Currently, this species is known from with purple or purple-tinged stalks. environmental changes, thereby one occurrence on Molokai, totaling Capsules are very broadly ovoid, 0.2 to lessening the probability of its long-term fewer than 30 individuals; has not been 0.3 in (5 to 7 mm) long. Schiedea diffusa persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. observed on Lanai since 1922 and is ssp. diffusa was described by Wawra 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). believed extirpated; and from five (1825, in Wagner et al. 2005, pp. 103– The remaining occurrences of occurrences on Maui (Wood 2001, in 104) as S. diffusa ssp. angustifolia, now Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa and habitat litt.; Oppenheimer 2006, in litt.; Bakutis a synonym. This subspecies is currently for its reintroduction are at risk. The 2010, in litt.; MNTF 2010, in litt.; recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner known individuals are restricted to Oppenheimer 2010, in litt.; Perlman et al. (1999, pp. 511–512) and in the small areas on Maui and on Molokai 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, Schiedea monograph by Wagner et al. (where it has not been observed for 20 pp. 162–163). It was determined that a (2005, pp. 103–106), the most recently years or longer), and continue to be report of 4 to 6 individuals of S. accepted taxonomic treatments of this negatively affected by habitat pubescens in PTA on the island of subspecies. Schiedea diffusa ssp. modification and destruction by Hawaii was a misidentification of the diffusa occurs in wet forest at 3,000 to ungulates, direct competition with species S. hawaiiensis (Wagner et al. 5,300 ft (915 to 1,600 m) on Molokai, nonnative plants, and herbivory and 2005, pp. 93, 95). and to 6,700 ft (2,050 m) on Maui, in the predation by slugs and rats. The small Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle lowland wet (Maui) and montane wet number of remaining individuals may modify and destroy the habitat of (Maui and Molokai) ecosystems (Wagner limit this subspecies’ ability to adapt to Schiedea pubescens on Maui, Lanai,

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and Molokai, with evidence of the (). Stems are 49 ft (15 m) individuals, this species may experience activities of these animals reported in long with a woody base. Leaves are reduced reproductive vigor due to low the areas where this species occurs broadly ovate and palmately 3- to 5- levels of genetic variability, leading to (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 162). lobed. Iflorescences are branched, 3 to 8 diminished capacity to adapt to Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as in (8 to 20 cm) long, with white flowers. environmental changes, thereby game animals (except for cattle), but Fruit are green, up to 1 in (25 mm) long lessening the probability of its long-term public hunting does not adequately and beaked (Telford 1999, p. 581). In persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. control the numbers of ungulates to 1999, Wagner and Shannon (pp. 441– 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). eliminate habitat modification and 447) prepared a series of papers Climate change may result in alteration destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by analyzing the names published in 1987 of the environmental conditions and these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in and 1988 by St. John, in which the ecosystems that support this species. litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). nomenclature was evaluated and the Sicyos lanceoloideus may be unable to Nonnative plants modify and destroy taxa incorporated in a current tolerate or respond to changes in the native habitat of S. pubescens, and classification. This provided a new temperature and moisture, or may be displace this species and other native combination for Sicyos sp. A as Sicyos unable to move to areas with more Hawaiian plants by competing for water, lanceoloideus (Telford p. 581; Wagner suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. nutrients, light, and space, or they may and Shannon 1999, p. 444). Sicyos 2013, p. 89). produce chemicals that inhibit the lanceoloideus is recognized as a distinct The remaining occurrences of Sicyos growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. taxon in Wagner et al. (2012, p. 31), the lanceoloideus and habitat for its 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in most recently accepted taxonomic reintroduction are at risk. The known Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP treatment. Sicyos lanceoloideus occurs individuals are restricted to small areas 2010; PEPP 2014, pp. 162–163). on ridges or spurs in mesic forest at on Kauai and Oahu and continue to be Herbivory by slugs and seed predation 1,800 to 2,700 ft (550 to 800 m), in the negatively affected by habitat by rats are both reported to pose a threat dry cliff (Oahu), lowland mesic (Oahu modification and destruction by to S. pubescens on Maui (HBMP 2010; and Kauai), and montane mesic (Kauai) ungulates, direct competition with PEPP 2014, p. 162). Stochastic events ecosystems (Telford p. 581; HBMP 2010; nonnative plants, and stochastic events such as drought, erosion, and flooding TNCH 2007). such as drought. The small number of are also reported to pose a threat to S. Sicyos lanceoloideus was historically remaining individuals may limit this pubescens (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, pp. found on the islands of Kauai (Kalalau species’ ability to adapt to 162). This species may experience Valley and Waimea Canyon) and Oahu environmental change. The effects of reduced reproductive vigor due to low (Waianae Mountains) (Telford 1999, p. climate change are likely to further levels of genetic variability, leading to 581). Currently, S. lanceoloideus occurs exacerbate these threats. Because of diminished capacity to adapt to on Kauai in one occurrence in the Na these threats, we find that this species environmental changes, thereby Pali-Kona FR (exact number of should be listed throughout all of its lessening the probability of its long-term individuals unknown), and on Oahu in range, and, therefore, we find that it is persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. four locations in the Waianae unnecessary to analyze whether it is 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Mountains, totaling fewer than 35 endangered or threatened in a Climate change may result in alteration individuals (HBMP 2010; U.S. Army significant portion of its range. of the environmental conditions and 2014 database). There may be more Sicyos macrophyllus (anunu) is a ecosystem that support this species. individuals, but because this species is perennial vine in the gourd family Schiedea pubescens may be unable to a vine, it is difficult to determine exact (Cucurbitaceae). This species has tolerate or respond to changes in numbers (PEPP 2013, p. 189). sparsely pubescent stems with black temperature and moisture, or may be Feral pigs and goats modify and spots, 49 ft (15 m) long. Leaves are unable to move to areas with more destroy the habitat of Sicyos broadly ovate and deeply lobed, with suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. lanceoloideus on Kauai and Oahu, with the upper surface glabrous and lower 2013, p. 88). evidence of the activities of these surface densely pubescent. Tendrils are The remaining occurrences of animals reported in the areas where this twice branched. Flowers are either male Schiedea pubescens and habitat for its species occurs (PEPP 2013, p. 189; PEPP or female, occur in pubescent panicles, reintroduction are at risk. The known 2014, p. 166; HBMP 2010). Ungulates and have a greenish-yellow corolla. The individuals are restricted to small areas are managed in Hawaii as game animals, fruit is round and green (Telford 1999, on Molokai and Maui, and continue to but public hunting does not adequately p. 578). In 1987, a plant that occurred be negatively affected by habitat control the numbers of ungulates to at Kipahulu on Maui was identified as modification and destruction by eliminate habitat modification and Sicyocarya kipahuluensis by St. John ungulates, direct competition with destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by (1987, p. 52). Since that time, Wagner nonnative plants, and herbivory and these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in and Shannon (1999, p. 444) predation by slugs and rats. Landslides, litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). synonymized this species under Sicyos flooding, and drought may impact this Nonnative plants modify and destroy macrophyllus. As a result, this species species. The small number of remaining the native habitat of S. lanceoloideus, is not endemic to Hawaii Island, but individuals may limit this species’ and displace this species and other occurs on both Maui and Hawaii. Sicyos ability to adapt to environmental native Hawaiian plants by competing for macrophyllus is recognized as a distinct changes. Because of these threats, we water, nutrients, light, and space, or taxon in Telford (1999, p. 519) and in find that this species should be listed they may produce chemicals that inhibit Wagner and Shannon (1999), the most throughout all of its range, and, the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, recently accepted taxonomic treatments therefore, we find that it is unnecessary pp. 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in for this species. Typical habitat is wet to analyze whether it is endangered or Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP Metrosideros polymorpha forest and threatened in a significant portion of its 2010). Drought and fire are also reported -Myoporum range. to pose a threat to S. lanceoloideus sandwicense (mamane-naio) forest, at Sicyos lanceoloideus (anunu) is a (PEPP 2014, pp. 166; HBMP 2010). 4,000 to 6,600 ft (1,200 to 2,000 m) in perennial vine in the gourd family Owing to the small remaining number of the montane mesic (Hawaii Island),

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montane wet (Maui), and montane dry The remaining occurrences of Sicyos Hawaii and Molokai (approximately 50 (Hawaii Island) ecosystems (Telford macrophyllus and habitat for its individuals), and on the northwestern 1999, p. 578; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). reintroduction are at risk. The only Hawaiian Islands of Kure (an unknown Historically, Sicyos macrophyllus was known individuals are restricted to number of individuals), Midway known from Puuwaawaa, Laupahoehoe, small areas on Hawaii Island and (approximately 260 individuals on Puna, and South Kona on the island of continue to be negatively affected by Sand, Eastern, and Spit islands), Laysan Hawaii, and from Kipahulu Valley on habitat modification and destruction by (approximately 490 individuals), Pearl the island of Maui (HBMP 2010). ungulates, direct competition with and Hermes (30 to 100 individuals), and Currently, S. macrophyllus is known nonnative plants, and seed predation by Nihoa (8,000 to 15,000 individuals) from 10 occurrences, totaling between rats. The small number of remaining (Aruch 2006, in litt.; Rehkemper 2006, 24 and 26 individuals, on the island of individuals may limit this species’ in litt.; Tangalin 2006, in litt.; Bio 2008, Hawaii at Puu Mali, Puuwaawaa (Puu ability to adapt to environmental in litt.; Vanderlip 2011, in litt.; Conry Iki), Honaunau, Hakalau NWR-Kona changes. The effects of climate change 2012, in litt.; PEPP 2013, pp. 190–191). Unit, Kaohe, Kukuiopae, Kipuka are likely to further exacerbate these Axis deer and cattle modify and Maunaiu, Kipuka Ki, and Puu Huluhulu threats. Because of these threats, we find destroy the habitat of Solanum nelsonii (Bio 2008, in litt.; Pratt 2008, pers. that this species should be listed on the main Hawaiian islands of Maui, comm.; HBMP 2010). It is reported that throughout all of its range, and, Molokai, and Hawaii (except axis deer), wild individuals at Kipuka Ki at Hawaii therefore, we find that it is unnecessary with evidence of the activities of these Volcanoes National Park are to analyze whether it is endangered or animals reported in the areas where this reproducing; however, seeds have not threatened in a significant portion of its species occurs (HBMP 2010). Ungulates been successfully germinated under range. are managed in Hawaii as game animals nursery conditions (Pratt 2005, pers. Solanum nelsonii (popolo) is a (except for cattle), but public hunting comm.). The individual on Maui has not sprawling or trailing shrub up to 3 ft (1 does not adequately control the been observed since 1987 (HBMP 2010). m) tall, in the nightshade family numbers of ungulates to eliminate Feral pigs, mouflon, and cattle modify (Solanaceae) family. Plants form clumps habitat modification and destruction, or and destroy the habitat of Sicyos up to 5 ft (2 m) in diameter. Young to eliminate herbivory by these animals macrophyllus on the island of Hawaii, stems and leaves are densely pubescent (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– with evidence of the activities of these and do not have spines. Broadly ovate DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants animals reported in the areas where this leaves are grayish green, have entire species occurs (HBMP 2010). Ungulates margins, and are arranged alternately modify and destroy the native habitat of are managed in Hawaii as game animals along the stems. Flowers are perfect and S. nelsonii, both on the main Hawaiian (except for cattle), but public hunting have a white tubular corolla that is Islands and on some of the does not adequately control the tinged with lavender to pale purple. Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (HBMP numbers of ungulates to eliminate Round berries are usually black when 2010). Nonnative plants displace this habitat modification and destruction, or mature with numerous seeds. Solanum species and other native Hawaiian to eliminate herbivory by these animals nelsonii is unusual in the genus with its plants by competing for water, (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– doubly curved, purple anthers, which nutrients, light, and space, or they may DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants possibly suggest different pollinators produce chemicals that inhibit the modify and destroy the native habitat of than bees (Symon 1999, pp. 1273–1274). growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. S. macrophyllus, and displace this Solanum nelsonii was described by 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in species and other native Hawaiian Dunal (1852, 690 pp.) and is recognized Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP plants by competing for water, as a distinct taxon in the Manual of 2010). Seed predation by rats has been nutrients, light, and space, or they may Flowering Plants of Hawaii (Symon reported to pose a threat to S. nelsonii produce chemicals that inhibit the 1999, pp. 1273–1274), the most recently on Molokai (PEPP 2014, p. 167). growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. accepted Hawaiian plant taxonomy. Stochastic events such as drought, 180–250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Typical habitat for this species is erosion, fire, and flooding are also Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP rubble or sand in coastal sites up to 490 reported to pose a threat to S. nelsonii 2010). Seed predation by rats is reported ft (150 m), in the coastal ecosystem (PEPP 2014, p. 167; HBMP 2010). In to pose a threat to this species (HBMP (Symon 1999, pp. 1273–1274; TNCH 2011, a tidal wave swept over Midway 2010). Stochastic events such as fire are 2007; HBMP 2010). Atoll’s Eastern Island and Kure Atoll’s also reported to pose a threat to S. Historically, Solanum nelsonii was Green Island, spreading plastic debris macrophyllus (HBMP 2010). This known from the island of Hawaii and destroying seabird nesting areas as species may experience reduced (Kaalualu, Kamilo, and Kaulana Bay, far as about 500 ft (150 m) inland reproductive vigor due to low levels of South Point; 5 individuals total); the (DOFAW 2011, in litt.; USFWS 2011, in genetic variability, leading to island of Niihau at Kealea Bay, litt.). Tsunami, and potential sea level diminished capacity to adapt to Kawaewaae, and Leahi; Nihoa Island; rise with global warming, could modify environmental changes, thereby Laysan Island; Pearl and Hermes Reef and destroy habitat for S. nelsonii in the lessening the probability of its long-term (North Island, Seal-Kittery Island, and low-lying Northwestern Hawaiian persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. Grass Island); and at Kure Atoll (Green Islands. Occurrences of this species on 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Island) (Lamoreaux 1963, p. 6; Clapp et the main Hawaiian Islands may Climate change may result in alteration al. 1977, p. 36; HBMP 2010). This experience reduced reproductive vigor of the environmental conditions and species was last collected on Niihau in due to low levels of genetic variability, ecosystem that support this species. 1949 (HBMP 2010). The only known leading to diminished capacity to adapt Sicyos macrophyllus may be unable to individual on Maui was reported to to environmental changes, thereby tolerate or respond to changes in have disappeared in the mid-1990s, lessening the probability of its long-term temperature and moisture, or may be after cattle had been allowed to graze in persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. unable to move to areas with more its last known habitat (HBMP 2010). 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. Currently, S. nelsonii occurs in the Climate change may result in alteration 2013, p. 89). coastal ecosystem, on the islands of of the environmental conditions and

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ecosystems that support this species. believed to be a different species, S. threatened in a significant portion of its Solanum nelsonii may be unable to sherffii, until the mid-1990s). This range. tolerate or respond to changes in subspecies occurred within a very small Wikstroemia skottsbergiana (akia) is a temperature and moisture, or may be range in the northern Koolau shrub or small tree in the akia family unable to move to areas with more Mountains, at Opaeula and Kawailoa, (Thymelaceae). Leaves are pale green, suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. but is now extinct in the wild. There are membranous, and 2 to 5 in (6 to 12 cm) 2013, p. 89). propagules from the original collections long. Flowers are green, with the calyx The remaining occurrences of that have been outplanted in the same tube 0.3 to 0.4 in (6 to 10 mm) long and Solanum nelsonii on the main Hawaiian area (PEPP 2014, p. 169). outer lobes 0.1 to 0.2 in (2.5 to 5 mm) Islands are restricted to small areas of Feral pigs modify and destroy the long. Fruit is red, ellipsoid, 0.3 in (8 Molokai and Hawaii Island, and habitat of Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii mm) in diameter (Peterson 1999, p. continue to be negatively affected by on Oahu, with evidence of the activities 1290). Wikstroemia skottsbergiana is habitat modification and destruction by of these animals reported in the areas recognized as a distinct taxon in ungulates, direct competition with where this subspecies occurred (HBMP Peterson (1999, p. 1290), the most nonnative plants, and herbivory and 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 169). Ungulates are recently accepted taxonomic treatment predation by rats. The relatively isolated managed in Hawaii as game animals, of this species. This species occurs in occurrences of S. nelsonii on the but public hunting does not adequately wet forest on the island of Kauai, in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are control the numbers of ungulates to lowland wet ecosystem (Peterson 1999, negatively affected (on the low-lying eliminate habitat destruction and p. 1290; TNCH 2007), and is historically islands) by nonnative plants and by modification, or to eliminate herbivory known from the Wahiawa Mountains, stochastic events such as tsunami. The by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, Hanalei Valley, and Kauhao Valley on small number of remaining individuals in litt.; HAR–DLNR 2010, in litt.). the island of Kauai (Peterson 1999, p. in the main Hawaiian Islands may limit Nonnative plants destroy and modify 1290). Currently, this species is limited this species’ ability to adapt to the native habitat of S. kaalae ssp. to 30 individuals at one site (PEPP 2012, environmental changes. Because of sherffii, and displace this subspecies p. 26). Feral pigs destroy and modify the these threats, we find that this species and other native Hawaiian plants by habitat of Wikstroemia skottsbergiana should be listed throughout all of its competing for water, nutrients, light, on Kauai, with evidence of the activities range, and, therefore, we find that it is and space, or they may produce of these animals reported in the areas unnecessary to analyze whether it is chemicals that inhibit the growth of endangered or threatened in a where this species occurs (DLNR 2005, other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; significant portion of its range. in litt.). Ungulates are managed in Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii (NCN) Hawaii as game animals, but public is a climbing vine in the mint family Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010). This hunting does not adequately control the (Lamiaceae). Stems are quadrangular, 3 subspecies may experience reduced numbers of ungulates to eliminate to 7 ft (1 to 2 m) long, either glabrous reproductive vigor due to low levels of habitat destruction and modification, or or pubescent in grooves. Leaves are genetic variability, leading to to eliminate herbivory by these animals glossy and 5 in (12 cm) long. Flowers diminished capacity to adapt to (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR– are very dark maroon and narrowly bell- environmental changes, thereby DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants shaped. Nutlets are 0.2 in (4 mm) long, lessening the probability of its long-term destroy and modify the native habitat of fleshy, and dark purple (Weller and persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. W. skottsbergiana, and displace this and Sakai 1999, p. 838; Wagner and Weller 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). other native Hawaiian plants by 1999, pp. 448–449). In 1994, after Climate change may result in alteration competing for water, nutrients, light, publication of the treatment of of the environmental conditions and and space, or they may produce Stenogyne by Weller and Sakai (in ecosystems that support this species. chemicals that inhibit the growth of Wagner et al. 1990, p. 838), a new Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii may be other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180–250; occurrence of the plant described as unable to tolerate or respond to changes Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stenogyne sherffii was discovered in the in temperature and moisture, or may be Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010). Koolau Mountains of Oahu. Upon unable to move to areas with more Predation of seeds by rats may pose a further study, the morphological suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. threat to this species (DLNR 2005, in distinctions, coupled with the 2013, p. 90). litt.). This species may experience geographic separation from the Waianae Any remaining occurrences of reduced reproductive vigor due to low Mountain individuals, clearly indicated Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii and levels of genetic variability, leading to it was not S. kaalae. The new taxon was habitat for its reintroduction are at risk, diminished capacity to adapt to identified as a subspecies of S. kaalae the known individuals were restricted environmental changes, thereby and given the name S. kaalae ssp. to a very small area on Oahu, and the lessening the probability of its long-term sherffii (Wagner and Weller 1999, pp. area continues to be negatively affected persistence (DLNR 2005, in litt.; Barrett 448–449). Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii by habitat modification and destruction and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and occurs in the Koolau Mountains of by ungulates and direct competition Pilson 1997, p. 361). Oahu, in diverse wet forest at 1,500 to with nonnative plants. The small The remaining occurrences of 1,600 ft (450 to 490 m), in the lowland number of remaining individuals (ex Wikstroemia skottsbergiana and habitat wet ecosystem (Wagner and Weller situ only) may limit this subspecies’ for its reintroduction are at risk. The 1999, pp. 448–449; HBMP 2010; U.S. ability to adapt to environmental known individuals are restricted to a Army 2014 database; TNCH 2007). changes. The effects of climate change very small area on Kauai and continue Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii is are likely to further exacerbate these to be negatively affected by habitat historically known from diverse mesic threats. Because of these threats, we find modification and destruction by forest in the Waianae Mountains of that this subspecies should be listed ungulates, direct competition with Oahu and from the lowland wet throughout all of its range, and, nonnative plants, and seed predation by ecosystem of the Koolau Mountains therefore, we find that it is unnecessary rats. The small number of remaining (although, as described above, it was to analyze whether it is endangered or individuals may limit this species’

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ability to adapt to environmental monotypic (2015, in litt.). However, Center of Japan 2014, p. 1). When changes. Because of these threats, we molecular studies are ongoing and Polynesians arrived about 1,500 years find that this species should be listed indicate genetic differences between ago, the band-rumped storm-petrel throughout all of its range, and, populations in different and probably was common on all of the therefore, we find that it is unnecessary archipelagos (Friesen et al. 2007a, pp. main Hawaiian Islands (Harrison et al. to analyze whether it is endangered or 18590–18592; Smith et al. 2007, p. 770), 1990, pp. 47–48). As evidenced by threatened in a significant portion of its between sympatric populations that bones found in middens on Hawaii range. breed in different seasons (e.g., in the Island (Harrison et al. 1990, pp. 47–48) Galapagos Islands; Smith and Friesen Animals and in excavation sites on Oahu and 2007, pp. 1599–1560; Smith et al. 2007, Molokai (Olson and James 1982, pp. 30, Band-rumped storm-petrel p. 756), and potentially between 33), band-rumped storm-petrels were (Oceanodroma castro) populations on individual Hawaiian once numerous enough to be used as a The band-rumped storm-petrel islands (Bogardus 2015, in litt.) source of food and possibly feathers When not at nesting sites, adult band- (Oceanodroma castro) is a small (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 48). In Hawaii, rumped storm-petrels spend their time seabird, about 8 in (20 cm) long, with band-rumped storm-petrels are known foraging on the open (Slotterback a wingspan of about 19 in (47 cm), and to nest in remote cliff locations on Kauai 2002, p. 7). Food is taken from the ocean about 2 ounces (50 grams) in weight. and Lehua Island, and in high-elevation The tail is only slightly notched and surface and consists mostly of small fish and squid (Slotterback 2002, p. 7; Harris lava fields on Hawaii Island (Wood et al. may appear almost square. Plumage is 1969, p. 105). Nests are placed in 2002, pp. 17–18; Hu 2005, pers. comm.; an overall blackish-brown with a white crevices, holes, and protected ledges VanderWerf et al. 2007, pp. 1, 5; Joyce band across the ‘‘rump’’ (above the tail). along cliff faces, where a single egg is and Holmes 2010, p. 3). Vocalizations This species typically flies with a laid (Allan 1962, p. 274–275; Harris were heard in Haleakala Crater on Maui relatively shallow wing-beat, and glides 1969, pp. 104–105; Slotterback 2002, p. in 1992 (Johnston 1992, in Wood et al. on slightly bowed wings as a regular 11). Adults visit the nest site after dark, 2002, p. 2) and more recently in 2006 part of flight (Slotterback 2002, p. 2). where they can be detected by their (Ackerman 2006, pers. comm.). Based Sexes are alike in size and appearance. distinctive calls. In Hawaii, adults on the scarcity of known breeding The band-rumped storm-petrel is long- establish nesting sites in April or May, colonies in Hawaii and their remote, lived (15 to 20 years) and probably does and the nesting season occurs during inaccessible locations today compared not breed until its third year (Harrison the summer months. The incubation to prehistoric population levels and et al. 1990, p. 48). Vocalizations at period averages 42 days (Harris 1969, p. distribution, the band-rumped storm- breeding colonies can be used to further 109), and the young reach fledging stage petrel appears to be is significantly distinguish this species from other in 64 to 70 days (Allan 1962, p. 285; reduced in numbers and range following seabirds (Allan 1962, p. 279; James and Harris 1969, p. 109). human occupation of the Hawaiian Robertson 1985, pp. 391–392). The The band-rumped storm-petrel is Islands, likely as a result of predation by band-rumped storm-petrel is a member found in several areas of the subtropical nonnative mammals and habitat loss. of the family Hydrobatidae ( Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (del Hoyo Procellariiformes) and a member of the Band-rumped storm-petrels are 1992 in Life International 2015, in regularly observed in coastal waters Northern Hemisphere subfamily litt.). The Atlantic breeding populations Hydrobatinae (Slotterback 2002, p. 2). around Kauai, Niihau, and Hawaii are restricted to islands in the eastern Island (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; Prior to 1900, this species had been portions: Cape Verde, Ascension, Holmes and Joyce 2009, 4 pp.), and in described as an unnamed petrel in the Madeira, and the Azores Islands (Allan ‘‘rafts’’ (regular concentrations) of a few genus Thalassidroma (Dole 1869, 1879 1962, p. 274; Harrison 1983, p. 274). birds to as many as 100, possibly in Stejneger 1887, p. 78), as Cymochorea Wintering birds may occur as far west awaiting nightfall before coming ashore cryptoleucura (Ridgeway 1882, pp. 337– as the mid-Atlantic; however, Atlantic to breeding colonies. Kauai likely has 338), and as Oceanodroma breeding populations are not within the cryptoleucura (Stejneger 1887, p. 78). borders of the United States or areas the largest population, with an After Henshaw’s 1902 publication, the under U.S. jurisdiction. Three widely estimated 221 nesting pairs in cliffs Hawaiian population was known as O. separated breeding areas occur in the along the north shore of the island in castro cryptoleucura, the Hawaiian Pacific: in Japan, in Hawaii, and in the 2002, and additional observations on storm-petrel (Harrison et al. 1990, p. Galapagos (Richardson 1957, p. 19; the north and south side of the island 47). Hawaiian names for this bird Harris 1969, p. 96; Harrison 1983, p. in 2010 (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; include oeoe, oweowe, and akeake 274). The Japanese population, which Johnston 1992, in litt.; Wood et al. 2002, (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 47). Austin breeds on islets off the east coast of pp. 2–3; Wood 2005, pers. comm.; (1952, pp. 395–396) examined 11 Japan (Hidejima and Sanganjima in Holmes and Joyce 2009, 4 pp.; Joyce and museum skins from Hawaii and Allan 1962, p. 274; Harris 1969, p. 96) Holmes 2010, pp. 1–3). The band- concluded that, although the various ranges within 860 mi (1,400 km) east rumped storm-petrel is also known from populations exhibited minor size and south of the breeding colonies. Lehua Island (VanderWerf et al. 2007, p. differences, these differences were not Populations in Japan and Galapagos 1), from Maui (Hawaii’s Comprehensive significant and the populations in total as many as 23,000 pairs (Boersma Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS) Hawaii were best considered as and Groom 1993, p. 114); however, a 2005, in litt.), Kahoolawe (Olson 1992, belonging to a single species with no recent survey on Hidejima Island pp. 38, 112), and Hawaii Island (CWCS subspecies. Harris (1969, pp. 95, 97–99) revealed only 117 burrows, some of 2005, in litt.). Additional surveys have also supported this determination. which were occupied by Leach’s storm been conducted on several islands in Taxonomists have typically combined petrels (Biodiversity Center of Japan recent years, including surveys the Pacific populations of band-rumped 2014, p. 1). Surveyors noted that the confirming the presence of band- storm-petrel into a single taxon, and nesting area had been affected by rumped storm-petrels at PTA on the currently the American Ornithologist’s extensive erosion caused by the 2011 island of Hawaii, but further data are Union (AOU) regards the species as earthquake and tsunami (Biodiversity not yet available (Swift 2015, in litt.).

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We do not have a current estimate of Furness 2003, p. 33). A single hurricane Kauai (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 53). total numbers in Hawaii at this time. during the breeding season could cause Hylaeus anthracinus was first described Predation by nonnative animals on reproductive failure and kill a as Prosopis anthracina by Smith in 1873 nests and adults during the breeding significant number of adult birds. In this (in Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 55) and season is the greatest threat to the proposed rule, our proposed listing transferred to Nesoprosopis 20 years Hawaiian population of the band- determination would apply only to the later (Perkins 1899, p. 75). Nesoprosopis rumped storm-petrel. These predators Hawaiian population of the band- was reduced to a subgenus of Hylaeus include feral (Felis catus), barn rumped storm-petrel (see ‘‘Distinct in 1923 (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1). owls (Tyto alba), small Indian Population Segment,’’ below). Because Although the distinctness of this species (Herpestes auropunctatus), black rats of the deleterious and cumulative effects remains unquestioned, recent genetic (Rattus rattus), Norway rats (R. to the band-rumped storm-petrel caused evidence suggests H. anthracinus may norvegicus), and Polynesian rats (R. by the threats described above, we find be composed of three cryptic (not exulans) (Scott et al. 1986, pp. 1, 363– that the Hawaii population should be recognized) species or subspecies that 364; Tomich 1986, pp. 37–45; Harrison listed as endangered throughout its represent populations on Hawaii, Maui et al. 1990, pp. 47–48; Slotterback 2002, range, and, therefore, we find that it is and Kahoolawe, and Molokai and Oahu p. 19; Wood 2005, pers. comm.). unnecessary to analyze whether it is (Magnacca and Brown 2010, pp. 5–7). Attraction of fledglings to artificial endangered or threatened in a However, this has not been established lights and collisions with structures, significant portion of its range. scientifically; therefore, we treat H. such as communication towers and anthracinus as a single species. Yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus spp.) Hylaeus anthracinus is a solitary bee, utility lines, is also a threat (Banko et al. Bees in the genus Hylaeus (family and after mating, females seek existing 1991, p. 651; Cooper and Day 1998, p. ), which includes H. cavities in coral rubble or rocky 18; Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; Holmes anthracinus, are commonly known as substrates for nest construction and Joyce 2009, p. 2; Podolsky et al. yellow-faced bees or masked bees for (Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 13–14). 1998, pp. 21, 27–30; Reed et al.1985, p. their yellow-to-white facial markings. Adult bees have been observed visiting 377; Telfer et al. 1987, pp. 412–413). Hylaeus bees are similar in structure to the flowers of native coastal plants Monitoring of power lines on Kauai has other hymenopterans (bees, wasps, and (Argemone glauca (pua kala), recorded over 1,000 strikes by seabirds ants) in that adults have three main Chamaesyce celastroides (akoko), C. annually (mostly Newell’s shearwaters body parts—a head, thorax, and degeneri (akoko), Heliotropium (Puffinus auricularis newelli); Travers et abdomen. One pair of antennae arises anomalum (hinahina), H. foertherianum al. 2014, in litt.) that may result in from the front of the head, between the (tree heliotrope), Myoporum injury or death. Recent studies of eyes. Two pairs of wings and three pairs sandwicense (naio), Sesbania tomentosa attraction of seabirds to artificial lights of legs are attached to the thorax, and (ohai), Scaevola taccada (naupaka indicate that 40 percent of those the abdomen is composed of multiple kahakai), and Sida fallax (ilima)). This downed by exhaustion (from circling segments (Borror et al. 1989, pp. 665– species has also been collected from the lights) are killed by collisions with 666). All Hylaeus bees roughly resemble inside the fruit capsule of Kadua cars or other objects (Anderson 2014, p. small wasps in appearance; however, coriacea (kiolele) (Magnacca 2005a, p. 4–13; Travers et al. 2014, in litt.). Since Hylaeus bees have plumose (branched) 2). 1979, 40 band-rumped storm-petrels hairs on the body that are longest on the Hylaeus anthracinus was historically downed by light attraction have been sides of the thorax, which readily known from numerous coastal and retrieved on Kauai by the Save Our distinguish them from wasps (Michener lowland dry forest habitats up to 2,000 Shearwater program (Anderson 2014, p. 2000, p. 55). ft (610 m) in elevation on the islands of 4–13). The small numbers of these birds Bees in the family Colletidae are also Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and and their nesting areas on remote cliffs referred to as plasterer bees because Oahu, and in some areas was ‘‘locally make population-level impacts difficult they line their nests with a self-secreted, abundant’’ (Magnacca and King 2013, to document. However, the band- cellophane-like material. Eggs hatch and pp. 13–14). Between 1997 and 1998, rumped storm-petrel has similar develop into larvae (immature stage) surveys for Hawaiian Hylaeus were behavior, life history traits, and habitat and as larvae grow, they molt through conducted at 43 sites that were either needs to the Newell’s shearwater, a three successive stages (instars), then historical collecting localities or threatened species that has sustained change into pupae (a resting form) in potential suitable habitat. Hylaeus major losses as a result of light which they metamorphose and emerge anthracinus was observed at 13 of the attraction and collisions with lines or as adults (Michener 2000, p. 24). The 43 survey sites, but was not found at other objects. Therefore, we conclude diet of the larval stage is unknown, any of the 9 historically occupied sites that these are potential threats to the although it is presumed the larvae feed (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 217; band-rumped storm-petrel as well. on stores of pollen and nectar collected Magnacca 2007a, p. 44). Several of the Erosion and landslides at nest sites and deposited in the nest by the adult historical collection sites have been caused by nonnative ungulates is a female. urbanized or are dominated by potential threat in some locations on the nonnative vegetation (Liebherr and island of Kauai. Regulatory mechanisms Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus anthracinus) Polhemus 1997, pp. 346–347; Daly and (e.g., the Migratory Bird Treaty Act Hylaeus anthracinus has clear to Magnacca 2003, p. 55; Magnacca 2007b, (MBTA; 16 U.S.C. 703 et seq.)) smoky wings and black legs. The male pp. 186–188). Currently, H. anthracinus contribute minimally to the active has a single large yellow spot on the is known from 15 small patches of recovery and management of this face, and below the antennal sockets the coastal and lowland dry forest habitat species. Other potential threats include face is yellow. The female is entirely (Magnacca 2005a, p. 2); 5 locations on commercial fisheries, ocean , black and can be distinguished by black the island of Hawaii in the coastal and and the small population size and hairs on the end of the abdomen and an lowland dry ecosystems; 2 locations on limited distribution in Hawaii (Soule´ unusual mandible with three teeth, a Maui in the coastal and lowland dry 1987, p. 8; Lande et al. 1988, pp. 1455, characteristic shared only with H. ecosystems; 1 location on Kahoolawe in 1458–1459; Harrison et al. 1990, p. 50; flavifrons, a closely related species on the lowland dry ecosystem; 3 locations

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on Molokai in the coastal ecosystem, 1998, pp. 1–2). Fire is a potential threat for all Hylaeus species; however, we are and 4 locations on Oahu in the coastal to H. anthracinus, as it destroys native unable to determine the extent of these ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. coastal and lowland dry plant negative impacts at this time. 217; Magnacca 2005a, p. 2; Magnacca communities on which the species The remaining populations of H. 2007a, p. 44; Magnacca and King 2013, depends, and opens habitat for anthracinus and its habitat are at risk. pp. 13–14). These 15 locations increased invasion by nonnative plants. The known individuals are restricted to supported small populations of H. Because of the greater frequency, 15 locations on Hawaii, Maui, anthracinus, but the number of intensity, and duration of fires that have Kahoolawe, Molokai, and Oahu individual bees is unknown. In 2004, a resulted from the human alteration of continue to be negatively affected by single individual was collected in landscapes and the introduction of habitat destruction and modification by montane dry forest on the island of nonnative plants, especially grasses, urbanization and land-use conversion, Hawaii (possibly a vagrant); however, fires are now more destructive to native and by habitat destruction and removal the presence of additional individuals Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith of food and nesting sites by nonnative has not been confirmed at this site 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-fueled ungulates and nonnative plants. Habitat (Magnacca 2005a, p. 2). Although this fire often kills most native trees and destruction by fire is a potential threat. species was previously unknown from in the area (D’Antonio and Randomly occurring events such as the island of Kahoolawe, it was Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could destroy hurricanes and drought may modify observed at one location on the island food and nesting resources for H. habitat and remove food and nesting in 2002 (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. anthracinus. The numbers of wildfires sources for H. anthracinus. Predation by nonnative ants and wasps is a threat. 55). Additionally, during surveys and the acreages involved are increasing Existing regulatory mechanisms and between 1997 and 2008, H. anthracinus in the main Hawaiian Islands; however, agency policies do not address the was absent from 17 other sites on their occurrences and locations are primary threats to the yellow-faced bees Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and unpredictable, and could affect habitat and their habitat from nonnative Oahu with potentially suitable habitat for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima ungulates. Competition with nonnative from which other species of Hylaeus 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. bees for food and nesting sites is a were collected (Daly and Magnacca 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu potential threat. The small number of 2003, pp. 4, 55; Magnacca 2008, pers. Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster comm.). remaining populations may limit this Center 2011, in litt.). Predation by species’ ability to adapt to Habitat destruction and modification nonnative ants including the big-headed environmental changes. Because of by urbanization and land use ant (Pheidole megacephala), the yellow these threats, we find that Hylaeus conversion leads to the direct crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes), anthracinus should be listed throughout fragmentation of foraging and nesting Solenopsis papuana (NCN), and S. all of its range, and, therefore, we find areas of Hylaeus anthracinus. Habitat geminata (NCN) on Hylaeus egg, larvae, that it is unnecessary to analyze destruction and modification by and pupal stages is a threat to H. whether it is endangered or threatened nonnative plants adversely impact anthracinus, and ants also compete with in a significant portion of its range. native Hawaiian plant species by H. anthracinus for their nectar food modifying the availability of light, source (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus assimulans) altering soil-water regimes, modifying al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. Hylaeus assimulans is distinguished nutrient cycling, altering the fire 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; by its large size relative to other coastal characteristics (increasing the fire Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation by Hylaeus species and by its slightly cycle), and ultimately converting native nonnative western yellow jacket wasps smoky to smoky-colored wings and dominated plant communities to is a threat to H. anthracinus because the black legs. The male is black with nonnative plant communities; such wasp is an aggressive, generalist yellow face marks, with an almost habitat destruction and modification predator, and occurs in great numbers in entirely yellow clypeus (lower face result in removal of food sources and many habitat types, from sea level to region) with additional marks on the nesting sites for the H. anthracinus. over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), including areas sides that narrow dorsally (towards the Habitat modification and destruction by where H. anthracinus and other yellow- top). The male also has brown nonnative animals such as feral pigs faced bees occur (Gambino et al. 1987, appressed (flattened) hairs on the tip of (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), axis p. 169). Existing regulatory mechanisms the abdomen. The female is entirely deer (Axis axis), and cattle (Bos taurus), and agency policies do not address the black, large-bodied, and has distinct are considered one of the primary primary threats to the yellow-faced bees punctuation on the abdomen (Daly and factors underlying degradation of native and their habitat from nonnative Magnacca 2003, p. 56). Hylaeus vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and ungulates. Competition with nonnative assimulans was first described as these habitat changes also remove food bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, Nesoprosopis assimulans (Perkins 1899, sources and nesting sites for H. Australian colletid bees) for nectar and pp. 75, 101–102). Nesoprosopis was anthracinus (Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; pollen is a potential threat to H. reduced to a subgenus of Hylaeus in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 60–66, anthracinus (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). 1923 (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1). The 73). Fire is a potential threat to H. The small number of populations and species was most recently described as anthracinus, as it destroys native plant individuals of H. anthracinus makes Hylaeus assimulans by Daly and communities on which it depends, and this species more vulnerable to Magnacca in 2003 (pp. 55–56). opens habitat for increased invasion by extinction because of the higher risks Nests of H. assimulans are usually nonnative plants. Random, naturally from genetic bottlenecks, random constructed opportunistically within occurring events such as hurricanes and demographic fluctuations, and localized existing burrows, or other similarly drought can modify and destroy habitat catastrophes such as hurricanes and small natural cavities under bark or of H. anthracinus by creating disturbed drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; rocks that they suit to their own needs areas conducive to invasion by Magnacca 2007b, p. 173). Changes in (Magnacca 2005b, p. 2). Adult bees have nonnative plants (Kitayama and precipitation resulting from the effects been observed visiting the flowers of its Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger of climate change may degrade habitat likely primary nesting native host plant,

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Sida fallax (ilima), as well as the conversion leads to fragmentation and 1998, pp. 1–2). Predation by nonnative flowers of native lobata eventual loss of, foraging and nesting ants (the big-headed ant, the yellow (nehe) (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 58). areas for Hylaeus assimulans. Habitat crazy ant, Solenopsis papuana, and S. Hylaeus assimulans appears to be destruction and modification by geminata) on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and closely associated with plants in the nonnative plants (Asystasia gangetica pupal stages is a threat to H. assimulans; genus Sida, and studies thus far suggest (Chinese violet), Atriplex semibaccata, additionally, ants compete with H. this yellow-faced bee species may be Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris barbata assimulans for their nectar food source more common where this plant is (swollen fingergrass), Digitaria insularis (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. abundant (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. (sourgrass), (koa 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 58, 217; Magnacca 2007b, p. 183). haole), Panicum maximum (guinea 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Recent survey efforts indicate that H. grass), Pluchea indica (Indian fleabane), Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation by assimulans is more common in dry P. carolinensis (sourbush), and nonnative western yellow jacket wasps forest, which may be related to the Verbesina encelioides (golden crown- is a potential threat to H. assimulans greater abundance of Sida in the beard)) adversely impact native because the wasp is an aggressive, understory (Magnacca 2005b, p. 2). It is Hawaiian plant species by modifying generalist predator, and occurs in great likely that H. assimulans visits several the availability of light, altering soil- numbers in many habitat types, from sea other native plants, including Acacia water regimes, modifying nutrient level to over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), koa (koa), Metrosideros polymorpha cycling, altering the fire characteristics, including areas where H. assimulans (ohia), Leptecophylla tameiameiae and ultimately converting native and other yellow-faced bees occur (pukiawe), Scaevola sp. (naupaka), and dominated plant communities to (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). Existing Chamaescye sp. (akoko), which are nonnative plant communities; such regulatory mechanisms and agency known to be frequented by other habitat destruction and modification policies do not address the primary Hylaeus species (Magnacca 2005, pers. result in removal of food sources and threats to the yellow-faced bees and comm.). nesting sites for H. assimulans. Habitat their habitat from nonnative ungulates. Historically, Hylaeus assimulans was modification and destruction by Competition with nonnative bees known from numerous coastal and nonnative animals, such as feral pigs, (honeybees, carpenter bees, Australian lowland dry forest habitats up to 2,000 goats, axis deer, and cattle, is are colletid bees) for nectar and pollen is a ft (610 m) in elevation on the islands of considered one of the primary factors potential threat to H. assimulans Maui (coastal and lowland dry underlying destruction of native (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The small ecosystems), Lanai (lowland dry number of populations and individuals ecosystem), and Oahu (coastal and vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and these habitat changes also remove food of H. assimulans makes this species lowland dry ecosystem). There are no more vulnerable to extinction because of collections from Molokai although it is sources and nesting sites of H. assimulans (Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; the higher risks from genetic likely H. assimulans occurred there bottlenecks, random demographic because all other species of Hylaeus Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 60–66, 73). Fire is a potential threat to H. fluctuations, and localized catastrophes known from Maui, Lanai, and Oahu also such as hurricanes and drought (Daly occurred on Molokai (Daly and assimulans, as it destroys native coastal and lowland dry plant communities on and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca Magnacca 2003, pp. 217–229). Between 2007b, p. 173). Changes in precipitation 1997 and 1998, surveys for Hawaiian which the species depends, and opens habitat for increased invasion by resulting from the effects of climate Hylaeus were conducted at 25 sites on change may degrade habitat for all Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, and nonnative plants. Because of the greater Hylaeus species; however, we are Oahu. Hylaeus assimulans was absent frequency, intensity, and duration of unable to determine the extent of these from 6 of its historical localities on fires that have resulted from the human negative impacts at this time. Maui, Lanai, and Oahu, and was not alteration of landscapes and the observed at the remaining 19 sites with introduction of nonnative plants, The remaining populations of H. potentially suitable habitat (Xerces especially grasses, fires are now more assimulans and its habitat are at risk. Society 2009, p. 4; Daly and Magnacca destructive to native Hawaiian The known individuals are restricted to 2003, pp. 56, 217; Magnacca 2005b, p. ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 5 locations on Maui, Kahoolawe, and 2; Magnacca 2007b, pp. 177, 181, 183). 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often Lanai continue to be negatively affected Currently, H. assimulans is known from kills most native trees and shrubs in the by habitat destruction and modification a few small patches of coastal and area (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. by urbanization and land-use lowland dry forest habitat (Magnacca 74), and could destroy food and nesting conversion, and by habitat destruction 2005b, p. 2); two locations on Maui in resources for H. assimulans. The and removal of food and nesting sites by the lowland dry ecosystem; one location numbers of wildfires, and the acreages nonnative ungulates and nonnative on Kahoolawe in the coastal ecosystem; involved, are increasing in the main plants. Habitat destruction by fire is a and two locations on Lanai in the Hawaiian Islands; however, their potential threat. Randomly occurring lowland dry ecosystem (Daly and occurrences and locations are events such as hurricanes and drought Magnacca 2003, p. 58; Magnacca 2005b, unpredictable, and could affect habitat may modify habitat and remove food p. 2). This species has likely been for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima and nesting sources for H. assimulans. extirpated from Oahu because it has not 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. Predation by nonnative ants and wasps been observed since Perkin’s 1899 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu is a threat. Existing regulatory surveys, and was not found during Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster mechanisms and agency policies do not recent surveys of potentially suitable Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally address the primary threats to the habitat on Oahu at Kaena Point, occurring events such as hurricanes and yellow-faced bees and their habitat from Makapuu, and Kalaeloa (Daly and drought can modify and destroy habitat nonnative ungulates. Competition with Magnacca 2003, p. 217; Magnacca of H. assimulans by creating disturbed nonnative bees for food and nesting 2005b, p. 2). areas conducive to invasion by sites is a potential threat. The small Habitat destruction and modification nonnative plants (Kitayama and number of remaining populations may due to urbanization and land use Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger limit this species’ ability to adapt to

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environmental changes. Because of Although the species was widely Habitat modification and destruction by these threats, we find that H. assimulans collected, it likely prefers dry to mesic nonnative animals, such as feral pigs, should be listed throughout all of its forest and shrubland (Magnacca 2005c, goats, axis deer, and cattle, are range, and, therefore, we find that it is p. 2), which are increasingly rare and considered one of the primary factors unnecessary to analyze whether it is patchily distributed habitats (Smith underlying destruction of native endangered or threatened in a 1985, pp. 227–233; Juvik and Juvik vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and significant portion of its range. 1998, p. 124; Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66– these habitat changes also remove food Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus facilis) 67, 75; Magnacca 2005c, p. 2). sources and nesting sites for H. facilis Researchers believe the wet forest site (Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; Cuddihy and Hylaeus facilis is a medium-sized bee on Oahu where H. facilis was observed Stone 1990, pp. 60–66, 73). Fire is a with smoky-colored wings. The male likely had an open understory (mesic potential threat to H. facilis, as it has an oval yellow mark on the face that conditions), and represents an outlier or destroys native plant communities on covers the entire clypeus, and a narrow residual population (Liehberr and which the species depends, and opens stripe beside the eyes, but is otherwise Polhemus 1997, p. 347; Perkins 1899, p. habitat for increased invasion by unmarked. The large, externally visible 76). Hylaeus facilis has almost entirely nonnative plants. Because of the greater gonoforceps (paired lateral outer parts of disappeared from most of its historical frequency, intensity, and duration of the male genitalia) distinguish H. facilis range (Maui, coastal and lowland mesic; fires that have resulted from the human from the closely related H. simplex Lanai, lowland dry and lowland mesic; alteration of landscapes and the (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 83). The and Oahu, coastal and lowland dry) introduction of nonnative plants, female is entirely black and (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 7; especially grasses, fires are now more indistinguishable from females of H. Magnacca 2007b, p. 183). Between 1998 difficilis and H. simplex (Daly and destructive to native Hawaiian and 2006, 39 sites on Maui, Lanai, ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, p. Magnacca 2003, p. 56). Hylaeus facilis is Molokai, and Oahu were surveyed, a member of the H. difficilis species 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often including 13 historical sites. Hylaeus kills most native trees and shrubs in the group, and is closely related to H. facilis was absent from all 13 localities chlorostictus and H. simplex. Hylaeus area (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. (Magnacca 2007b, p. 183) and was not 74) and could destroy food and nesting facilis was first described as Prosopis observed at 26 additional sites with facilis by Smith in 1879 (Daly and resources for H. facilis. The numbers of potentially suitable habitat (Daly and wildfires, and the acreages involved, are Magnacca 2003, p. 80), based on a Magnacca 2003, pp. 7, 81–82; Magnacca specimen erroneously reported from increasing in the main Hawaiian 2007b, p. 183). Likely extirpated from Maui. According to Blackburn and Islands; however, their occurrences and Lanai, H. facilis is currently known from Cameron (1886 and 1887), the species’ locations are unpredictable, and could only two locations, one on Molokai in type locality was Pauoa Valley on Oahu affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at the coastal ecosystem, and one on Oahu (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 80). The any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of in the lowland mesic ecosystem (Daly species was later transferred to the Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, and Magnacca 2003, pp. 81–82; genus Nesoprosopis (Perkins 1899, pp. in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in Magnacca 2005c, p. 2). In addition, in 75, 77). Nesoprosopis was subsequently litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in 1990, a single individual was collected reduced to a subgenus of Hylaeus litt.). Random, naturally occurring on Maui near Makawao at 1,500 ft (460 (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1). The species events such as hurricanes and drought was most recently recognized by Daly m); however, this site is urbanized and can modify and destroy habitat of H. and Magnacca (2003, p. 80) as H. facilis. devoid of native plants, and it is likely facilis by creating disturbed areas Nests of Hylaeus facilis are probably this collection was a vagrant individual. conducive to invasion by nonnative constructed opportunistically within Habitat destruction and modification plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois existing burrows, or other similarly by urbanization and land use 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2). small natural cavities under bark or conversion leads to fragmentation of, Predation by nonnative ants (the big- rocks (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 83; and eventual loss of, foraging and headed ant, the yellow crazy ant, Magnacca 2005c, p. 2). The native host nesting areas of Hylaeus facilis. Habitat Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) plants of adult H. facilis are unknown, destruction and modification by on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages but it is likely this species visits several nonnative plants adversely impact is a threat to H. facilis; additionally, ants plants other Hylaeus species are known native Hawaiian plant species by compete with H. facilis for their nectar to frequent, including Acacia koa, modifying the availability of light, food source (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Metrosideros polymorpha, altering soil-water regimes, modifying Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. Leptecophylla tameiameiae, Scaevola nutrient cycling, altering the fire 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca spp., and Chamaesyce spp. (Daly and characteristics, and ultimately 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation Magnacca 2003, p. 11). Hylaeus facilis converting native dominated plant by nonnative western yellow jacket has been observed visiting nonnative communities to nonnative plant wasps is a potential threat to H. facilis Heliotropium foertherianum for nectar communities; such habitat destruction because the wasp is an aggressive, and pollen (Magnacca 2007b, p. 181). and modification results in removal of generalist predator, and occurs in great Historically, Hylaeus facilis was food sources and nesting sites for the H. numbers in many habitat types, from sea known from Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and facilis. In addition to the nonnative level to over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), Oahu, in dry shrubland to wet forest plant species noted above that modify including areas where H. assimulans from sea level to 3,000 ft (1,000 m) and destroy habitat of H. assimulans, and other yellow-faced bees occur (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 93; Daly Brachiaria mutica ( grass), (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). Existing and Magnacca 2003, pp. 81, 83). Perkins Prosopis pallida, Psidium cattleianum regulatory mechanisms and agency (1899, p. 77) remarked H. facilis was (strawberry guava), and Rubus spp. are policies do not address the primary among the most common and noted to negatively affect the habitat of threats to the yellow-faced bees and widespread Hylaeus species on Oahu H. facilis (Hawaii Division of Forestry their habitat from nonnative ungulates. and all of Maui Nui (Maui, Lanai, and and Wildlife (DOFAW) 2007, pp. 20–22; Competition with nonnative bees Molokai) (Magnacca 2007b, p. 183). Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 105). (honeybees, carpenter bees, Australian

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colletid bees) for nectar and pollen is a It is also one of only two Hawaiian occurrences are determined by the potential threat to H. facilis (Magnacca Hylaeus species to possess apical (at the remaining populations of these three 2007b, p. 188). The small number of end of a structure) bands of fine white other species. Habitat destruction and populations and individuals of H. facilis hairs on the segments of the metasoma. modification by urbanization and land makes this species more vulnerable to Hylaeus hilaris was first described as use conversion leads to fragmentation extinction because of the higher risks Prosopis hilaris by Smith in 1879 (in of, and eventual loss of, foraging and from genetic bottlenecks, random Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 103–104), nesting areas of H. hilaris, and of those demographic fluctuations, and localized and transferred to the genus Hylaeus species that H. hilaris is catastrophes such as hurricanes and Nesoprosopis 20 years later (Perkins dependent upon. Habitat destruction drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; 1899, p. 75). Nesoprosopis was reduced and modification by nonnative plants Magnacca 2007b, p. 173). Changes in to a subgenus of Hylaeus in 1923 adversely impact native Hawaiian plant precipitation resulting from the effects (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1). In 2003, Daly species by modifying the availability of of climate change may degrade habitat and Magnacca (pp. 103–104) described light, altering soil-water regimes, for all Hylaeus species; however, we are the species as Hylaeus hilaris, and is the modifying nutrient cycling, altering the unable to determine the extent of these most recently accepted taxonomic fire characteristics, and ultimately negative impacts at this time. treatment of this species. converting native dominated plant The remaining populations of Hylaeus Most adult Hylaeus species consume communities to nonnative plant facilis and its habitat are at risk. The nectar for energy; however, H. hilaris communities; such habitat destruction known individuals are restricted to one has yet to be observed actually feeding and modification result in removal of location on Molokai and one location on from flowers. Hylaeus hilaris and four food sources and nesting sites for the Oahu, and continue to be negatively related species (H. hostilis, H. inquilina, Hylaeus species that H. hilaris is affected by habitat destruction and H. sphecodoides, and H. volatilis) are dependent upon. Nonnative plant modification by urbanization and land- known as cleptoparasites or cuckoo species that modify and destroy habitat use conversion, and by habitat bees. The mated female does not of H. hilaris are noted in the description destruction and removal of food and construct a nest or collect pollen, but for H. assimulans, above. Habitat nesting sites by nonnative ungulates and instead enters the nest of another modification and destruction by nonnative plants. Habitat destruction by species and lays an egg in a provisioned nonnative animals, such as feral pigs, fire is a potential threat. Randomly cell. Upon hatching, the of H. goats, axis deer, and cattle, are occurring events such as hurricanes and hilaris kills the host egg, consumes the drought may modify habitat and remove provisions, pupates, and eventually considered one of the primary factors food and nesting sources for H. facilis. emerges as an adult. This species is underlying destruction of native Predation by nonnative ants and wasps known to lay its eggs within nests of H. vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and is a threat. Existing regulatory anthracinus, H. assimulans, and H. these habitat changes also remove food mechanisms and agency policies do not longiceps (Perkins 1913, p. lxxxi). sources and nesting sites for the host address the primary threats to the Hylaeus hilaris depends on related species of H. hilaris (Stone 1985, pp. yellow-faced bees and their habitat from Hylaeus host species to support larval 262–263; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. nonnative ungulates. Competition with life stage, its population size is observed 60–66, 73). Fire is a potential threat to nonnative bees for food and nesting to be much smaller than its host species, H. hilaris, as it destroys native plant sites is a potential threat. The small and this species is probably the most at communities, and opens habitat for number of remaining populations may risk of extinction because of these increased invasion by nonnative plants. limit this species’ ability to adapt to features (Magnacca 2007b, p. 181). Because of the greater frequency, environmental changes. Because of Historically, Hylaeus hilaris was intensity, and duration of fires that have these threats, we find that H. facilis known from coastal habitat on Maui, resulted from the human alteration of should be listed throughout all of its Lanai, and Molokai, and from lowland landscapes and the introduction of range, and, therefore, we find that it is dry habitat on Maui. It is believed to nonnative plants, especially grasses, unnecessary to analyze whether it is have occurred along much of the coast fires are now more destructive to native endangered or threatened in a of these islands because its primary Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith significant portion of its range. hosts, H. anthracinus, H. assimulans, 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-fueled and H. longiceps likely occurred fire often kills most native trees and Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus hilaris) throughout this habitat. First collected shrubs in the area (D’Antonio and Hylaeus hilaris is distinguished by its on Maui in 1879, H. hilaris has only Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could destroy large size (male wing length is 0.19 in been collected twice in the last 100 food and nesting resources for Hylaeus (4.7 mm)) relative to other coastal years. Hylaeus hilaris was absent from species which H. hilaris parasitizes. The Hylaeus species. The wings of this three of its historical population sites numbers of wildfires, and the acreages species are slightly smoky to smoky- revisited by researchers between 1998 involved, are increasing in the main colored, and it is the most colorful of and 2006 (Magnacca 2007b, p. 181). It Hawaiian Islands; however, their the Hylaeus species. The face of the was also not observed in 2003 at 10 occurrences and locations are male is almost entirely yellow, with additional sites with potentially suitable unpredictable, and could affect habitat yellow markings on the legs and thorax, habitat (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima and the metasoma (posterior portion of 103, 106). Currently, the only known 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. the abdomen) are usually population of H. hilaris is located on 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu predominantly red. Females are drab The Nature Conservancy’s Moomomi Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster colored, with various brownish Preserve on Molokai, in the coastal Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally markings. As with other cleptoparasitic ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca 2003, occurring events such as hurricanes and species (those that steal food and nests pp. 103, 106; Magnacca 2005d, p. 2; drought can modify and destroy habitat of other bees for their own young; see Magnacca 2007b, p. 181). of H. hilaris by creating disturbed areas below), H. hilaris lacks the specialized Because Hylaeus hilaris is an obligate conducive to invasion by nonnative pollen-sweeping hairs of the front legs parasite on H. anthracinus, H. plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 9, 106). assimulans, and H. longiceps, its 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2).

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Predation by nonnative ants (the big- Hylaeus kuakea is believed to be a ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, p. headed ant, the long-legged ant, stem-nesting species and likely 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) constructs nests opportunistically kills most native trees and shrubs in the on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages within existing burrows inside dead area (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. is also a threat to H. hilaris (Howarth twigs or plant stems (Magnacca and 74) and could destroy food and nesting 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Danforth 2006, p. 403). The native host resources for H. kuakea. The numbers of Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly plants of the adult H. kuakea are wildfires, and the acreages involved, are and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. unknown, but it is likely this species increasing in the main Hawaiian 155). Predation by nonnative western visits several plants other Hylaeus Islands; however, their occurrences and yellow jacket wasps is a potential threat species are known to frequent, locations are unpredictable, and could to H. hilaris because the wasp is an including Acacia koa, Metrosideros affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at aggressive, generalist predator, and polymorpha, Leptecophylla any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of occurs in great numbers in many habitat tameiameiae, Scaevola spp., and Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, types, from sea level to over 8,000 ft Chamaesyce spp. (Magnacca 2005e, p. in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in (2,450 m), including areas where H. 2). litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in hilaris and other yellow-faced bees Because the first collection of Hylaeus litt.). The only known occurrences of H. occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). kuakea was not made until 1997, its kuakea are close to military training Existing regulatory mechanisms and historical range is unknown (Magnacca areas, where the risk of fire is elevated. agency policies do not address the 2005e, p. 2; Magnacca 2007a, p. 184). Several fires on Oahu have impacted primary threats to the yellow-faced bees Phylogenetically, H. kuakea belongs in rare or endangered species in lowland a species-group primarily including and their habitat from nonnative mesic habitat similar to that where H. species inhabiting mesic forests ungulates. Competition with nonnative kuakea has been found (TNC 2005, in (Magnacca and Danforth 2006, p. 405). bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, litt.; U.S. Army Garrison 2007, p. 3; Only four individuals (all males) have Australian colletid bees) for nectar and DLNR 2014, in litt.; KHON 2014, in been collected from two different sites pollen is a potential threat to the host litt.). Random, naturally occurring in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu in yellow-faced bees of H. hilaris events such as hurricanes and drought (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The small the lowland mesic ecosystem (Magnacca can modify and destroy habitat of H. number of populations and individuals 2007b, p. 184). The species has never kuakea by creating disturbed areas of H. hilaris makes this species more been collected in any other habitat type conducive to invasion by nonnative vulnerable to extinction because of the or area, including some sites that have plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, been more thoroughly surveyed 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2). random demographic fluctuations, and (Magnacca 2011, in litt.). Not all Predation by nonnative ants (the big- localized catastrophes such as potentially suitable habitat has been headed ant, the long-legged ant, hurricanes and drought (Daly and surveyed due to the remote and rugged Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007b, locations, small size, rareness, and on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages p. 173). Changes in precipitation distant spacing among large areas of resulting from the effects of climate nonnative forest (Smith 1985, pp. 227– is a threat to H. kuakea; additionally, change may degrade habitat for all 233; Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 124; ants compete with H. kuakea for their Hylaeus species; however, we are Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66–67, 75). nectar food source (Howarth 1985, p. unable to determine the extent of these Habitat destruction and modification 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et negative impacts at this time. Because of by feral pigs leads to fragmentation, and al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and these threats, we find that Hylaeus eventual loss, of foraging and nesting Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). hilaris should be listed throughout all of areas of Hylaeus kuakea. Habitat Predation by nonnative western yellow its range, and, therefore, we find that it destruction and modification by jacket wasps is a potential threat to H. is unnecessary to analyze whether it is nonnative plants adversely impact kuakea because the wasp is an endangered threatened or in a native Hawaiian plant species by aggressive, generalist predator, and significant portion of its range. modifying the availability of light, occurs in great numbers in many habitat altering soil-water regimes, modifying types, from sea level to over 8,000 ft Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus kuakea) nutrient cycling, altering the fire (2,450 m), including areas where H. Hylaeus kuakea is a small, black bee characteristics, and ultimately kuakea and other yellow-faced bees with slightly smoky-colored wings. This converting native dominated plant occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). species does not fit into any of the well- communities to nonnative plant Existing regulatory mechanisms and defined Hylaeus species groups. Its communities; such habitat destruction agency policies do not address the facial marks are similar to those of the and modification result in removal of primary threats to the yellow-faced bees H. difficilis group and to H. anthracinus, food sources and nesting sites for H. and their habitat from nonnative but it has an unusual ivory facial kuakea. Nonnative plant species that ungulates. Competition with nonnative marking covering the clypeus. Hylaeus modify and destroy habitat of H. kuakea bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, kuakea has a denser, more distinct are noted in the descriptions for H. Australian colletid bees) for nectar and arrangement of setae (sensory hairs) on assimulans and H. facilis, above. Fire is pollen is a potential threat to H. kuakea the head and narrow marks next to the a potential threat to H. kuakea because (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The small compound eyes (Daly and Magnacca it destroys native plant communities number of populations and individuals 2003, p. 125; Magnacca 2005e, p. 2). and opens habitat for increased invasion of H. kuakea makes this species more Only four adult male specimens have by nonnative plants. Because of the vulnerable to extinction because of the been collected; females have yet to be greater frequency, intensity, and higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, collected or observed. Hylaeus kuakea duration of fires that have resulted from random demographic fluctuations, and was first described by Daly and the human alteration of landscapes and localized catastrophes such as Magnacca (2003, pp. 1, 125–127) from the introduction of nonnative plants, hurricanes and drought (Daly and specimens collected in 1997 in the especially grasses, fires are now more Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007, p. Waianae Mountains of Oahu. destructive to native Hawaiian 173). Changes in precipitation resulting

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from the effects of climate change may Oahu (Magnacca 2005f, p. 2). Twenty- and the acreages involved, are degrade habitat for all Hylaeus species; five sites that were either historical increasing in the main Hawaiian however, we are unable to determine collecting localities or contained Islands; however, their occurrences and the extent of these negative impacts at potentially suitable habitat for this locations are unpredictable, and could this time. Because of these threats, we species were surveyed between 1997 affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at find that Hylaeus kuakea should be and 2008 (Magnacca and King 2013, p. any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of listed throughout all of its range, and, 16). Hylaeus longiceps was observed at Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary only six of the surveyed sites: three sites in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in to analyze whether it is endangered or on Lanai (in the coastal and lowland dry litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in threatened in a significant portion of its ecosystems) and one site on each of the litt.). Random, naturally occurring range. islands of Maui (in the coastal events such as hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy habitat of H. Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus longiceps) ecosystem), Molokai (in the coastal ecosystem), and Oahu (in the coastal longiceps by creating disturbed areas Hylaeus longiceps is a small to ecosystem). Only one of the historical conducive to invasion by nonnative medium-sized black bee with clear to locations surveyed, Waieu dunes on plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois slightly smoky-colored wings. Its Maui, still supports a population of H. 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2). distinguishing characteristics are its longiceps (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. Predation, and competition for food long head and the facial marks of the 135). sources, by nonnative ants and the male. The lower face of the male is Most of the coastal and lowland dry nonnative western yellow jacket wasp is marked with a yellow band that extends a threat to H. longiceps (see H. kuakea, at the sides of the face in a broad stripe habitat of Hylaeus longiceps has been developed or degraded, and is no longer above) (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169; above the antennal sockets. The area Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. above the clypeus is very long and suitable (Liebherr and Polhemus 1997, pp.346–347; Magnacca 2007b, pp. 186– 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, narrow, and the scape (the first antennal 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; segment) is noticeably twice as long as 188). Habitat destruction and modification by axis deer (Lanai) and Lach 2008, p. 155). Existing regulatory it is wide. The female is entirely black mechanisms and agency policies do not urbanization (Maui and Molokai) leads and unmarked (Daly and Magnacca address the primary threats to the to fragmentation, and eventual loss, of 2003, p. 133). Hylaeus longiceps was yellow-faced bees and their habitat from foraging and nesting areas of H. first described in 1899 as Nesoprosopis nonnative ungulates. Competition with longiceps (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. longiceps (Perkins 1899, pp. 75, 98), and nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter 217–229). Habitat modification and then Nesoprosopis was reduced to a bees, Australian colletid bees) for nectar destruction by human impacts in areas subgenus of Hylaeus in 1923 (Meade- and pollen is a potential threat to H. accessible by four-wheel drive vehicles Waldo 1923, p. 1). Daly and Magnacca longiceps (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The on Lanai is a potential threat because (2003, pp. 133–134) most recently small number of populations and these vehicles can destroy plants used described the species as H. longiceps. individuals of H. longiceps makes this Hylaeus longiceps is a ground-nesting as food sources and destroy ground species more vulnerable to extinction species, constructing nests nesting sites for H. longiceps (Daly and because of the higher risks from genetic opportunistically within existing Magnacca 2003, p. 135). Habitat bottlenecks, random demographic burrows or small natural cavities under destruction and modification by fluctuations, and localized catastrophes bark or rocks (Magnacca 2005f, p. 2). nonnative plants adversely impacts such as hurricanes and drought (Daly Adult bees have been observed visiting native Hawaiian plant species used by and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca the flowers of a wide variety of native H. longiceps as a food source by 2007b, p. 173). Changes in precipitation plants including Chamaesyce degeneri modifying the availability of light, resulting from the effects of climate (akoko), (naio), altering soil-water regimes, modifying change may degrade habitat for all Santalum ellipticum (iliahialoe), nutrient cycling, altering the fire Hylaeus species; however, we are Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka), characteristics, and ultimately unable to determine the extent of these Sesbania tomentosa (ohai), Sida fallax converting native-dominated plant negative impacts at this time. Because of (ilima), and Vitex rotundifolia communities to nonnative plant these threats, we find that Hylaeus (pohinahina) (Daly and Magnacca 2003, communities. Nonnative plant species longiceps should be listed throughout p. 135). It is likely H. longiceps also that modify and destroy habitat of H. all of its range, and, therefore, we find visits several plant species other longiceps are noted in the descriptions that it is unnecessary to analyze Hylaeus species are known to frequently for H. assimulans and H. facilis, above. whether it is endangered or threatened visit, including Heliotropium Fire is a potential threat to H. longiceps in a significant portion of its range. foertherianum (tree heliotrope) and because it destroys native plant Jacquemontia ovalifolia (pauohiiaka) communities, and opens habitat for Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus mana) (Magnacca 2005f, p. 2). increased invasion by nonnative plants. Hylaeus mana is an extremely small, Hylaeus longiceps is historically Because of the greater frequency, gracile (gracefully slender) black bee known from coastal and lowland dry intensity, and duration of fires that have with yellow markings on the face. The shrubland habitat up to 2,000 ft (610 m) resulted from the human alteration of smallest of all Hawaiian Hylaeus in numerous locations on the islands of landscapes and the introduction of species, H. mana is a member of the Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu. nonnative plants, especially grasses, Dumetorum species group. The face of Perkins (1899, p. 98) noted H. longiceps fires are now more destructive to native the male is mostly yellow below the was locally abundant, and probably Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith antennae, extending dorsally in a occurred throughout much of the 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-fueled narrowing stripe. The female’s face has leeward and lowland areas on these fire often kills most native trees and three yellow lines: one against each eye islands. Hylaeus longiceps is now shrubs in the area (D’Antonio and and a transverse stripe at the apex of the restricted to small populations in Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could destroy clypeus. The female’s outer markings patches of coastal and lowland dry food and nesting resources for H. are the same as the male’s (Daly and habitat on Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and longiceps. The numbers of wildfires, Magnacca 2003, p. 135). Hylaeus mana

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can be distinguished from H. mimicus many survey sites, the fact that it was 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, and H. specularis (species with not discovered until very recently, and 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; overlapping ranges) by its extremely the limited range of its possible host Lach 2008, p. 155). Existing regulatory small size, the shape of the male’s plant, all suggest that few populations mechanisms and agency policies do not genitalia, the female’s extensive facial remain (Magnacca 2005g, p. 2; address the primary threats to the marks, and a transverse rather than Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 17–18). yellow-faced bees and their habitat from longitudinal clypeal marking (Daly and Habitat destruction and modification nonnative ungulates. Competition with Magnacca 2003, p. 138). Hylaeus mana by feral pigs leads to fragmentation, and nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter was first described by Daly and eventual loss, of foraging and nesting bees, Australian colletid bees) for nectar Magnacca (2003, pp. 135–136), from areas of H. mana (Daly and Magnacca and pollen is a potential threat to H. four specimens collected in 2002, on the 2003, pp. 217–229). Habitat destruction mana (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The leeward side of the Koolau Mountains and modification by nonnative plants small number of populations and on Oahu, and is the most currently adversely impacts native Hawaiian individuals of H. mana makes this accepted taxonomy. plant species used by H. mana as a food species more vulnerable to extinction The nesting habits of H. mana are not source by modifying the availability of because of the higher risks from genetic well known, but it is assumed the light, altering soil-water regimes, bottlenecks, random demographic species is closely related to other wood- modifying nutrient cycling, altering the fluctuations, and localized catastrophes nesting Hawaiian Hylaeus species, and fire characteristics, and ultimately such as fire, hurricanes, and drought uses an available cavity (stems of coastal converting native dominated plant (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; shrubs) for nest construction (Magnacca communities to nonnative plant Magnacca 2007b, p. 173). Changes in 2005g, p. 2; Magnacca and Danforth communities. Nonnative plant species precipitation resulting from the effects 2006, p. 403). Adult specimens of H. that modify and destroy habitat of H. of climate change may degrade habitat mana were collected while they visited mana are noted in the descriptions for for all Hylaeus species; however, we are flowers of the native plants Psychotria H. assimulans and H. facilis, above, and unable to determine the extent of these spp. and Santalum freycinetianum var. can outcompete native canopy species negative impacts at this time. Because of freycinetianum (iliahi, sandalwood) these threats, we find that Hylaeus such as A. koa, the known preferred (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1221). It is likely mana should be listed throughout all of native canopy type of H. mana (GISD H. mana visits several other native plant its range, and, therefore, we find that it 2011, in litt.; State of Hawaii 2013, in species including Acacia koa, is unnecessary to analyze whether it is litt. (S.C.R. No. 74)). Fire is a potential Metrosideros polymorpha, endangered or threatened in a threat to H. mana, as it destroys native Leptecophylla tameiameiae, Scaevola significant portion of its range. spp., and Chamaesyce spp. (Magnacca plant communities on which the species 2005g, p. 2). depends, and opens habitat for Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly Hylaeus mana is known only from increased invasion by nonnative plants. (Megalagrion xanthomelas) lowland mesic forest dominated by Because of the greater frequency, The orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly native Acacia koa located along the intensity, and duration of fires that have (Megalagrion xanthomelas; family Manana Trail in the Koolau Mountains resulted from the human alteration of ) is small in size. The of Oahu, at 1,400 ft (430 m). Few other landscapes and the introduction of adults measure from 1.3 to 1.5 in (33 to Hylaeus species have been found in this nonnative plants, especially grasses, 37 mm) in length and have a wingspan type of forest on Oahu (Daly and fires are now more destructive to native of 1.4 to 1.6 in (35 to 40 mm). Males are Magnacca 2003, p. 138). This type of Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith bright red in color, females are pale tan native forest is increasingly rare and 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-fueled in color, and both sexes exhibit strong patchily distributed because of fire often kills most native trees and patterns including striping. Naiads (the competition and encroachment into shrubs in the area (D’Antonio and immature aquatic stage) of this species habitat by nonnative plants (Smith Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could destroy exhibit flattened, leaf-like gills (Asquith 1985, pp. 227–233; Juvik and Juvik food and nesting resources for H. and Polhemus 1996, p. 91). The 1998, p. 124; Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66– assimulans. The numbers of wildfires, orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly was 67, 75). Decline of this forest type could and the acreages involved, are first described by Selys-Longchamps lead to decline in populations and increasing in the main Hawaiian (1876). numbers of H. mana. Three additional Islands; however, their occurrences and Habitat for this species is standing or population sites were discovered on locations are unpredictable, and could very slow-moving water. The naiads are Oahu in 2012, including a new affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at active swimmers and rest on exposed observation of the species at the Manana any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of areas of the bottom on submerged Trail site (Magnacca and King 2013, pp. Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, vegetation (Williams 1936, p. 314). They 17–18). The three new sites are within in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in have been observed breeding in garden a narrow range of lowland mesic forest litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in pools, large reservoirs, pools of an at 1,400 ft (430 m), bordered by litt.). Random, naturally occurring intermittent stream, a pond formed nonnative plant habitat at lower events such as hurricanes and drought behind a cobble bar at the seaward elevations and wetter native forest can modify and destroy habitat of H. terminus of a large stream, coastal habitat above (Magnacca and King 2013, mana by creating disturbed areas springs, and freshwater marshes pp. 17–18). Hylaeus mana was most conducive to invasion by nonnative (Polhemus 1996, pp. 36, 42–45; often observed on Santalum plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois Williams 1936, pp. 239, 310). In 1913, freycinetianum var. freycinetianum, 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1–2). Perkins (p. clxxviii) described it as a which suggests that H. mana may be Predation and competition for food common in Honolulu gardens closely associated with this plant sources by nonnative ants and the and in lowland districts generally, not species (Magnacca and King 2013, p. nonnative western yellow jacket wasp usually partial to the mountains, though 18). Additional surveys may reveal more are threats to H. mana (see H. kuakea, in the Kona district of Hawaii Island it populations; however, the extreme above) (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169; was common in stagnant pools up to rarity of this species, its absence from Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. elevations of about 3,000 ft (900 m).

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The orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly Hawaiian damselfly (Harris et al. 1993, plants, combined with predation by was once Hawaii’s most abundant pp. 9–13; Meier et al. 1993, pp. 181– nonnative fish and nonnative damselfly species because it utilizes a 183). Nonnative plant species such as invertebrates. Competition with variety of aquatic habitats for breeding Brachiaria mutica (California grass) nonnative is a potential threat to sites. Historically, the orangeblack form dense, monotypic stands that can the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. Hawaiian damselfly probably occurred completely eliminate any open water Because of these threats, we find that on all of the main Hawaiian Islands habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian this species should be listed throughout (except Kahoolawe) in suitable aquatic damselfly, and nonnative grasses all of its range, and, therefore, we find habitat within the coastal, lowland dry, provide fuel for wildfires (Smith 1985, that it is unnecessary to analyze and lowland mesic ecosystems (Perkins p. 186). Other stochastic events such as whether it is endangered or threatened 1913, p. clxxviii; Zimmerman 1948a, p. flooding and hurricanes can also modify in a significant portion of its range. 379; Polhemus 1996, p. 30). Its and destroy habitat, and kill Anchialine Pool Shrimp (Procaris historical range on Kauai is unknown. individuals. Predation by nonnative fish hawaiana) On Oahu, it was recorded from and nonnative aquatic invertebrates on Honolulu, Kaimuki, Koko Head, Pearl the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly is a The anchialine pool shrimp Procaris City, Waialua, the Waianae Mountains, significant threat. Hawaiian hawaiana (family Procarididae) ranges and Waianae (Polhemus 1996, pp. 31, evolved with few, if any, predatory fish in total length from 0.4 to 1.2 in (10 to 33). On Molokai, it was known from and the exposed behavior of most of the 30 mm). This species has a pink to light- Kainalu, Meyer’s Lake (Kalaupapa fully aquatic damselfly species, red pigmentation that is darkest along Peninsula), Kaunakakai, Mapulehu, and including the orangeblack Hawaiian the midline with the dorsal thorax white Palaau (Polhemus 1996, pp. 33–41). On damselfly, makes them particularly to yellow. Black pigments are associated Lanai, small populations occurred on vulnerable to predation by nonnative with the eyes. Conspicuous chelapeds Maunalei Gulch, and in ephemeral fish (Englund 1999, pp. 225–225, 235). (claws) are lacking. Locomotion is coastal ponds at the mouth of Maunalei The damselfly is not observed in any accomplished by swimming with the Gulch drainage, at Keomuku, and in a bodies of water that support nonnative swimmerets (modified appendages) and mixohaline habitat at Lopa (Polhemus fish (Henrickson 1988, p. 183; McPeek occurs just above the substrate to mid- 1996, pp. 37–41; HBMP 2010). On Maui, 1990a, pp. 92–96). Nonnative water (Holthius 1973, pp. 12–19). this species was recorded from an backswimmers (aquatic true bugs; Procaris hawaiana was described by Holthius in 1973, and is recognized as unspecified locality in the west Maui Heteroptera) are voracious predators a valid taxon in McLaughlin et al. (2005, Mountains (Polhemus 1996, pp. 41–42; and frequently feed on prey much larger p. 212), the most recently accepted Polhemus et al. 1999, pp. 27–29). On than themselves, such as tadpoles, small Hawaii Island, it was known from Hilo, taxonomy. fish, and other aquatic invertebrates Procaris hawaiana is known to occur Kona, Naalehu, and Panaewa Forest including damselfly naiads (Borror et al. Reserve (FR) (Polhemus 1996, pp. 42– in mid- (19 to 25 parts per 1989, p. 296). Several species of thousand (ppt)) anchialine pools. Except 47). backswimmers have become established Currently, the orangeblack Hawaiian for some records of native eels, in Hawaii, and their presence in aquatic anchialine pools in Hawaii do not damselfly occurs on five islands. In habitat can cause orangeblack Hawaiian 1994, on Oahu, a very small population typically support native fish species; damselflies to reduce foraging, thereby however, nonnative fish have been was discovered in pools of an reducing its growth, development, and intermittent stream at the Tripler Army introduced to pools, and they prey on survival (Heads 1986, pp. 374–375). Medical Facility (Englund 2001, p. 256). native invertebrates such as P. hawaiana Hawaii State law (State Water Code) On Molokai, populations occur at the (Bailey-Brock and Brock 1993, p. 354; does not provide for permanent or mouths of Pelekunu and Waikolu Brock 2004, p. i). Little is known of the minimal instream flow standards, and streams, and at the Palaau on reproductive biology or the diet of P. stream channels can be undertaken at the south coast (Polhemus 1996, p. 47). hawaiana, although it has been any time by the Water Commission or On Lanai, a large population occurs in documented to scavenge other species via public petitions to revise flow an artificial pond at Koele (Polhemus of anchialine shrimp and has taken standards or modify stream channels, 1996, p. 47). The species is present on frozen brine shrimp when in captivity possibly resulting in modification and Maui at Ukumehame stream (west Maui) (Holthius 1973, pp. 12–19). and near anchialine pools at La Perouse destruction of the aquatic habitat of the Although anchialine pools are Bay (leeward east Maui) (Polhemus et orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly widespread, being found in areas such al. 1999, p. 29). Several large (Hawaii Administrative Rule (HAR)- as Saudi Arabia, , , and populations exist in coastal wetlands on State Water Code, title 13, chapter 169– other Indo-Pacific islands, the total area Hawaii Island at the following locations: 36). In addition, competition with they occupy globally is extremely small Anaehoomalu Bay, Kawa Bay, Hilea nonnative invertebrates for space and (Maciolek 1983, pp. 607–612). While Stream, Hilo, Honokohau, Kiholo Bay, resources by a nonnative insect group, many species of anchialine pool shrimp Ninole Springs, Onomea Bay, the Trichoptera (caddisflies), is a have disjunct, global distributions, most Whittington Beach, Keaukaha, Kapoho, potential threat to the orangeblack geographic locations contain some Honaunau, and Pohue Bay (Polhemus Hawaiian damselfly (Flint et al. 2003, p. endemic taxa (i.e., taxa found nowhere 1996, pp. 42–47). The species is 38). else on Earth) (Maciolek 1983, pp. 607– believed to be extirpated from Kauai The remaining populations and 612). The shrimp family Procarididae is (Asquith and Polhemus 1996, p. 91). habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian represented by a small number of Past and present land use and water damselfly are at risk; numbers are species globally, with only two species management practices, including decreasing on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, within the genus Procaris (Holthius agriculture, urban development, ground Maui, and Hawaii Island, and both the 1973, pp. 12–19). Procaris hawaiana is water development, feral ungulates, and species and its habitat continue to be an endemic species known only from destruction of perched aquifer and negatively affected by modification and the islands of Maui and Hawaii. The surface water resources, modify and destruction by development and water second species, P. ascensionis, is destroy habitat of the orangeblack management practices and by nonnative restricted to similar habitat on

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Ascension Island in the South Atlantic damage from use of anchialine pools for Distinct Population Segment Ocean. Of the anchialine pools on swimming and bathing has been Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel Hawaii Island, only 25 are known to documented (Brock 2004, pp. 13–17). (Oceanodroma castro) contain Procaris hawaiana. During Although a permit from the State is nocturnal-diurnal surveys conducted required to collect anchialine pool Under the Act, we have the authority from 2009 to 2010, 19 pools within the shrimp, unpermitted collection of to consider for listing any species, Manuka Natural Area Reserve (NAR) shrimp for trade for the aquarium hobby subspecies, or, for vertebrates, any were found to contain P. hawaiana. Five market is ongoing (Fuku-Bonsai 2015, in distinct population segment (DPS) of additional pools located on litt.). Collection is not prohibited at these taxa if there is sufficient unencumbered State land adjacent to State Parks or City and County property information to indicate that such action Manuka NAR also contained P. where some anchialine pools occur. may be warranted. To guide the hawaiana (from the total 24 recorded Predation by nonnative fish is a direct implementation of the DPS provisions pools within the Manuka watershed). A threat to P. hawaiana. Nonnative fish of the Act, we and the National Marine single pool located at Lua o Palahemo (tilapia, Oreochromis mossambica) also Fisheries Service (National Oceanic and also contains P. hawaiana, along with outcompete native herbivorous species Atmospheric Administration— the endangered anchialine pool shrimp of shrimp that serve as a prey-base for Fisheries) published the Policy Vetericaris chaceorum (Holthius 1973, P. hawaiana, disrupting the delicate Regarding the Recognition of Distinct pp. 12–19; Maciolek 1983, pp. 607–614; ecological balance in the anchialine Vertebrate Population Segments Under Brock 204, pp. 30–57). On Maui, P. pool system, and leading to decline of the Endangered Species Act (DPS hawaiana occurs in two anchialine Policy) in the Federal Register on pools at Ahihi-Kinau NAR (Holthius the pools and the shrimp inhabiting them (Brock 2004, pp. 13–17). Although February 7, 1996 (61 FR 4722) to guide 1973, pp. 12–19; Maciolek 1983, pp. the implementation of the DPS 607–614; Brock 2004, pp. 30–57). anchialine pools within State NARs are provided some protection, these areas provisions of the Act. Under our DPS Like other anchialine pool shrimp Policy, we use two elements to assess species, P. hawaiana inhabits extensive are remote and signage does not prevent human use and damage of the pools. whether a population segment under networks of water-filled interstitial consideration for listing may be spaces (cracks and crevices) leading to The persistence of existing populations of P. hawaiana is hampered by the small recognized as a DPS: (1) The population and from the actual pool, a trait which segment’s discreteness from the has precluded researchers from number of extant populations and the small geographic range of the known remainder of the species to which it ascertaining accurate population size belongs, and (2) the significance of the estimates (Holthius 1973, p. 36; populations. The small populations of population segment to the species to Maciolek 1983, pp. 613–616). Often, P. hawaiana are at risk of extinction which it belongs. If we determine that surveys for many rare species of because of their increased vulnerability a population segment being considered anchialine pool shrimp, including P. to loss of individuals from chance for listing is a DPS, then the population hawaiana, involve a presence-absence occurrences, habitat destruction, and segment’s conservation status is survey approach in their respective the effects of ; to evaluated based on the five listing habitat (often with the aid of baiting). demographic stochasticity; and to the factors established by the Act to Absence, and presumably extirpation, of reduction in genetic variability that may determine if listing it as either shrimp species from suitable habitat is make the species less able to adapt to endangered or threatened is warranted. likely the best or only measure of changes in the environment (Harmon Below, we evaluate the Hawaii species decline as population sizes are and Braude 2010, pp. 125–128). In population of the band-rumped storm- not easily determined (Holthius 1973, addition, large-scale water extraction petrel to determine whether it meets the pp. 7–12; Maciolek 1983, pp. 613–616). from underground water sources may Disappearance of the anchialine pool definition of a DPS under our DPS negatively impact the habitat and P. Policy. shrimp Halocaridina rubra from an hawaiana directly (Conry 2012, in litt.). anchialine pool at Honokohau Harbor The remaining populations of Discreteness (Hawaii Island) has been documented, Procaris hawaiana and its habitat are at as a result of the use of the pool for Under the DPS Policy, a population risk. The known individuals are dumping of used oil, grease, and oil segment of a vertebrate taxon may be filters (Brock 2004, p. 14); however, to restricted to a small area number of considered discrete if it satisfies either date, there is no documentation of anchialine pools on Maui and Hawaii one of the following conditions: (1) It is extirpation of Procaris hawaiana from Island and continue to be negatively markedly separated from other the pools that it is known to occupy affected by habitat destruction and populations of the same taxon as a (Wada 2015, in litt.). modification by human use of the pools consequence of physical, physiological, Habitat modification and destruction for bathing and for dumping of trash ecological, or behavioral factors by human activities is a threat to and nonnative fish; by water extraction; (quantitative measures of genetic or Procaris hawaiana. It is estimated that by predation by and competition with morphological discontinuity may up to 90 percent of existing anchialine nonnative fish; and by collection for the provide evidence of this separation); or pools have been destroyed by filling and aquarium trade. The small number of (2) it is delimited by international bulldozing (Baily-Brock and Brock 1993, remaining populations may limit this governmental boundaries within which p. 354; Brock 2004, p. i). Anchialine species’ ability to adapt to differences in control of exploitation, pools are used as dumping pits for environmental changes. Because of management of habitat, conservation bottles, cans, and used oil and grease, these threats, we find that this species status, or regulatory mechanisms exist and these activities are a known cause should be listed as endangered that are significant in light of section of the disappearance of another throughout all of its range, and, 4(a)(1)(D) of the Act. The Hawaii anchialine pool shrimp, Halocaridina therefore, we find that it is unnecessary population of the band-rumped storm- rubra, from a pool adjacent to to analyze whether it is threatened or petrel meets the first criterion: it is Honokohau Harbor on the island of endangered or threatened in a markedly separated from other Hawaii (Brock 2004, p. 16). Trampling significant portion of its range. populations of this species by physical

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(geographic) and physiological (genetic) but the absence of breeding records from unusual or unique for the taxon, (2) factors, as described below. western (Pyle and Engbring evidence that loss of the population The band-rumped storm-petrel is 1985, p. 59) suggests there is a segment would result in a significant widely distributed in the tropics and distributional gap between these two gap in the range of the taxon, (3) subtropics, with breeding populations archipelagoes as well. Other than evidence that the population segment in numerous island groups in the occasional encounters in their foraging represents the only surviving natural Atlantic and in Hawaii, Galapagos, and habitat, the vast expanses of ocean occurrence of a taxon that may be more Japan in the Pacific (Harrison 1983, p. between Japan, Hawaii, and Galapagos abundant elsewhere as an introduced 274; Carboneras et al. 2014, p. 1; Fig. 1). provide for no other sources of potential population outside its historical range, The geographic, and in some cases connectivity between band-rumped or (4) evidence that the discrete seasonal, separation of these breeding storm-petrel populations in the Pacific, population segment differs markedly populations is widely recognized, with such as additional breeding sites. from other populations of the species in strong genetic differentiation between Even those disparate breeding its genetic characteristics. We have the two ocean basins and among populations of pelagic seabirds that do found substantial evidence that the individual populations (Friesen et al. overlap at sea may remain largely Hawaii population of the band-rumped 2007b, p. 1768; Smith et al. 2007, p. isolated otherwise and exhibit genetic storm-petrel meets two of the 768). Whether individual populations differentiation (e.g., Walsh and Edwards significance criteria listed above: the merit taxonomic separation remains 2005, pp. 290, 293). Despite the birds’ loss of this population would result in unclear, and further study is needed capacity to move across large areas of a significant gap in the range of the (Friesen et al. 2007a, p. 18591; Smith et ocean, genetic differentiation among taxon, and this population persists in a al. 2007, p. 770; reviewed in Howell breeding populations of band-rumped unique ecological setting. As described 2011, pp. 349, 369–370); some storm-petrels is high (Friesen et al. above, the physical isolation that populations, such as those in the 2007a, p. 18590; Smith et al. 2007, p. defines the discreteness of Hawaii Galapagos and Cape Verde islands, may 768), even between populations nesting population is likely reflected in genetic warrant full species status (Smith et al. in different seasons on the same island differentiation from other populations, 2007, p. 770). Like other storm-petrels, (in Galapagos; Smith and Friesen 2007, but at this time we lack sufficient data the band-rumped storm-petrel is a p. 1599). No haplotypes are shared (1) to consider genetic characteristics per se highly pelagic (open-ocean) seabird Between Atlantic and Pacific in our determination of the Hawaii (Howell 2011, p. 349). In addition, like populations; (2) among Japan, Hawaii, population’s significance to the rest of other species in the seabird order and Galapagos populations; or (3) the taxon. Genetic patterns on an ocean- Procellariiformes, band-rumped storm- between Cape Verde, Ascension, and basin or species-wide scale, however, petrels exhibit strong philopatry, or northeast Atlantic breeding populations have implications for connectivity and fidelity to their natal sites (Allan 1962, (Smith et al. 2007, p. 768). Hawaiian potential gaps in the band-rumped p. 274; Harris 1969, pp. 96, 113, 120; birds have not been well-sampled for storm-petrel’s range (described below). Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; Smith et al. genetic analysis, but the few individuals Dispersal between populations of 2007, pp. 768–769). Both of these from Hawaii included in a rangewide seabird species with ranges fragmented characteristics contribute to isolation of analysis showed differentiation from all by large expanses of ocean may play a breeding populations, in spite of the other populations, and were most vital role in the persistence of absence of physical barriers such as closely related to birds from Japan individual populations (Bicknell et al. land masses within ocean basins (Friesen et al. 2007, p. 18590). 2012, p. 2872). No evidence currently (Friesen et al. 2007b, pp. 1777–1778). We have determined that the Hawaii exists of such dispersal among Pacific Band-rumped storm-petrels from population of the band-rumped storm- populations of band-rumped storm- Hawaii are likely to encounter petrel is discrete from the rest of the petrels at frequencies or in numbers that individuals from other populations only taxon because its breeding and foraging would change the population status very rarely. The approximate distances range are markedly separated from those between years, for example, by from Hawaii to other known breeding of other populations. The Hawaii providing immigrants that compensate sites are much greater than the birds’ population is geographically isolated for breeding failure or adult mortality average foraging range of 860 mi (1,200 from populations in Japan and resulting from predation, as has been km): 4,000mi (6,600 km) to Japan and Galapagos, as well as from populations hypothesized for Leach’s storm-petrel in 4,600 mi (7,400 km) to Galapagos (the in very distant island groups in the the Atlantic (Bicknell et al. 2012, p. two other Pacific populations), and central and western Atlantic Ocean. 2872). Given the remnant population of 7,900 mi (12,700 km) to Madeira, 7,300 Molecular evidence indicates that the band-rumped storm-petrels in Hawaii mi (11,700 km) to the Azores, and 9,700 genetic structure of the species reflects and recently documented decline in mi (15,600 km) to Ascension Island (in the spatial or temporal separation of Japan (Biodiversity Center of Japan the Atlantic). Data from at-sea surveys of individual populations; the scant 2014, p. 1), we would not expect to see the eastern tropical Pacific conducted molecular data from Hawaii suggest that exchange on such short timescales. since 1988 show that the density of this holds for the Hawaii population as However, genetic evidence is suggestive band-rumped storm-petrels attenuates well. of exchange between these two north and northwest of Galapagos and populations on an evolutionary Significance that the species rarely occurs in a broad timescale (Friesen et al. 2007a, p. area southeast of Hawaii (Pitman, Under our DPS Policy, once we have 18590). Ballance, and Joyce 2015, unpublished). determined that a population segment is The loss of this population would This pattern suggests a gap in the at-sea discrete, we consider its biological and result in a significant gap in the range distribution of this species, and low ecological significance to the larger of the band-rumped storm-petrel. As likelihood of immigration on an taxon to which it belongs. This noted above, seabirds in the order ecological timescale, between Hawaii consideration may include, but is not Procellariiformes, including the band- and Galapagos. We are not aware of any limited to: (1) Evidence of the rumped storm-petrel, exhibit very high data describing the at-sea distribution of persistence of the discrete population natal site fidelity, and so are slow to this species between Hawaii and Japan, segment in an ecological setting that is recolonize extirpated areas or range-

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gaps (Jones 2010, p. 1214), and may lack Hawaii, including the band-rumped precluding connectivity between the local adaptations; they thus face a storm-petrel, were negatively affected by two remaining populations in the potentially increased risk of extinction the proliferation of nonnative predators Pacific Basin. In addition, the Hawaii with the loss of individual populations such as rats and pigs, and, later, cats population nests at high elevation on (Smith et al. 2007, p. 770). The Hawaii and mongoose, and by loss of habitat some islands, constituting a unique population of the band-rumped storm (reviewed in Duffy 2010, pp. 194–196). ecological setting represented nowhere petrel constitutes the entire Central Predation and habitat loss combined else in the species’ breeding range. Pacific distribution of the species, likely led to the extirpation of the band- located roughly half-way between the rumped storm-petrel from coastal and DPS Conclusion populations in Galapagos and Japan lowland habitats and other accessible We have evaluated the Hawaii (Fig. 1), and its loss would create a gap nesting areas, as occurred in the population of band-rumped storm-petrel of approximately 8,500 mi. (13,680 km) endangered Hawaiian petrel to determine if it meets the definition of between them and significantly (Pterodroma sandwichensis) and a DPS, considering its discreteness and reducing the likelihood of connectivity threatened Newell’s shearwater, which significance as required by our policy. and genetic exchange. Such exchange have similar nesting habits and life would be reliant on chance occurrences, histories (Olson and James 1982, p. 43; We have found that this population is such as severe storms that could result Slotterback 2002, p. 6; Troy et al. 2014, markedly separated from other in birds being displaced to the opposite pp. 315, 325–326). The band-rumped populations by geographic distance, and side of the Pacific Ocean basin, and storm-petrel’s persistence in sites such this separation is likely reflected in the such chance dispersal events would not as the Southwest Rift Zone (6,900 ft population’s genetic distinctiveness. necessarily result in breeding. (2,100 m)) on Mauna Loa (Hawaii The Hawaii population is significant to The Hawaii population of the band- Island) has required them to surmount the rest of the species because its loss rumped storm-petrel is significant also physiological challenges posed by would result in a significant gap in the because it persists in a unique nesting in high-elevation conditions species’ range; Hawaii is located ecological setting. This is the only (cold temperatures, low humidity, and roughly half-way between the other two population of the species known to nest less oxygen). They may possess special populations in the Pacific Ocean, and at high-elevation sites (above 6,000 ft adaptations for this, such as reduction little or no evidence exists of current (1,800 m; Banko et al. 1991, pp. 651– in porosity and other eggshell overlap at sea between the Hawaii 653; Athens et al. 1991, p. 95)). In modifications to reduce the loss of water population and either the Japan or prehistory, the species likely nested in and carbon dioxide during incubation at Galapagos populations. The Hawaii lowland habitats and more accessible high elevation (Rahn et al. 1977, p. population of band-rumped storm-petrel habitats in Hawaii as well as in the high- 3097; Carey et al. 1982a, p. 716; Carey also nests at high elevation in Hawaii— elevation and otherwise remote areas et al. 1982b, p. 349). In sum, the conditions at high elevation constitute where the species is found today; remnant distribution of band-rumped an ecological setting unique to the archaeological evidence suggests that storm-petrel breeding sites in only the species. We conclude that the Hawaii band-rumped storm-petrels were once most remote and rugged terrain in population of band-rumped storm-petrel sufficiently common at both high (5,260 Hawaii reflects conditions necessary for is a distinct vertebrate population and 6,550 ft (1,600 and 2,000 m)) and the species’ persistence: relatively segment under our 1996 DPS Policy (61 low elevations on Hawaii Island to be undisturbed habitat in areas least FR 4722), and that it warrants review for used as a food source by humans accessible to predators; in addition, listing under the Act. Therefore, we (Ziegler pers. comm. in Harrison et al. adaptations unique in this species may have incorporated the Hawaii DPS of 1990, pp. 47–48; Athens et al. 1991, pp. be necessary for its persistence in high- the band-rumped storm-petrel in our 65, 78–80; Banko et al. 1991, p. 650). In elevation areas. evaluation of threats stressors affecting lowland areas, the species was common We have determined that the Hawaii the other 48 species addressed in this enough for the Hawaiians to name it and population of band-rumped storm-petrel proposed rule (summarized above; see to identify it by its call (Harrison et al. is significant to the rest of the taxon. Its also ‘‘Summary of Factors Affecting the 1990, p. 47; Banko et al. 1991, p. 650). loss would result in a gap in the range 49 Species Proposed for Listing,’’ In addition to the impacts of harvest by of the species of more than 8,500 mi below). humans in prehistory, seabirds in (13,680 km), reducing and potentially BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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BILLING CODE 4310–55–C threat factors, singly or in combination. operative threats that act on the species Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 Each of these factors is discussed below. to the point that the species meets the Species Proposed for Listing In considering what factors might definition of an endangered or constitute threats to a species, we must threatened species under the Act. That Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), look beyond the mere exposure of the evidence is discussed below for each of and its implementing regulations at 50 species to the factor to evaluate whether the species proposed for listing in this CFR part 424, set forth the procedures the species responds to the factor in a rule. for adding species to the Federal Lists way that causes actual impacts to the If we determine that the level of threat of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife species. If there is exposure to a factor posed to a species by one or more of the and Plants. A species may be and the species responds negatively, the five listing factors is such that the determined to be an endangered or factor may be a threat, and, during the species meets the definition of either threatened species due to one or more status review, we attempt to determine endangered or threatened under section of the five factors described in section how significant a threat it is. The threat 3 of the Act, that species may then be 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or is significant if it drives, or contributes proposed for listing. The Act defines an threatened destruction, modification, or to, the risk of extinction of the species endangered species as ‘‘in danger of curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) such that the species warrants listing as extinction throughout all or a significant overutilization for commercial, an endangered or threatened species as portion of its range,’’ and a threatened recreational, scientific, or educational those terms are defined by the Act. species as ‘‘likely to become an purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) However, the identification of factors endangered species within the the inadequacy of existing regulatory that could impact a species negatively foreseeable future throughout all or a mechanisms; and (E) other natural or may not be sufficient to warrant listing significant portion of its range.’’ The manmade factors affecting its continued the species under the Act. The threats to each of the individual 49 existence. Listing actions may be information must include evidence warranted based on any of the above sufficient to show that these factors are species proposed for listing in this

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document are summarized in Table 3, (1) Foraging and trampling of native (6) Feeding on or defoliation of native and discussed in detail, below. plants by nonnative ungulates, plants by nonnative invertebrates (e.g., Each of the species proposed for including feral pigs, goats, axis deer, slugs), which can reduce the geographic listing in this proposed rule is adversely black-tailed deer, mouflon, sheep, and ranges of eight plant species (Cyanea affected by the threats to the ecosystems cattle, which can result in severe kauaulaensis, Deparia kaalaana, on which it depends. There is erosion of watersheds. Foraging and Labordia lorenciana, Phyllostegia information available on many of the trampling events destabilize soils that brevidens, P. stachyoides, Ranunculus threats that act on Hawaiian ecosystems, support native plant communities, bury mauiensis, Schiedea diffusa ssp. and for some ecosystems, there is a or damage native plants, have adverse diffusa, and S. pubescens) because of growing body of literature regarding water quality effects due to runoff over damage or removal. these threats (e.g., nonnative ungulates exposed soils, and can negatively affect (7) Competition for food and nesting and invasive plant species). The best burrows and nesting areas used by the sites of the Hylaeus yellow-faced bees available information on ecosystem band-rumped storm-petrel. by nonnative wasps and bees. threats affecting the species therein is (2) Disturbance of soils by feral pigs discussed below. Table 3 identifies the from rooting, which can create fertile (8) Predation by nonnative vertebrates threats to the ecosystems and the seedbeds for nonnative plants. such as fish, rats, cats, mongoose, and individual species within those (3) Increased nutrient availability and barn owls. ecosystems that are affected by those changes to nutrient cycling processes as (9) Predation by nonnative threats. Information on threats specific a result of rooting by pigs in nitrogen- invertebrates such as ants, wasps, and to certain species is also discussed poor soils, which facilitates backswimmers. where necessary and available; establishment of nonnative plants, as (10) Water extraction leading to however, we acknowledge that we do they are more adapted to nutrient-rich conversion of wetlands and surface not completely understand all the soils than native plants, and rooting resources, and changes to threats to each species. Scientific activity creates open areas in forests anchialine pools. research directed toward each of these allowing nonnative plants to completely (11) Habitat modification and species is limited because of their rarity replace native stands. destruction by ungulates and fires, (4) Ungulate destruction of seeds and and the generally challenging logistics resulting in loss of forage plants used by associated with conducting field work seedling of native plants, and Hylaeus for nectar and pollen. in Hawaii (e.g., areas are typically facilitation of distribution of seeds of remote, difficult to survey in a nonnative plants, promoting conversion (12) Injury and mortality of the band- comprehensive manner, and the target of disturbed areas from native to rumped storm-petrel caused by artificial species are exceptionally uncommon). nonnative vegetative communities. lighting, communication towers, and The following threats affect the (5) Damage by herbivory to plant power lines. species proposed for listing in one or propagules, seedlings, or native trees, Each of the above threats is discussed more of the ecosystems addressed in which changes forest composition and in more detail below, and summarized this proposed rule: structure. in Table 3.

VerDate Sep<11>2014 19:11 Sep 29, 2015 Jkt 235001 PO 00000 Frm 00044 Fmt 4701 Sfmt 4702 E:\FR\FM\30SEP2.SGM 30SEP2 tkelley on DSK3SPTVN1PROD with PROPOSALS2 Federal Register / Vol. 80, No. 189 / Wednesday, September 30, 2015 / Proposed Rules 58863 ...... FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV FV t change Climate Ft Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. SD. H, LN. B, LHP. B, LHP. B, LHP. B, LHP. Other threats specific species- .. LN ...... Ft .. LN ...... Ft ... LN ...... Ft ...... LN ...... Ft...... LN ...... Ft ...... LN, NR Ft ...... LN, NR Ft ...... LN, NR Ft...... LN, NR Ft existing

regulatory Inadequate mechanisms PECIES brates S ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft Predation/ NN inverte- ...... X ...... LI, ST, herbivory by ... BS ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft. SLANDS I MO. other NN Predation/ vertebrates herbivory by AWAIIAN ungulates Predation/ herbivory by 49 H .... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft zation Over-utili- ...... Ft. ACH OF THE E events Stochastic ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft...... L ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft Fire ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft...... DR ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft X ...... DR ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft X ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... L ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft .... X ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft...... X ...... F ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft DENTIFIED FOR ...... X .. I ...... L, F ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN, NR Ft...... L ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... Non- ...... L ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft native plants Factor A Factor B Factor C Factor D Factor E X ...... X ...... L, DR, E ...... X ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... DR, HUR .....X ...... X ...... DR, HUR .....X ...... A, W X ...... X ...... DR, HUR .....X ...... LN, W, ...... A, W X ...... X ...... DR, HUR ...... LN, W, ...... A, W ...... X ...... LN, W, A, W ...... X ...... LN, W, X ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... L ...... XX ...... X ...... X ...... L, RF S ...... X ...... X LN ...... Ft ...... X ...... HREATS BTD, C. M, S, D. M, D. M, D. M, D. BTD, M, SH. C. SH, C. T Ungulates UTURE F and urban Agriculture ...... P, G, D ...... X ...... L ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN, NR Ft ...... P, G, D, ...... P, G, D, C X ...... X ...... F, DR, E ...... X ...... R ...... S development OTENTIAL P MM. WC. WC. AP, CO, LD, LM X, WE ...... P, G, D ... X ...... X ...... F, DR, HUR ...... FS ...... CO ...... X ...... G, D ...... X ...... L, RF ...... CO, DC, WC ...... G, M ...... L, E, HUR ...... R, O, CA, RIMARY AND ...... AP ...... X, WE ...... X ...... FS ...... X ...... LN, RU, 3—P molokaiense ...... LW, LM, MW, ...... MW ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... LM, MW, MM ...... P, G ...... X ...... X ...... X ...... LN, HY Ft ABLE ...... LW ...... P ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... LW, MW ...... P ...... X ...... T ...... MW ...... P ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... LW ...... P ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft...... MW ...... P, G, D, C ...... mauiensis ascendens ...... MM ...... P, G, BTD X ...... MW, MM ...... P, G, D ... X ...... X ...... L, RF, F, DR ...... X ...... R ...... S ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... MW ...... P ...... X ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft ...... LD, LM, DC ...... X ...... P, G, D, ...... LW ...... P ...... X ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft...... MM, MD, SA ...... P, M, C ... X ...... DR, E ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... F Species Ecosystem mauiensis ...... MW, MM, MD, ...... MM, MD, SA ...... G ...... X ...... X ...... F, DR, E ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... sherffii ...... LW, MW, WC ...... P, M, SH, ...... LW ...... X .. pusilla diffusa ...... LW, MW, MM, ...... LM, MM, DC ...... P, G ...... X ...... MD ...... G, M, SH X ...... LM, MM, MD ...... G, M, SH ...... MW, MM, MD ...... P, M, C ... X ...... X ...... LM, LW, MM, DC ...... P, G, C ... X ...... X ...... LW, MW ...... WE ...... P ...... X ...... L, F ...... X ...... X ...... MM...... LM ...... P, G ...... P X ...... X X ...... L, F, TF ...... L ...... X ...... R ...... S ...... X X ...... NR LN, Ft...... LM, LW ...... P, G, BTD X ...... MW ...... P, G ...... X ...... LM ...... P ...... X ...... L ...... R ...... LW, MW, WC ..... X ...... LN ...... P, G ...... Ft. X ...... LM, LW ...... P ...... X ...... F, DR ...... S ...... X ...... CO ...... X ...... D, C ...... X ...... X ...... F, DR, E ...... X ...... R ...... X ...... LM, LW, MW ...... P, G ...... X ...... LM ...... P ...... X ...... HUR ...... R ...... X ...... LN ...... Ft...... CO, LD, MD ...... X ...... G, D, M, ...... LM, LW ...... P, G, D ... X ...... LM, LW ...... P, G ...... X Asplenium diellaciniatum Calamagrostis expansa Cyanea kauaulaensis Cyclosorus boydiae Cyperus neokunthianus Cyrtandra hematos Deparia kaalaana Dryopteris glabra var. Exocarpos menziesii Festuca hawaiiensis Gardenia remyi Huperzia stemmermanniae Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. Joinvillea ascendens ssp. Kadua fluviatilis Kadua haupuensis Labordia lorenciana Lepidium orbiculare Microlepia strigosa var. Myrsine fosbergii Nothocestrum latifolium Ochrosia haleakalae Phyllostegia brevidens Phyllostegia helleri Phyllostegia stachyoides Portulaca villosa Pritchardia bakeri Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Ranunculus hawaiensis Ranunculus mauiensis Sanicula sandwicensis Santalum involutum Schiedea diffusa ssp. Schiedea pubescens Sicyos lanceoloideus Sicyos macrophyllus Solanum nelsonii Stenogyne kaalae ssp. Wikstroemia skottsbergiana Band-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro) Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly Megalagrion xanthomelas Anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris hawaiana) Yellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus anthracinus ) ...... CO, LD ...... X ...... Yellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus assimulans ) ...... P, G, C, CO, LD ...... XYellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus facilis ) ...... P, G, C, CO, LD, LM ...... X ...... Yellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus hilaris ) ...... P, G, C, CO, LD ...... X ...... P, G, C, PLANTS: ANIMALS: ......

VerDate Sep<11>2014 19:50 Sep 29, 2015 Jkt 235001 PO 00000 Frm 00045 Fmt 4701 Sfmt 4702 E:\FR\FM\30SEP2.SGM 30SEP2 tkelley on DSK3SPTVN1PROD with PROPOSALS2 58864 Federal Register / Vol. 80, No. 189 / Wednesday, September 30, 2015 / Proposed Rules change Climate Ft. Ft. Ft. B, LHP. B, LHP. B, LHP. Other threats specific species- existing regulatory Inadequate mechanisms —Continued brates Predation/ NN inverte- herbivory by PECIES S other NN Predation/ vertebrates herbivory by SLANDS I ungulates Predation/ herbivory by AWAIIAN zation Over-utili- 49 H events Stochastic ACH OF THE ... DR, HUR ...... A, W ...... X ...... LN, W, E Fire Non- native plants Factor A Factor B Factor C Factor D Factor E DENTIFIED FOR I Ungulates HREATS T and urban Agriculture development UTURE F ); SD = Sedimentation; ST Structures; WE Water Extraction; FV Fortini Vulnerability analysis; Ft Future threat. OTENTIAL P ); HUR = Hurricanes; HY = Hybridization; L = Landslides; LHP = Loss of Host Plants; LI = Lights; LN = Low Numbers; NR = No Regeneration; RF = Rockfalls; RU Rec- fisheries, marine debris ); HUR = Hurricanes; HY Hybridization; L Landslides; LHP Loss of Host Plants; LI Lights; LN Low Numbers; NR No Regeneration; RIMARY AND 3—P Species Ecosystem ABLE T Yellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus kuakea ) ...... LM ...... Yellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus longiceps ) ...... P, G ...... CO, LD ...... X ...... XYellow-faced bee ( Hylaeus mana ) ...... X ...... M, D ...... LM HUR DR, ...... X ...... X ...... P ...... DR, HUR ...... X ...... A, W ...... X ...... X ...... LN, W, A, W ...... X ...... LN, W, Factor A = Habitat Modification; B Overutilization; C Disease or Predation; D Inadequacy of Regulato ry Mechanisms; E Other Species-Specific Threats; AP Anchialine Pools; CO Coastal; LD Lowland Dry; LM O = Barn Owls; P Pigs; R Rats; S Slugs; SH Sheep; TF Tree A = Ants; B Bees ( competition ); BS Backswimmer; BTD Black Tailed Deer; C Cattle; CA Cats; D Axis FS Fish; G Goats; M Mouflon; MO Mongoose; DR = Drought; E Erosion; F Flooding; H Human ( = Lowland Mesic; LW = Lowland Wet; MW = Montane Wet; MM = Montane Mesic; MD = Montane Dry; SA = Subalpine; DC = Dry Cliff; WC = Wet Cliff. = Lowland Mesic; LW Wet; MW Montane MM MD Dry; SA Subalpine; DC Dry Cliff; WC Fall; W = Wasps ( competiton, predation) . reational Use ( swimming, fishing, dumping trash and nonnative fish

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A. The Present or Threatened and lowland mesic ecosystems on Oahu, or habitats utilized by the Destruction, Modification, or Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly may Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range Island are a threat to the following still occur due to Hawaii’s population The Hawaiian Islands are located over species proposed for listing in this rule: growth and development, with • On Oahu, the plants Nothocestrum 2,000 miles (mi) (3,200 kilometers (km)) concurrent demands on limited latifolium, Portulaca villosa, and from the nearest continent. This developable land and water resources. Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. isolation has allowed the few plants and The State’s Commission of Water molokaiense, and the yellow-faced bees animals that arrived by wind, water, or Resource Management (CWRM) Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. recognizes the need to update the 2008 bird, to evolve into many highly varied facilis, and H. longiceps. water resource protection plan, and an and endemic species. The only native • On Molokai, the plants Portulaca update is currently under development terrestrial mammals on the Hawaiian villosa, Pseudognaphalium with a target completion date of 2015 Islands include two bat taxa, the sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and (CWRM 2015, in litt.). In addition, Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus Solanum nelsonii; the orangeblack marshes have been slowly filled and semotus), and an extinct, unnamed Hawaiian damselfly; and the yellow- converted to meadow habitat as a result insectivorous bat (Ziegler 2002, p. 245). faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. of sedimentation from increased storm The native plants of the Hawaiian facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. water runoff from upslope development, Islands therefore evolved in the absence • On Maui, the plants Nothocestrum the accumulation of uncontrolled of mammalian predators, browsers, or latifolium, Portulaca villosa, and growth of invasive vegetation, and grazers, and subsequently, many of the Solanum nelsonii, and the yellow-faced blockage of downslope drainage (Wilson native species lost unneeded defenses bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. Okamoto & Associates, Inc. 1993, pp. 3– against threats such as herbivory and assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. 4—3–5). Agriculture and urban competition with aggressive, weedy longiceps. development have thus contributed to • plant species typical of continental On Lanai, the plants Nothocestrum habitat destruction and modification, environments (Loope 1992, p. 11; Gagne latifolium, Portulaca villosa, and and continue to be a threat to the habitat and Cuddihy 1999, p. 45; Wagner et al. Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. 1999, pp. 3–6). For example, Carlquist molokaiense; the orangeblack Hawaiian On Hawaii Island, it is estimated that (in Carlquist and Cole 1974, p. 29) notes, damselfly; and the yellow-faced bees up to 90 percent of the anchialine pools ‘‘Hawaiian plants are notably Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. have been destroyed or altered by nonpoisonous, free from armament, and facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. human activities, including bulldozing • free from many characteristics thought On Hawaii Island, the orangeblack and filling of pools (Brock 2004, p. i; to be deterrents to herbivores (oils, Hawaiian damselfly and the anchialine Bailey-Brock and Brock 1993, p. 354). resins, stinging hairs, coarse texture).’’ pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana (Daly Dumping of trash and nonnative fish In addition, species restricted to highly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 55, 173; FWS has impacted anchialine pools on this specialized habitats (e.g., Hawaiian Rare Taxon Database 2005, in litt.; island (Brock 2004, pp. 13–17) (see ‘‘E. damselflies) or food sources (e.g., HBMP 2007, in litt.; Magnacca 2007b, p. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Hawaiian yellow-faced bees) are 188; IUCN 2007, in litt.; Kallstrom 2008, Affecting Their Continued Existence,’’ particularly vulnerable to changes (from in litt.; MNTF 2010, in litt.; Duvall 2011, below). Brock also noted that garbage nonnative species, hurricanes, fire, and in litt.; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. like bottles and cans appear to have no projected climate change) in their 22–25). net negative impact, while the dumping habitat (Carlquist and Cole 1974, pp. Although we are unaware of any of used oil, oil filters, and grease has 28–29; Loope 1992, pp. 3–6). comprehensive, site-by-site assessment resulted in the disappearance of a of wetland development in Hawaii related anchialine pool shrimp Habitat Destruction and Modification by (Erikson and Puttock 2006, p. 40), Dahl Agriculture and Urban Development Halocaridina rubra from a pool adjacent (1990, p. 7) estimated that at least 12 to Honokohau Harbor on Hawaii Island. Past land use practices such as percent of lowland to upper-elevation Lua O Palahemo (where Procaris agriculture or urban development have wetlands in Hawaii had been converted hawaiana occurs) on Hawaii Island is resulted in little or no native vegetation to non-wetland habitat by the 1980s. If accessible to the public, and dumping below 2,000 ft (600 m) throughout the only coastal plain (below 1,000 ft (300 has previously occurred there (Brock Hawaiian Islands (TNC 2006), largely m)) marshlands and wetlands are 2004, pp. 13–17). We are not aware of impacting the anchialine pool, coastal, considered, it is estimated that 30 any dumping activities within the two lowland dry, and lowland mesic percent were developed or converted to Maui anchialine pools known to be ecosystems, including streams and agricultural use (Kosaka 1990, in litt.). occupied by P. hawaiana; however, this wetlands that occur within these areas. Records show the reduction in area of threat remains a possibility (Brock 2004, Hawaii’s agricultural industries (e.g., these marshlands and wetlands that pp. 13–17). sugar cane, ) have been provided habitat for many damselfly Destruction and modification of declining in importance, and large tracts species, including the orangeblack Hylaeus habitat by urbanization and of former agricultural lands are being Hawaiian damselfly (Englund 2001, p. land use conversion, including converted into residential areas or left 256; Rees and Reed 2013, Fig 2S). Once agriculture, has lead to the fallow (TNC 2006). In addition, Hawaii’s modified, these areas then lack the fragmentation of foraging and nesting population has increased almost 10 aquatic habitat features that the habitat of these species. In particular, percent in the past 10 years, further orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly because native host plant species are increasing demands on limited land and requires for essential life-history needs, known to be essential to the yellow- water resources in the islands (Hawaii such as pools of intermittent streams, faced bees for foraging of nectar and Department of Business, Economic ponds, and coastal springs (Polhemus pollen, any further loss of this habitat Development and Tourism 2013, in 1996, pp. 30–31, 36). Although the may reduce their long-term chances for litt.). filling of wetlands is regulated by recovery. Additionally, further Development and urbanization of section 404 of the Clean Water Act (33 destruction and modification of Hylaeus anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, U.S.C. 1251 et seq.), the loss of riparian habitat is also likely to facilitate the

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introduction and spread of nonnative hybridized with smaller, domesticated for plants, as well as by directly plants within these areas (see ‘‘Habitat Polynesian pigs, became feral, and damaging individual plants, and, in Destruction and Modification by invaded forested areas, especially mesic addition, impacts aquatic animals by Nonnative Plants,’’ below). and wet forests, from low to high contributing to sedimentation in streams elevations, and are present on all the and pools (Vitousek et al. 2009, pp. Habitat Destruction and Modification by 3074–3086; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009, Nonnative Ungulates main Hawaiian Islands except Lanai and Kahoolawe, where they have been p. 3681; Cuddihy and Stone 1992, p. Nonnative ungulates have greatly eradicated (Tomich 1986, pp. 120–121; 667). The following 14 plants proposed impacted the native vegetation, as well Munro (1911–1930) 2006, p. 85). By the for listing in this rule are at risk from as the native fauna, of the Hawaiian early 1900s, feral pigs were already erosion and landslides resulting from Islands. Impacts to the native species recognized as a threat to these areas, and the activities of feral pigs: Cylcosorus and ecosystems accelerated following an eradication project was conducted by boydiae, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea the arrival of Captain James Cook in the Hawaii Territorial Board of ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua 1778. The Cook expedition and Agriculture and Forestry, which fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia subsequent explorers intentionally removed 170,000 pigs from forests lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, introduced a European race of pigs (i.e., Statewide (Diong 1982, p. 63). Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia boars) and other livestock such as goats Feral pigs are extremely destructive brevidens, P. helleri, P. stachyoides, to serve as food sources for seagoing and have both direct and indirect Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, explorers (Tomich 1986, pp. 120–121; impacts on native plant communities. and Schiedea pubescens. Thirty-one of Loope 1998, p. 752). The mild climate the 39 plants (all except for Cyanea of the islands, combined with lack of While rooting in the earth in search of invertebrates and plant material, pigs kauaulaensis, Exocarpos menziesii, competitors or predators, led to the Festuca hawaiiensis, Hypolepis successful establishment of large directly impact native plants by disturbing and destroying vegetative hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Portulaca populations of these mammals, to the villosa, Pseudognaphalium detriment of native Hawaiian species cover, and by trampling plants and seedlings. It has been estimated that at sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and ecosystems (Cox 1992, pp. 116– Sanicula sandwicensis, and Solanum a conservative rooting rate of 2 square 117). The presence of introduced nelsonii) proposed for listing in this rule yards (sq yd) (1.7 sq m) per minute and mammals is considered one of the are at risk of habitat destruction and only 4 hours of foraging per day, a primary factors underlying the modification by feral pigs, and the single pig could disturb over 1,600 sq yd modification and destruction of native orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and six (1,340 sq m) (or approximately 0.3 ac vegetation and habitats of the Hawaiian of the seven yellow-faced bees (all (0.1 ha)) of groundcover per week Islands (Cox 1992, pp. 118–119). All of except Hylaeus longiceps) proposed for (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.). Feral pigs the 11 ecosystems on the main islands listing in this rule are at risk of habitat are a major vector for promoting (except Kahoolawe) are currently destruction and modification by feral establishment and spread of competing impacted by habitat destruction pigs (see Table 3). resulting from the activities of various invasive nonnative plant species, such combinations of nonnative ungulates, as Passiflora tarminiana (banana poka) Goats (Capra Hircus) including pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra and Psidium cattleianum (strawberry Feral goats currently destroy and hircus), axis deer (Axis axis), black- guava), by dispersing seeds carried on modify habitat in nine of the described tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus their hooves and coats and in their feces ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, columbianus), sheep (Ovis aries), (which also serve to fertilize disturbed lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon) (and soil) (Diong 1982, pp. 169–170; Matson wet, montane mesic, montane dry, dry mouflon-sheep hybrids), and cattle (Bos 1990, p. 245; Siemann et al. 2009, p. cliff, and wet cliff). Goats, native to the taurus). Habitat destruction or 547). Pigs also feed directly on native Middle East and , were modification by ungulates is a threat to plants such as Hawaiian tree ferns. Pigs successfully introduced to the Hawaiian 37 of the 39 plant species, the band- preferentially eat the core of tree-fern Islands in the late 1700s. Actions to rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack trunks, and these cored trunks then fill control populations began in the 1920s Hawaiian damselfly, and the seven with rainwater and serve as breeding (Tomich 1986, pp. 152–153); however, yellow-faced bees proposed for listing in sites for introduced mosquitoes that goats still occupy a wide variety of this rule (see Table 3). spread avian malaria, with devastating habitats on all the main islands (except consequences for Hawaii’s native forest for Kahoolawe; see below), where they Pigs (Sus Scrofa) birds (Baker 1975, p. 79). Additionally, consume native vegetation, trample The destruction or modification of rooting pigs contribute to erosion, roots and seedlings, strip tree bark, habitat by pigs currently affects five of especially on slopes, by clearing accelerate erosion, and promote the the ecosystems (lowland dry, lowland vegetation and creating large areas of invasion of nonnative plants (van Riper mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, and disturbed soil (Smith 1985, pp. 190, and van Riper 1982, pp. 34–35; Stone montane mesic). Feral pigs are known to 192, 196, 200, 204, 230–231; Stone 1985, p. 261; Kessler 2010, pers. cause deleterious impacts to ecosystem 1985, pp. 254–255, 262–264; Medeiros comm.). Kahoolawe was negatively processes and functions throughout et al. 1986, pp. 27–28; Scott et al. 1986, impacted by ungulates beginning in their worldwide distribution (Campbell pp. 360–361; Tomich 1986, pp. 120– 1793, with the introduction of goats and and Long 2009, p. 2319). Pigs have been 126; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 64– the addition of sheep (up to 15,000) and described as having the most pervasive 65; Aplet et al. 1991, p. 56; Loope et al. cattle (about 900) by ranchers between and disruptive nonnative influences on 1991, pp. 1–21; Gagne and Cuddihy 1858 and 1941, with the goat population the unique ecosystems of the Hawaiian 1999, p. 52; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009, estimated to be as high as 50,000 Islands and are widely recognized as pp. 3677–3682; Dunkell et al. 2011, pp. individuals by 1988 (KIRC 2014, in litt.; one of the greatest current threats (Aplet 175–177). The resulting erosion impacts KIRC 2015, in litt.). Beginning in 1941, et al. 1991, p. 56; Anderson and Stone native plant communities by the U.S. military used the entire island 1993, p. 195; Anderson et al. 2007, in contributing to watershed degradation as a bombing range; for over 50 years, litt.). Introduced European pigs and by alteration of nutrient availability and in 1994, control of Kahoolawe was

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returned to the State and the Kahoolawe mesic, montane wet, montane dry, and habitat that is fenced or otherwise Island Reserve Commission. The dry cliff). Axis deer were introduced to protected from the browsing and remaining ungulates were eradicated in the Hawaiian Islands for hunting trampling effects of axis deer. Kessler 1993 (McLeod 2014, in litt.). Because opportunities on Molokai in 1868, on (2010, pers. comm.) and Hess (2010, they are able to access extremely rugged Lanai in 1920, and on Maui in 1959 pers. comm.) reported the presence of terrain, and have a high reproductive (Hobdy 1993, p. 207; Erdman 1996, axis deer up to 9,000 ft (2,700 m) on capacity (Clark and Cuddihy 1980, pp. pers. comm. in Waring 1996, in litt, p. Maui, and Kessler suggests that no C–19–C2–20; Culliney 1988, p. 336; 2; Hess 2008, p. 2). Axis deer are ecosystem is safe from the negative Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 64), goats primarily grazers, but also browse impacts of these animals. Montane bogs are believed to have completely numerous palatable plant species are also susceptible to impacts from axis eliminated some plant species from including those grown as commercial deer. As the native vegetation is certain islands (Atkinson and Atkinson crops (Waring 1996, p. 3; Simpson 2001, removed by browsing and trampling, the 2000, p. 21). Goats can be highly in litt.). They prefer the lower, more soil dries out, and invasive nonnative destructive to native vegetation and openly vegetated areas for browsing and plants invade. Eventually, the bog contribute to erosion by: (1) Eating grazing; however, during episodes of habitat and its associated native plants young trees and young shoots of plants drought (e.g., from 1998 to 2001 on and animals are replaced by grassland before they become established; (2) Maui (Medeiros 2010, pers. comm.)), or shrubland dominated by nonnative creating trails that damage native axis deer move into urban and forested plants (Mitchell et al. 2005, p. 6–32). vegetative cover; (3) destabilizing areas in search of food (Waring 1996, p. While axis deer are managed as game substrate and creating gullies that 5; Nishibayashi 2001, in litt.). Like animals on these three islands, the State convey water; and (4) dislodging stones goats, axis deer are highly destructive to does not permit their introduction to from ledges that results in rockfalls and native vegetation and contribute to other Hawaiian Islands. Recently (2010– landslides that damage or destroy native erosion by eating young trees and young 2011), there was an illegal introduction vegetation below (Cuddihy and Stone shoots of plants before they can become of axis deer to Hawaii Island as a game 1990, pp. 63–64). Feral goats forage established. Other axis deer impacts animal (Kessler 2011, pers. comm.; Aila along some cliffs where band-rumped include stripping bark from mature 2012, in litt.), and deer have now been storm-petrels nest on Kauai, and may trees, creating trails, and promoting observed across the southern portion of trample nests and increase erosion erosion by destabilizing substrate; the island including in Kohala, Kau, (Scott et al. 1986, pp. 8, 352–357; creating gullies that convey water; and Kona, and Mauna Kea (HDLNR 2011, in Tomich 1986, pp. 152–153). The by dislodging stones from ledges that litt.). The Hawaii Department of Land following 12 plants proposed for listing can cause rockfalls and landslides, and Natural Resources—Division of in this rule are at risk from landslides directly damaging vegetation (Cuddihy Forestry and Wildlife (HDLNR– or erosion caused by feral goats: and Stone 1990, pp. 63–64). HDOFAW) has developed a response- Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens and-removal plan, including a On Molokai, axis deer likely occur at ssp. ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, partnership now underway with the all elevations from sea level to almost Labordia lorenciana, Ochrosia Hawaii Department of Agriculture haleakalae, Phyllostegia helleri, P. 5,000 ft (1,500 m) at the summit area (HDOA), the Big Island Invasive Species stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, (Kessler 2011, pers. comm.). The most Committee (BIISC), Federal natural Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. current population estimate for axis resource management agencies, molokaiense, Ranunculus mauiensis, deer on the island of Molokai is between ranchers, farmers, private landowners, Sanicula sandwicensis, and Schiedea 4,000 and 5,000 individuals (Anderson and concerned citizens (Big Island.com, pubescens; and the band-rumped storm- 2003, p. 119). Little management for June 6, 2011). Also, in response to the petrel. Twenty-two of the 39 plants (all deer control has been implemented on introduction of axis deer to Hawaii except for Calamagrostis expansa, Molokai, and this figure from more than Island, the Hawaii Invasive Species Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus a decade ago is likely an underestimate Council drafted House Bill 2593 to boydiae, Cyperus neokunthianus, of the axis deer population on this amend House Revised Statutes (H.R.S.) Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. island today (Scott et al. 1986, p. 360; 91, which allows agencies to adopt pusilla, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. Anderson 2003, p. 30; Hess 2008, p. 4). emergency rules in the instances of mauiensis, Kadua haupuensis, On Lanai, axis deer were reported to imminent peril to public health, Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia number approximately 6,000 to 8,000 including to livestock and poultry brevidens, Portulaca villosa, Pritchardia individuals in 2007 (The Aloha Insider health (BigIsland.com 2011, in litt.; bakeri, Ranunculus hawaiensis, 2008, in litt; WCities 2010, in litt.). On Martin 2012, in litt.). This emergency Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, Sicyos Maui, five adult axis deer were released rule became permanent on June 21, macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, east of Kihei in 1959 (Hobdy 1993, p. 2012, when House Bill 2593 was Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and 207; Hess 2008, p. 2). In 2013, the Maui enacted into law as Act 194 (State of Wikstroemia skottsbergiana), and the Axis Deer Working Group estimated that Hawaii 2012, in litt.). band-rumped storm-petrel, the there may be 8,000 deer on southeast The following species proposed for orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and Maui alone, based on helicopter surveys listing in this rule are at risk from the the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus (Star Advertiser 2015, in litt.; Hawaii activities of axis deer: Gardenia remyi, anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, News Now 2014, in litt.) According to Huperzia stemmermanniae, Joinvillea H. hilaris, and H. kuakea proposed for Medeiros (2010, pers. comm.), axis deer ascendens ssp. ascendens, listing in this rule, are at risk of habitat can be found in all but high-elevation Nothocestrum latifolium, Phyllostegia destruction and modification by feral ecosystems (subalpine and alpine) and stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, goats. montane bogs on Maui, and are Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. increasing at such high rates on Maui molokaiense, Ranunculus mauiensis, Axis Deer (Axis Axis) that native forests are changing in Schiedea pubescens, and Solanum Axis deer destroy and modify 8 of the unprecedented ways. Additionally, nelsonii, and the orangeblack 11 ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, Medeiros (2010, pers. comm.) asserted Hawaiiand damselfly, and five of the lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane that native plants will only survive in yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus anthracinus,

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H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and alters moisture regimes and micro- a shift from native forest to grassy H. longiceps). environments, leading to the loss of scrublands (Hess 2008, p. 3). Mouflon native plant and animal taxa (Tomich only gather in herds when breeding, Black-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus 1986, pp. 156–163; Cuddihy and Stone thus complicating control techniques hemionus columbianus) 1990, pp. 65–66). In addition, nonnative and hunting efficiency (Hess 2008, p. 3; Black-tailed deer destroy and modify plant seeds are dispersed into native Ikagawa 2011, in litt.). Currently, many habitat in 5 of the 11 ecosystems forest by adhering to sheep’s wool coats of the current and proposed fence (lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane (DOFAW 2002, p. 3). In 1962, game exclosures on Hawaii Island constructed wet, montane mesic, and dry cliff). The hunters intentionally crossbred feral to protect rare species and habitat are black-tailed deer is one of nine sheep with mouflon sheep and released only 4 ft (1.3 m) in height, as they are subspecies of mule deer (Natural them on Mauna Kea, where they have designed to exclude feral pigs, goats, History Museum 2015, in litt.). On done extensive damage to the montane and sheep; however, in actuality, a Kauai, black-tailed deer were first dry ecosystem (Tomich 1986, pp. 156– fence height of at least 6 ft (2 m) is introduced in 1961, for the purpose of 163). Over the past 30 years, attempts to necessary to exclude mouflon (Ikagawa sport hunting (Tomich 1986, pp. 131– protect the vegetation of Mauna Kea and 2011, in litt.). Seven of the 39 plant 134). Currently, these deer are limited to the saddle area between the two species (Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca the western side of the island, where volcanoes have been only sporadically hawaiiensis, Nothocestrum latifolium, they feed on a variety of native (e.g., effective (Hess 2008, pp. 1, 4). Phyllostegia brevidens, Portulaca Acacia koa and Coprosma spp.) and Currently, a large population of sheep villosa, Ranunculus hawaiensis, and nonnative plants (van Riper and van (and mouflon hybrids) extends from Sicyos macrophyllus); the yellow-faced Riper 1982, pp. 42–46; Tomich 1986, p. Mauna Kea into the saddle and northern bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. 134). In addition to their direct impacts part of Mauna Loa, including State assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. on native plants (browsing), black-tailed forest reserves, where they trample and longiceps; and the band-rumped storm- deer likely impact native plants browse all vegetation, including petrel proposed for listing in this rule indirectly by serving as a primary vector endangered plants (Hess 2008, p. 1). are at risk of destruction and for the spread of introduced plants by One study estimated as many as 2,500 modification of habitat resulting from carrying their seeds or other propagules mouflon within just the Kau district of the activities of mouflon sheep. on their coats and in their hooves and the Kahuku Unit (Volcanoes National Cattle (Bos taurus) feces. Black-tailed deer have been noted Park) in 2006 (Hess et al. 2006, p. 10). as a cause of habitat alteration in the Five of the 39 plants, Exocarpos Cattle destroy and modify habitat in 7 Kauai ecosystems (NTBG 2007, in litt.; menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis, of the 11 ecosystems on Maui and HBMP 2010). Four of the 39 plants Nothocestrum latifolium, Phyllostegia Hawaii Island (coastal, lowland dry, proposed for listing in this rule brevidens, and Portulaca villosa, and lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane (Asplenium diellaciniatum, the yellow-faced bee Hylaeus wet, montane mesic, and montane dry). Nothocestrum latifolium, Ranunculus anthracinus, which are proposed for Cattle, the wild progenitors of which mauiensis, and Santalum involutum) listing in this rule, are reported to be at were native to Europe, northern , are at risk of habitat destruction and risk of habitat destruction and and southwestern Asia, were introduced modification by black-tailed deer. modification by feral sheep (see Table to the Hawaiian Islands in 1793, and large feral herds (as many as 12,000 on Sheep (Ovis aries) 3). the island of Hawaii) developed as a Four of the described ecosystems on Mouflon Sheep (Ovis gmelini musimon) result of restrictions on killing cattle Hawaii Island (lowland wet, montane Mouflon sheep destroy and modify decreed by King Kamehameha I wet, montane dry, and wet cliff), are habitat in 7 of the 11 described (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 40). While currently affected by habitat ecosystems on Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii small cattle ranches were developed on modification and destruction due to the Island (coastal, lowland dry, lowland Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, west Maui, and activities of domestic sheep. Sheep were mesic, montane wet, montane mesic, Kahoolawe, very large ranches of tens of introduced to Hawaii Island in 1791, montane dry, subalpine). Native to Asia thousands of acres were created on east when Captain Vancouver brought five Minor, mouflon sheep were introduced Maui and Hawaii Island (Stone 1985, rams and two ewes from California to the islands of Lanai and Hawaii in the pp. 256, 260; Broadbent 2010, in litt.). (Tomich 1986, pp. 156–163). Soon after, 1950s as a managed game species, and Large areas of native forest were quickly stock was brought from , are now widely established on these converted to grassland through the Germany, and the Mediterranean for islands (Tomich 1986, pp. 163–168; combined logging of native koa and sheep production (Tomich 1986, pp. Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 66; Hess establishment of cattle ranches (Tomich 156–163; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 2008, p. 1). Due to their high 1986, p. 140; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, 65–66). By the early 1930s, herds reproductive rate, the original p. 47). Feral cattle can be found today reached close to 40,000 individuals population of 11 mouflon on the island on the islands of Molokai, Maui, and (Scowcroft and Conrad 1992, p. 627). of Hawaii increased to more than 2,500 Hawaii. Feral cattle eat native Capable of acquiring the majority of individuals in 36 years, even though vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, their water needs by consuming hunted as a game animal (Hess 2008, p. cause erosion, create disturbed areas vegetation, sheep can inhabit dry forests 3). Mouflon have decimated vast areas into which alien plants invade, and in remote regions of Mauna Kea and of native shrubland and forest through spread seeds of alien plants carried in Mauna Loa, including the saddle grazing, browsing, and bark stripping their feces and on their bodies. The between the two volcanoes. Feral sheep (Stone 1985, p. 271; Cuddihy and Stone forest in areas grazed by cattle rapidly browse and trample native vegetation 1990, pp. 63, 66; Hess 2008, p. 3). degrades into grassland pasture, and and have decimated large areas of native Mouflon also create trails and pathways plant cover remains reduced for many forest and shrubland on Hawaii Island through vegetation, resulting in soil years following removal of cattle from (Tomich 1986, pp. 156–163; Cuddihy compaction and increased runoff and an area. Increased nitrogen availability and Stone 1990, pp. 65–66). Browsing erosion. In some areas, the interaction of through the feces of cattle contributes to results in the erosion of top soil that browsing and soil compaction has led to the ingress of nonnative plant species

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(Kohala Mountain Watershed Habitat Destruction and Modification by seedling establishment (Vitousek et al. Partnership (KMWP) 2007, pp. 54–55; Nonnative Plants 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). Laws et al. 2010, in litt.). Furthermore, Ten of the 11 ecosystems (all but the Alteration of fire regimes represents several alien grasses and legumes anchialine pool ecosystem) are currently an ecosystem-level change caused by purposely introduced for cattle forage at risk of habitat destruction and the invasion of nonnative plants, mainly have become invasive weeds (Tomich modification by nonnative plants. grasses (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, 1986, pp. 140–150; Cuddihy and Stone Native vegetation on all of the main p. 73). Grasses generate standing dead 1990, p. 29). According to Kessler (2011, Hawaiian Islands has undergone material that burns readily, and grass pers. comm.), approximately 300 extreme alteration because of past and tissues with large surface-to-volume ratios dry out quickly, contributing to individuals roam east Maui as high as present land management practices, flammability (D’Antonio and Vitousek the subalpine ecosystem (i.e., to 9,800 ft including ranching, deliberate 1992, p. 73). The finest size classes of (3,000 m)), and feral cattle are introduction of nonnative plants and grass material ignite and spread fires animals, and agriculture (Cuddihy and occasional observed on west Maui. Feral under a broader range of conditions Stone 1990, pp. 27, 58). The original cattle (more than 100 individuals) are than do woody fuels or even surface native flora of Hawaii (present before reported from remote regions of Hawaii litter (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. human arrival) consisted of about 1,000 Island, including the back of Pololu and 73). The grass life form allows rapid taxa, 89 percent of which are endemic Waipio Valleys in the Kohala recovery following fire; there is little (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 3–6). Over 800 Mountains, and the Kona Unit of the above-ground structure. Grasslands also plant taxa have been introduced to the Hakalau Forest NWR (KMWP 2007, p. support a microclimate in which surface 55; USFWS 2010, pp. 3–15, 4–86). Nine Hawaiian Islands, brought to Hawaii for temperatures are hotter, contributing to of the 39 plant species (Huperzia food or for cultural reasons, to reforest drier vegetative conditions that favor stemmermanniae, Ochrosia haleakalae, areas destroyed by grazing feral and fire (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. Phyllostegia brevidens, Portulaca domestic animals, or for horticultural or 73). In summary, nonnative plants villosa, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. agricultural purposes (Scott et al. 1986, directly and indirectly affect 44 species pp. 361–363; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, mauiensis, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos (36 plants, the orangeblack Hawaiian p. 73). We have compiled descriptions macrophyllus, and Solanum nelsonii) damselfly, and all 7 yellow-faced bees) of 115 nonnative plant species reported and four of the yellow-faced bees proposed for listing in this rule, by to destroy and modify the habitat of, or (Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. modifying or destroying their habitat, by outcompete, 44 of the 49 species removing their native host plants, or by facilis, and H. hilaris) are currently at proposed for listing in this rule (all risk of habitat destruction or direct competition. Below, we have except Exocarpos menziesii, Huperzia organized lists of the nonnative plants modification due to the activities of stemmermanniae, Joinvillea ascendens feral cattle. reported to negatively affect each of 10 ssp. ascendens, the band-rumped storm- of the 11 ecosystems (the anchialine In summary, 37 of the 39 plant petrel, and the anchialine pool shrimp). pool ecosystem is not included). These species (all except Cyanea kauaulaensis Fourteen of these nonnative plants are lists include a total of 115 nonnative and Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. included in the Hawaii Noxious Weed plant species with the specific negative mauiensis), and 9 of the 10 animals (all List (Hawaii Department of Agriculture effects they have on native ecosystems except the anchialine pool shrimp HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). and the proposed species. Procaris hawaiana), which are proposed Nonnative plants adversely impact Nonnative Plants in the Coastal for listing in this rule, are at risk of native habitat in Hawaii by: (1) Ecosystem: Nonnative plants habitat destruction and modification by Modifying the availability of light; (2) threatening the coastal ecosystem plants feral ungulates including pigs, goats, altering soil-water regimes; (3) proposed for listing (Portulaca villosa, axis deer, black-tailed deer, sheep, modifying nutrient cycling; and (4) Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. mouflon, and cattle (see Table 3). The altering fire regimes of native plant molokaiense, and Solanum nelsonii) effects of these nonnative animals communities (e.g., by fostering series of and the coastal ecosystem animals include the destruction of vegetative fires that burn successively farther into proposed for listing (the orangeblack native habitat, destroying native plants cover; trampling of plants and seedlings; Hawaiian damselfly, and the yellow- and removing native plant habitat by direct consumption of native vegetation; faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. altering microclimatic conditions to soil disturbance and sedimentation; assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. favor nonnative species), thus dispersal of nonnative plant seeds by longiceps), include the nonnative ultimately converting native-dominated animals; alteration of soil nitrogen understory and subcanopy species plant communities to nonnative plant Asystasia gangetica (Chinese violet), availability; and creation of open, communities (Smith 1985, pp. 180–181; Atriplex semibaccata, Conyza disturbed areas conducive to further Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; bonariensis (hairy horseweed), invasion by nonnative pest plant D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 73; Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), Lantana species. All of these impacts also can Vitousek et al. 1997, p. 6). The camara (lantana), Leucaena lead to the conversion of a native plant contribution of nonnative plants to the leucocephala (koa haole), Neonotonia community to one dominated by extinction of native species in the wightii (glycine), Nicotiana glauca (tree nonnative species (see ‘‘Habitat lowland and upland habitats of Hawaii tobacco), Pluchea carolinensis Modification and Destruction by is well-documented (Vitousek et al. (sourbush), P. indica (Indian fleabane), Nonnative Plants,’’ below). In addition, 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). Stachytarpheta spp., and Verbesina because these animals inhabit terrain The most often observed effect of encelioides (golden crown-beard) that is often steep and remote, foraging nonnative plants on native species is (DOFAW 2007, pp. 20–22, 54–58; and trampling contributes to severe displacement through competition. HBMP 2010). Nonnative canopy species erosion of watersheds and degradation Competition occurs for water or include Acacia farnesiana (klu) and of streams and wetlands (Cuddihy and nutrients, or it may involve allelopathy Prosopis pallida (HBMP 2010). In Stone 1990, p. 59; Dunkell et al. 2011, (chemical inhibition of growth of other addition, the nonnative grasses pp. 175–194). plants), shading, or precluding sites for Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass), Chloris

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barbata (swollen fingergrass), Cynodon (Hamakua pamakani), Anemone bonariensis, , dactylon (Bermuda grass), Digitaria hupehensis var. japonica (Japanese Cuphea carthagenensis, Cyclosorus insularis (sourgrass), Setaria verticillata anemone), Ardisia elliptica (shoebutton dentatus, Drymaria cordata (bristly foxtail), Urochloa maxima ardisia), Asystasia gangetica, Blechnum (chickweed), Erechtites valerianifolia (guinea grass), and U. mutica (California appendiculatum (no common name (fireweed), Erigeron karvinskianus grass) negatively affect this ecosystem (NCN)), , Caesalpinia (daisy fleabane), Hedychium (HBMP 2010) (see ‘‘Specific Nonnative decapetala (’s claw), Cestrum gardnerianum (kahili ginger), Juncus Plant Species Impacts,’’ below). diurnum (day cestrum), Clidemia hirta planifolius (bog rush), Leptospermum Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Dry (Koster’s curse), Conyza bonariensis, scoparium (tea tree), Passiflora edulis Ecosystem: Nonnative plants Cordyline fruticosa (ti, ki), Cuphea (passion fruit), P. foetida, P. suberosa, threatening the lowland dry ecosystem carthagenensis, Cyclosorus dentatus, Persicaria punctata (water smartweed), plants proposed for listing odorata (German ivy), Erigeron Pterolepis glomerata (NCN), Rubus (Nothocestrum latifolium and Portulaca karvinskianus (daisy fleabane), argutus, R. rosifolius, Sphaeropteris villosa) and the lowland dry ecosystem Hedychium coronarium (white ginger), cooperi, Tibouchina herbacea animals proposed for listing (the Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), Lantana (glorybush), and Youngia japonica orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and the camara, Leptospermum scoparium (tea (oriental hawksbeard); and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, tree), Passiflora laurifolia (yellow nonnative canopy species Ardisia H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and granadilla, water lemon), P. suberosa, elliptica, Cinnamomum burmannii H. longiceps) include the nonnative Rubus argutus (prickly Florida (padang cassia), arabica, understory and subcanopy species blackberry), R. rosifolius (thimbleberry), Cryptomeria japonica (tsugi pine), Ageratina adenophora (Maui Sphaeropteris cooperi, and Eucalyptus spp., Falcataria moluccana, pamakani), Asystasia gangetica, Stachytarpheta spp. (TNC 1997, pp. 10, Heliocarpus popayanensis (), Atriplex semibaccata, Conyza 15; HBMP 2010). Nonnative canopy Miconia calvescens (miconia), Morella bonariensis, Lantana camara, Leonotis species include Acacia confusa, faya, Pimenta dioica (allspice), Psidium nepetifolia (lion’s ear), Leucaena Aleurites moluccana (kukui), Casuarina cattleianum, P. guajava, leucocephala, Neonotonia wightii, equisetifolia, Chrysophyllum oliviforme, actinophylla, Schinus terebinthifolius, Nicotiana glauca, Passiflora foetida Cinchona pubescens (quinine), Coffea and Syzigium jambos (TNC 1997, p. 10; (love-in-a-mist), P. suberosa (huehue arabica (coffee), Falcataria moluccana HBMP 2010). Nonnative grasses that haole), Stachytarpheta spp., and (albizia), Ficus microcarpa (Chinese negatively impact the lowland wet Stapelia gigantea (giant toad plant) banyan), Fraxinus uhdei (tropical ash), ecosystem include Axonopus fissifolius (Perlman 2007, p. 3; HBMP 2010). , Morella faya (firetree), (narrow-leaved carpetgrass), Cortaderia Nonnative canopy species include Omalanthus populifolius (Queensland jubata (pampas grass), Ehrharta Acacia confusa (Formosa koa), A. poplar), Psidium cattleianum stipoides, Melinis minutiflora, farnesiana, Casuarina equisetifolia (strawberry guava), P. guajava, Ricinus Oplismenus hirtellus (basketgrass), (), Chrysophyllum oliviforme communis (castor bean), Schefflera Paspalum conjugatum, Sacciolepis (satinleaf), Grevillea robusta (silk oak), actinophylla (octopus tree), Schinus indica (glenwood grass), Urochloa Prosopis pallida, Psidium guajava terebinthifolius, Syzygium cumini (java maxima, and U. mutica (TNC 1997, p. (common guava), and Schinus plum), S. jambos (rose apple), Tecoma 10; Erickson and Puttock 2006, p. 270) terebinthifolius (Christmas berry) stans (yellow elder), and Toona ciliata (see ‘‘Specific Nonnative Plant Species (Perlman 2007, p. 7; HBMP 2010). In (Australian red cedar). Additional Impacts,’’ below). addition, the nonnative grasses threats are the nonnative grasses Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge), Nonnative Plants in the Montane Wet Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria setigera, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setaceus (fountain Ecosystem: Nonnative plants Ehrharta stipoides (meadow rice grass), grass), Chloris barbata, Cynodon threatening the montane wet ecosystem Melinis minutiflora, and Paspalum dactylon, Digitaria insularis, Melinis plants proposed for listing conjugatum (Hilo grass) (TNC 1997, p. minutiflora (molasses grass), M. repens (Calamagrostis expansa, Cyclosorus 15; Motley 2005, p. 109; HBMP 2010) (natal redtop), and Setaria verticillata boydiae, Cyrtandra hematos, Dryopteris (see ‘‘Specific Nonnative Plant Species negatively affect this ecosystem (HBMP glabra var. pusilla, Hypolepis Impacts,’’ below). 2010) (see ‘‘Specific Nonnative Plant hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Microlepia Species Impacts,’’ below). Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Wet strigosa var. mauiensis, Myrsine Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Ecosystem: Nonnative plants fosbergii, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. Mesic Ecosystem: Nonnative plants threatening the lowland wet ecosystem helleri, P. stachyoides, Ranunculus threatening the lowland mesic plants proposed for listing (Cyanea mauiensis, Schiedea diffusa ssp. ecosystem plants proposed for listing kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, diffusa, S. pubescens, and Sicyos (Deparia kaalaana, Gardenia remyi, Cyperus neokunthianus, Deparia macrophyllus) include the nonnative Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, kaalaana, Gardenia remyi, Kadua understory and subcanopy species Kadua fluviatilis, K. haupuensis, fluviatilis, Myrsine fosbergii, Ochrosia Ageratina adenophora, A. riparia, Lepidium orbiculare, Microlepia haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. Ageratum conyzoides (maile honohono), strigosa var. mauiensis, Myrsine helleri, Santalum involutum, Schiedea Anemone hupehensis var. japonica, fosbergii, Nothocestrum latifolium, diffusa ssp. diffusa, S. pubescens, Blechnum appendiculatum, Buddleja Ochrosia haleakalae, Pritchardia bakeri, Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and asiatica, Cestrum nocturnum, Clidemia Santalum involutum, and Sicyos Wikstroemia skottsbergiana) include the hirta, Cyclosorus dentatus, Drymaria lanceoloideus) and the lowland mesic nonnative understory and subcanopy cordata, Erechtites valerianifolia, ecosystem animals proposed for listing species Ageratina adenophora, A. Erigeron karvinskianus, Hedychium (the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly riparia, Ageratum conyzoides, gardnerianum, Hypochaeris radicata and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus Angiopteris evecta, Blechnum (hairy cat’s ear), Juncus effusus, J. facilis, H. kuakea, and H. mana) include appendiculatum, Buddleja asiatica, ensifolius, J. planifolius, Lantana the nonnative understory and Cestrum diurnum, C. nocturnum (night camara, Lapsana communis subcanopy species cestrum), Clidemia hirta, Conyza (nipplewort), Persicaria punctata,

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Rubus argutus, R. ellipticus (yellow Heterotheca grandiflora (telegraph threatening the wet cliff ecosystem Himalayan raspberry), R. rosifolius, weed), Rubus argutus, and Senecio plants proposed for listing (Phyllostegia Sphaeropteris cooperi, Tibouchina madagascariensis, and the nonnative brevidens, P. helleri, Ranunculus herbacea, Ulex europaeus (gorse), and canopy species Grevillea robusta, mauiensis, and Schiedea pubescens) Youngia japonica, and the nonnative Psidium cattleianum, and Schinus and the wet cliff ecosystem animal, the canopy species Cinnamomum terebinthifolius (HBMP 2010). band-rumped storm-petrel, include the burmannii, Cryptomeria japonica, Nonnative grasses such as Cenchrus nonnative understory and subcanopy Eucalyptus spp., Morella faya, Psidium setaceus and Melinis minutiflora species Ageratina adenophora, cattleianum, and Schinus negatively impact the montane dry Blechnum appendiculatum, Clidemia terebinthifolius (HBMP 2010). ecosystem (see ‘‘Specific Nonnative hirta, Erechtites valerianifolia, Erigeron Nonnative grasses that negatively Plant Species Impacts,’’ below). karvinskianus, Hedychium impact the montane wet ecosystem Nonnative Plants in the Subalpine gardnerianum, Juncus effusus, include Anthoxanthum odoratum Ecosystem: Nonnative plants Passiflora suberosa, Pterolepis (sweet vernalgrass), Axonopus threatening the subalpine ecosystem glomerata, Rubus argutus, R. rosifolius, fissifolius, Cortaderia jubata, Ehrharta plants proposed for listing (Ranunculus and Tibouchina herbacea, and the stipoides, Holcus lanatus (common hawaiensis and Sanicula sandwicensis) nonnative canopy species Ardisia velvet grass), Melinis minutiflora, include the nonnative understory and elliptica, Buddleja asiatica, Heliocarpus Paspalum conjugatum, Sacciolepis subcanopy species Ageratina popayanensis, Psidium cattleianum, P. indica (glenwood grass), and Setaria adenophora, Cotoneaster pannosus, guajava, Schinus terebinthifolius, and palmifolia (palmgrass) (see ‘‘Specific Epilobium billardierianum ssp. Toona ciliata (HBMP 2010). Nonnative Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,’’ cinereum (willow herb), E. ciliatum, grasses that negatively impact the wet below). Hypochoeris radicata, Lapsana cliff ecosystem include Axonopus Nonnative Plants in the Montane communis, Passiflora tarminiana, and fissifolius, Ehrharta stipoides, Melinis Mesic Ecosystem: Nonnative plants Rubus argutus, and the nonnative minutiflora, Oplismenus hirtellus, threatening the montane mesic canopy species Pinus spp. Nonnative Paspalum conjugatum, and Setaria ecosystem plants proposed for listing grasses such as Anthoxanthum palmifolia (HBMP 2010) (see ‘‘Specific (Asplenium diellaciniatum, Labordia odoratum, , Cynodon Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,’’ lorenciana, Microlepia strigosa var. dactylon, Dactylis glomerata below). mauiensis, Ochrosia haleakalae, (cocksfoot), and Holcus lanatus Specific Nonnative Plant Species Phyllostegia stachyoides, Ranunculus negatively impact the montane dry Impacts: Destruction and modification hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula ecosystem (see ‘‘Specific Nonnative of habitat, and competition, by sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens, Plant Species Impacts,’’ below). nonnative plants represent ongoing Sicyos lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus) Nonnative Plants in the Dry Cliff threats to 45 species (36 plants, the include the nonnative understory and Ecosystem: Nonnative plants band-rumped storm-petrel, the subcanopy species Ageratina threatening the dry cliff ecosystem orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all adenophora, Buddleja asiatica, plants proposed for listing 7 yellow-faced bees) proposed for listing Clidemia hirta, Cotoneaster pannosus, (Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia in this rule throughout their ranges. Cyclosorus dentatus, Delairea odorata, haleakalae, and Sicyos lanceoloideus) Nonnative plants adversely affect Epilobium ciliatum (willow herb), and the dry cliff ecosystem animal, the microhabitat by modifying availability Lantana camara, Leptospermum band-rumped storm-petrel, include the of light and nutrient cycling processes, scoparium, Passiflora edulis, P. nonnative understory and subcanopy and by altering soil-water regimes. Some tarminiana, Rubus argutus, R. rosifolius, species Ageratina adenophora, A. nonnative plants may release chemicals and Ulex europaeus (Leeward Haleakala riparia, Blechnum appendiculatum, that inhibit growth of other plants. They Watershed Partnership (LHWP) 2006, p. Clidemia hirta, Erigeron karvinskianus, also alter fire regimes leading to 25; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2009, 14 pp.); Hypochoeris radicata, Kalanchoe incursions of fire-tolerant, nonnative and the nonnative canopy species pinnata, Lantana camara, Lapsana plant species in native habitat. These Cinchona pubescens, Fraxinus uhdei, communis, Leucaena leucocephala, competitive advantages allow nonnative Morella faya, Pinus spp., Psidium Lythrum maritimum (loosestrife), plants to convert native-dominated cattleianum, and Schinus Passiflora suberosa, Pluchea plant communities to nonnative plant terebinthifolius. Nonnative grasses that carolinensis, Prunella vulgaris, and communities (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, negatively impact the montane mesic Rubus rosifolius, and the nonnative p. 74; Vitousek 1992, pp. 33–35). ecosystem include Andropogon canopy species Acacia confusa, The Hawaii Weed Risk Assessment virginicus, Cenchrus setaceus, Casuarina equisetifolia, Grevillea (HWRA) is cited in many of the Cortaderia jubata, Cynodon dactylon, robusta, (chinaberry), descriptions below. This assessment Ehrharta stipoides, Holcus lanatus, Psidium cattleianum, P. guajava, was created as a research collaboration Melinis minutiflora, Paspalum Schinus terebinthifolius, Sphaeropteris between the University of Hawaii and conjugatum, and Setaria palmifolia cooperi, Syzygium cumini, Tecoma the U.S. Forest Service for use in Hawaii (HBMP 2010) (see ‘‘Specific Nonnative stans, and Toona ciliata (HBMP 2010). and other high Pacific islands (i.e., Plant Species Impacts,’’ below). Nonnative grasses that negatively volcanic in origin, as opposed to low- Nonnative Plants in the Montane Dry impact the dry cliff ecosystem include lying atolls), and is an adaptation of the Ecosystem: Nonnative plants Andropogon virginicus, Cenchrus Australian/ Weed Risk threatening the montane dry ecosystem setaceus, Dactylis glomerata, Digitaria Assessment protocol developed in the plants proposed for listing (Festuca insularis, Ehrharta stipoides, Holcus 1990s (Denslow and Daehler 2004, p. 1). hawaiiensis, Portulaca villosa, lanatus, Melinis minutiflora, and The Australian/New Zealand protocol Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Urochloa maxima (HBMP 2010) (see was developed to screen plants Sanicula sandwicensis, and Sicyos ‘‘Specific Nonnative Plant Species proposed for introduction into those macrophyllus) include the nonnative Impacts,’’ below). countries, while the Hawaii-Pacific understory and subcanopy species Nonnative Plants in the Wet Cliff Weed Risk Assessment (HWRA) was Clidemia hirta, Cotoneaster pannosus, Ecosystem: Nonnative plants developed to evaluate species already

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used in landscaping, gardening, and to Hawaii in 1944 for control of Maui perennial, is native to and is forestry, and is also used to predict pamakani, with some success in naturalized and locally common in whether or not a nonnative plant suppression of some infestations, but open, wet areas along roadsides and in species is likely to become invasive. Not not those in higher rainfall areas (Bess lowland mesic and montane wet forest all nonnative plant species present in and Haramoto 1959, p. 248; Bess and on Hawaii Island (Duncan 1999, p. Hawaii have been assessed, and Haramoto 1972, pp. 166, 175). 1087). This species has wind-distributed information on propensity for • Ageratina riparia (Hamakua seeds, spreads by suckers, and resists invasiveness is lacking from some of the pamakani) is a subshrub native to grazing because of toxic chemicals that following descriptions. When known, and the West Indies that spreads induce vomiting when ingested. we describe specific negative impacts of from a creeping rootstock (Wagner et al. According to the HWRA, this species individual nonnative plants that 1999, p. 255). This species forms dense has a high risk of invasiveness or a high threaten 45 of the 49 species proposed mats that prevent regeneration of native risk of becoming a pest species (PIER for listing. plants (Davis et al. 1992, p. 427), and is 2011). • Acacia confusa (Formosa koa) is a naturalized in dry cliffs, lowland mesic, • Angiopteris evecta (mule’s foot tree introduced to Hawaii from lowland wet, and montane wet forest on fern) is native throughout much of the and the Philippine Islands in 1915 by Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui South Pacific, including Australia and the Board of Agriculture and Forestry (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 255; Wagner et , and is naturalized on and the Hawaiian Sugar Planter’s al. 2012, p. 9). Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Association for use as a windbreak; it is • Ageratum conyzoides (maile Hawaii Island (Palmer 2003, p. 49; naturalized on all the main islands honohono) is a perennial herb native to Wagner et al. 2012, p. 103). Rhizomes except Niihau (Geesink et al. 1999, p. Central and and now form a massive trunk, and fronds may 641). This species forms monotypic widespread on all the main Hawaiian grow up to 23 ft (7 m) long and 10 ft stands at lower elevations that prevent Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 254– (3 m) wide, allowing this species to establishment of native plants. Seeds 255). This species invades lowland and form dense stands and displace and present in the ground germinate montane wet areas, tolerates shade, and shade out native plants in lowland wet profusely after fire, allowing it to can outcompete and displace native forest (Global Invasive Species Database outcompete native plants (Pacific plants. It produces many thousands of (GISD) 2011; Palmer 2003, pp. 48–49). It Islands Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) 2008). seeds that spread by wind and water, has become the dominant understory This species occurs in lowland dry, with over half the seeds germinating plant in some valleys on Oahu. lowland mesic, and dry cliff habitats on shortly after they are shed (PIER 2007). • Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet all the main islands except Niihau • Aleurites moluccana (kukui) is a vernalgrass) is a perennial bunchgrass (Geesink 1999, p. 641). spreading, tall tree (66 ft; 20 m), native native to Eurasia and now naturalized • Acacia farnesiana (klu) is a shrub to to Malesia, and considered a Polynesian on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and 13 ft (4 m) tall, native to the Neotropics, introduction to Hawaii. It is now a Hawaii Island, in pastures, disturbed and formerly cultivated in Hawaii for an significant component of the lowland areas in montane wet forest, and attempted perfume industry. This mesic valley vegetation from sea level to sometimes subalpine shrubland species is thorny and forms dense 2,300 ft (700 m) on all the main islands (O’Connor 1999, p. 1498; Wagner et al. thickets, and regenerates quickly after (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 598). According 2012, p. 88). This grass forms extensive fire. The seeds are dispersed by to the HWRA, this species has a high ground cover, crowding out and ungulates that eat the pods (PIER 2011). risk of invasiveness or a high risk of preventing reestablishment of native It is now naturalized (i.e., initially becoming a serious pest (PIER 2008). plants (PIER 2008). introduced from another area, and now This species tolerates a wide range of • Ardisia elliptica (shoebutton reproducing in the wild) in coastal and soil conditions and forms dense ardisia) is a branched shrub native to Sri lowland dry areas on all of the main thickets, shading out other plants Lanka that is now naturalized on Kauai, Hawaiian Islands except Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 598). Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner (Geesink et al. 1999, p. 641). According • Andropogon virginicus et al. 1999, pp. 932–933; Wagner et al. to the HWRA for A. farnesiana, this (broomsedge) is a perennial bunch grass 2012, p. 53). This species is shade- species has a high risk of invasiveness native to northeastern America and tolerant and can rapidly form dense, or a high risk of becoming a serious pest naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, monotypic stands, preventing (PIER 2011). Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. establishment of native species (Global • Ageratina adenophora (Maui 2012, p. 88). It occurs along roadsides Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2005). pamakani) is native to tropical America, and in disturbed dry to mesic forest and Its fruit are attractive to birds, which and has naturalized in lowland to shrubland, and cliffs (O’Connor 1999, p. then spread the seeds over the subalpine, dry to wet forest, including 1497). Seeds are easily distributed by landscape. According to the HWRA, this cliffs, on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, wind, clothing, vehicles, and animals species has a high risk of invasiveness Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (Wagner et al. (Smith 1989, pp. 60–69). This species or a high risk of becoming a serious pest 1999, pp. 254–255; Wagner et al. 2012, can outcompete and displace native (PIER 2008). This species occurs in p. 9). This shrub is 3 to 5 ft (1 to 1.5 plants, and may release allelopathic lowland mesic and wet forest, and on m) tall with trailing branches that root substances that prevent the wet cliffs (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 933). on contact with the soil. It forms dense establishment of other plants (Rice • Asystasia gangetica (Chinese violet) mats, which prevent regeneration of 1972, pp. i, 752–755). This species is is a perennial herb native to India, native plants (Anderson et al. 1992, p. fire-adapted, and has become dominant Malay Peninsula, and Africa (Wagner et 315). It is considered a harmful weed in in areas subjected to natural or human- al. 1999, p. 168). This species can grow agriculture, especially in rangeland, caused fires (Mueller-Dombois 1972, pp. over shrubs and smother all vegetation because it often displaces more 1–2), and is included in the Hawaii in the herbaceous layer, covering native desirable vegetation or native species, State Noxious Weed List (HAR Title 4, plants and preventing their and is fatally toxic to horses and most Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). establishment (Smith 1985, p. 185). livestock. The eupatorium gall fly, • Anemone hupehensis var. japonica According to the HWRA, this species Procecidochares utilis, was introduced (Japanese anemone), an herbaceous has a high risk of invasiveness or a high

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risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER Seeds are dispersed by rodents, birds, Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai (Symon 1999, 2009). This species occurs in all low- and human activities (Smith 1985, p. p. 1254). This species invades lowland elevation coastal, dry and mesic habitats 187). According to the HWRA, this mesic and wet areas, forming dense on Midway Atoll, and all the main species has a high risk of invasiveness thickets. Seeds are dispersed by birds; Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. or a high risk of becoming a serious pest however, the seeds are poisonous to 168; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 3). (PIER 2013). humans and other mammals (Florida • Atriplex semibaccata (Australian • Casuarina equisetifolia (ironwood), Exotic Pest Plant Council (FEPC) 2011). saltbush) is a drought- and saline- native to Australia, is a tall tree (66 ft; • Cestrum nocturnum (night tolerant, low-growing shrub, native to 20 m) and is naturalized in the cestrum), a shrub or small tree native to Australia, which forms dense spreading Northwest Hawaiian Islands on Kure, the Antilles and , was mats and displaces native plants. It was Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes, cultivated in Hawaii prior to 1871, and introduced to Hawaii in 1895 as an Lisianski, Laysan, French Frigate is naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, experimental forage grass for cattle; it is Shoals, and all of the main Hawaiian and Lanai (Symon 1999, pp. 1254–1255; now naturalized in coastal and lowland Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 528– Wagner et al. 2012, p. 70). It forms dry to seasonally wet areas on all the 529; Cronk and Fuller 2001, p. 144 in dense, impenetrable thickets in lowland main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. PIER 2011). This species is a pioneer and montane wet forest and open areas. 1999, p. 535). The seeds are attractive to plant, salt-resistant, that forms According to the HWRA, this species fruit eaters, which may contribute to its monotypic stands in lowland dry and has a high risk of invasiveness or a high dispersal (California Invasive Plant mesic areas and cliffs, under which risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER Council 2006, in litt.). little else grows (PIER 2011). This 2010). • Axonopus fissifolius (carpetgrass) is species spreads by root suckers, and the • Chloris barbata (swollen a pasture grass that forms dense mats roots and needle litter may exude a fingergrass), native to Central and South with tall foliage. This species does well chemical that kills or inhibits the America and the West Indies, is widely in soils with low nitrogen levels, and growth of other plants. Ironwood is fire- naturalized on Kure Atoll, Midway can outcompete native plants in wet resistant, and the seeds are wind- and Atoll, and all the main Hawaiian islands forests and bogs, an impact exacerbated water-dispersed, further contributing to (O’Connor 1999, p. 1514; Wagner et al. by drought (Olaa Kilauea Partnership its competitive advantage over native 2012, p. 90). This species developed 2007, p. 3). The species is not subject to species (Staples and Herbst 2005, p. resistance to Group C1/5 herbicides in any major diseases or insect pests, and 229). Hawaii in 1987, and infests roadsides recovers quickly from fire. Seeds are • Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass), and sugarcane plantations readily spread by water, vehicles, and native to Africa and tropical Asia, is (WeedScience.com 2009; HBMP 2010). grazing animals (O’Connor 1999, pp. naturalized on Midway Atoll and all the According to the HWRA, this species 1500–1502; Cook et al. 2005, p. 4). This main islands except Niihau (O’Connor has a high risk of invasiveness or a high species occurs in lowland and montane 1999, p. 1512; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 90). risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER wet pastures, cliffs, wet forests, and This fire-adapted grass provides fuel for 2008) because of its ability to bogs on all the main islands except fires and recovers quickly after fire, outcompete native species. It occurs in Kahoolawe and Niihau (O’Connor 1999, rapidly increasing its cover because it coastal and lowland dry, disturbed p. 1502; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 88). can reproduce through vegetative areas, roadsides, vacant lots, and • Blechnum appendiculatum (NCN) fragmentation and is readily dispersed pastures (O’Connor 1999, p. 1514). is a fern with fronds to 23 in (60 cm) by animals or other vectors. These • Chrysophyllum oliviforme long. This species occurs on all the attributes allow it to displace native (satinleaf) is a small tree native to main islands, and forms large colonies plants and alter fire regimes (PIER Florida, the West Indies, and Central in closed canopy lowland and montane 2007). This species occurs in coastal America, and is naturalized on Kauai, wet forest, especially on rocky substrate and lowland dry areas (O’Connor 1999, Niihau, Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island or cliffs, outcompeting and displacing p. 1512). (Pennington 1999, p. 1231; Wagner et al. native species (Palmer 2003, pp. 79–81). • Cenchrus setaceus (formerly known 2012, p. 69; PIER 2009). Birds disperse • Buddleja asiatica (dog tail) is a as Pennisetum setaceum; fountain the fleshy fruit and the species becomes shrub or small tree native to Pakistan, grass), a densely tufted grass, is an a dominant component in native forest India, China, Taiwan, Malesia, and the aggressive colonizer that outcompetes (Pennington 1999, p. 1231; Maui Land Mariana Islands, and is naturalized on most native species. Native to northern and Pineapple Company 2002, pp. 20, Kauai, Maui, Oahu, Lanai, and Hawaii Africa, C. setaceus is naturalized on A1–A4). According to the HWRA, this Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 415; Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, Kahoolawe, species has a high risk of invasiveness Wagner et al. 2012, p. 20). This species and Hawaii Island (O’Connor 1999, p. or a high risk of becoming a serious pest can tolerate a wide range of lowland and 1581; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 99). This (PIER 2006). This species has been montane mesic and wet habitats, and fire-adapted grass burns swiftly and hot, documented in lowland dry and mesic forms dense thickets, rapidly spreading causing extensive damage to the forest in Hawaii. into forest and lava and cinder substrate surrounding habitat (O’Connor 1999, p. • Cinchona pubescens (quinine) is a areas, displacing native vegetation 1581). In Hawaii, this species occurs in densely-canopied tree up to 33 ft (10 m) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 415; PIER 2011). lowland and montane, mesic to dry, and tall. It is native to Central and South • Caesalpinia decapetala (cat’s claw), subalpine, open areas, cliffs, barren lava America, and it is widely cultivated for a prickley climber or shrub, native to flows, and cinder fields (O’Connor 1999, quinine (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1120). A tropical Asia, is naturalized on all the p. 1581). This species is included on the small plantation was started on Maui in main Hawaiian Islands except Hawaii State Noxious Weed list as 1868, and this species was also planted Kahoolawe (Geesink et al. 1999, p. 647). Pennisetum setaceum (HAR Title 4, by State foresters on Oahu, Maui, and This sprawling, noxious shrub forms Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). Hawaii Island between 1928 and 1947. large, impenetrable thickets; is used as • Cestrum diurnum (day cestrum), a Currently, the only naturalized a fence plant for ranches (Geesink et al. shrub up to 7 ft (2 m) tall, is native to populations are reported from Maui and 1999, p. 647); and is a pest in lowland the West Indies, and cultivated for its Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. mesic habitat (Smith 1985, p. 187). fragrant flowers. It is naturalized on 1120). It reproduces with wind-

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dispersed seeds and also vegetatively by the main Hawaiian Islands, where it • Cuphea carthagenensis (tarweed) is suckering, resulting in displacement of outcompetes and displaces native an annual or short-lived perennial herb native lowland and montane mesic vegetation (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 288). native to South America and naturalized forest (GISD 2011; PIER 2013). • Cordyline fruticosa (ki, ti), a shrub in lowland mesic to wet areas on Kauai, • Cinnamomum burmannii (padang to 12 ft (4 m) tall, is considered a Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and cassia), a tree native to Indonesia, is Polynesian introduction to Hawaii. It Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. cultivated and now naturalized on was extensively cultivated and occurs in 866; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 49). This Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii lowland mesic and wet valleys and species forms dense, shrubby mats that Island (van der Werff 1999, p. 846; forest and is naturalized on all the main displace and prevent the establishment Wagner et al. 2012, p. 48). Seeds are islands except Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. of native plants (Hawaii National Park bird-dispersed (Starr et al. 2003). On 1999, pp.1348–1350). It can become a 1959, p. 7; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 866). • Maui, this species is included in the dominant element of the understory Cyclosorus dentatus (previously weed control program at Puu Kukui (Department of Land and Natural Christella dentata) (NCN) is a medium- Preserve, as it becomes a dominant Resources (DLNR) 1989). sized fern widely distributed in the component of lowland and montane wet • Cortaderia jubata (pampas grass), a tropics and subtropics of the Old World, forest habitat (Maui Land and Pineapple large, clump-forming, perennial grass now widespread as a weed in the Company (MLP) 2002, p. 20). Americas. In Hawaii, this species is • native to the northern Andes, was first Clidemia hirta (Koster’s curse) is a reported in 1987 in Hawaii from the most common in disturbed lowland and noxious shrub in the Melastomataceae slopes of Haleakala on east Maui, where montane mesic and wet habitats on all family that forms a dense understory, it had escaped cultivation (Wagner et al. the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et shades out native plants and prevents 2012, p. 91; PIER 2013). This species is al. 2012, p. 103). This fern hybridizes their regeneration, and is considered a a serious pest in California, New with the endemic Cyclosorus significant nonnative plant threat Zealand, and , and is cyatheoides, forming extensive numbers (Wagner et al. 1985, p. 41; Smith 1989, included in the Hawaii State Noxious of the sterile hybrid (Palmer 2003, pp. p. 64; Almeda 1999, p. 906). Clidemia Weed List (Chimera et al. 1999, p. 3; 88–90). hirta is native to the Neotropics, and is • Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass, HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). naturalized on all the main islands manienie) is a strongly rhizomatous or Pampas grass has razor-sharp leaves, except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Almeda stoloniferous grass native to tropical produces abundant seed, and spreads 1999, p. 906; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 51). Africa (O’Connor 1999, p. 1520). readily, allowing it to outcompete native All plants in the Melastomataceae Introduced to Hawaii in 1935, it is species in the lowland wet, montane family are included in the Hawaii State widely cultivated and naturalized on wet, and montane mesic ecosystems Noxious Weed List (HAR Title 4, Kure, Midway, Pearl and Hermes atolls, (Staples and Herbst 2005, p. 744). Subtitle 6, Chapter 68) because of their • Laysan, , and all of high germination rates, rapid growth, Cotoneaster pannosus (silver-leaf the main Hawaiian Islands except early maturity, ability of fragments to cotoneaster) is a shrub native to China Niihau (O’Connor 1999, p. 1520; root, possible asexual reproduction, and that is cultivated in Hawaii (Volcano on Wagner et al. 2012, p. 91). This grass efficient seed dispersal (especially by Hawaii Island and Kula, Maui) (Wagner occurs in rocky or sandy sites in dry and birds that are attracted by the plants’ et al. 1999, p. 1100; Wagner et al. 2012, mesic areas, from coastal to alpine copious production of berries) (Smith p. 61). Previously thought to be habitats, and forms a solid mat where 1985, p. 194; University of Florida contained, this species has escaped and seepage may be present. Cynodon Herbarium 2006; http:// become a threat to native montane dactylon outcompetes native species as www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/invweed/ mesic, montane dry, and subalpine it readily roots at the nodes, covering an weedsHI.html). These characteristics ecosystems on Maui and Hawaii Island area of up to 26 sq ft (2.5 sq m) within enable the plants to be aggressive and (Oppenheimer 2010, in litt.). The 150 days, with culms up to 4 ft (130 cm) successful competitors in Hawaiian attractive, bird-dispersed fruits, long (PIER 2013). According to the lowland and montane, dry, mesic, and aggressive root systems, and tendency to HWRA, this species has a high risk of wet ecosystems. shade out and smother native plants invasiveness or a high risk of becoming • Coffea arabica (Arabian coffee), a contribute to the invasiveness of this a serious pest (PIER 2013). shrub or tree to 17 ft (5 m) tall, native species (PIER 2010). • Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot), a to Ethiopia, is widely cultivated in • Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese tufted, perennial grass native to Europe, Hawaii as a commercial crop. It was cedar, tsugi) is a pyramidal evergreen is widely cultivated and now naturalized in Hawaii by the mid-1800s tree native to China and Japan. This tree naturalized in Hawaii. It is abundant in in mesic to wet sites, usually in valleys grows to 60 ft (18m) and has dense pastures and along trails and roadsides or along streambeds on all the main foliage (North Carolina State University on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and islands except Niihau (Wagner et al. 2006; University of Connecticut 2006). Hawaii (O’Connor 1999, p. 1521). This 1999, pp. 1120–1121). This species is Its life-history traits of small seed mass, species establishes in disturbed sites in shade-tolerant, and can form dense short juvenile period, and short dry cliff to subalpine habitat, and forms stands in the forest understory, intervals between large seed crops dense mats that suppress growth of displacing and shading out lowland contribute to its invasiveness native grasses and herbaceous plants mesic and lowland wet native (Richardson and Rejmanek 2004, p. (PIER 2010). vegetation. The seeds are dispersed by 321). This species is also highly • Delairea odorata (formerly known birds and rats (PIER 2008). flammable and is not recommended for as Senecio mikanioides, German ivy), a • Conyza bonariensis (hairy landscaping in fire-prone areas (Scripps rapidly growing perennial vine, native horseweed) is an annual herb common Ranch Fire Safe Council 2006, in litt.). to South Africa, is naturalized on Maui in urban and nonurban areas in Hawaii. It occurs in lowland wet and montane and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, It occurs from coastal and lowland dry wet areas of Maui and Hawaii Island p. 356; Staples and Herbst 2005, p. 169; areas to lowland mesic and lowland wet (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 107; Smithsonian Benitez et al. 2008, p. 38; Wagner et al. forest, on Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, Institution Online Herbarium Database 2012, p. 16). This bushy vine covers and Laysan, French Frigate Shoals, and all of 2015, in litt.). suppresses growth and germination of

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native species by rooting at leaf nodes p. 56). These species are dominant replacing native forest species in and carpeting other plants and the components of subalpine areas on Maui lowland wet and montane wet habitats ground. It can also grow in forest and in wet forest on Hawaii Island, (PIER 2011). According to the HWRA for canopy, where it smothers and kills Maui, and Kauai, growing to 5 ft (2 m) Eucalyptus, these species have a high native trees in lowland and montane in height, and outcompeting native risk of invasiveness or a high risk of mesic areas (Benitez et al. 2008, p. 38; plant species (Anderson et al. 1992, p. becoming a pest species (PIER 2011). PIER 2012; Weeds of Blue Mountains 328). Seeds are wind-dispersed; rapid • Falcataria moluccana (albizia), a Bushland 2011, in litt.). germination and spread are not tree up to 130 ft (40 m) tall, is native to • Digitaria insularis (sourgrass) is a effectively controlled by herbicides the Moluccas, New Guinea, New densely tufted, perennial grass up to 5 (Oregon State, 2015, in litt.). These Britain, and the . This ft (150 cm) tall. It is native to the species are self-compatible and also can species was widely planted in Hawaii Neotropics, and is naturalized on reproduce from leafy rosettes from the for reforestation and is naturalized in Midway Atoll and all the main stem base (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 995; lowland mesic to lowland wet areas on Hawaiian islands (O’Connor 1999, p. New England Wildflower Society, in all the main Hawaiian islands except 1531; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 92). This litt.). Epilobium spp. invade montane Kahoolawe and Niihau (Geesink et al. grass forms dense mats that crowd out mesic, montane wet, montane dry, and 1999, p. 690; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 41). native species (Motooka et al. 2003, in subalpine forest on Maui, Kauai, and Its rapid growth habit enables it to litt.) in disturbed coastal, lowland dry Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. outcompete and shade out native trees, and cliff habitats (O’Connor 1999, p. 995; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 56). and its high-nitrogen leaf litter alters 1531). • Erechtites valerianifolia (fireweed) nutrient dynamics in the soil, allowing • Digitaria setigera (kukaepuaa, itchy is a tall (8 ft, 2.5 m), widely distributed nonnative plant species to flourish crabgrass), an annual 3-ft tall (80 cm) annual herb that produces thousands of (GISD 2011, in litt.). The roots are grass, is native to tropical Asia from wind-dispersed seeds, and outcompetes shallow and the wood is brittle, and India to Sri Lanka, and the Pacific native plants (Wagner et al. 1999, p. falling branches are a hazard to humans, Islands. It is naturalized on all of the 314). Native to Mexico and South animals, and other vegetation (State of main Hawaiian Islands except America, this species is naturalized in Hawaii 2013, in litt. (S.C.R. No. 74)). Kahoolawe in lowland mesic forest, disturbed lowland wet, montane wet, • Ficus microcarpa (Chinese banyan) fields and pastures, and along roadsides and wet cliff habitats on all of the main is a very large, spreading tree native to (O’Connor 1999, pp. 1531–1532). This islands except Niihau (Wagner et al. Ceylon, India, China, Ryuku Islands, species rapidly spreads through runners 2012, p. 11). Australia, and , and is and prolific seeding. • Erigeron karvinskianus (daisy naturalized on Midway Atoll and all the • Drymaria cordata (chickweed) is a fleabane), an annual or perennial herb main Hawaiian islands except straggling herb naturalized in shaded native to Central and South America Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. moist areas on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and the Neotropics, reproduces and 1999, pp. 924–926; Wagner et al. 2012, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island (Wagner spreads rapidly to form dense mats by p. 52). This epiphytic species has large et al. 1999, p. 505; Wagner et al. 2012, stem layering and regrowth from broken branches with numerous aerial roots p. 26). This species is known to invade roots. This species crowds out and that form columnar stems, eventually plantation crops such as tea and coffee, displaces native ground-level plants strangling its host, and can shade out as well as pastures, , gardens, (Weeds of Blue Mountains Bushland native plants with its broad canopy. riverbanks, ditches, and sandbars in 2006), and occurs in lowland to Seeds are spread by birds (Motooka et rivers, displacing or preventing the montane, mesic to wet habitats on al. 2003, in litt.). This species occurs in establishment of native plants in Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and lowland mesic habitat in Hawaii lowland wet and montane wet habitats Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 924–926). (PIER 2010). 315; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 12). • Fraxinus uhdei (tropical ash) is a • Ehrharta stipoides (meadow • Eucalyptus spp. are tall trees or tree to 80 ft (24 m) tall, native to central ricegrass), a grass native to Australia, shrubs, and almost all of the more than and southern Mexico. In Hawaii, New Zealand, and the , is 600 species are native to Australia between 1924 and 1960, over 700,000 naturalized on all the main Hawaiian (Chippendale 1999, pp. 948–959). In an trees were planted by State foresters on Islands except Lanai (O’Connor 1999, p. attempt to protect Hawaii’s watersheds all the main islands (except Kahoolawe 1536; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 93). This in the early 20th century, over 90 and Niihau) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 991). species creates thick mats and its Eucalyptus species and thousands of Tropical ash is now naturalized in bristled seeds are easily dispersed, individuals were planted by Hawaii lowland mesic and montane mesic preventing the establishment of native State foresters on all the main islands habitat, and is currently considered a plants in lowland mesic, lowland wet, except Niihau and Kahoolawe (Cuddihy serious threat to the mesic native montane wet, montane mesic, dry cliff, and Stone 1990, p. 51; Chippendale Acacia-Metrosideros (koa-ohia) forest at and wet cliff habitats (U.S. Army 1999, p. 949; Wagner et al. 2012, pp. 53– Waikamoi on east Maui (TNCH 2006, p. Garrison 2006, p. 2–1–20; O’Connor 54). Approximately 30 species are A5). This species reproduces by wind- 1999, p. 1536). reported to be spreading beyond the dispersed seed and spreads rapidly • Epilobium billardierianum ssp. forestry plantings. Three species species along watercourses and forms dense, cinereum (willow herb), a (native to in particular, Eucalyptus grandis monotypic stands, crowding out and Australia, New Zealand, and Chatham (flooded gum), E. paniculata (gray replacing native plants (Holt 1992, pp. Islands) and E. ciliatum (native to North ironbark), and E. saligna (Sydney blue 525–535). America, Japan, Asia, Mexico, and gum), were the principal species used in • Grevillea robusta (silk oak) is a South America) are perennial herbs reforestation efforts and greatly threaten large (100 ft, 30 m) evergreen tree native naturalized in open forest and disturbed native habitat in Hawaii (Chippendale to Australia (Wagner et al. 1999, p. grassland, and especially on open lava, 1999, p. 958). Eucalyptus are quick- 1086; PIER 2013). Over two million pastures, and along roadsides on Kauai, growing, reach up to 180 ft (55 m) in trees were planted in Hawaii between Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner height, reproduce from wind-dispersed 1919 and 1959, in an effort to reduce et al. 1999, p. 995; Wagner et al. 2012, seeds, thereby outcompeting and erosion and to provide timber (Motooka

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et al. 2003, in litt.). This species is an outcompete native vegetation (Motooka Wagner et al. 2012, p. 84). This weedy aggressive, drought-tolerant tree, with et al. 2003, in litt.). colonizer can tolerate environmental the ability to establish in little to no soil, • Heterotheca grandiflora (telegraph stress and outcompete native species and forms dense, monotypic stands weed) is an annual or biennial herb (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994, in litt.). (Santos et al. 1992, p. 342). The leaves native to California and Mexico and • Juncus planifolius (bog rush), a produce an allelopathic substance that now common from lowland to perennial herb native to South America, inhibits the establishment of other subalpine habitats of all the main New Zealand, and Australia, is plants (Smith 1985, p. 191). This species Hawaiian Islands except Niihau naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, occurs in lowland to montane, dry to (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 326; Wagner et Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island, in mesic forest and open areas on all the al. 2012, p. 13). This species is an moist, open, disturbed margins of main Hawaiian Islands except opportunistic colonized that grows lowland and montane wet forests and in Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1086; quickly, forms dense stands, and has bogs (Coffey 1999, pp. 1453–1454; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 61). been observed to inhibit recruitment of Wagner et al. 2012, p. 84). This species • Hedychium coronarium (white native plants in montane dry areas forms dense mats and displaces native (Csurhes 2009, p. 2; PIER 2011). plants by preventing establishment of ginger) is an herbaceous perennial up to • 7 ft (2 m) tall, native to southwestern Holcus lanatus (common native seedlings (Medeiros et al. 1991, velvetgrass), native to Europe, is pp. 22–23). China and the Himalayas (Nagata 1999, • p. 1622). White ginger is naturalized in naturalized in Hawaii from montane to Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), a lowland mesic forest on Oahu, Molokai, subalpine habitat, and occurs on all the perennial herb, is widely established in Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Nagata main islands except Kahoolawe and many tropical and subtropical areas. In 1999, p. 1622). This species is shade Niihau (O’Connor 1999, p. 1551; Hawaii, it was naturalized prior to 1871, tolerant but can grow in full sun Wagner et al. 2012, p. 95). It is an and is abundant in low-elevation (Csurhes and Hannan-Jones 2008, p. 7). aggressive plant, growing rapidly from coastal, dry, and mesic areas on all the Similar to H. gardnerianum, the basal shoots or its prolific seed, and can main islands except Niihau and become a dominant element of the Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 568). creeping growth habit of H. coronarium vegetation if not controlled (Smith 1985, It can reproduce by vegetatively at overwhelms native plants, and is p. 192). Allelopathy may also play a role indents along the leaf margin, usually difficult to control due to new growth in the dominance of this species over after the leaf has broken off the plant from rhizomes (GISD 2011). • other grasses (Remison and Snaydon in and is lying on the ground, from which Hedychium gardnerianum (kahili Pitcher and Russo 2005, p. 2). a new plant can take root (Motooka et ginger) is native to India (Nagata 1999, • Hypochoeris radicata (hairy cat’s al. 2003, in litt.). This species forms p. 1623). This showy ginger was ear) is a perennial herb up to 2 ft (0.6 dense stands that prevent reproduction introduced to Hawaii for ornamental m) tall, native to Eurasia. In Hawaii, it of native plants (Motooka et al. 2003, in purposes, and was first collected is naturalized in montane wet to dry litt.; Randall 2007-Global Compendium outside of cultivation in 1954 at Hawaii cliff and subalpine sites on all the main of Weeds Database). Volcanoes National Park, and is now islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 327; • Lantana camara (lantana), a naturalized in lowland wet and Wagner et al. 2012, p. 13). This species malodorous, branched shrub up to 6 ft montane wet areas on Kauai, Oahu, has a deep, succulent taproot favored by (3 m) tall, was brought to Hawaii as an Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island (Nagata feral pigs, which dig up large areas and is now 1999, p. 1623; Wester 1992, pp. 99–154; searching for the roots (Smith 1985, p. naturalized on Midway Atoll and all the Wagner et al. 2012, p. 102). Kahili 192). Seeds are produced in large main Hawaiian Islands. This species ginger grows over 3 ft (1 m) tall in open numbers and dispersed by wind. It forms dense stands that prevent light environments; however, it will regenerates rapidly from the crown of establishment of native plants (Davis et readily grow in full shade beneath forest the taproot after fire (Smith 1985, p. al. 1992, p. 412; Wagner et al. 1999, p. canopy (Smith 1985, pp. 191–192). It 192). These attributes contribute to its 1320; Motooka et al. 2003, in litt.). Its forms vast, dense colonies, displacing ability to outcompete native plants. berries are attractive to birds, which other plant species, and reproduces by • Juncus effusus (Japanese mat rush) spread it to new areas (Davis et al. 1992, rhizomes. The conspicuous fleshy red is a perennial herb widely distributed in p. 412). This species occurs in almost all seeds are dispersed by fruit-eating birds. temperate regions and naturalized in habitat types, from coastal, dry to mesic, Studies show that ginger reduces the Hawaii in montane ponds, streams, and lowland to montane forest and amount of nitrogen in the native open boggy sites on Oahu, Molokai, shrubland. Metrosideros forest canopy in Hawaii Maui, and Hawaii Island (Coffey 1999, • Lapsana communis (nipplewort) is (Asner and Vitousek 2005, in litt.). This p. 1453; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 84). It an annual herb (to 5 ft, 1.5 m) native to species may also block stream edges, was brought to Hawaii as a source of Eurasia, and is naturalized in montane altering water flow (GISD 2007). matting material, but grew too slowly to wet forest, dry cliff, and alpine habitat • Heliocarpus popayanensis (moho) be of commercial value (Coffey 1999, p. (3,200 m) on Maui and Hawaii Island is a nearly 100-ft (30-m) tall tree native 1453). This plant spreads by seeds and (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 331). It is to Mexico and Argentina. This species rhizomes, and forms dense mats that identified as an agricultural weed and was planted extensively in Hawaii by crowd out native plants (U.S. an invasive species in Hawaii (USDA– foresters beginning in 1941, and has Department of Agriculture-Agricultural NRCS 2011). since escaped into lowland wet forest Research Division-National Genetic • Leonotis nepetifolia (lion’s ear) is a and cliffs on Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, and Resources Program (USDA–ARS–NGRP) coarse, annual herb (to 8 ft, 2.5 m), Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 2011). native to tropical Africa, and is 1292; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 72). The • Juncus ensifolius (dagger-leaved naturalized on all the main Hawaiian seeds are wind-dispersed, and this rush), a perennial herb native to the islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau species is becoming a dominant feature western United States, is naturalized in (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 803; Wagner et is some forest areas on Oahu (Smith Hawaii and occurs in standing water of al. 2012, p. 46). It forms dense thickets 1998). It grows rapidly, and spreads marshy montane wet areas on Maui and that displace native plants, especially in readily in disturbed forest where it can Hawaii Island (Coffey 1999, p. 1453; lowland dry habitat (Wagner et al. 1999,

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p. 803). According to the HWRA, this fires, with rapid expansion into adjacent native to Central and South America, is species has a high risk of invasiveness burned areas (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, naturalized on all the main Hawaiian or a high risk of becoming a serious pest p. 89; O’Connor 1999, p. 1562; PIER islands except Niihau (Geesink et al. (PIER 2006). 2013). This species occurs in almost all 1999, p. 674; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 39). • Leptospermum scoparium (tea tree) habitats, from dry to wet, lowland to It was brought to Hawaii for cultivation is a shrub or small tree (7 to 16 ft (2 to montane (O’Connor 1999, p. 1562). as a fodder plant. This species forms 5 m)) native to New Zealand and • Melinis repens (natal redtop), a dense patches in coastal and lowland Australia, and now naturalized on perennial grass (1 to 3 ft (0.3 to 1 m)) dry areas, and covers and outcompetes Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and Lanai (Wagner native to Africa, is now naturalized on other plants (Geesink et al. 1999, p. 674; et al. 1999, p. 963; Wagner et al. 2012, Midway Atoll and all of the main PIER 2010). p. 55). It forms thickets that crowd out Hawaiian islands (O’Connor 1999, p. • Nicotiana glauca (tree tobacco), a other plants, and has allelopathic 1588; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 99). This shrub or spindly tree, is native to properties that prevent the growth of species invades disturbed, dry areas Argentina, and naturalized on all the native plants (Smith 1985, p. 193). This from coastal regions to subalpine forest main Hawaiian islands except Kauai species occurs in disturbed lowland to (O’Connor 1999, p. 1588). Dense stands and Niihau (Symon 1999, pp. 1261– montane, mesic to wet forest habitat of natal redtop can contribute to 1263; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 71). A (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 963). recurrent fires (Desert Museum 2011). drought-resistant plant, it occurs in • Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole), • Miconia calvescens (miconia or lowland, open, arid, disturbed sites, and a shrub (30 ft (9 m)) native to the velvet tree), a tree up to 50 ft (15 m) tall, forms dense stands that crowd out Neotropics, is now naturalized on all of native to tropical America, first native species and prevent their the main Hawaiian Islands and Midway appeared on Oahu and the island of regeneration (Symon 1999, pp. 1261– Atoll. It is an aggressive, nitrogen-fixing Hawaii as an introduced garden plant 1263; HBMP 2010; PIER 2011). competitor that often becomes the and subsequently escaped from According to the HWRA assessment, dominant component of vegetation in cultivation (Almeda 1999, p. 903; this species has a high risk of coastal and lowland dry areas (Geesink Staples and Herbst 2005, p. 397). This invasiveness or a high risk of becoming et al. 1999, pp. 679–680). species is now also found on Kauai and a serious pest (PIER 2011). • Lythrum maritimum (loosestrife), Maui (Wagner and Herbst 2003, p. 34; • Omalanthus populifolius native to Peru, is a many-branched Wagner et al. 2012, p. 51). This species (Queensland poplar) is a large shrub (20 shrub occurring in drier open areas and is remarkable for its 2- to 3-ft (70 cm) ft (6 m)) native to Australia that is now cliffs on all of the main Hawaiian long, dark purple leaves (Staples and naturalized on Maui and Hawaii Island islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau Herbst 2005, p. 397). It tolerates and (Starr et al. 2003, in litt.). Based on (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 868; Wagner et reproduces in dense shade in lowland information from its native range, al. 2012, p. 49). It was collected by wet habitats, eventually shading out all infestations in Hawaii could invade botanists as early as 1794, suggesting it other plants to form a monoculture. A lowland mesic forest. As a pioneer may be indigenous to the Hawaiian single mature plant produces millions of species, it is considered a potential pest Islands; however, L. maritimum is seeds per year, which are spread by plant in South Africa (Starr et al. 2003, identified as an invasive species in birds, ungulates, and humans (Motooka in litt.). Bird-dispersed seeds germinate Hawaii (Stone et al. 1992, p. 104; et al. 2003, in litt.). According to the quickly when exposed to direct USDA–NRCS 2011). HWRA assessment, miconia has a high sunlight, but also have a long dormancy • Melia azedarach (chinaberry) is a risk of invasiveness or a high risk of period, providing a long-lived seed bank deciduous tree (to 65 ft (20 m)) native becoming a serious pest (PIER 2010). (Hornsby Shire Council 2015, in litt.). to southwestern Asia that is invading This species, as well as all plants in the • Oplismenus hirtellus (basketgrass) forests, fence lines, and disturbed areas Melastoma family, are included on the is a perennial grass common through the on all of the main Hawaiian islands Hawaii State Noxious Weed list (HAR tropics and now naturalized on all of except Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1999, Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). the main Hawaiian Islands except p. 918; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52). Its fast • Morella faya (firetree) is an Kahoolawe and Niihau (O’Connor 1999, growth and rapidly spreading thickets evergreen shrub or small tree (26 ft (8 p. 1565; Wagner et al. 2012, pp. 96–97). make it a significant pest plant by m)) native to the Canary Islands, This species forms a dense ground shading out and displacing native Madeira, and the Azores, and cover, is sometimes climbing, and roots vegetation (University of Florida 2008). naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, at the nodes, enabling its rapid spread. Feral pigs and fruit-eating birds further Lanai, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. It also has sticky seeds that attach to distribute the seeds (Stone 1985, pp. 1999, p. 931; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 53). animals and birds that results in its 194–195). According to the HWRA, this This species forms monotypic stands, is spread to new areas (O’Connor 1999, p. species has a high risk of invasiveness a nitrogen-fixer, and alters the 1565; Johnson 2005, in litt.). This or a high risk of becoming a serious pest successional ecosystems in areas that it species displaces native plants on forest (PIER 2008). This species occurs in dry, invades by displacing native vegetation floors and trail sides, and occurs in open habitats and cliffs (Wagner et al. through competition. It is a prolific fruit lowland wet forest and cliffs (Motooka 1999, p. 918). producer (average of 400,000 fruits per et al. 2003, in litt.; O’Connor 1999, p. • Melinis minutiflora (molasses tree per year), and these fruit are spread 1565). grass), native to Africa, is naturalized on by birds and feral pigs (Vitousek 1990, • Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass) all the main Hawaiian islands except pp. 8–9; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 931; PIER is a perennial grass native to the Niihau (O’Connor 1999, p. 1562). 2008). This species is included in the Neotropics, up to 2 ft (0.6 m) tall, and Melinis minutiflora is a spreading, Hawaii State Noxious Weed List (HAR occurs in lowland mesic and wet perennial grass up to 3 ft (1 m) tall that Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68), and is habitats, forming a dense ground cover. forms dense mats from root runners, reported from lowland to montane It occurs on all the main Hawaiian crowding out and preventing mesic and wet forest habitat (PIER islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau establishment of native plants. These 2008). (O’Connor 1999, pp. 1575–1576). Its mats can fuel more intense fires and • Neonotonia wightii (previously small hairy seeds are easily transported dense stands can contribute to recurrent Glycine wightii; glycine), a twining herb on humans and animals, or are carried

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by the wind through native vegetation, Hawaii Island, where it overgrows and plants for soil, water, and nutrients; where it establishes and displaces smothers the forest canopy (Escobar change soil chemistry; promote growth native plants (University of Hawaii 1999, p. 1012; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 57). of weed seeds dropped by perching Botany Department 1998; Cuddihy and Seeds are readily dispersed by humans, birds; and be highly flammable Stone 1990, p. 83; Motooka et al. 2003, birds, and feral pigs (La Rosa 1992, pp. (Oppenheimer 2010, in litt.; PIER 2010). in litt.; PIER 2008). 281–282). Fallen fruit encourage rooting On east Maui, Pinus species are a threat • Passiflora edulis (passion fruit), and trampling by pigs, resulting in to higher elevation habitat because they native to South America, is a vigorous destruction of native habitat (Diong invade pastures and native montane vine that can reach up to 50 ft (15 m) 1982, pp. 157–158). Field releases of mesic and subalpine shrublands, and in length. This species is widely biocontrol agents have not been have contributed to wildfires in the area cultivated for its fruit juice, and is successful to date (PIER 2010). This (Oppenheimer 2002, pp. 19–23; naturalized in lowland to montane species is included on the Hawaii State Oppenheimer 2010, in litt.). mesic areas on all the main Hawaiian Noxious Weed list (HAR Title 4, • Pluchea carolinensis (sourbush) is islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). native to Mexico, the West Indies, and (Escobar 1999, p. 1010; Wagner et al. • Persicaria punctata (previously South America (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 2012, p. 57). Seeds are dispersed by Polygonum punctatum, water 351; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 16). This 3 feral pigs, and this vine overgrows and smartweed), a rhizomatous perennial to 6 ft (1 to 2 m) tall, fast-growing shrub smothers forest canopy. Rooting and herb native to , South forms thickets in lowland dry habitats trampling by feral pigs in search of its America, and the West Indies, is a and can tolerate saline conditions. This fruit disrupts topsoil, causing erosion, naturalized aquatic species found along species is widespread in Hawaii from and may also destroy native plant streambeds, running or standing water, coastal to lowland areas and is adapted seedlings (GISD 2012). in lowland and montane wet habitat on to a wide variety of soils and sites on • Passiflora foetida (love-in-a-mist) is Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, French a vine with glandular hairs that give the 1064; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 59). This Frigate Shoals, and all the main islands plant a fetid odor. This species, native species is fast-growing and has long- (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 351). The seeds to American tropics and subtropics, is lived seeds and allelopathic properties are wind-dispersed (Francis 2004, in naturalized on all the main Hawaiian (Gutsher 2007, in litt.). Loh and Tunison litt.). It quickly invades burned areas. islands except Kahoolawe, and grows (1998, p. 5) found that in pig-disturbed These adaptive characteristics increase over and covers vegetation that prevents sites, P. punctata expanded from 25 its ability to outcompete native plants. or delays establishment of native percent cover to 63 percent cover within Some biological control agents have species (Escobar 1999, p. 1011; Wagner 2 years. The combination of these been introduced but have not been et al. 2012, p. 57). Its fruit are eaten and attributes allows this species to form effective (U.H. Botany Department, spread by birds (Escobar 1999, p. 1011; dense patches that inhibit establishment http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/ GISD 2006). This species occurs in of native plants. cw_smith/plu_sym.htm). lowland dry and wet habitat (Escobar • Pimenta dioica (allspice), native to • Pluchea indica (Indian fleabane) is 1999, p. 1011). Mexico, Central America, Cuba, and native to southern Asia, and is • Passiflora laurifolia (yellow Jamaica, is a tree (60 ft (18 m)) with naturalized on Midway Atoll, Laysan granadilla, water lemon) is a vine native sticky, grape-like seeds that are spread Island, and all the main Hawaiian to the West Indies, Guianas, and South by birds. Widely cultivated, this species Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 351; America, where it is widely cultivated was introduced to Hawaii in 1885, and Wagner et al. 2012, p. 16). These 6 ft (2 (Escobar 1999, p. 1011). In Hawaii, it is naturalized on Kauai and Maui m) tall, fast-growing shrubs form widely scattered in mostly inaccessible (Staples and Herbst 2005, p. 427; thickets in dry habitats and are lowland mesic to wet habitat, and can Wagner et al. 2012, p. 53). According to widespread in Hawaii in coastal areas. grow over and smother vegetation the HWRA, this species has a high risk The seeds are wind-dispersed (Francis (Escobar 1999, p. 1011; Starr et al. 2003, of invasiveness or a high risk of 2006). It quickly invades burned areas, in litt.). becoming a serious pest (PIER 2008). and can regenerate from basal shoots. • Passiflora suberosa (huehue haole), This tree forms dense thickets and These traits increase its competitive a vine, has many-seeded purple fruits tolerates a wide range of soil types, and abilities over native plants (Wagner et that are dispersed widely by birds. This can outcompete native plants, and is al. 1999, p. 351). species is native to the American naturalized in lowland wet forest. • Prosopis pallida (kiawe, mesquite) subtropics and the West Indies, and • Pinus spp. (pine tree) are tall, is a tree up to 66 ft (20 m) tall. Native naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, evergreen trees or shrubs native to all to Peru, Columbia, and Ecuador, it was Lanai, and Hawaii Island (Escobar 1999, continents and to some oceanic islands, introduced to Hawaii in 1828, and its p. 1014; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 57). This but are not native to any of the seed pods were used as fodder for ranch vine grows over and smothers ground Hawaiian Islands. Pinus caribaea var. animals. This species is now a dominant cover, shrubs, and small trees, hondurensis, P. elliottii, P. patula, P. component of the vegetation in lowland, sometimes reaching the upper canopy pinaster, P. radiata, and P. taeda are dry, disturbed sites, and it is well- layer of the forest (Smith 1985, pp. 191– naturalized on Molokai, Lanai, and adapted to dry habitats on Midway Atoll 192). Passiflora suberosa occurs in Maui (Little and Skolmen 1989, pp. 56– and all the main Hawaiian Islands lowland grassland, shrubland, open dry 60; Oppenheimer 2003, pp. 18–19; PIER (Geesink et al. 1999, pp. 692–693; to wet forest, and exposed cliff habitats 2011; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 107). Pinus Wagner et al. 2012, p. 41). It (Escobar 1999, p. 1014). species were primarily planted by overshadows other vegetation and has • Passiflora tarminiana (banana Hawaii State foresters for reforestation deep tap roots that significantly reduce poka), a vine native to South America, and erosion control (Little and Skolmen available water for native dryland is widely cultivated for its fruit (Escobar 1989, pp. 56–60; Oppenheimer 2003, plants. This species fixes nitrogen and 1999, pp. 1007–1014). First introduced pp. 18–19; PIER 2010). Pinus species are can outcompete native plants (Geesink to Hawaii in the 1920s, it is now a known to establish readily; create dense et al. 1999, pp. 692–693; PIER 2011). serious pest in montane mesic and stands that shade out native plants and • Prunella vulgaris (common selfheal) subalpine forest on Kauai, Maui, and prevent regeneration; outcompete native is a perennial herb in the mint family.

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This species, native to North and According to the HWRA assessment, forest, and along trails (O’Connor 1999, Central America, Europe, and Asia, is this species has a high risk of p. 1589). naturalized in drier areas (including invasiveness or a high risk of becoming • (octopus cliffs) on the islands of Molokai, Maui, a serious pest (PIER 2012). tree) is a tree (50 ft (15 m)) native to and Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. • Rubus argutus (prickly Florida Australia and New Guinea, and now 828–829). It can root from stem nodes blackberry) is a thorny shrub with long, naturalized on all the main Hawaiian (PIER 2010). This species is reported as arching stems that reproduces both islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau an invasive species in Hawaii (USDA– vegetatively and by seed. Native to the (Lowry II 1999, p. 232; Wagner et al. NRCS 2011). continental United States, R. argutus is 2012, p. 7). This species is shade- • Psidium cattleianum (strawberry naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, tolerant and can spread into guava) is a tall shrub or tree (20 ft (6 m)) Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. undisturbed forest, forming dense that forms dense stands in which few 1999, p. 1107; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 62). thickets in lowland mesic and wet other plants can grow, displacing native It readily sprouts from underground habitats (Lowry II 1999, p. 232). vegetation through competition. Native runners, and is quickly spread by Schefflera actinophylla grows to the Neotropics, P. cattleianum is frugivorous birds, displacing native epiphytically, strangling host trees, and naturalized on all the main Hawaiian vegetation through competition its numerous seeds are readily dispersed islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau by birds (PIER 2008). (Tunison 1991, p. 2; Wagner et al. 1999, • (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 971). The fruit p. 1107; U.S. Army 2006, pp. 2–1–21, 2– Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas is eaten by pigs and birds that disperse 1–22). This species is included in the berry or Brazilian pepper) is a shrub or the seeds throughout the forest (Smith Hawaii State Noxious Weed List (HAR tree up to 50 ft (15 m) tall that forms 1985, p. 200; Wagner et al. 1985, p. 24). Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). It occurs dense thickets (Wagner et al. 1999, p. This species occurs in lowland to in almost all areas, from lowland to 198). Its red berries are attractive to, and montane, mesic to wet habitats (Wagner subalpine, dry to wet habitats. are spread by, birds (Smith 1989, p. 63). Schinus seedlings grow very slowly and et al. 1999, p. 971). • Rubus ellipticus (yellow Himalayan • Psidium guajava (common guava) is can survive in dense shade, exhibiting raspberry), native to India, is a prickly, a shrub or tree (32 ft (10 m)) that forms vigorous growth when the canopy is climbing shrub, now naturalized on dense stands, excluding native species. opened after a disturbance (Brazilian Hawaii Island in montane wet areas; an Native to the Neotropics, P. guajava is Pepper Task Force 1997). Because of infestation on Oahu was removed naturalized on all the main Hawaiian these attributes, S. terebinthifolius is (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1107–1108; islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau able to displace native vegetation Wagner et al. 2012, p. 62). It occurs in (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 972). Seeds are through competition (Wagner et al. montane wet areas in the Volcano and spread by pigs and birds, and it also 1999, p. 198). This species (native to regenerates from underground parts by Laupahoehoe areas (Motooka et al. Brazil) occurs in lowland to montane, suckering (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 972). 2003, in litt.). Its long, arching stems dry to wet habitats on Midway Atoll and These traits allow this species to form impenetrable thickets, and cover all of the main Hawaiian islands except outcompete native vegetation in and smother smaller native plants. Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. lowland to montane dry, mesic, and wet Seeds are dispersed by frugivorous birds 1999, p. 198). habitats. and other animals. The plants spread • Senecio madagascariensis • Pterolepis glomerata (NCN) is an locally by underground shoots that also (fireweed), native to Madagascar and herb or subshrub in the allow it to regenerate rapidly after fire South Africa, is an annual or short-lived Melastomataceae family. Native to (PIER 2012). perennial herb with showy yellow • South America, P. glomerata is Rubus rosifolius (thimbleberry) is flowers, and is poisonous to grazing naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, an erect to trailing shrub that forms animals (PIER 2010). It is naturalized in and Hawaii Island (Almeda 1999, p. dense thickets and outcompetes native disturbed areas and in pastures, in 912–913; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52). plant species. Native to India, lowland to montane, dry to mesic areas This species has rapid growth, early southeastern Asia, the Philippines, and on all the main Hawaiian islands except maturity to fruiting, a high germination Indonesia, R. rosifolius is naturalized on Niihau (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 16). This rate, possible asexual reproduction, the Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner species occurs in a wide range of soils, ability of fragments to root, and seed et al. 1999, p. 1110). It readily and its seeds are spread by wind, birds, dispersal by birds (University of Florida reproduces from roots left in the ground, animals, and humans, and can also be Herbarium 2006). These attributes allow and seeds are spread by birds and spread as a contaminant in agricultural it to displace native vegetation through animals (GISD 2008; PIER 2008). This products and machinery. It spreads competition. All plants in the species occurs in lowland to montane locally by rooting from nodes (PIER Melastomataceae family are included in mesic and wet habitats (Wagner et al. 2010). According to the HWRA, for this the Hawaii State Noxious Weed List 1999, p. 1110). species, there is a high risk of (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). It • Sacciolepis indica (glenwood grass) invasiveness or a high risk of it is a pest in lowland wet habitat and is an annual grass that invades becoming a pest species (PIER 2010). along trail margins and cliffs (Almeda disturbed and open areas, and prevents • Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass), 1999, p. 912–913). the establishment of native plants. native to tropical Asia, was first • Ricinis communis (castor bean), a Native to the Paleotropics, S. indica is collected on Hawaii Island in 1903, and shrub or small tree native to Africa, is naturalized on all the main Hawaiian is now also naturalized on Oahu, Lanai, naturalized in lowland mesic habitat on islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau and Maui (O’Connor 1999, p. 1592; all the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner (O’Connor 1999, p. 1589; Wagner et al. Wagner et al. 2012, p. 100). A large- et al. 1999, p. 629). This fast-growing 2012, p. 99). The seeds are dispersed by leafed, perennial grass, this species species forms thickets, reaches 33 ft (10 sticking to animal fur (Motooka et al. reaches almost 7 ft (2 m) in height, and m) in height, and shades and crowds out 2003, in litt.; PIER 2011). This species shades and crowds out native native plants, preventing their occurs from lowland to montane vegetation. Palmgrass is resistant to fire regeneration. Its toxic seeds are spread elevations in open, wet areas such as and recovers quickly after being burned mainly by human activities (PIER 2012). grasslands, ridge crests, openings in wet (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 83). This

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species occurs from lowland to montane areas (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 241; southeastern Asia, and Australia, occurs elevations in mesic to wet areas. Wagner et al. 2012, p. 8). This species in lowland mesic to cliff habitat on all • Setaria verticillata (bristly foxtail), a outcompetes native plants for space and the main Hawaiian islands except tufted annual grass native to Europe, water. Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. with culms up to 3 ft (1 m) tall, is • Syzygium cumini (java plum), a 66 1999, p. 920; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52). naturalized on Kure, Midway, and Pearl ft- (20 m-) tall tree native to India, • Ulex europaeus (gorse), a woody and Hermes atolls; French Frigate Ceylon, and Malesia, is widely legume up to 12 ft (4 m) tall and covered Shoals; Nihoa; and all the main cultivated and now naturalized in with spines, is native to Western Europe Hawaiian Islands (O’Connor 1999, p. Hawaii in lowland mesic and dry cliff and is now naturalized in montane wet 1593; HBMP 2010). The sticky seed habitat on all the main islands except and mesic habitat on Molokai, Maui, heads are readily moved by animals and Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. and Hawaii Island (Geesink 1999, pp. human activity (PIER 2008). This 1999, p. 975). It forms dense cover, 715–716; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 43). It species outcompetes native plants in excluding all other species, and is cultivated and a hedge and fodder coastal and lowland dry areas. prevents the reestablishment of native plant, and was inadvertently introduced • Sphaeropteris cooperi (previously forest plants. The large, black fruit is to Hawaii before 1910, with the Cyathea cooperi; Australian tree fern) is dispersed by frugivorous birds and feral establishment of the wool industry a large tree fern, 13 ft (4 m) tall, with pigs (PIER 2008). (Tulang 1992, pp. 577–583; Geesink individual fronds extending over 13 ft (4 • Syzygium jambos (rose apple), a 50 1999, pp. 715–716). Gorse produces m) (Palmer 2003, pp. 243–244). It is ft (15 m) tall tree, brought to Hawaii numerous seeds, which are widely native to Australia and was introduced from Rio de Janeiro in 1825, is spread by explosive opening of the pods to Hawaii for use in landscaping, and naturalized on all the main Hawaiian (Mallinson 2011, in litt.). It can rapidly now naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau form extensive, dense and impenetrable Lanai, and Hawaii Island (Medeiros et (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 975). Fruit are infestations, and outcompetes native al. 1992, p. 27; Wagner et al. 2012, p. dispersed by birds, humans, and plants, preventing their establishment. 106). It can achieve high densities in possibly feral pigs. This tree is Dense patches can also pose a fire lowland and montane Hawaiian forests, particularly detrimental to native hazard (Mallinson 2011, in litt.). Over growing over 1 ft (0.3 m) per year (Jones ecosystems because it does not need 20,000 ac (8,100 ha) are infested by and Clemesha 1976, p. 56), displacing disturbance to become established, and gorse on the island of Hawaii, and over native plant species. Understory can germinate and thrive in shade, 15,000 ac (6,100 ha) are infested on disturbance by pigs facilitates the eventually overtopping and replacing Maui (Tulang 1992, pp. 577–583). Gorse establishment of this tree fern (Medeiros native canopy trees (U.S. Army Garrison is included on the Hawaii State Noxious et al. 1992, p. 30). It has been known to 2006, p. 2–1–23). This species occurs in Weed List (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, spread over 7 mi (12 km) through lowland mesic to wet sites, primarily in Chapter 68). windblown dispersal of spores from valleys (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 975). • Urochloa maxima (previously plant nurseries (Medeiros et al. 1992, p. • Tecoma stans (yellow elder) is a Panicum maximum, guinea grass), 29). This species has been documented shrub or small tree (32 ft (10 m)) that native to Africa, is cultivated as an in mesic and wet forest and in forest forms dense stands that inhibit important forage grass throughout the openings in wet areas. regeneration of native species. Native to tropics and is naturalized on Midway • Stachytarpheta spp. are native to Northern and Central America, (Sand Island) and all the main Hawaiian Cuba, Mexico, South America, West Argentina, and the West Indies, T. stans Islands (Davidse 1999, p. 1569; Wagner Indies, and tropical Asia. There are four is naturalized on Oahu, Maui, and et al. 2012, p. 97). This tall grass (10 ft known species naturalized in Hawaii: Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. (3 m)) produces profuse seeds that are Stachytarpheta australis (on Kauai, 389). Its seeds are wind-dispersed (PIER spread by wind, birds, and water. It is Oahu, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island), 2008). This species occurs in lowland strongly allelopathic and can form S. cayennensis (on all the main islands mesic to dry cliff habitat (Wagner et al. dense stands that exclude native species except Kahoolawe and Niihau), S. 1999, p. 389). (PIER 2007). It regenerates rapidly from jamaicensis (on Midway Atoll, and all • Tibouchina herbacea (glorybush), underground rhizomes after a fire (PIER the main islands except Kahoolawe and an herb or shrub up to 3 ft (1 m) tall, 2007). This species has been Niihau), and S. mutabilis (on Kauai) is native to southern Brazil, Uruguay, documented in open, coastal areas, (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1321–1324). and Paraguay. In Hawaii, it is cliffs, and open areas of lowland wet These annual or perennial herbs or naturalized and abundant in lowland to forest (PIER 2007). subshrubs occur in coastal, lowland dry, montane wet forest and cliffs on • Urochloa mutica (previously and mesic areas, and form dense stands Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii Brachiaria mutica, California grass) is a (PIER 2011–2013, in litt.). Used Island (Almeda 1999, p. 915; Wagner et sprawling perennial grass with culms intentionally as ornamental plants, al. 2012, p. 52). This species forms up to 20 ft (6 m) long. Native to Africa, seeds are dispersed by vehicles, by dense thickets, crowding out all other is it now pantropical, and naturalized in movement of soils from gardens, and by plants, and inhibiting regeneration of Hawaii on Midway Atoll and all the rainwater. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis native plants (Motooka et al. 2003, in main islands except Kahoolawe and is declared a noxious weed in Australia. litt.). All members of the Niihau (O’Connor 1999, p. 1504; PIER According to the HWRA assessment, S. Melastomataceae family are included in 2012; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 89). This cayennensis and S. mutabilis are species the Hawaii State Noxious Weed List species forms dense floating mats in with a high risk of invasiveness or a (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). open water, and monotypic stands along high risk of becoming serious pests • Toona ciliata (Australian red cedar) streams, ditches, and roadsides in wet (PIER 2011–2013, in litt.). is a fast-growing, almost 100 ft (30 m) habitat. It has mild allelopathic activity, • Stapelia gigantea (giant toad plant) tall tree, with wind-dispersed seeds and outcompetes native species, and is a succulent, cactus-like plant native an open, spreading crown that overtops prevents their reestablishment (Chou to tropical Africa and Mozambique, and and displaces native forest (Wagner et and Young 1975 in PIER 2012). This is naturalized on Oahu, Molokai, and al. 1999, p. 920; Koala Native Plants grass is also fire-adapted, and dead Maui in lowland dry forest and open 2005). This species, native to India, leaves provide a high fuel load.

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According to the HWRA assessment, U. before the introduction of alien grasses. 1990, p. 93). During a post-burn survey mutica has a high risk of invasiveness Smith and Tunison (in Cuddihy and on Hawaii Island, in an area of native or a high risk of becoming a serious pest Stone 1990, p. 91) state that native plant Diospyros forest with undergrowth of (PIER 2012). fuels typically have low flammability. the nonnative grass Pennisetum • Verbesina encelioides (golden Existing fuel loads were often setaceum [Cenchrus setaceus], Takeuchi crown-beard) is a tap-rooted, annual discontinuous, and rainfall in many noted that ‘‘no regeneration of native herb native to Mexico and the areas on most islands was moderate to canopy is occurring within the southwestern United States (Wagner et high. Fires inadvertently or Puuwaawaa burn area’’ (Takeuchi 1991, al. 1999, p. 372). This plant has a intentionally set by the Polynesian p. 2). Takeuchi also stated that ‘‘burn number of traits that allow it to settlers probably contributed to the events served to accelerate a decline outcompete native plants, including initial decline of native vegetation in the process already in place, compressing tolerance of a wide range of growing drier plains and foothills. These early into days a sequence which would conditions, rapid growth, allelopathic settlers practiced slash-and-burn ordinarily have taken decades’’ effects on other plants, and high seed agriculture that created open lowland (Takeuchi 1991, p. 4), and concluded production and dispersal with high areas suitable for the opportunistic that, in addition to increasing the germination rates. In addition, it is invasion and colonization of nonnative, number of fires, the nonnative poisonous to livestock (Shluker 2002, fire-adapted grasses (Kirch 1982, pp. 5– Pennisetum acted to suppress pp. 3–4, 7–8). Verbesina has become a 6, 8; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 30– establishment of native plants after a widespread and aggressive weed on 31). Beginning in the late 18th century, fire (Takeuchi 1991, p. 6). both Midway Atoll and Kure Atoll, Europeans and Americans introduced For many decades, fires have where it interferes with seabird nesting plants and animals that further impacted rare or endangered species and inhibits native plant growth degraded native Hawaiian ecosystems. and their habitat on Molokai, Lanai, and (Shluker 2002, pp. 3–4, 8). This species Ranching and the creation of Maui (Gima 1998, in litt.; Hamilton has been documented in coastal habitat pasturlands in particular created highly 2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, on Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and fire-prone areas of nonnative grasses in litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in Hermes, and all of the main Hawaiian and shrubs (D’Antonio and Vitousek litt.). These three islands experienced Islands except for Niihau (Wagner et al. 1992, p. 67). Although fires were approximately 1,290 brush fires 1999, p. 372; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 16). between 1972 and 1999 that burned a • infrequent in mountainous regions, Youngia japonica (oriental extensive fires have recently occurred in total of 64,250 ac (26,000 ha) (County of hawksbeard), an annual herb 3 ft (1 m) lowland dry and lowland mesic areas, Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Pacific Disaster tall and native to southeastern Asia, is leading to grass-fire cycles that convert Center 2011, in litt.). Between 2000 and now a pantropical weed (Wagner et al. native dry forest and native wet forest 2003, the annual number of wildfires on 1999, p. 377). In Hawaii, this species to nonnative grassland (D’Antonio and these islands jumped from 118 to 271; occurs on all the main islands except Vitousek 1992, p. 77). several of these alone burned more than Kahoolawe and Niihau. Youngia 5,000 ac (2,023 ha) (Pacific Disaster japonica can invade intact lowland and Because of the greater frequency, Center 2011, in litt.). On Molokai, montane native wet forest, where it intensity, and duration of fires that have between 2003 and 2004, three wildfires displaces native species (Wagner et al. resulted from the human alteration of each burned 10,000 ac (4,050 ha) 1999, p. 377). landscapes and the introduction of (Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). nonnative plants, especially grasses, From August through early September Habitat Destruction and Modification by fires are now more destructive to native Fire 2009, a wildfire burned approximately Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 8,000 ac (3,237 ha), including 600 ac Six of the 11 ecosystems (coastal, 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-fueled (243 ha) of the remote Makakupaia lowland dry, lowland mesic, montane fire often kills most native trees and section of the Molokai Forest Reserve, a mesic, montane dry, and subalpine) are shrubs in the area (D’Antonio and small portion of TNC’s Kamakou at risk of destruction and modification Vitousek 1992, p. 74). Fire destroys Preserve, and encroached on Onini by fire. Fire is an increasing, human- dormant seeds of these native species, Gulch, Kalamaula, and Kawela exacerbated threat to native species and as well as the individual plants and (Hamilton 2009, in litt.). Species ecosystems in Hawaii. The pre- animals themselves, even in steep, proposed for listing in this rule at risk settlement fire regime in Hawaii was inaccessible areas or near streams and of wildfire on Molokai include the characterized by infrequent, low- ponds. Successive fires remove habitat plants Nothocestrum latifolium, severity events, as few natural ignition for native species by altering Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus sources existed (Cuddihy and Stone microclimate conditions, creating mauiensis, and Schiedea pubescens, 1990, p. 91; Smith and Tunison 1992, conditions more favorable to nonnative Solanum nelsonii; the orangeblack pp. 395–397). It is believed that prior to plants. Nonnative grasses (e.g., Hawaiian damselfly; and the yellow- human colonization, fuel was sparse in Cenchrus setaceus; fountain grass), faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. wet plant communities and only many of which may be fire-adapted, facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. seasonally flammable in mesic and dry produce a high fuel load that allow fire Several wildfires have occurred on plant communities. The only ignition to burn areas that would not otherwise Lanai in the last decade. In 2006, a sources were volcanism and lightning burn easily, regenerate quickly after fire, wildfire burned 600 ac (243 ha) between (Baker et al. 2009, p. 43). Although Vogl and establish rapidly in burned areas Manele Road and the Palawai Basin, (1969, in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. (Fujioka and Fujii 1980 in Cuddihy and about 3 mi (4 km) south of Lanai City 91) proposed that naturally occurring Stone 1990, p. 93; D’Antonio and (The Maui News 2006, in litt.). In 2007, fires may have been important in the Vitousek 1992, pp. 70, 73–74; Tunison a brush fire at Mahana burned about 30 development of some of the original et al. 2002, p. 122). Native woody plants ac (12 ha), and in 2008, another 1,000 Hawaiian flora, Mueller-Dombois (1981, may recover to some degree, but fire tips ac (405 ha) were burned by wildfire in in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 91) the competitive balance toward the Palawai Basin (The Maui News asserts that most natural vegetation nonnative species (National Park 2007, in litt.; KITV Honolulu 2008, in types of Hawaii would not carry fire Service 1989 in Cuddihy and Stone litt.). Species proposed for listing in this

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rule at risk of wildfire on Lanai include Makua Cave. Both of these fires burned lowland wet ecosystems (Joint Fire the plants Exocarpos menziesii, into area designated as critical habitat, Science Program (JFSP) 2009, p. 3), Nothocestrum latifolium, and Portulaca although no individual plants were cumulatively burning an estimated villosa, the the orangeblack Hawaiian directly affected (U.S. Army Natural 11,225 ac (4,543 ha) (Wildfire News, damselfly, and yellow-faced bees Resource Program 2009, Appendix 2, 17 June 9, 2003; JFSP 2009, p. 3). These Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. pp.). Most recently, in 2014, two fires fires destroyed over 95 percent of the facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. impacted native forest, one in the Oahu canopy cover and encroached upon On west Maui, wildfires burned more Forest National Wildlife Refuge (350 ac, forest areas that were previously than 8,650 ac (3,501 ha) between 2007 140 ha), on the leeward side of the thought to have low susceptibility to and 2010 (Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in Koolau Mountains (DLNR 2014, in litt.), wildfires. After the fires, nonnative litt.; Shimogawa 2010, in litt.). These and one above Makakilo, in the Waianae ferns were observed in higher elevation fires encroached into the West Maui Mountains, just below Honouliuli FR, rainforest where they had not been Forest Reserve, on the ridges of Olowalu burning more than 1,000 ac (400 ha) previously been seen, and were believed and Kealaloloa, habitat for several (KHON 2014, in litt.). The Makakilo fire to inhibit the recovery of the native endangered plants. On east Maui, in took over two 2 weeks to contain. Metrosideros polymorpha (ohia) trees 2007, a fire consumed over 600 ac (240 Species proposed for listing in this rule (JFSP 2003, pp. 1–2). Nonnative grasses ha), increasing invasion of the area by at risk of wildfire on Oahu include the invaded the burn area, increasing the nonnative Pinus spp. (Pacific Disaster plants Joinvillea ascendens ssp. risk of fire encroaching into the Center 2007, in litt.; The Maui News ascendens, Nothocestrum latifolium, surrounding native forest (Ainsworth 2011, in litt.). Species proposed for Portulaca villosa, and Sicyos 2011, in litt.). Extreme drought listing in this rule at risk of wildfire on lanceoloideus, and the yellow-faced conditions also contributed to the west and east Maui include the plants bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. number and intensity of wildfires on Festuca hawaiiensis, Nothocestrum assimulans, H. facilis, H. kuakea, H. Hawaii Island (Armstrong and Media latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, longiceps, and H. mana. 2010, in litt.; Loh 2010, in litt.). This Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca In 2012 on Kauai, a wildfire that was ‘‘extreme’’ drought classification for villosa, Ranunculus mauiensis, possibly started by an unauthorized Hawaii was recently lifted to Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea camping fire burned 40 ac (16 ha) in the ‘‘moderate;’’ however, drier than pubescens and Solanum nelsonii; and Na Pali-Kona Forest Reserve on Milolii average conditions persist, and another the animals, the orangeblack Hawaiian Ridge, forcing closure of a hiking trail. extreme drought event may occur damselfly; and the yellow-faced bees Fortunately, several threatened and (NOAA 2015, in litt.). In addition, El Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. endangered plants in the adjacent Kula Nin˜ o conditions in the Pacific (see facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps. Natural Area Reserve were not impacted ‘‘Climate Change’’ under Factor E, Several recent fires on Oahu in the (KITV 2012, in litt.). The same year, below), a half-century of decline in Waianae Mountain range have impacted another wildfire burned over 650 ac annual rainfall, and intermittent dry rare or endangered species. Between (260 ha) on Hikimoe Ridge, and spells have contributed to the 2004 and 2005, wildfires burned more threatened the Puu Ka section of conditions favoring wildfires in all the than 360 ac (146 ha) in Honouliuli Waimea Canyon State Park (Hawaii main Hawaiian Islands (Marcus 2010, in Preserve, home to more than 90 rare and News Now 2012, in litt.; Star Advertiser litt.). Species proposed for listing in this endangered plants and animals (TNC 2012, in litt.). Species proposed for rule at risk of wildfire on Hawaii Island 2005, in litt.). In 2006, a fire at Kaena listing in this rule at risk of wildfire on include the plants Exocarpos menziesii, Point State Park burned 60 ac (24 ha), Kauai include the plants Joinvillea. Festuca hawaiiensis, Ochrosia and encroached on endangered plants in ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia haleakalae, Phyllostegia stacyoides, Makua Military Training Area. In 2007, lorenciana, Ranunculus mauiensis, Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus there was a significant fire at Santalum involutum, and Sicyos mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Kaukonahua that crossed 12 gulches, lanceoloideus. eventually encompassing 5,655 ac In the driest areas on the island of Sicyos macrophyllus, and Solanum (2,289 ha) and negatively impacted eight Hawaii, wildfires are exacerbated by the nelsonii, and the yellow-faced bee endangered plant species and their uncontrolled growth of nonnative Hylaeus anthracinus. habitat ( sandwicense, Bonamia grasses such as Cenchrus setaceus (Fire In summary, fire is a threat to 15 plant menziesii, Colubrina oppositifolia, Science Brief 2009, in litt.). Since its species (Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca koolauensis, Euphorbia introduction to the island in 1917, this hawaiiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. haeleeleana, Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. grass now covers more than 200 sq mi ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, mokuleianus, humile, and (500 sq km) of the leeward areas (Fire Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia Schiedea hookeri) (U.S. Army Garrison Science Brief 2009, in litt.). In the past haleakalae, Phyllostegia stachyoides, 2007, Appendices pp. 1–5). This fire 50 years, on the leeward side of Hawaii Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus provided ingress for nonnative Island, three wildfires encompassed a mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, ungulates (cattle, goats, and pigs) into total of 30,000 ac (12,140 ha) (Fire Santalum involutum, Schiedea previously undisturbed areas, and Science Brief 2009, in litt.). These pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, S. opened dense native vegetation to the wildfires traveled great distances, from macrophyllus, and Solanum nelsonii), invasive grass Urochloa maxima 4 to 8 miles per hour (mph) (7 to 12 and eight animal species (the (Panicum maximum, guinea grass), also kilometers per hour (kph)), burning 2.5 orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and used as a food source by cattle and ac (1 ha) to 6 ac (2.5 ha) per minute (the the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus goats. The grass was observed to equivalent of 6 to 8 football fields per anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, generate blades over 2 feet in length minute) (Burn Institute 2009, p. 4). H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and only 2 weeks following the fire (U.S. Between 2002 and 2003, three H. mana) because these species or their Army Garrison 2007, Appendices pp. 1– successive lava-ignited wildfires in the habitat are located in or near areas that 5). In 2009, two smaller fires burned 200 east rift zone of Hawaii Volcanoes were burned previously, or in areas ac (81 ha) at Manini Pali (Kaena Point National Park affected native forests in considered at risk of fire due to the State Park) and almost 4 ac (1.5 ha) at lowland dry, lowland mesic, and cumulative and compounding effects of

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drought and the presence of highly Biologists documented damage to the These events have the potential to flammable nonnative grasses. habitat of six endangered plant species eliminate one or more isolated on Kauai, and one plant on Oahu. populations of a species that currently Habitat Destruction and Modification by Polhemus (1993, pp. 86–87) persists in low numbers and a limited Hurricanes documented the extirpation of the geographic range, resulting in reduced Ten of the 11 ecosystems (all except scarlet Kauai damselfly (Megalagrion redundancy and resilience of the the anchialine pool ecosystem) are at vagabundum, a species related to M. species. risk of habitat destruction and xanthomelas included in this listing Landslides, rockfalls, treefall, modification by hurricanes. Hurricanes proposal), from the entire Hanakapiai flooding, and erosion are threats to 20 exacerbate the impacts from other Stream system on the island of Kauai as plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, threats such as habitat modification and a result of the impacts of Hurricane Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, destruction by ungulates and Iniki. Damage by future hurricanes Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens competition with nonnative plants. By could further impact the remaining ssp. ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. destroying native vegetation, hurricanes native-plant dominated habitat areas haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, open the forest canopy, thus modifying that support rare plants and animals in Lepidium orbiculare, Ochrosia the availability of light, and create native ecosystems of Kauai, Oahu, and haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. disturbed areas conducive to invasion other Hawaiian Islands (Bellingham et helleri, P. stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, by nonnative pest species (see ‘‘Specific al. 2005, p. 681) (see ‘‘Climate Change’’ Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,’’ under Factor E, below). molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, above) (Asner and Goldstein 1997, p. In summary, hurricanes can R. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, 148; Harrington et al. 1997, pp. 539– exacerbate other habitat threats, such as Schiedea pubescens, and Solanum 540). In addition, hurricanes adversely competition with nonnative plants, as nelsonii), and the band-rumped storm- impact native Hawaiian stream habitat well as result in direct habitat petrel, and the orangeblack Hawaiian by defoliating and toppling vegetation, destruction. This is a particular problem damselfly. Destabilization of cliff habitat thus loosening the surrounding soil and for the plant Pritchardia bakeri, the could lead to additional landslides and increasing erosion. Along with band-rumped storm-petrel, the alteration of hydrological patterns, catastrophic flooding, this soil and orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all affecting the availability of soil vegetative debris can be washed into seven yellow-faced bees, (Hylaeus moisture. Landslides can also modify streambeds (by hurricane-induced rain anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, and destroy riparian and stream habitat or subsequent rain storms), resulting in H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and by direct physical damage, and create the scouring of stream bottoms and H. mana.) disturbed areas leading to invasion by channels (Polhemus 1993, 88 pp.). nonnative plants, as well as damaging or Habitat Modification and Destruction Because many Hawaiian plant and destroying plants directly. Kadua Due to Landslides, Rockfalls, Treefall, animal species persist in low numbers haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, Flooding, Erosion, and Drought and in restricted ranges, natural Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia disasters such as hurricanes can be Habitat destruction and modification brevidens, and P. helleri are known only particularly devastating to the species by landslides, rockfalls, treefall, from a few individuals in single (Mitchell et al. 2005, p. 4–3). flooding, erosion, and drought affect all occurrences on cliffs or steep-walled Hurricanes affecting Hawaii were only 11 ecosystems (singly or in stream valleys, and one landslide could rarely reported from ships in the area combination). Landslides, rockfalls, lead to extirpation of the species by from the 1800s until 1949. Between treefall, flooding, and erosion direct destruction. Monitoring data 1950 and 1997, 22 hurricanes passed destabilize substrates, damage and presented by the PEPP program and near or over the Hawaiian Islands, 5 of destroy individual plants, and alter botanical surveys suggest that flooding which caused serious damage (Businger hydrological patterns resulting in is a likely threat to eight plant species 1998, pp. 1–2). In November 1982, changes to native plant and animal Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus Hurricane Iwa struck the Hawaiian communities. In the open sea near boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, Labordia Islands with wind gusts exceeding 100 Hawaii, rainfall averages 25 to 30 in lorenciana, Phyllostegia stachyoides, (mph) (160 kmh, 87 knots), causing (630 to 760 mm) per year, yet the Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea extensive damage, especially on the islands may receive up to 15 times this pubescens and Solanum nelsonii as islands of Kauai, Niihau, and Oahu amount in some places, caused by some individuals occur on stream banks (Businger 1998, pp. 2, 6). Many forest orographic features (topography) (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198; PEPP 2011, trees were destroyed (Perlman 1992, pp. (Wagner et al. 1999, adapted from Price pp. 162–164; Oppenheimer and Lorence 1–9), which opened the canopy and (1983) and Carlquist (1980), pp. 38–39). 2012, pp. 20–21; PEPP 2013, p. 54; PEPP facilitated the invasion of nonnative During storms, rain may fall at 3 in (76 2014, pp. 95, 142). The naiad life stage plants into native forest (Kitayama and mm) per hour or more, and sometimes of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671). may reach nearly 40 in (1,000 mm) in could be impacted by flooding if most Hurricances therefore have the potential 24 hours, resulting in destructive flash- individuals are carried out of suitable to exacerbate the threat of competition flooding in streams and narrow gulches habitat or into areas occupied by with nonnative plants, as described in (Wagner et al. 1999, adapted from Price nonnative fish. ‘‘Habitat Destruction and Modification (1983) and Carlquist (1980), pp. 38–39). Drought has been reported to be a by Nonnative Plants,’’ above. In Due to the steep topography in many threat to nine plants (Deparia kaalaana, September 1992, Hurricane Iniki, a mountainous areas on the Hawaiian Huperzia stemmermanniae, Phyllostegia category 4 hurricane with maximum Islands, disturbance caused by stachyoides, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. sustained winds of 130 mph (209 kmh, introduced ungulates exacerbates mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, 113 knots), passed directly over the erosion and increases the potential for Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos island of Kauai and close to the island landslides, rockfalls, or flooding, which lanceoloideus, and Solanum nelsonii), of Oahu, causing significant damage to in turn damages or destroys native the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, Kauai and along Oahu’s southwestern plants and disturbs habitat of the band- and all seven yellow-faced bees coast (Blake et al. 2007, pp. 20, 24). rumped storm-petrel (see Table 3). proposed for listing in this rule

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(Magnacca 2007b, pp. 181, 183; development; and development of weirs. All or most of the stream flow Polhemus 2008, p. 26; Chu et al. 2010, ground water, perched aquifer, and was diverted into fields or reservoirs pp. 4887, 4891, 4898; PEPP 2011, pp. surface water resources (Harris et al. (Takasaki et al. 1969, p. 65; Harris et al. 162–164; Fortini et al. 2013, p. 2; PEPP 1993, p. 11; Meier et al. 1993, p. 181). 1993, p. 10). By the 1930s, major water 2013, p. 177; PEPP 2014, pp. 140–142, Extensive modification of lentic diversions had been developed on all 154–156, 162, 166–167). Between 1860 (standing water) habitat in the Hawaiian the main islands, and currently one- and 2002, there were 49 periods of Islands began about 1100 A.D. with a third of Hawaii’s perennial streams are drought on Oahu; 30 periods of drought rapid increase in the human population diverted (Harris et al. 1993, p. 10). In on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui; and at (Harris et al. 1993, p. 9; Kirch 1982, pp. addition to diverting water for least 18 serious or severe drought events 5–6). Hawaiians cultivated Colocasia agriculture and domestic water supply, on Hawaii Island (Giambelluca et al. esculenta (kalo, ) by creating streams have been diverted for use in 1991, pp. 3–4; Hawaii Commission on shallow, walled ponds, called loi, in producing hydroelectric power (Hawaii Water Resource Management (CWRM) marshes and riparian areas (Meier et al. Stream Assessment 1990, p. 96). Surface 2009a and 2009b; HDLNR 2009, pp. 1– 1993, p. 181; Handy and Handy 1972, p. flow has also been diverted into 6; Hawaii Civil Defense 2011, pp. 14–1– 58). By 1778, virtually all valley bottoms channels, and the perched aquifers 14–12). The most severe drought events with permanent stream flow and most which fed the streams have been tapped over the past 15 years were associated basin marshes were converted to taro by means of tunnels (Stearns and with the El Nin˜ o phenomenon (Hawaii cultivation (Handy and Handy 1972, pp. Vaksvik 1935, pp. 365, 378–434; Stearns Civil Defense 2011, p. 14–3). In 1998, 396, 411). Hawaiians also modified 1985, pp. 291, 301–303). Many of these the city of Hilo had the lowest January wetlands by constructing fishponds, aquifers are the sources of springs, total rainfall (0.014 in) ever observed for many of which were primarily fresh which contribute flow to streams. The any month since records have been water, fed by streams or springs (Meier draining of these aquifers may cause kept, with average rainfall being almost et al. 1993, p. 181). Despite this habitat springs to become dry (Stearns and 10 in for January (Hawaii Civil Defense modification by early Hawaiians, many Vaksvik 1935, pp. 380, 388). Most 2011, p. 14–3). Currently, the State areas of extensive marshland remained remaining streams that are not already diverted have been, and continue to be, remains under abnormally dry to intact and were utilized by the native moderate drought conditions, with the degraded by the activities of feral damselflies. Over time, however, many onset of another El Nin˜ o event (U.S. ungulates and by nonnative plants. of the wetlands formerly used for taro Drought Monitor 2015, in litt.; National Channelization has not been restricted were drained and filled for dry-land Weather Service 2015, in litt.). Drought to lower reaches, and it results in the agriculture or development (Stone 1989, events dry up streams, irrigation loss of riparian vegetation, increasing p. 129; Meier et al. 1993, pp. 181–182). ditches, and reservoirs, and deplete flow velocity, illumination, and water In addition, marshes are slowly filled supplies (Hawaii CWRM temperature (Parrish et al. 1984, pp. 83– and converted to meadow habitat due to 2009a and 2009b). Desiccation of these 84). These conditions make the increased sedimentation resulting from water sources directly reduces or channels unsuitable as habitat for the increased storm water runoff from eliminates habitat suitable for the larval orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. stage of the orangeblack Hawaiian upslope development and blockage of Habitat Destruction and Modification by damselfly to grow and mature, as well downslope drainage (Wilson Okamoto Climate Change as reduces habitat for the damselfly’s and Associates, Inc. 1993, p. 3–5). adult stage to hunt prey. Drought leads Presently the most significant threat to Climate change may have impacts to to increases in the number of forest and the remaining natural ponds and the habitat of the 49 species. Discussion brush fires, leading to a reduction of marshes in Hawaii, habitat for the of these impacts is included in our native plant cover over streams and orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, is the complete discussion of climate change ponds used by the orangeblack nonnative grass species Urochloa in the section ‘‘E. Other Natural or Hawaiian damselfly (Giambelluca et al. mutica (Brachiaria mutica, California Manmade Factors Affecting Their 1991, p. v; D’Antonio and Vitousek grass). This sprawling, perennial grass Continued Existence,’’ below. was first observed on Oahu in 1924, and 1992, pp. 77–79). Recent episodes of Summary of Factor A drought have also driven axis deer now occurs on all the main Hawaiian farther into forested areas in search of islands (O’Connor 1999, p. 1504). This Destruction and modification of the food, increasing their negative impacts species forms dense, monotypic stands habitat of each of the 49 species on native vegetation from herbivory, that can completely eliminate any open addressed in this proposed rule is bark stripping, and trampling (see ‘‘C. water by layering of its trailing stems occurring throughout the entire range of Disease or Predation,’’ below) (Waring (Smith 1985, p. 186). Similar to the loss each of the species. These impacts 1996, in litt; Nishibayashi 2001, in litt.). of wetlands in Hawaii, the loss of include the effects of introduced Drought events have the potential to streams has been significant and began ungulates, nonnative plants, fire, eliminate one or more isolated with the early Hawaiians who modified hurricanes, landslides, rockfalls, populations of a species that currently stream systems by diverting water to treefall, flooding, erosion, drought, persists in low numbers and a limited irrigate taro. However, these Hawaiian- water extraction, and the direct or geographic range, resulting in reduced made diversions were closely regulated cumulative effects of climate change. redundancy and resilience of the and were not permitted to take more The threat of habitat destruction and species. than half the stream flow, and were modification by agriculture and urban typically used to flood taro loi only development is an ongoing threat to four Habitat Destruction and Modification by periodically (Handy and Handy 1972, plant species (Nothocestrum latifolium, Water Extraction pp. 58–59). The advent of sugarcane Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium Freshwater habitats on all the main plantations in 1835 led to more sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and Hawaiian Islands have been severely extensive stream diversions. These Solanum nelsonii); the orangeblack altered and degraded because of past systems were typically designed to tap Hawaiian damselfly; the anchialine pool and present land and water management water at upper elevation sources (above shrimp Procaris hawaiana; and the practices, including agriculture; urban 980 ft (300 m)) by means of concrete yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus,

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H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, S. damselfly, which are proposed for H. longiceps, as the conversion of macrophyllus, and Solanum nelsonii), listing in this rule, by destabilizing terrestrial and aquatic habitats for urban the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, substrates, damaging and killing use modifies or permanently removes and all seven yellow-faced bee species individuals, and altering hydrological habitat, the host plants, and aquatic in this proposed rule is ongoing because patterns. These impacts result in habitat features required by these species for fires occur frequently, and damage and destruction or modification, and their life-history needs. destroy native vegetation, including changes to native plant and animal The threat of habitat destruction and dormant seeds, seedlings, and juvenile communities. Drought threatens five modification by ungulates is ongoing as and adult plants, and host plants. Many nine plant species (Deparia kaalaana, ungulates currently occur in all nonnative invasive plants, particularly Huperzia stemmermanniae, Phyllostegia ecosystems on which these species fire-tolerant grasses, create more stachyoides, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. depend except the anchialine pool destructive fires, invade burned areas, mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, system. Introduced ungulates pose a and can outcompete native plants and Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos threat to the 37 of the 39 plants (all inhibit their regeneration (D’Antonio lanceoloideus, and Solanum nelsonii), except for Cyanea kauaulaensis and and Vitousek 1992, pp. 70, 73–74; and the orangeblack Hawaiian Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis), Tunison et al. 2002, p. 122). Successive damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced and 9 of the 10 animal species (all fires that burn farther and farther into bee species addressed in this proposed except for the anchialine pool shrimp), native habitat destroy the ecosystem and rule, directly or by desiccation of that are proposed for listing in this rule its components upon which these 23 streams and ponds, and the host plants that occur in these 10 ecosystems (see species depend. upon which all seven yellow-faced bees Table 3) because ungulates: (1) Directly Habitat destruction and modification depend. impact the species by trampling and by natural disasters such as hurricanes Conversion of wetland and other grazing; (2) increase soil disturbance represent a threat to the plant aquatic habitat (i.e., water extraction) for and erosion; (3) create open, disturbed Pritchardia bakeri, the band-rumped agriculture and urban development is an areas conducive to nonnative plant storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian ongoing threat that is expected to invasion and establishment by damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced continue into the future, and affects the dispersing fruits and seeds, which bee species addressed in this proposed orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly by results in conversion of a native- rule. Hurricanes open the forest canopy, removing habitat required for hunting dominated plant community to a modifying available light and creating and breeding. Water extraction impacts nonnative-dominated plant community; disturbed areas that are conducive to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and (4) increase marsh and stream invasion by nonnative plants (Asner and because it: (1) Reduces the amount and disturbance and sedimentation, which Goldstein 1997, p. 148; Harrington et al. distribution of stream habitat; (2) affects the aquatic and anchialine pool 1997, pp. 346–347). The discussion reduces stream flow and habitat; and (3) habitats. under ‘‘Habitat Destruction and leads to an increase in water Habitat destruction and modification Modification by Nonnative Plants,’’ temperature, negatively impacting the by nonnative plants represents an above, provides additional information damselfly naiads by causing ongoing threat to 36 of the 39 plant related to canopy gaps, light availability, physiological stress. Loss of stream- species (all except for Exocarpos and the establishment of nonnative course habitat affects Cyclosorus menziesii, Huperzia stemmermanniae, plant species. In addition, hurricanes boydiae because this is the only habitat and Joinvillea ascendens ssp. can alter and directly damage streams where this riparian species occurs. ascendens), the orangeblack Hawaiian and wetlands used by the orangeblack Water extraction may affect the delicate damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced Hawaiian damselfly (Polhemus 1993, balance of the anchialine pool bee species addressed in this proposed pp. 86–87). The impacts from ecosystem, including salinity and biota, rule because they: (1) Adversely impact hurricanes can be particularly affecting habitat of the anchialine pool microhabitat by modifying the devastating to 10 species addressed in shrimp, Procaris hawaiana. availability of light; (2) alter soil-water this proposed rule because they persist regimes; (3) modify nutrient cycling in low numbers in restricted ranges, and B. Overutilization for Commercial, processes; (4) alter fire ecology, leading are therefore less resilient to such Recreational, Scientific, or Educational to incursions of fire-tolerant nonnative disturbances. A single destructive Purposes plant species into native habitat; and (5) hurricane holds the potential of driving We are not aware of any threats to 48 outcompete, and possibly directly to extinction the species that persist as of the 49 species addressed in this inhibit (through allelopathy) the growth one or several small, isolated proposed rule that would be attributed of, native plant species. Each of these populations. to overutilization for commercial, threats can convert native-dominated Landslides, rockfalls, treefall, recreational, scientific, or educational plant communities to nonnative plant flooding, and erosion adversely impact purposes. communities (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, 20 plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, p. 74; Vitousek 1992, pp. 33–35). This Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, Anchialine Pool Shrimp conversion has negative impacts on 44 Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens The Service has become aware of of the 49 species addressed here. ssp. ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. companies and private collectors using The threat of habitat destruction and haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, anchialine pool shrimp and related modification by fire to 15 plant species Lepidium orbiculare, Ochrosia shrimp species for commercial sales of (Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. self-contained aquariums (Ecosphere hawaiiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. helleri, P. stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, Associates 2015, in litt.). One company ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. located in Hawaii, Fuku Bonsai, has Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, been using Hawaiian anchialine pool haleakalae, Phyllostegia stachyoides, R. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, species for the aquarium hobby market Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus and Schiedea pubescens, and Solanum for many years; however, they state they mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, nelsonii), and the band-rumped storm- will soon be discontinuing sale of Santalum involutum, Schiedea petrel, and the orangeblack Hawaiian ‘‘micro-lobsters’’ (Fuku-Bonsai 2015, in

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litt.). For commercial purposes, a Native and fauna are thus particularly [Kadua], Psychotria, and Scaevola, Research and Collecting vulnerable to the impacts of introduced resulting in larger trees and shrubs permit issued by DLNR-Division of nonnative species, as discussed below. dying after a few months of repeated Forestry and Wildlife is required to feeding (Diong 1982, p. 144). Beach Introduced Ungulates collect anchialine pool shrimp. All (1997, pp. 3–4) found that feral pigs in terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates In addition to the habitat impacts Texas spread disease and parasites, and (including anchialine pool shrimp) are discussed above (see ‘‘Habitat their rooting and wallowing behavior protected under (1) the State of Hawaii Destruction and Modification by led to spoilage of watering holes and Revised Statutes (1993) Chapter 195D– Introduced Ungulates,’’ under Factor A), loss of soil through leaching and 4-f License; and (2) DLNR Chapter 124 grazing and browsing by introduced erosion. Rooting activity by pigs also Indigenous Wildlife, Endangered and ungulates are a threat to the following decreased the survivability of some Threatened Wildlife, and Introduced 26 plant species in this proposal (see plant species through disruption at root Wild Birds. Collection is prohibited in Table 3): Asplenium diellaciniatum level of mature plants and seedlings State Natural Area Reserves (NARs) but (black-tailed deer); Calamagrostis (Beach 1997, pp. 3–4; Anderson et al. not in State Parks or City and County expansa (pigs), Cyclosorus boydiae 2007, in litt.). In Hawaii, pigs dig up property where some anchialine pools (pigs), Exocarpos menziesii (goats, forest ground cover consisting of occur. Overcollection by the aquarium sheep, mouflon), Festuca hawaiiensis delicate and rare species of orchids, hobby market is a potential threat to the (goats, sheep), Gardenia remyi (pigs, ferns, mints, lobeliads, and other taxa, anchialine pool shrimp Procaris goats, deer), Huperzia stemmermanniae including their roots, tubers, and hawaiana. Collection is prohibited in (cattle), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. rhizomes (Stone and Anderson 1988, p. the Ahihi-Kinau (Maui) and Manuka ascendens (pigs, goats, deer), Kadua 137). The following plants are (Hawaii Island) NARs, but is not fluviatilis (pigs, goats), Labordia particularly at risk of herbivory by feral expressly prohibited at Lua O Palahemo lorenciana (goats), Microlepia strigosa pigs: Calamagrostis expansa on Maui (Hawaii Island). There is no regulatory var. mauiensis (pigs), Myrsine fosbergii and Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010); protection of these shrimp at the (pigs, goats), Nothocestrum latifolium Cyclosorus boydiae on Oahu (HBMP remaining five anchialine pools outside (pigs, goats, deer, black-tailed deer, 2010); Gardenia remyi on Hawaii Island of Manuka NAR that are known to sheep, mouflon), Ochrosia haleakalae (PEPP 2011, pp. 113–114; PEPP 2012, p. contain P. hawaiana. We consider (cattle), Phyllostegia brevidens (pigs, 102), west Maui (HBMP 2010), Molokai sheep), P. stachyoides (pigs, goats), overcollection of this anchialine pool (HBMP 2010), and Kauai (HBMP 2010); Portulaca villosa (deer, mouflon), shrimp, P. hawaiana, to be an ongoing Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens on Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. threat, because it can occur at any time. Hawaii Island (PEPP 2011, pp. 120–121; molokaiense (deer), Ranunculus PEPP 2012 p. 113; HBMP 2010), Kauai C. Disease or Predation hawaiensis (pigs, cattle, mouflon), R. (PEPP 2014, p. 109; HBMP 2010), Maui mauiensis (pigs, goats, deer, black-tailed Disease (HBMP 2010), Molokai (HBMP 2010), deer, cattle), Sanicula sandwicensis and Oahu (HBMP 2010); Kadua We are not aware of any threats to the (goats), Santalum involutum (black- fluviatilis on Kauai (HBMP 2010) and 49 species addressed in this proposed tailed deer), Schiedea pubescens (deer, Oahu (HBMP 2010); Microlepia strigosa rule that would be attributable to cattle), Sicyos lanceoloideus (goats), S. var. mauiensis on Maui (Bily 2009, in disease. macrophyllus (mouflon, cattle), and litt.; Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.); Predation Solanum nelsonii (deer, cattle). Myrsine fosbergii on Kauai (HBMP Feral Pigs 2010); Nothocestrum latifolium on Maui Hawaii’s plants and animals evolved (PEPP 2011, p. 140; HBMP 2010) and in nearly complete isolation from We have direct evidence of ungulate Molokai (HBMP 2010); Phyllostegia continental influence. Successful, damage to some of the plant species brevidens on Maui and Hawaii Island natural colonization of these remote proposed for listing in this rule, but for (PEPP 2014, p. 36); P. stachyoides on volcanic islands is infrequent, and many many, due to their remote locations or Molokai (PEPP 2014, pp. 140–141); organisms never succeeded in lack of study, ungulate damage is Ranunculus hawaiensis on Hawaii establishing populations. As an presumed based on the known presence Island (HBMP 2010); and R. mauiensis example, Hawaii lacks any native ants of these introduced ungulates in the on Kauai (PEPP 2011, p. 161; PEPP or conifers, has very few families of areas where these species occur and the 2013, p. 177; PEPP 2014, p. 156; HBMP birds, and has only had two species of results of studies involving similar 2010), Maui (PEPP 2011, p. 144; PEPP native land mammal, both insectivorous species or ecosystems conducted in 2013, p. 177–178; PEPP 2014, p. 155; bats (Loope 1998, p. 748, Ziegler 2002, Hawaii and elsewhere (Diong 1982, p. HBMP 2010), and Molokai (HBMP pp. 244–245). In the absence of grazing 160; Mueller-Dombois and Spatz, 1975, 2010). Feral pigs occur in 10 of the 11 or browsing mammals, plants that pp. 1–29; Hess 2008, 4 pp.; Weller et al. ecosystems (all except anchialine pool) became established did not need 2011, p. 8). For example, in a study discussed in this proposal; the results of mechanical or chemical defenses against conducted by Diong (1982, p. 160) on the studies described above suggest that mammalian herbivory such as thorns, Maui, feral pigs were observed browsing foraging by pigs can directly damage prickles, and toxins. As the evolutionary on young shoots, leaves, and fronds of and destroy these plants through pressure to either produce or maintain a wide variety of plants, of which over herbivory. Feral pigs may also consume such defenses was lacking, Hawaiian 75 percent were endemic species. A native host plants of the yellow-faced plants either lost or never developed stomach-content analysis in this study bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. these adaptations (Carlquist 1980, p. showed that most of the pigs’ food assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. 173). Likewise, native Hawaiian birds source consisted of the endemic kuakea, and H. mana. and insects experienced no evolutionary Cibotium (hapuu, tree fern). Pigs were pressure to develop antipredator observed to fell native plants and Feral Goats mechanisms against mammals or remove the bark from standing plant of Feral goats are able to forage in invertebrates that were not historically species in the genera Cibotium, extremely rugged terrain and are present on the islands. The native flora Clermontia, Coprosma, Hedyotis instrumental in the decline of native

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vegetation in many areas of the villosa on Hawaii Island (PEPP 2012, p. threat to the following plant species Hawaiian Islands (Cuddihy and Stone 140), Ranunculus mauiensis on Kauai proposed for listing in this rule: 1990, p. 64; Clarke and Cuddihy 1980, and on Maui (PEPP 2011, p. 161; PEPP Gardenia remyi on Molokai (HBMP p. C–20; van Riper and van Riper 1982, 2012, p. 144; PEPP 2013, pp. 177–178; 2010), Huperzia stemmermanniae on pp. 34–35; Tomich 1986, pp. 153–156). PEPP 2014, p. 155–156; Kishida 2011, in Maui (HBMP 2010), Joinvillea Feral goats consume a variety of plants litt.), Sanicula sandwicensis on Maui ascendens ssp. ascendens on Maui for food and have been observed to (PEPP 2011, p. 163), and Sicyos (PEPP 2014, pp. 108–109), browse on (but are not limited to) native lanceoloideus on Kauai (PEPP 2012, p. Nothocestrum latifolium on Lanai (PEPP plant species in the following genera: 154; PEPP 2013, p. 189). In addition, 2012, p. 129), Phyllostegia stachyoides Argyroxiphium, Canavalia, feral goats may also damage or destroy on Molokai (HBMP 2010), Portulaca Chamaesyce, Erythrina, Plantago, native host plants of the yellow-faced villosa on Lanai (HBMP 2010), Schiedea, and Stenogyne (Cuddihy and bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Stone 1990, p. 64; Warren 2004, p. 462; assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. molokaiense on Molokai (Wood 2005, in Wood 2007, pers. comm.). A study kuakea. litt.; Kallstrom 2008, in litt.; MNTF 2010), Ranunculus mauiensis on Maui conducted on the island of Hawaii Axis Deer demonstrated that native Acacia koa (PEPP 2013, p. 178; PEPP 2014, pp. Axis deer are known to consume a seedlings are unable to survive due to 154–155), Schiedea pubescens on wide range of forage items throughout browsing and grazing by goats (Spatz Molokai and Lanai (Wood 2004, in litt.; their native range and in areas where and Mueller-Dombois 1973, p. 874). If Rowland 2006, in litt.; Oppenheimer they have been introduced (Anderson 2001, in litt.), and Solanum nelsonii on goats remained in the area in high 1999, p. 3). Although they prefer to numbers, mature trees eventually died Molokai (PEPP 2012, p. 156; PEPP 2013, graze on grass, axis deer have been pp. 190–191; PEPP 2014, p. 167). Axis and with them the root systems that documented to eat over 75 species of supported suckers and vegetative deer may also damage or destroy habitat plants, including all plant parts of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly reproduction. When feral goats were (Anderson 1999, p. 3). They exhibit a excluded by fences for 3 years, there and native host plants of the yellow- high degree of opportunism regarding faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. was a positive height-growth response their choice of forage, and consume assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. of A. koa suckers (Spatz and Mueller- progressively less palatable plants until longiceps. Dombois 1973, p. 873). Another study at no edible vegetation remains (Dinerstein Puuwaawaa on Hawaii Island 1987, in Anderson 1999, p. 5; Medeiros Black-Tailed Deer demonstrated that prior to management 2010, pers. comm.). Axis deer on Maui Black-tailed deer are extremely actions in 1985, regeneration of endemic follow a cycle of grazing and browsing adaptable, and in their native range shrubs and trees in a goat-grazed area in open lowland grasslands during the (U.S. Pacific coast) inhabit every was almost totally lacking, contributing rainy season (November through March) principal ecosystem including open to the invasion of forest understory by and then migrating to the lava flows of grasslands, agricultural land, shrubland, exotic grasses and weeds. After the montane mesic forest during the dry woodland, mountain forests, semi- removal of goats, A. koa and native summer months to graze and browse on deserts, and high mountain ecosystems Metrosideros seedlings were observed many native plant species, for example, (NRCS 2005, in litt.). Their home range germinating by the thousands (HDLNR Abutilon menziesii (kooloaula, listed size varies in the continental United 2002, p. 52). Based on these studies, and endangered), Erythrina sandwicensis States, but has been estimated to from other comparisons of fenced and (wiliwili), and Sida fallax (Medeiros 1 to 4 sq mi (2.5 to 10 km) and unfenced areas, it is clear that goats 2010, pers. comm.). During the El Nin˜ o sometimes as large as 30 sq mi (78 sq devastate native Hawaiian ecosystems drought cycles from 1988 through 2001, km), with adults defending small areas (Loope et al. 1988, p. 277). Because feral Maui experienced an 80 to 90 percent when caring for fawns (NRCS 2005, in goats occur in 10 of the 11 ecosystems decline in native shrub species caused litt.). We do not know their home range (all except anchialine pool) discussed in by axis deer browsing on and girdling size on Kauai; however, the island is this proposal, the results of the studies young saplings (Medeiros 2010, pers. only 562 sq mi (1,456 sq km) in size. described above indicate that goats comm.). On Lanai, grazing by axis deer Black-tailed deer are primarily likely also alter these ecosystems and has been reported as a major threat to browsers, but as they have a smaller directly damage or destroy native the endangered rumen compared to other browsers in plants. Browsing or grazing by feral (nau), and Swedberg and Walker (1978, relation to their body size, they must goats poses a particular threat to the in Anderson 2003, pp. 124–25) reported select the most nutritious plants and following plant species proposed for that the native plants Osteomeles parts of plants (Mule Deer Foundation listing in this rule: Exocarpos menziesii anthyllidifolia (uulei) and Leptecophylla 2011, in litt.). Their diet consist of a on Hawaii Island (NTBG Herbarium tameiameiae (pukiawe) comprised more diversity of living, wilted, dry, or Database 2014, in litt.), Festuca than 30 percent of axis deer rumen decaying vegetation, including leaves, hawaiiensis on Hawaii Island (USFWS volume. During the driest summer needles, succulent stems, fruits, nuts, Rare Plant database 2010, in litt.), months, axis deer are observed in shrubs, herbaceous undergrowth, Gardenia remyi on Kauai (PEPP 2011, p. coastal areas in search of food (Medeiros domestic crops, and grasses (NRCS 114; PEPP 2013, p. 107; Kishida 2011, 2010, pers. comm.). Because axis deer 2005, in litt.). Black-tailed deer consume in litt.), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. occur in 10 of the 11 ecosystems on native vegetation on the island of Kauai ascendens on Kauai (PEPP 2010, p. 80), Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (all except (van Riper and van Riper 1982, pp. 42– Kadua fluviatilis on Kauai (HBMP anchialine pool), the results from the 43; Stone 1985, pp. 262–263; Tomich 2010), Labordia lorenciana on Kauai studies above, in addition to direct 1986, pp. 132–134, Cuddihy and Stone (PEPP 2011, p. 124; PEPP 2013, p. 126), observations from field biologists, 1990, p. 67). In the 1990s, it was Myrsine fosbergii on Kauai (HBMP suggest that axis deer can also alter estimated there were about 350 animals 2010), Nothocestrum latifolium on Maui these ecosystems and directly damage or in and near Waimea Canyon; however, (HBMP 2010), Phyllostegia stachyoides destroy native plants. Browsing or in 2013 the population was estimated to on Molokai (HBMP 2010), Portulaca grazing by axis deer poses a particular be 1,000 to 1,200 animals in public

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hunting areas (not including private (Hess 2010, pers. comm.; Kessler 2010, ecosystems (lowland dry, lowland lands), and was expanding into the pers. comm.). Browsing and grazing by mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, southern and eastern sections of the mouflon, feral domestic sheep, and montane mesic, and subalpine) on island (Mule Deer Working Group 2013, mouflon-sheep hybrids poses a Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island, the in litt.). According to State records, particular threat to the following plant results from the studies cited above, in black-tailed deer are feeding largely on species proposed for listing in this rule: addition to direct observations from the strawberry guava Exocarpos menziesii on Lanai and field biologists, suggest that grazing by (Psidium cattleianum) and thimbleberry Hawaii Island (Keitt and Island feral cattle can directly damage or (Rubus rosifolius) as well as the native Conservation 2008, pp. 90, 92; NPS destroy these plants. species (maile), 2013, pp. i, 124); Festuca hawaiiensis on (aalii), Dianella Hawaii Island (Oppenheimer 2001, in Blackbuck sandwicensis (ukiuki), Coprosma sp. litt.; HBMP 2007, in litt.); Nothocestrum The blackbuck antelope (Antelope (pilo), and Acacia koa (Cuddihy and latifolium on Lanai (PEPP 2012, p. 129); cervicapra) is a species from India Stone 1990, p. 67). Browsing by black- Phyllostegia brevidens on Hawaii Island brought to a private game reserve on tailed deer poses a threat to the Kauai (PEPP 2014, p. 136); Portulaca villosa Molokai about 15 years ago from an plant species Asplenium diellaciniatum, on Lanai (HBMP 2010); Ranunculus Indian zoo (Kessler 2010, pers. comm.). Nothocestrum latifolium, Ranunculus hawaiensis on Hawaii Island (HBMP According to Kessler (2010, pers. mauiensis, and Santalum involutum 2010); and Sicyos macrophyllus on comm.), a few individuals escaped proposed for listing here. Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010). As feral captivity and established a wild sheep and mouflon occur in all of the Mouflon and Sheep population of unknown size on the low, described ecosystems except for the dry plains of western Molokai. Mouflon, feral domestic sheep, and anchialine pool ecosystem, the data Blackbuck primarily use grassland mouflon-sheep hybrids browse native from studies, cited above, suggest that habitat for grazing. In India, foraging vegetation on Lanai and Hawaii Island. herbivory by feral sheep and mouflon consumption and nutrient digestibility Domestic sheep have been raised on likely also pose a threat to the yellow- are high in the moist winter months and Kauai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, and Hawaii, faced bees on Lanai (Hylaeus low in the dry summer months (Jhala but today sheep farming only occurs on anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, 1997, pp. 1348, 1351). Although most Hawaii Island on Mauna Kea and H. hilaris, and H. longiceps), by eating plant species are grazed intensely when Hualalai (Pratt and Jacobi in Pratt et al. their host plants. they are green, some are grazed only 2009, p. 151). Sheep browse (eating Feral Cattle after they are dry (Jhala 1997, pp. 1348, shoots, leaves, flowers, and bark) on the 1351). While the possible habitat effects native Sophora chrysophylla (mamane), Grazing by cattle is considered one of from the blackbuck antelope are the primary food source of the the most important factors in the unknown at this time, we consider this endangered forest bird, the palila destruction of Hawaiian forests ungulate a potential threat to native (Loxioides bailleui) (Scowcroft and (Baldwin and Fagerlund 1943, pp. 118– plant species, including six plants that Sakai 1983, p. 495). Feral sheep 122). Feral cattle are currently found are known from dry areas on Molokai, reductions were initiated in palila only on the islands of Molokai, Maui, and are proposed for listing in this rule habitat; however, even after most were and Hawaii (Tomich 1986, pp. 140–144; (Gardenia remyi, Nothocestrum removed, tree bark stripping continued de Sa et al. 2013, 29 pp.). Cattle latifolium, Portulaca villosa, and some mamane populations did not consume tree seedlings and browse Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. recover (Pratt and Jacobi in Pratt et al. saplings (Cuddihy 1984, p. 16). In molokaiense, Ranunculus mauiensis, 2009, p. 151). On Hawaii Island, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and Solanum nelsonii). The blackbuck vegetation browsing by mouflon led to (Hawaii Island), Cuddihy reported that antelope may potentially threaten the the decline of the largest population of there were twice as many native plant yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, the endangered Argyroxiphium kauense species as nonnatives in areas that had H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps (kau silversword, Mauna Loa been fenced to exclude cattle (Cuddihy proposed for listing in this rule by silversword, or ahinahina), reducing it 1984, pp. 16, 34). Loss of the native consuming their native host plants on from a ‘‘magnificent population of sandalwood forest on Lanai is attributed Molokai. several thousand’’ (Degener et al. 1976, to cattle (Skottsberg 1953 in Cuddihy pp. 173–174) to fewer than 2,000 1984, p. 16). Browsing and grazing by Other Introduced Vertebrates individuals in a period of 10 years feral cattle poses a particular threat to Rats (unpublished data in Powell 1992, in the following plant species proposed for litt.). Mamane is also preferred browse listing: Huperzia stemmermanniae on Three species of introduced rats occur for mouflon, and according to Scowcroft Maui and Hawaii Island (Medeiros et al. in the Hawaiian Islands. Studies of and Sakai (1983, p. 495), mouflon eat 1996, p. 96); Ochrosia haleakalae on (Rattus exulans) DNA the shoots, leaves, flowers, and bark of Maui (HBMP 2010); Phyllostegia suggest they first appeared in the this species. Mouflon are also reported brevidens on Hawaii Island (PEPP 2011, islands along with emigrants from the to strip bark from native koa trees and p. 144); Ranunculus hawaiensis on Marquesas Islands () in to seek out the native plants Geranium Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010); R. about 400 A.D., with a second cuneatum (hinahina), Sanicula mauiensis on Maui and Hawaii Island introduction around 1100 A.D. (Ziegler sandwicensis, and Silene hawaiiensis, (PEPP 2012, p. 144; PEPP 2013, p. 178; 2002, p. 315). The black rat (R. rattus) as well as Lanai occurrences of PEPP 2014, pp. 154–155; HBMP 2010); and the Norway rat (R. norvegicus) Gardenia brighamii (Benitez et al. 2008, Schiedea pubescens on Maui (Wood arrived in the islands more recently, as p. 57; Mehrhoff 1993, p. 11). While 2005, in litt.; HBMP 2010); Sicyos stowaways on ships sometime in the mouflon were introduced to Lanai and macrophyllus on Hawaii Island (PEPP late 19th century (Atkinson and Hawaii Island as game mammals, a 2010, p. 111; HBMP 2010); and Atkinson 2000, p. 25). The Polynesian private game ranch on Maui has added Solanum nelsonii on Molokai (Wood rat and the black rat are primarily found mouflon to its stock, and it is likely that 1999, in litt.; HBMP 2010). As feral in rural and remote areas of Hawaii, in over time some individuals may escape cattle occur in six of the described dry to wet habitats, while the Norway

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rat is typically found in urban areas or differential regeneration as a breeding success of Hawaiian petrels agricultural fields (Tomich 1986, p. 41). consequence of rat predation alters because these birds are similarly The black rat is widely distributed species composition of forested areas vulnerable. Population modeling throughout the main Hawaiian Islands (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 68–69). showed that consistent predation of and can be found in a range of Rats have caused declines or even the Hawaiian petrels, where reproductive ecosystems and as high as 9,000 ft total elimination of island plant species success was reduced to 35 percent and (2,700 m), but it is most common at low- (Campbell and Atkinson 1999 in adult survival was 80 percent, could to mid-elevations (Tomich 1986, pp. 38– Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. 24). In drive a population to extinction in 20 to 40). Sugihara (1997, p. 194) found both the Hawaiian Islands, rats may consume 30 years (Simons 1984, pp. 1071–1073). the black and Polynesian rats up to as much at 90 percent of the seeds Rat bones were collected from a band- 7,000 ft (2,000 m) on Maui, but found produced by some native plants, and in rumped storm-petrel nest on a sheer the Norway rat only at lower elevations. some cases prevent regeneration of cliff on Kauai, and two live rats were Rats are omnivorous and eat almost any forest species completely (Cuddihy and observed moving along small rock type of food (Nelson 2012, in litt.). Rats Stone 1990, pp. 68–69). Hawaiian plants ledges in the same area (Wood et al. occur in seven of the described with fleshy fruit, such as Cyanea and ecosystems (coastal, lowland mesic, Pritchardia, are particularly susceptible 2002, p. 8), demonstrating that even lowland wet, montane wet, montane to rat predation (Cuddihy and Stone remote, and otherwise inaccessible nest mesic, montane dry, and wet cliff), and 1990, pp. 67–69). Predation of seeds by sites are not safe from these predators. predation by rats threatens 18 of the rats poses an ongoing threat to all the Because rats are present in all three plants proposed for listing in this rule Hawaiian Pritchardia palms, including ecosystems in which the band-rumped (Calamagrostis expansa (Maui and P. bakeri proposed for listing in this storm-petrel occurs (coastal, dry cliff, Hawaii Island; HBMP 2010), Cyanea rule, because rats are able to consume and wet cliff), predation by rats could kauaulaensis (Maui; PEPP 2012, pp. 71– every seed in a fruiting stalk, preventing further decrease the numbers and 72; PEPP 2014, p. 73), Gardenia remyi successful reproduction (Hodel 2012, populations of the band-rumped storm- (Kauai; NTBG 2004), Joinvillea pp. 42, 73). Fossil pollen records petrel, and we do not anticipate a ascendens ssp. ascendens (Kauai, Oahu, indicate that Pritchardia palms were reduction of this threat in the near Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island; PEPP once among the dominant species of future. 2014, p. 109), Kadua haupuensis (Kauai; coastal, lowland, and interior forests Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140), Labordia (Burney et al. 2001, pp. 630–631; Barn Owl Impacts on the Band-Rumped lorenciana (Kauai; Wood et al. 2007, p. Chapin et al. 2007, p. 21); today, Storm-Petrel 198), Phyllostegia helleri (Kauai; HBMP complete coverage by all age classes of Two species of owls, the native pueo 2010), P. stachyoides (Molokai, Maui, Pritchardia occurs only on small islets (Asio flammeus sandwichensis) and the and Hawaii Island; PEPP 2012, p. 133; currently unoccupied by rats (Athens introduced barn owl (Tyto alba), are PEPP 2013, pp. 158–159; PEPP 2014, 2009, p. 1498). As rats occur in seven known to prey on native birds. Between pp. 140–142), Pritchardia bakeri (Oahu; of the described ecosystems, the results 1996 and 1998, 10 percent of nest Hodel 2012, pp. 42, 73), Ranunculus from the studies cited above, in addition failures of the endangered forest bird, hawaiensis (Maui, Hawaii Island; HBMP to direct observations by field biologists, 2010), R. mauiensis (Kauai, Oahu, suggest that predation by rats can the puaiohi (small Kauai thrush, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island; directly damage or destroy native Myadestes palmeri), on Kauai were HBMP 2010), Sanicula sandwicensis plants. attributed to owls (Snetsinger et al. 1994, p. 47; Snetsinger et al. 2005, pp. (Maui and Hawaii Island; PEPP 2012, p. Rat Impacts on the Band-Rumped 148), Santalum involutum (Kauai; Storm-Petrel: Introduced predators are 72, 79). In the Galapagos, the short- Harbaugh et al. 2010, pp. 835–836), the most serious threat facing the band- eared owl (Asio flammeus Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (Molokai, rumped storm-petrel. Rats occur on all galapagoensis), a close relative of the Maui; HBMP 2010), S. pubescens the main Hawaiian Islands, and pueo, is the primary predator of juvenile (Molokai, Lanai, Maui; Wood 2005, in populations are also high on Lehua; and adult band-rumped storm-petrels, litt.; HBMP 2010), Sicyos macrophyllus however, attempts to control rats on and took more storm-petrels than other (Maui and Hawaii Island; Pratt 2008, in Lehua are ongoing (Parkes and Fisher seabirds in some months. Predation by litt.), Solanum nelsonii (NWHI, Niihau, 2011, 48 pp.). Ground-, crevice-, and owls (Asio flammeus galapagoensis) Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island; PEPP burrow-nesting seabirds, as well as their was greatest during the cold season and 2012, p. 156; PEPP 2014, p. 167), and eggs and young, are highly susceptible on non-breeders, which spend more Wikstroemia skottsbergiana (Kauai; to predation by rats; storm-petrels are time on the ground prospecting for Mitchell et al. 2005, in litt.), and the the most susceptible of seabirds to rat nesting sites (Harris 1969 in Slotterback band-rumped storm-petrel (Lehua, predation and have experienced 2002, in litt.). Some predation Niihau, Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii Island; population level impacts and avoidance behavior by band-rumped Pyle and Pyle 2009, in litt.), proposed extirpation as a result (Simons 1984, p. storm-petrels has been observed: Their for listing in this rule. 1073; Jones et al. 2008, p. 20–21). nocturnal activity (feeding chicks only Rat Impacts on Plants: Rats impact Evidence from the islands of Hawaii and at night) and burrow-nesting habitat native plants by eating fleshy fruits, Maui show that the Hawaiian petrel, limit predation by gulls and frigatebirds, seeds, flowers, stems, leaves, roots, and which nests in some of the same areas and non-reproductive birds decrease other plant parts (Atkinson and as the band-rumped storm-petrel, suffers their activity (measured by fewer birds Atkinson 2000, p. 23), and by stripping huge losses to introduced predators in flight and fewer vocalizations) bark and cutting small branches (twig (Johnston 1992, in litt.; Hodges and around the period of the full moon to cutting) in search of moisture and Nagata 2001, pp. 308–310; Hu et al. avoid predation (Bretagnolle 1990 in nutrients, seriously affecting vigor and 2001, p. 234). The effects of introduced Slotterback 2002, in litt.); however, it is regeneration (Abe and Umeno 2011, pp. predators on the breeding success of the uncertain how effective this behavior is 27–39; Nelson 2012, in litt.). Studies in band-rumped storm-petrel are probably New Zealand have demonstrated that similar to the documented effects on the against predation by owls.

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Cat Impacts on the Band-Rumped predation by introduced mammals. native species comprised of gobies Storm-Petrel Because feral cats occur in all three (Gobiidae) and sleepers (Eleotridae) that Cats (Felis catus) were introduced to ecosystems in which the band-rumped occur on all the main islands (Devick Hawaii in the early 1800s and are storm petrel occurs, they are likely to be 1991, p. 196). Information on these five present on all the main Hawaiian significant predators of these birds. species indicates that the Hawaiian Islands (Tomich 1986, p. 101). Cats are Mongoose Impacts on the Band-Rumped damselflies probably experienced notorious for their predation on birds Storm-Petrel limited natural predation pressure from (Tomich 1986, p. 102; Medina et al. these native (Kido 1997, p. 493; The small Indian mongoose 2011, pp. 3505–3507; Duffy and Capece Englund 1999, p. 236). Conversely, fish (Herpestes auropunctatus) was 2012, pp. 176–177). Native mammalian predation has been an important factor introduced to Hawaii in 1883 to control carnivores are absent from oceanic in the evolution of behavior in rodents in sugar cane plantations islands because of their low dispersal damselfly naiads in continental systems (Tomich 1986, pp. 95–96). This species ability, but once introduced, are (Johnson 1991, p. 13). Some species of quickly became widespread on Oahu, significant predators on seabird colonies damselflies, including the native Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island, from and terrestrial birds that are not adapted Hawaiian species, are not adapted to sea level to elevations as high as 7,000 to predation by these animals (Nogales coexist with some fish species, and are ft (2,130 m) (Tomich 1986, pp. 93–94). et al. 2013, p. 804; Ziegler 2002, p. 243; found only in bodies of water without have been sighted, and two fish (Henrikson 1988, pp. 179–180; Scott et al. 1986, p. 363; Ainley et al. captured, on Kauai, but it is still McPeek 1990a, pp. 92–93). The naiads 1997, p. 24; Hess and Banko 2006, in uncertain if there are established litt.). Cats may have contributed to the populations or how large populations of these species tend to occupy more extinction of the Hawaiian (Porzana might be (Kauai Invasive Species exposed positions and engage in sandwichensis) (Stone 1985 in Stone Committee 2013, in litt.; The Garden conspicuous foraging behavior that and Scott 1985, p. 266). Although cats Island 2012, in litt.; Hess et al. in Pratt makes them susceptible to predation by are more common at lower elevations, et al. 2009, p. 429). Mongooses are fishes (Macan 1977, p. 47; McPeek there are populations in areas omnivorous, are known to prey on 1990b, p. 1722). The introduction of completely isolated from human Hawaiian birds and their eggs, and are nonnative fishes has been implicated in presence, including montane forests and considered a likely factor in the decline the extirpation of a species related to the alpine areas of Maui and Hawaii Island of the endangered Hawaiian goose orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the (Lindsey et al. in Pratt et al. 2009, p. (nene, Branta sandvicensis) (Tomich Pacific Hawaiian damselfly 277; Scott et al. 1986, p. 363). 1986, p. 97). They are known or (Megalagrion pacificum), from Oahu, Examination of the stomach contents of suspected predators on other Hawaiian Kauai, and Lanai, and from many feral cats at Hakalau Forest NWR birds including the Hawaiian crow streams on the remaining islands where (Hawaii Island) found native and (alala, Corvus hawaiiensis), the it occurs (Moore and Gagne 1982, pp. 1– introduced birds to be the most common Hawaiian duck (koloa, Anas wyvilliana), 4). Over 70 species of fish have been prey item (Banko et al. 2004, p. 162). the Hawaiian (alae keokeo, Fulica introduced into Hawaiian freshwater Cats are believed to prey on roosting or alai), the Hawaiian (aeo, habitats (Devick 1991, p. 189; Englund incubating adult band-rumped storm- Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), the and Eldredge in Staples and Cowie petrels and young, as evidenced by (ula, Gallinula 2001, p. 32; Englund 2004, in litt., p.27). carcasses found in Hawaii Volcanoes chloropus sandvicensis), the Hawaiian The impact of fish introductions prior to National Park depredated by cats (Hu, petrel, and the Newell’s shearwater. 1900 cannot be assessed because this pers. comm. in Slotterback 2012, in litt.; Bird in other areas are predates the initial collection of Hess et al. 2008, pp. 11, 14). Causes of attributed to mongooses, the loss of the damselflies in Hawaii (Perkins 1913, p. predation are better studied for the barred-wing rail (Nesoclopeus clxxvi). In 1905, two species, the Hawaiian petrel, which is much larger poecilopterus) in Fiji, and the Jamaica fish ( affinis) and in size but has nesting characteristics petrel (Pterodroma caribbaea) (Hays and the sailfin molly ( latipinna), similar to those of the band-rumped Conant 2007, p. 6). Birds extirpated were introduced for biological control of storm-petrel. On Mauna Loa (Hawaii from islands occupied by mongooses mosquitoes (Van Dine 1907, pp. 6–9). In Island), feral cats were major predators retain their populations on islands 1922, three additional species were of Hawaiian petrels (Hu et al. 2001, p. known to be mongoose-free (Hays and established for mosquito control, the 234), and on Haleakala (Maui) almost Conant 2007, p. 7). In Hawaii, ( helleri), half of the known mortalities of mongooses are found in habitat that the moonfish (Xiphophorus maculatus), Hawaiian petrels between 1964 and would have been unsuitable for it and the guppy (Poecilia reticulata). By 1996 were attributed to cats (Natividad within its natural range, and they have 1935, the orangeblack Hawaiian Hodges and Nagata 2001, p. 312; Hu et no predators and few communicable damselfly was found only in waters al. 2001, p. 234). Population modeling diseases or parasites. Because without introduced fishes (Williams of the Hawaiian petrel indicated that the mongooses occur in all three ecosystems 1936, p. 289; Zimmerman 1948b, p. 341; petrel population would be unable to in which the band-rumped storm-petrel Polhemus 1993, p. 591; Englund 1998, withstand any level of predation for occurs, they are likely to be significant p. 235). Beginning about 1980, a large long, and even with seemingly low predators of the band-rumped storm- number of new fish introductions began levels of predation, the petrel petrel. in Hawaii, originating primarily from population would be reduced by half in the aquarium fish trade (Devick 1991, p. fewer than 30 years (Simon 1984, p. Nonnative Fish Impacts on the 189). This recent wave of fish 1073). The band-rumped storm petrel is Orangeblack Hawaiian Damselfly introductions on Oahu corresponded small in size, nests in burrows and rock- Predation by nonnative fishes on the with the drastic decline and range crevices, lacks co-evolved predator orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly is a reduction of other Hawaiian damselfly avoidance behavior, and has a lengthy significant threat. Similar to the aquatic species: The endangered oceanic incubation and fledgling period, making insects, Hawaii has a depauperate Hawaiian damselfly (M. oceanicum), the this species highly vulnerable to freshwater fish fauna, with only five endangered crimson Hawaiian

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damselfly (M. leptodemas), and the Argyroxiphium grayanum (greensword), pp.). No native ants species occur in endangered blackline Hawaiian Alsinidendron sp., Hibiscus sp., Hawaii, and the native yellow-faced bee damselfly (M. nigrohamatum Schiedea kaalae (maolioli), Solanum species in Hawaii evolved in the nigrolineatum). Currently, these sandwicense (popolo aiakeakua), and absence of predation pressure from ants. damselflies are found only in drainages Urera sp. (Gagne 1983, p. 190–191; Ants are known to prey upon Hawaiian or higher parts of stream systems where Sailer 2006, pers. comm. in Joe 2006, yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus) species, with nonnative fish are not yet established pp. 28–34). Joe and Daehler (2008, p. observations of drastic reductions in (Englund and Polhemus 1994, pp. 8–9; 252) found that native Hawaiian plants yellow-faced bee populations in ant- Englund 2004, in litt., p. 27). In are more vulnerable to slug damage than infested areas (Medeiros et al. 1986, pp. summary, Hawaiian damselflies evolved nonnative plants. In particular, they 45–46; Reimer 1994, p. 17; Stone and with few, if any, predatory fishes and found that individuals of the Loope 1987, p. 251; Cole et al. 1992, pp. exposed behavior of most of the fully endangered plants Cyanea superba and 1313, 1317, 1320). The presence of ants aquatic species, including the Schiedea obovata had 50 percent higher in nearly all of the low-elevation habitat orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, makes mortality when exposed to slugs as sites currently and historically occupied them particularly vulnerable to compared to individuals that were by yellow-faced bee species may predation by nonnative fish. within exclosures without slugs. As preclude these species’ recovery in slugs are reported in 5 of the 11 some of these areas (Reimer 1994, pp. Nonnative Fish Impacts on the ecosystems (lowland mesic, lowland 17–18; Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 9– Anchialine Pool Shrimp wet, montane wet, montane mesic, and 10). Although the primary impact of In Hawaii, the introduction of wet cliff), on all the main Hawaiian ants on Hawaii’s native invertebrate nonnative fishes, including bait-fish, Islands, the data from the studies cited fauna is via predation, they also into anchialine pools may have been a above, in addition to direct observations compete for nectar (Reimer 1994, p. 17; major contributor to the decline of by field biologists, suggest that slugs can Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. native shrimp. Predation by nonnative directly damage or destroy native 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, fishes is considered the greatest threat to plants. 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; native shrimp within anchialine pool Backswimmers Lach 2008, p. 155) and nest sites systems (Bailey-Brock and Brock 1993, (Krushelnycky et al. 2005, pp. 6–7). p. 354). These impacts are discussed Predation by nonnative Some ant species may impact yellow- further in ‘‘E. Other Natural or backswimmers (Heteroptera: faced bee species indirectly as well, by Notonectidae) poses a threat to the Manmade Factors Affecting Their consuming seeds of native plants, orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. Continued Existence,’’ below. thereby reducing the plants’ recruitment Backswimmers are aquatic true bugs and fecundity (Bond and Slingsby 1984, Introduced Invertebrates (Heteroptera) in the family p. 1031). The threat of ant predation on Notonectidae, so called because they Slugs the yellow-faced bees is amplified by swim upside down. Backswimmers are the fact that most ant species have Herbivory by nonnative slugs is voracious predators and frequently feed winged reproductive adults and can reported to adversely impact 8 of the 39 on prey much larger than themselves, quickly expand their range by plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis such as tadpoles, small fish, and other establishing new colonies in suitable (Maui); Deparia kaalaana (Kauai, Maui, aquatic invertebrates including Hawaii Island), Labordia lorenciana damselfly naiads (Borror et al. 1989, p. habitat (Staples and Cowie 2001, p. 55). (Kauai), Phyllostegia brevidens (Maui), 296; Zalom 1978, p. 617). In addition, these attributes allow some P. stachyoides (Molokai, Maui), Backswimmers (several species) were ants to destroy otherwise geographically Ranunculus mauiensis (Maui), Schiedea introduced in recent times. Buenoa isolated populations of native diffusa ssp. diffusa (Maui), and S. pallipes (NCN) has been recorded from (Nafus 1993, pp. 19, 22–23). pubescens (Maui); see Table 3) proposed Hawaii Island, Oahu, Maui, and Kauai Several studies suggest a serious for listing in this rule, through (Zimmerman 1948a, pp. 232–233; ecosystem-level effect of invasive ants mechanical damage, destruction of plant Larsen 1996, p. 40). This species is on pollination (Krushelnycky 2005, p. 9; parts, and mortality (Joe 2006, p. 10; found in streams and can be abundant Lach 2008, p. 155). Where ranges HBMP 2010; PEPP 2011, pp. 149, 170; in lowland ponds and reservoirs. It overlap, ants compete with native PEPP 2012, pp. 71–72, 117–118, 133, feeds on any suitably sized insect, pollinators such as yellow-faced bees 144–145, 153; PEPP 2013, pp. 54, 67, 91, including damselfly naiads (Zalom and preclude them from pollinating 125–126, 158–159, 177–178, 185; 1978, p. 617). Two additional species of native plants (Howarth 1985, p. 157). Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, p. backswimmers have become established Lach (2008, p. 155) found that yellow- 106; PEPP 2014, pp. 73, 112–114, 136, in Hawaii, Anisops kuroiwae (NCN) on faced bees that regularly consume 141–142, 154–156, 159, 162–163). Slugs Maui and Lanai, and Notonecta indica pollen from flowers of Metrosideros are known to damage individuals of (NCN) on Hawaii Island, Oahu, and polymorpha (ohia) were entirely absent Cyanea and Cyrtandra species in the Maui (Larsen 1996, pp. 39–40). The from trees with flowers visited by the wild (Wood 2001, in litt.; Sailer and mere presence of backswimmers in the ant Pheidole megacephala. Kier 2002, in litt.; PEPP 2007, p. 38; water can cause naiads to stop foraging, The four most aggressive ant species PEPP 2008, pp. 23, 29, 52–53, 57). reducing their growth, development, in Hawaii are: The big-headed ant Information in the U.S. Army’s 2005 and survival (Heads 1986, pp. 375–376). (Pheidole megacephala), the yellow ‘‘Status Report for the Makua Because of these attributes, predation by crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes), the Implementation Plan’’ indicates that backswimmers poses a threat to the tropical fire ant (Solenopsis geminata), herbivory by slugs can be a threat to all orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. and S. papuana (NCN). The big-headed species of Cyanea, and can result in up ant is native to central Africa and was to 80 percent seedling mortality (U.S. Ants first reported in Hawaii in 1879 Army Garrison 2005, p. 3–51). Slug At least 47 species of ants are known (Krushelnycky et al. 2005, p. 24). This damage has also been reported on other to be introduced and established in the species occurs from coastal to mesic Hawaiian plants including Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii Ants 2008, 11 habitat up to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) in

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elevation. With few exceptions, native presence of S. papuana in each of the the seven yellow-faced bees, now and insects have been eliminated in habitats known ecosystems occupied by the into the future. where the big-headed ant is present seven yellow-faced bees, because of the Wasps (Perkins 1913, p. xxxix; Gagne 1979, p. expanding range of this introduced ant 81; Gillespie and Reimer 1993, p. 22). species, and its widespread occurrence Predation by the western yellow Native habitat of the yellow crazy ant is in coastal to wet habitats, it is a possible jacket wasp () is not known, but it is speculated the threat to all known populations of the an ongoing threat to the seven yellow- species originated in West Africa seven yellow-faced bees proposed for faced bees (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 170; (MacGown 2015, in litt.). It occurs in listing in this rule. Solenopsis geminata Wilson et al. 2009, pp. 1–5). The western yellow jacket is a social wasp low- to mid-elevation (less than 2,000 ft is also considered a significant threat to species native to mainland North (600 m)) in rocky areas of moderate native invertebrates in Hawaii (Wong America. It was first reported on Oahu rainfall (less than 100 in (250 cm) and Wong 1988, p. 171). Found in drier annually) (Reimer et al. 1990, p. 42). in the 1930s (Sherley 2000, p. 121), and areas of all the main Hawaiian Islands, an aggressive race became established in Although surveys have not been it displaced Pheidole megacephala 1977 (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 170). In conducted to ascertain this species’ megacephala as the dominant ant in temperate climates, the western yellow presence in each of the known habitats some localities more than 20 years ago jacket wasp has an annual life cycle, but occupied by the seven yellow-faced (Wong and Wong 1988, p. 175). Known in Hawaii’s tropical climate, colonies of bees, we know that the yellow crazy ant to be a voracious predator, Solenopsis this species persist year round, allowing occurs adjacent to some of the identified geminata this ant species was growth of large populations (Gambino et populations’ sites based upon documented to significantly increase al. 1987, p. 170) and thus a greater observations of their expanding range native fruit fly mortality in field studies impact on prey populations. Most and their preference for coastal and dry in Hawaii (Wong and Wong 1988, p. colonies occur between 2,000 and 3,500 forest habitat (as indicated where the 175). Solenopsis geminata is included ft (600 and 1050 m) in elevation species is most commonly collected) in among the eight species ranked as (Gambino et al. 1990, p. 1088), although (Antweb 2015, in litt.; Magnacca and having the highest potential risk to New they can also occur at sea level. The King 2013, pp. 13–14). Direct Zealand species in a detailed pest risk western yellow jacket wasp is known to observations indicate that Hawaiian assessment for the country (GISD 2011, be an aggressive, generalist predator and arthropods are susceptible to predation in litt.), and is included as one of the has been documented preying upon by this ant species. Gillespie and Reimer five ant species listed among the ‘‘100 Hawaiian yellow-faced bee species (1993, pp. 21, 26) and Hardy (1979, p. of the World’s Worst Invaders’’ (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 170; Wilson et 37–38) documented the complete (Manaaki Landcare Research 2015, in al. 2009, p. 2). It has been suggested that elimination of native spiders from mesic litt.). In addition to predation, S. the western yellow jacket wasp may and dry forests after they were invaded geminata workers tend honeydew- compete for nectar with native by the big-headed ant and the yellow producing members of the Homoptera Hawaiian invertebrates, but we have no crazy ant. Lester and Tavite (2004, p. suborder, especially mealybugs, which information to suggest this represents a 291) found that the yellow crazy ant in can impact plants directly and threat to the seven yellow-faced bees. the Tokelau Atolls (Central Polynesia) indirectly through the spread of disease Predation by the western yellow jacket form very high densities in a relatively (Manaaki Landcare Research 2015, in wasp is a significant threat to the seven short period of time with locally serious litt.). Although surveys have not been yellow-faced bee species because of the consequences for invertebrate diversity. conducted to ascertain the presence of wasps’ presence in habitat combined Densities of 3,600 individuals collected S. geminata in each of the known seven with the small number of occurrences in pitfall traps within a 24-hour period yellow-faced bees’ habitat sites, because and small population sizes of the were observed, as well as predation on of its expanding range and widespread Hawaiian yellow-faced bees. invertebrates ranging from crabs to other presence, S. geminata is a threat to all ant species. Results from these and Summary of Factor C known populations of the seven yellow- other studies (Reimer et al. 1990, p. 47) faced bees. We are unaware of any information indicate that yellow crazy ants have the that indicates that disease is a threat to potential as predators to profoundly Although we have no direct the 39 plant species. We are also affect endemic insect fauna in areas they information that correlates the decrease unaware of any information that occupy. We believe that the yellow in populations of the seven yellow-faced indicates that disease is a threat to the crazy ant is a threat to populations of bees in this proposal directly to the band-rumped storm-petrel, the the Hawaiian yellow-faced bees in areas establishment of nonnative ants, orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, or the within their range. Solenopsis papuana, predation of and competition with other anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris native to the Pacific region but not to yellow-faced bee species by ants has hawaiana, or the seven yellow-faced Hawaii, is the only abundant, aggressive been documented, resulting in clear bees proposed for listing in this rule. ant that has invaded intact mesic and reductions in or absence of populations We consider predation and herbivory wet forest, as well as coastal and (Magnacca and King 2013, p. 24). We by one or more of the nonnative animal lowland dry ecosystems. First detected expect similar predation impacts to the species (pigs, goats, axis deer, black- in 1967, this species occurs from sea seven yellow-faced bees proposed for tailed deer, sheep, mouflon, cattle, rats, level to over 3,600 ft (1,100 m) on all of listing in this rule to continue as a result barn owls, cats, mongooses, fish, slugs, the main Hawaiian Islands, and is still of the widespread presence of ants backswimmers, ants, and wasps) to pose expanding its range (Reimer et al. 1990, throughout the Hawaiian Islands, their an ongoing threat to 33 of the 39 plant p. 42; Reimer 1993, p. 14). Studies have highly efficient and non-specific species and to all 10 animal species been conducted that suggest a negative predatory behavior, and their ability to proposed for listing throughout their effect of this ant species on indigenous quickly disperse and establish new ranges (see Table 3) for the following invertebrates (Gillespie and Reimer colonies. Therefore, we conclude that reasons: 1993, p. 21). Although surveys have not predation by nonnative ants represents (1) Observations and reports have been conducted to ascertain the a threat to the continued existence of documented that pigs, goats, axis deer,

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black-tailed deer, sheep, mouflon, and (9) Predation by nonnative ants and few invasive species that cause cattle browse 26 of the 39 plant species wasps poses a threat to all seven yellow- significant economic or environmental (see Table 3), in addition to other faced bees. damage to public and private lands. studies demonstrating the negative These threats are serious and ongoing, Comprehensive control of an array of impacts of ungulate browsing on native act in concert with other threats to the nonnative species and management to plant species of the islands. Browsing species, and are expected to continue or reduce disturbance regimes that favor by blackbuck antelope is currently a increase in magnitude and intensity into them remains limited in scope. If potential threat to plants that occur in the future without effective management current levels of funding and regulatory the dry areas of Molokai, including the actions to control or eradicate them. In support for control of nonnative species host plants for the yellow-faced bees. addition, negative impacts to native are maintained, the Service expects (2) Nonnative rats and slugs cause Hawaiian plants on Molokai from existing programs to continue to mechanical damage to plants and grazing and browsing by blackbuck exclude or, on a very limited basis, destruction of plant parts (branches, antelope are likely should this control these species only in the flowers, fruits, and seeds), and are nonnative ungulate increase in numbers highest-priority areas. Threats from considered a threat to 20 of the 39 plant and range on the island. The effects of established nonnative ungulates and species proposed for listing (see Table the combined threats suggest the need predators, plants, and invertebrates are 3). for immediate implementation of ongoing and expected to continue into (3) Rats also prey upon adults, recovery and conservation the future. juveniles, and eggs of the band-rumped methodologies. The Hawaiian population of band- rumped storm-petrel is currently storm-petrel, and are linked with the D. The Inadequacy of Existing protected under Federal law by the dramatic decline of many closely related Regulatory Mechanisms bird species. Because rats are found in Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) (16 Currently, there are no existing all of the ecosystems in which the band- U.S.C. 703 et seq.). The MBTA is the Federal, State, or local laws, treaties, or rumped storm-petrel occurs, we domestic law that implements the regulations that specifically conserve or consider predation by rats to be an United States’ commitment to four protect 48 of the 49 species (except the international conventions (with Canada, ongoing threat. band-rumped storm-petrel, as discussed (4) Barn owls and cats have Japan, Mexico, and Russia) for the below) proposed for listing, or protection of shared migratory bird established populations in the wild on adequately address the threats to all 49 all the main Hawaiian islands, and resources. The MBTA regulates most species described in this proposed rule. aspects of take, possession, transport, mongooses have established There are a few small programs and sale, purchase, barter, export, and populations on all the main islands organizations that conduct vegetation import of migratory birds and prohibits except for Kauai. Predation by these monitoring, and nonnative species and the killing, capturing, and collecting of animals is an ongoing threat to the predator control, but these activities are individuals, eggs, and nests, unless such band-rumped storm-petrel. not regulatory, and continuation of action is authorized by permit. While (5) The absence of Hawaiian conservation efforts, or funding for the MBTA does prohibit actions that damselflies (including the orangeblack them, is not guaranteed. Hawaii’s Plant directly kill a covered species, unlike Hawaiian damselfly) in streams and Extinction Prevention Program (PEPP) is the Endangered Species Act it does not other aquatic habitat on the main a multi-agency (Federal, State, and prohibit habitat modification that Hawaiian Islands is strongly correlated private) program that identifies and indirectly kills or injures a covered with the presence of predatory supports the ‘‘rarest of the rare’’ species, affords no habitat protection nonnative fish; numerous observations Hawaiian plant species in need of when the birds are not present, and and reports suggest nonnative predatory immediate conservation efforts. The provides only very limited mechanisms fishes eliminate native Hawaiian goal of PEPP is to prevent the extinction for addressing chronic threats to damselflies from these habitats. of plants species that have fewer than 50 covered species. The Hawaiian Accordingly, predation by nonnative individuals remaining in the wild in the population of the band-rumped storm- fishes is an ongoing threat to the Hawaiian Islands and and the petrel is listed by the State of Hawaii as orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana an endangered species under Hawaii (6) Once introduced to anchialine Islands (GPEPP). Partnerships such as State Endangered Species Act (Hawaii pools, nonnative fish, through predation the Hawaii Invasive Species Council ESA) (HRS 195D–4(a)), which also and competition for food sources, (HISC) and the Coordinating Group on prohibits take, possession, sale, directly impact anchialine pool shrimp, Alien Pest Species (CGAPS) were transport, or export of adults, eggs, or including Procaris hawaiana, and also formed in 2002 and 1995, respectively, young, except as authorized by law, disrupt anchialine pool ecology. but their conservation actions are also license, or permit, but like the MBTA, (7) Herbivory (leading to damage, limited, as discussed below. The the Hawaii ESA affords no protection of destruction of reproductive parts, and capacity of Federal and State agencies habitat. mortality of seedlings) by slugs, is a and their nongovernmental partners in known threat to 10 of the 39 plant Hawaii to mitigate the effects of Terrestrial Habitat and Feral Ungulates species proposed for listing. nonnative species, such as ungulates Nonnative ungulates pose a major (8) The presence of backswimmers in and weeds, is limited due to the large ongoing threat to 37 of the 39 plant aquatic habitat can cause damselfly number of taxa currently causing species, and 9 of the 10 animals species naiads, including those of the damage (CGAPS 2009). Many invasive (all except the anchialine pool shrimp, orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, to stop nonnative plants established in the Procaris hawaiana) through destruction foraging, reducing their growth, Hawaiian Islands have currently limited and modification of terrestrial habitat, development, and survivability. In but expanding ranges and are of and through direct predation of 26 of addition, backswimmers can directly concern. Resources available to reduce the 39 plant species (see ‘‘A. The feed on damselfly naiads, posing a the spread of these species and counter Present or Threatened Destruction, significant threat to the orangeblack their negative effects are limited. Modification, or Curtailment of Its Hawaiian damselfly. Control efforts are largely focused on a Habitat or Range’’ and ‘‘C. Disease and

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Predation,’’ above; and Table 3). The the administrative rules were adopted establish IFS as a matter of policy (U.S. State of Hawaii provides game mammal (State Water Code, HRS 174C–71, and Army 1985, RGL 85–6). (feral pigs and goats; axis deer; black- HAR Title 13, Ch 169–44–49). The State There are no existing regulatory tailed deer; and sheep, mouflon, and of Hawaii considers all natural flowing mechanisms that specifically protect mouflon-sheep hybrids) hunting surface water (streams, springs, and Hawaii’s anchialine pools (habitat for opportunities on 91 State-designated seeps) as State property (HRS 174C), the anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris public hunting areas (within 45 units) and the HDLNR has management hawaiana, and the orangeblack on all the main Hawaiian Islands except responsibility for the aquatic organisms Hawaiian damselfly); however, 2 Kahoolawe and Niihau (HAR 2003, 13– in these waters (HRS Annotated 1988, anchialine pools on Maui and 12 123, rev 2010; HDLNR 2009, pp. 25–30); Title 12; 1992 Cumulative Supplement). anchialine pools on Hawaii Island are however, there are private hunting Accordingly, damselfly populations located within State Natural Area opportunities on Niihau (Niihau Safaris (including the orangeblack Hawaiian Reserves (NARs) (Ahihi-Kinau and Inc. 2015, in litt.). The State’s damselfly) in all natural flowing surface Manuka, respectively). Designation as a management objectives for game waters are under jurisdiction of the State NAR prohibits the removal of any animals range from maximizing public State of Hawaii, regardless of property native organism and the disturbance of hunting opportunities (e.g., ‘‘sustained ownership. pools (HAR 13–209–4). The State NARs yield’’) in some areas to removal by The State of Hawaii manages the use were created to preserve and protect State staff or their designees in other of surface and ground water resources samples of Hawaii’s ecosystems and areas (HAR 2003, 13–123 rev 2010; through the Commission on Water geological formations, and are actively HDLNR 2009, pp. 25–30). Thirty of the Resource Management (Water managed and monitored. Though signs 39 plant species, the band-rumped Commission), as mandated by the 1987 are posted at NARs to notify the public storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian State Water Code (HRS 174 and HAR that pools are off-limits to bathers and damselfly, and three yellow-faced bees Title 13, Ch 168 and 169). Because of other activities, the State NARs have no (Hylaeus assimulans, H. facilis, and H. the complexity of establishing instream funding for proper enforcement of those longiceps) have populations in areas flow standards (IFS) for approximately restrictions. where terrestrial habitat may be 376 perennial streams, the Water Because there are currently no manipulated for game enhancement and Commission established interim IFS at Federal, State, or local laws, treaties, or game populations are maintained at status quo levels in 1987 (Commission regulations that specifically or certain levels for public hunting of Water Resource Management effectively conserve or protect the (Holmes and Joyce 2009, 4 pp.; HAR (CWRM) 2009). In the Waiahole Ditch anchialine pool shrimp and the 2003, 13–123, rev 2010; HBMP 2010). Combined Contested Hearing on Oahu orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, or Public hunting areas are defined, but (1997–2006), the Hawaii Supreme Court adequately address inadequate not fenced, and game mammals have determined that status quo interim IFS maintenance and protection of instream unrestricted access to most areas across were not adequate, and required the flow, springs, seeps, and anchialine the landscape, regardless of underlying Water Commission to reassess the IFS pools for the anchialine pool shrimp land-use designation. While fences are for Waiahole Ditch and other streams and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly sometimes built to protect areas from statewide (Case No. CCH–OA95–1; Maui habitat, these threats are ongoing and game mammals, the current number and Now.com, in litt.). The Water are expected to continue into the future. locations of fences are not adequate to Commission has been gathering Introduction of Nonnative Species prevent habitat destruction and information to fulfill this requirement modification for 37 of the 39 plant since 2006, but no IFS Under statutory authorities provided species, the band-rumped storm-petrel, recommendations have been made to by Chapter 183D, HRS, the DLNR the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, or date (CWRM 2008, p. 3–153; CWRM maintains HAR Ch 124 (2014), which the seven yellow-faced bees on all the 2014, in litt.). defines ‘‘injurious wildlife’’ as ‘‘any main Hawaiian islands (except In the Hawaii Stream Assessment species or subspecies of animal except Kahoolawe) (see Table 3). After an Report (DLNR 1990), prepared in game birds and game mammals which is incident in 2012 of inter-island coordination with the National Park known to be harmful to agriculture, transport of axis deer to Hawaii Island, Service (NPS), the Water Commission aquaculture, indigenous wildlife or which until that time had been free of identified high-quality rivers or streams plants, or constitute a nuisance or axis deer, a bill was enacted to prohibit (and portions thereof) that may be health hazard and is listed in the exhibit inter-island transportation and placed within a Wild and Scenic River entitled ‘‘Exhibit 5, Chapter 13–124, List possession of wild or feral deer under system. This report ranked 70 out of 176 of Species of Injurious Wildlife in Hawaii Revised Statute Title 12, 183D– streams analyzed as outstanding high- Hawaii.’’ Under HAR 13–124–3–(d), ‘‘no 52 (2014), but there are no other quality habitat, and recommended that person shall, or attempt to: (1) Release regulations designed to address habitat streams meeting certain criteria be injurious wildlife into the wild; (2) protection from ungulates, including protected from further development Transport them to islands or locations game mammals. (DLNR 1990, pp. xxi–xxiv). However, within the State where they are not there is no mechanism within the already established and living in a wild Aquatic Habitat State’s Water Code to designate and set state; and (3) Export any such species or Existing regulations are inadequate to aside these streams, or to identify and the dead body or parts thereof, from the maintain stream flow, springs, ponds, protect stream habitat, for damselflies. State. Permits for these actions may be and seeps year-round for the different The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers considered on a case-by-case basis.’’ As life stages of the orangeblack Hawaiian (COE) has regulatory jurisdiction under discussed in ‘‘Habitat Destruction and damselfly, proposed for listing in this section 404 of the Clean Water Act (33 Modification by Introduced Ungulates,’’ rule. In Hawaii, instream flow is U.S.C. 1251 et seq.) for activities that and ‘‘Terrestrial Habitat and Feral regulated by establishing standards on a would result in a discharge of dredged Ungulates,’’ above, a bill was enacted to stream-by-stream basis. The standards or fill material into waters of the United prohibit inter-island transportation and currently in effect represent flow States; however, in issuing these possession of wild or feral deer under conditions in 1987 (status quo), the year permits, the COE does not typically Hawaii Revised Statute Title 12, 183D–

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52 (2014), but no other game mammals procedure operates on a case-by-case HISC 2015, http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc). are regulated by this statute. basis and is extremely time-consuming Budget cuts beginning in 2009 severely Currently, four agencies are to satisfy. Therefore, there is only restricted State funding support of responsible for inspection of goods minimal protection against a large HISC, resulting in a serious setback of arriving in Hawaii (CGAPS 2009). The diversity of nonnative species that conservation efforts (HISC 2009; HISC Hawaii Department of Agriculture arrive and may negatively impact 2015, http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/ (HDOA) inspects domestic cargo and Hawaii. projects/funding). As an example of vessels and focuses on nonnative pest Inadequate staffing, facilities, and current and future challenges, a strain of species of concern to Hawaii, especially equipment for Federal and State the plant rust Puccinia psidii, also insects or plant diseases not yet known inspectors devoted to invasive species referred to as ohia rust, was first noticed to be present in the State. The U.S. interdiction are critical biosecurity gaps affecting stands of rose apple and the Department of Homeland Security— (HLRB 2002; USDA–APHIS–PPQ 2010; native Metrosideros (ohia) seedlings Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is CGAPS 2009). In recognition of the (both in the plant family ) in responsible for inspecting commercial, gaps, State laws have recently been nurseries in 2005. Metrosideros spp. are private, and military vessels and aircraft passed that allow the HDOA to collect a dominant component of native forests and related cargo and passengers fees for quarantine inspection of freight in Hawaii, providing watershed arriving from foreign locations. CBP entering Hawaii (e.g., Act 36 (2011) HRS protection and wildlife habitat. The focuses on a wide range of quarantine 150A–5.3). Legislation enacted in 2011 Hawaii Board of Agriculture issues involving non-propagative plant (H.B. 1568) requires commercial harbors recommended a quarantine rule be materials, wooden packing materials, to provide biosecurity and inspection passed against the introduction of all timber, and products; internationally facilities to facilitate the movement of new strains of ohia rust (mostly through regulated commercial species under the cargo through ports. This enactment is transmission on Myrtaceae species used Convention on International Trade in a significant step toward optimizing in the horticulture trade), to prevent Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and biosecurity capacity in the State; destruction of ohia forests and the Flora (CITES); and federally listed however, only time will determine the danger to agriculture and horticulture noxious plants and seeds, soil, and pests its effectiveness of this Act (Act industries (Environment Hawaii 2015, of concern to the greater United States, 201(11)). From a Federal perspective, pp. 1, 8–9). However, this rule currently such as pests to mainland U.S. forests there is a need to ensure all civilian and remains in draft form and under review and agriculture. The U.S. Department of military port and airport operations and (HDOA 2015, http://hdoa.hawaii.gov/ Agriculture—Animal and Plant Health construction are in compliance with the meetings-reports/proposedar, accessed Inspection Service—Plant Protection Act 201 (11State of Hawaii’s laws. April 9, 2015). and Quarantine (USDA–APHIS–PPQ) In 1995, a partnership, Coordinating inspects propagative plant material, Group on Alien Pest Species (CGAPS), Nonnative Aquatic Species provides identification services for comprised primarily of managers from Existing State and Federal regulatory arriving plants and animals, conducts every major Federal, State, county, and mechanisms do not adequately prevent pest risk assessments, and handles other private agency and organization the introduction of nonnative species to related matters, but focuses on pests of involved in invasive species work in Hawaii via inter-State and international wide concern across the United States Hawaii, was formed in an effort to mechanisms, or intra-State movement of (HDOA 2009, in litt.). The Service influence policy and funding decisions, nonnative species between islands and inspects arriving wildlife products, improve communication, increase watersheds in Hawaii. The importation enforces the injurious wildlife collaboration, and promote public of non-domestic animals, including provisions of the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. awareness (CGAPS 2009). This group aquatic species, is regulated by a permit 42; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et seq.), and facilitated the formation of the Hawaii system (HAR 4–71) managed through prosecutes CITES violations. Invasive Species Council (HISC), which the HHDOA. The HDOA’s Board of The State of Hawaii’s unique was created by gubernatorial executive Agriculture maintains lists of non- biosecurity needs are not recognized by order in 2002, to coordinate local domestic animals that are prohibited Federal import regulations, as these initiatives for the prevention of from entry, animals without entry regulations are based on species introduction and for control of invasive restrictions, or those that require a considered threats to the mainland species by providing policy-level permit for import and possession. The United States, and not those species that direction and planning for the State HDOA requires a permit to import could become threats to native departments responsible for invasive animals, and conditionally approves Hawaiian species (Hawaii Legislative species issues (CGAPS 2009). In 2003, entry for individual possession, Reference Bureau (HLRB) 2002; USDA– the Governor signed into law State Act businesses (e.g., pet and resale trade, APHIS–PPQ 2010; CGAPS 2009). 85, which conveys statutory authority to retail sales, and food consumption), or Interstate commerce provides the the HISC to continue to coordinate institutions. However, Hawaii’s Division pathway for new species to enter approaches among the various State and of Aquatic Resources recognizes that Hawaii. Pest species may be intercepted, Federal agencies, and international and unwanted nonnative species, both but are not always acted on by Federal local initiatives, for the prevention and aquatic and terrestrial, are still entering agents because these species are not control of invasive species (HDLNR the State and moving between islands regulated under Federal mandates. 2003, p. 3–15; HISC 2009; HRS 194– (DLNR 2003, p. 2–12). Hence, Federal protection against pest 2(a)). Some of the recent priorities for The Division of Aquatic Resources species of concern to Hawaii historically the HISC include interagency efforts to (DAR), within the State’s DLNR, has been inadequate. It is possible for control nonnative species such as the manages Hawaii’s aquatic resources the USDA to grant Hawaii protective plants Miconia calvescens (miconia) and (HDAR 2015, in litt.), and is responsible exemptions under the ‘‘Special Local Cortaderia sp. (pampas grass), coqui for conserving, protecting, and Needs Rule,’’ when clear and frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui), the enhancing the State’s renewable comprehensive arguments for both coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes resources of aquatic life and habitat agricultural and conservation issues are rhinoceros) (HISC 2013, in litt.; OISC (HDLNR 2003, p. 3–13). The release of provided; however, this exemption 2015, in litt.), and ants (HISC 2009; live nonnative fish or other live

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nonnative aquatic life into any waters of wildlife’’ (Fowler et al. 2007 pp. 357– rhinoceros), which quickly spread from the State is prohibited (HRS 187A–6.5). 358). The continued spread of injurious its known point of introduction across The DAR has the authority to seize, species nationwide indicates the limited the island of Oahu in a few months confiscate, or destroy as a public effectiveness of this regulation in (HISC 2014, + maps). The coconut nuisance; any fish or other aquatic life preventing vertebrate introductions into rhinoceros beetle is considered one of found in any State waters whose the State (Fowler et al. 2007, p. 357). the most damaging insects to coconut importation is prohibited or restricted The Lacey Act requires declarations of and African oil palm in southern and pursuant to rules of the HDOA (HRS importation only for formal entries (i.e., Southeast Asia, as well as the western 187A–2, HRS 187A–6.5). State (HAR commercial shipments), but not for Pacific Islands, and has the potential to 71C) and Federal regulations (Executive informal entries (i.e. personal devastate populations of native and Order (E.O.) 13112, 1999 and 2005) are shipments) (USDA–APHIS 2015, in nonnative palm species in Hawaii in place to prevent the unauthorized litt.). (Giblin-Davis 2001 in HISC 2014, in entry of nonnative aquatic animals such As a recent example in Hawaii, an litt.). While a rapid response team as fish and amphibians; however, their opossum (Didelphis virginiana) was headed by HDOA (with USDA, intentional or inadvertent introduction found in a trap set for feral cats near University of Hawaii, U.S. Navy, and and movement between islands and Sand Island, Oahu, in July 2015. other partners; 2014) has set up between watersheds continues (HDAR Opossums are not included on the pheromone traps island-wide, and 2003, pp. 2–12–2–14). There is Lacey Act’s list of prohibited capture and range delineation efforts are insufficient agency capacity to speciesinjurious wildlife. Opossums, ongoing, along with funding for support adequately enforce such regulations or native to North America, occupy a services to capture and control the CRB to provide for sufficient inspection variety of habitat such as stream areas, for fiscal year 2015 (HISC 2014, in litt.), services and monitoring, although this forests, and agricultural lands (Oregon existing regulatory mechanisms did not priority need is recognized (Cravalho Department of Fish and Wildlife 2015, prevent its introduction into Hawaii. 2009, in litt.). in litt.). They are omnivores and Existing regulatory mechanisms, such as scavengers, and eat a wide variety of HRS 187A–6.5 and HAR 71C (regarding Nonnative Vertebrate Species food items including insects, small release of nonnative aquatic species), The State of Hawaii’s laws prohibit vertebrates, bird eggs, slugs and snails, and H.B. 1568 (pertaining to the State the importation of all animals unless snakes, and fruits and berries law to enforce biosecurity measures), they are specifically placed on a list of (Claremont College 2015, in litt.). therefore appear inadequate to prevent allowable species (HLRB 2002; CGAPS Opossums are known to hitchhike in introductions of nonnative 2010). The importation and interstate shipping containers, and have been invertebrates. Efforts to ameliorate the transport of invasive vertebrates is found previously in containers on Oahu threat of the beetle continue, but federally regulated by the Service under in 2005 and 2011 (Star Advertiser 2015, whether those efforts will be effective in the Lacey Act as ‘‘injurious wildlife’’ in litt.). If opossums were to establish controlling or eliminating this threat is (Fowler et al. 2007, pp. 353–359; 18 wild populations in Hawaii, their unknown at this time. U.S.C. 42 et seq.–43 2006); the current predation on ground-nesting seabirds list of vertebrates considered as could negatively impact species such as Nonnative Plant Species ‘‘injurious wildlife’’ is provided at 50 the band-rumped storm-petrel. The State of Hawaii allows the CFR part 16. This law also prohibits importation of most plant taxa, with importation of species listed as Nonnative Invertebrate Species limited exceptions, if shipped from endangered or threatened from other It is likely that the introduction of domestic ports (HLRB 2002; USDA– areas, or species from within protected most nonnative invertebrate pests to the APHIS–PPQ 2010; CGAPS 2009). areas such as parks or forest reserves. State has been and continues to be Hawaii’s plant import rules (HAR 4–70) The law in its current form prohibits accidental and incidental to other regulate the importation of 13 plant taxa importation of a limited number of taxa intentional and permitted activities. The of economic interest; regulated crops (USFWS 2012;, 50 CFR part 16) prevention and control of introduction include pineapple, sugarcane, palms, including fruit bats, mongoose, of nonnative invertebrates to Hawaii is and pines. Certain horticultural crops European rabbits and hares, wild , the responsibility of Hawaii State (e.g., orchids) may require import rats or mice, raccoon dogs, brushtail government and Federal agencies, and is permits and have pre-entry possum (New Zealand species), voluntarily addressed by a few private requirements that include treatment or starlings, house sparrows, mynas, dioch, organizations as well. Even though these quarantine or both either prior to or Java sparrows, red whiskered bulbuls, agencies have regulations and some following entry into the State. The State walking catfish, mitten crabs, zebra controls in place, as discussed in Noxious Weed list (HAR 4–68) and mussels, snakehead family taxa, four ‘‘Introduction of Nonnative Species’’ USDA–APHIS–PPQ’s Restricted Plants species of carp, salmonids, brown tree and ‘‘Nonnative Aquatic Species,’’ List restrict the import of a limited snakes, and pythons. In 2008, the Lacey above, the introduction and movement number of noxious weeds. If not Act was expanded to include of nonnative invertebrate pest species specifically prohibited, current Federal prohibition of importation of ‘‘any plant between islands and from one regulations allow plants to be imported that was illegally harvested,’’ such as watershed to the next continues. By the from international ports with some illegally logged (USFWS 2012, 50 early 1990s, an average of 20 new alien restrictions. The Federal Noxious Weed CFR 16). Mongoose, rabbits, rats, mice, invertebrate species was introduced to List (see 7 CFR 360.200) includes few of house sparrows, mynas, Java sparrows, Hawaii per year, an increase of 25 the many globally known invasive red whiskered bulbuls are already percent over the previous totals between plants, and plants in general do not established in Hawaii, and are difficult 1930 and 1970 (TNCH 1992, p. 8). As an require a weed risk assessment prior to and costly to control, or are not example, the threat of introduction of importation from international ports. controlled at all. Additionally, a species nonnative invertebrate species is The USDA–APHIS–PPQ is in the may be imported or transported across evidenced by the 2013 discovery of the process of finalizing rules to include a State lines while it is being considered presence of the nonnative coconut weed risk assessment for newly for addition to the list of ‘‘injurious rhinoceros beetle (CRB, Oryctes imported plants. Although the State has

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general guidelines for the importation of inadequate to sufficiently reduce these 2009, p. 2). Currently, fallout due to plants, and regulations are in place threats to these species. light pollution is recorded almost regarding the plant crops mentioned annually on Kauai (Kauai Island Utility E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors above, the intentional or inadvertent Cooperative 2015, in litt.). However, the Affecting Their Continued Existence introduction of nonnative plants outside actual extent of such loss and its overall the regulatory process and movement of Other factors threatening some or all impact on the band-rumped storm- species between islands and from one of the 49 species include artificial petrel population in Hawaii is not watershed to the next continues, and lighting and structures, ingestion of known because scavengers often prevent represents a threat to native flora and marine debris and plastics, dumping of the detection or recovery of the dead or fauna for the reasons mentioned above. trash and the introduction of nonnative injured birds, but any loss in such a In addition, government funding is fish into anchialine pools, recreational small population is significant. inadequate to provide for sufficient use of and sedimentation of anchialine A related threat to seabirds in Hawaii, inspection services and monitoring. One pools, low numbers of individuals and including the band-rumped storm- study concluded that the plant populations, hybridization, lack of or petrel, is collision with structures such importation laws virtually ensure new declining regeneration, competition as communication towers and utility invasive plants will be introduced via with nonnative invertebrates, and loss lines (Cooper and Day 1998, pp. 16–18; the nursery and ornamental trade, and of host plants Each threat is discussed Podolsky et al. 1998, pp. 23–33). Several that outreach efforts cannot keep up in detail below, along with seabird species that nest in the with the multitude of new invasive identification of which species are Hawaiian Islands, including the plants being distributed (Martin 2007, in affected by these threats. The impacts of Newell’s shearwater (federally listed as litt.). The author states the only effective climate change to these species and threatened), the Hawaiian petrel method to address this issue is to use their ecosystems have the potential to (federally listed as endangered), and the public outreach to encourage consumers exacerbate all of the threats described band-rumped storm-petrel, regularly to purchase and use only noninvasive or above. commute between inland nest sites and native plants in landscaping (Martin Artificial Lighting and Structures Effects the ocean. These birds commute at night 2007, in litt.). on the Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel when manmade obstacles such as On the basis of the above information, communication towers and utility lines existing State and Federal regulatory Artificial lights are a well- are difficult to see. They strike these mechanisms are not preventing the documented threat to night-flying unseen obstacles, and often die or are introduction of nonnative species into seabirds such as petrels, shearwaters, injured as a result. An early study Hawaii via interstate and international and storm-petrels (Croxall et al. 2012, p. estimated that 340 Newell’s shearwater pathways, or via intrastate movement of 28). A significant impact to the band- fledglings die annually on the eastern nonnative species between islands and rumped storm-petrel results from the and southern shores of Kauai as a result watersheds. Therefore, State and effects of artificial (night) lighting on of collisions (Podolsky et al. 1998, p. Federal regulatory mechanisms do not fledglings and, to a lesser degree, on 30); however, current analyses for all adequately protect the 49 species, or adults. Lighting of roadways, resorts, seabirds on Kauai indicate the number their habitats, addressed in this rule ballparks, residences, and other of collisions with utility lines is much from the threat of new introductions of development, as well as on cruise ships higher, over 2,000 strikes per year (using nonnative species or the continued out at sea, both attracts and confuses site-specific strike rates), but numbers of expansion of nonnative species night-flying storm-petrels and other birds that hit utility lines is very site- populations on and between islands and seabirds (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; dependent (Travers et al. 2014, pp. 19, watersheds. The impacts from these Reed et al. 1985, p. 377; Telfer et al. 29–37; Service 2015, in litt., Slide 21). threats are ongoing and are expected to 1987, pp. 412–413; Banko et al. 1991, p. The impact to the band-rumped storm- continue into the future. 651). Storm-petrels use the night sky to petrel from artificial lighting and navigate and possibly to search for collisions with structures is expected to Summary of Factor D bioluminescent ocean prey (Telfer et al. increase as the human population grows Existing State and Federal regulatory 1987, p. 412). Artificial lights can cause and development continues on the mechanisms are not preventing the confusion, exhaustion, and possible Hawaiian Islands. introduction into Hawaii of nonnative collision with structures, followed by species or controlling the spread of fallout. The seabirds are then either too Other Human Effects on the Band- nonnative species between islands and exhausted to fly or seriously injured, Rumped Storm-Petrel watersheds. Habitat-altering nonnative and, once grounded, are at risk of Other factors that may negatively plant species (Factor A) and predation predation or being run over by cars affect the band-rumped storm-petrel by nonnative animal species (Factor C) (Reed et al. 1985, p. 377; Telfer et al. include commercial fisheries pose major ongoing threats to all 49 1987, p. 410). Vulnerability to artificial interactions and alteration of prey base species addressed in this rule. Thirty- lighting varies between species and age upon which the band-rumped storm- seven of the 39 plant species, the classes and according to the influence of petrel depends. Commercial fisheries orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and season, lunar phase, and weather are known to adversely affect certain the yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus conditions. Young birds are more likely species of seabirds (Furness 2003, pp. anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, to become disoriented by manmade 33–35; Croxall et al. 2012, p. 24). H. hilaris, and H. longiceps) experience light sources (Montevecchi 2006, pp. Seabirds are caught in most types of the threat of habitat destruction and 101–102). Over a 12-year period (1978 fishing gear, notably in nets and on modification by nonnative plants to 1990), Harrison et al. (1990, p. 49) long-lines, where they suffer mortality (Factor A), and 26 of the 39 plants, and reported that 15 band-rumped storm- by drowning. Seabirds attending fishing all 10 animals, experience the threat of petrels, 13 of which were young, were vessels also come into contact with and predation and herbivory by nonnative recovered on Kauai as a result of fallout. consume deep-water fish they would animals (Factor C). Therefore, we Between 1991 and 2008, another 21 not normally have access to, and can conclude the existing regulatory band-rumped storm-petrels were become contaminated by high levels of mechanisms discussed above are collected on Kauai (Holmes and Joyce heavy metals in these fish (Furness

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2003, p. 34). Commercial fisheries also 2010, in litt.). Introduction of trash ecological succession by reducing cause depletion of small pelagic involving chemical contamination into herbivory of macroalgae, allowing an schooling fish, a significant food source anchialine pools, as has been observed overgrowth and change of pool flora. for seabirds (Furness 2003, p. 34). The elsewhere on Hawaii Island (Brock This overgrowth changes the system potential effects of these activities have 2004, pp. 15–16), could more drastically from clear, well-flushed basins to a not been assessed for the band-rumped affect water quality and result in local system characterized by heavy storm-petrel; however, we believe they extirpation of anchialine pool shrimp sedimentation and poor water exchange, can have the same effects as have been species. which increases the rate of pool shown for other seabirds. In addition, Anchialine pool habitats can senescence (Brock 2004, p. 16). pollution of the open ocean by plastics gradually disappear when wind-blown Nonnative fishes, unlike native fishes, and other marine debris that can be materials accumulate through a process are able to complete their life cycles mistaken for food by band-rumped known as senescence (Maciolek and within anchialine pool habitats, and storm-petrels may pose a threat to this Brock 1974, p. 3; Brock 2004, pp. 11, remain a permanent detrimental species (Ryan 1989, p. 629). Although a 35–36). Conditions promoting rapid presence in all pools in which they are study by Moser and Lee (1992, p. 85) senescence include an increased introduced (Brock 2004, p. 16). In found no evidence of plastic ingestion amount of sediment deposition, good Hawaii, the most frequently introduced by band-rumped storm-petrels, the exposure to light, shallowness, and a fishes are those in the family sample size was very small (4 weak connection with the water table, (freshwater fish which bear live young) individuals) and inadequate to resulting in sediment and detritus and include mosquito fish, various conclusively determine whether this accumulating within the pool instead of mollies (Poecilia spp.), and tilapia, species suffers from ingestion of being flushed away with tidal exchanges which prey on and exclude the plastics. Many closely related seabirds and ground water flow (Maciolek and herbivorous aquatic animals upon do suffer ill effects from ingestion of Brock 1974, p. 3; Brock 2004, pp. 11, which Procaris hawaiana feed. More plastics, including physical damage to 35–36). Sedimentation may be than 90 percent of the 600 to 700 the digestive tract, effects of toxins degrading the health of Hawaiian anchialine habitats in the State of carried on the plastics, and resulting anchialine pool systems in which the Hawaii were degraded between 1974 mortality (Ryan 1989, pp. 623–629). anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris and 2004, due to the introduction of hawaiana, and the orangeblack nonnative fishes, and we expect that Effects of Recreational Use, and Hawaiian damselfly, occur. this activity continues (Brock 2004, p. Dumping of Trash and Nonnative Fish In general, the accidental or 24). According to Brock (2012, pers. into Anchialine Pools intentional introduction and spread of comm.), sometime in the 1980s, On Hawaii Island, it is estimated that nonnative fishes (bait and aquarium nonnative fishes were introduced into up to 90 percent of the anchialine pools fish) is considered the greatest threat to Lua O Palahemo. It is our understanding have been destroyed or altered by anchialine pools in Hawaii (Brock 2004, that the fish were subsequently removed human activities (Brock 2004, p. i). The p. 16). Maciolek (1983, p. 612) found by illegal use of a fish poison (EPA more recent human modification of that the abundance of shrimp in a given 2007, pp. 22–23; Finlayson et al. 2010, anchialine pools includes bulldozing population is indirectly related to p. 2), and to our knowledge the pool is and filling of pools (Bailey-Brock and predation by fish. Lua O Palahemo is currently free of nonnative fish; Brock 1993, p. 354). Trampling damage vulnerable to the intentional dumping however, nonnative fish could be from use of anchialine pools for of nonnative bait and aquarium fishes introduced into the pool at any time. swimming and bathing has been because the area is accessible to vehicles documented (Brock 2004, pp. 13–17). and human traffic; however, due to its Low Numbers of Individuals and Historically, pools were sometimes remote location, is not monitored Populations modified with stone walls and steps by regularly by State agency staff. The Species that undergo significant Hawaiians who used them for bathing. release of mosquito fish (Gambusia habitat loss and degradation and other There are no documented negative affinis) and tilapia (Tilapia threats resulting in population decline impacts to pond biota as a result of this mossambica) into the Waikoloa and range reduction and fragmentation activity; however, introduction of soaps Anchialine Pond Preserve (WAAPA) at are inherently highly vulnerable to and shampoos is of concern (Brock Waikoloa, North Kona, Hawaii, resulted extinction because of localized 2004, p. 15). in the infestation of all ponds within an catastrophes such as hurricanes, floods, The depressional features of approximately 3-ha (8-ac) area, which rockfalls, landslides, treefalls, and anchialine pools make them susceptible represented about two-thirds of the drought; climate change impacts; to dumping. Refuse found in degraded WAAPA. Within 6 months, all native demographic stochasticity; and the pools and pools that have been filled hypogeal (subterranean) shrimp species increased risk of genetic bottlenecks and with rubble have been dated to about disappeared (Brock 2004, p. iii). inbreeding depression (Gilpin and Soule´ 100 years old, and the practice of Nonnative fishes drive anchialine 1986, pp. 24–34). These conditions are dumping trash into pools continues species out of the lighted, higher easily reached by island species and today (Brock 2004, p. 15). For example, productivity portion of the pools, into especially by species endemic to single Lua O Palahemo (Hawaii Island) is the surrounding water table bed rock, islands that face numerous threats such located approximately 560 ft (170 m) subsequently leading to the decimation as those described in this proposal from a sandy beach frequented by of the benthic community structure of (Pimm et al. 1988, p. 757; Mangel and visitors who fish and swim. There are the pool (Brock 2004, p. iii). In addition, Tier 1994, p. 607). Populations that have multiple dirt roads that surround the nonnative fishes prey on and exclude been diminished and isolated by habitat pool making it highly accessible. Plastic native hypogeal shrimp that are usually loss, predation, and other threats may bags, paper, fishing line, water bottles, a dominant and essential faunal exhibit reduced levels of genetic soda cans, radios, barbed wire, and a component of anchialine pool variability, which can diminish the bicycle have been documented within ecosystems (Brock 2004, p. 16; Bailey- species’ capacity to adapt to the pool (Kensley and Williams 1986, Brock and Brock 1993, pp. 338–355). environmental changes, thereby pp. 417–418; Bozanic 2004, p. 1; Wada The loss of the shrimp changes lessening the probability of long-term

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persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. Kadua haupuensis, Labordia been documented: Habitat destruction 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and modification by agriculture and Very small, isolated plant populations Phyllostegia helleri, Pritchardia bakeri, urban development, fire, droughts, are also more susceptible to reduced Santalum involutum, Stenogyne kaalae floods, and hurricanes; predation by reproductive vigor due to ineffective ssp. sherffii, and Wikstroemia nonnative fish and backswimmers; and pollination, inbreeding depression, and skottsbergiana. water extraction from streams and hybridization. This is particularly true ponds. The effects of these threats are Animals for functionally unisexual plants in this compounded by the current low number proposal like Myrsine fosbergii of which Like most native island biota, the of individuals and populations of the some individuals are functionally Hawaiian population of band-rumped orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. dioecious (staminate (male) and storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian We consider the anchialine pool pistillate (female) flowers occur on damselfly, the anchialine pool shrimp shrimp, Procaris hawaiana, vulnerable separate individuals). Isolated (Procaris hawaiana), and the seven to extinction due to impacts associated individuals have difficulty in achieving yellow-faced bees are particularly with low numbers of individuals and natural pollen exchange, which sensitive to disturbances due to their populations because this species is decreases the production of viable seed. diminished numbers of individuals and known from only 25 of over 500 Populations are also impacted by populations, and small geographic assessed anchialine pools on Hawaii demographic stochasticity, through ranges. Island, and from only 2 anchialine pools which populations are skewed toward The band-rumped storm-petrel is on Maui. Threats to P. hawaiana either male or female individuals by represented in Hawaii by very small include: Habitat destruction and chance. The problems associated with numbers of populations, and perhaps modification by agriculture and urban small occurrence size and vulnerability not more than a few hundred development; commercial trade; to random demographic fluctuations or individuals (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49). dumping of nonnative fish and trash natural catastrophes are further A single human-caused action such as into anchialine pools; and water magnified by interactions with other establishment of mongoose on Kauai, or extraction. The effects of these threats threats, such as those discussed above a hurricane during breeding season, are compounded by the low number of (see Factor A and Factor C, above). could cause reproductive failure and the individuals and populations of P. mortality of a significant percentage of hawaiana. Plants the extant individuals. Threats to this We consider the seven Hawaiian The effects resulting from having a species include habitat destruction and yellow-faced bees vulnerable to reduced number of individuals and modification, landslides and erosion, extinction due to impacts associated occurrences poses a threat to all 39 hurricanes, predation, injury and with low numbers of individuals and plant species addressed in this proposal. mortality from lights and structures, and populations. The 7 yellow-faced bee We consider the following 19 species other human factors (such as species currently occur in only 22 even more vulnerable to extinction due commercial fisheries). The effects of locations (with some overlap) on 6 main to threats associated with small these threats are compounded by the Hawaiian Islands, and are likely more occurrence size or small number of current low number of individuals and vulnerable to habitat change and occurrences because: populations of band-rumped storm- stochastic events due to low numbers • The only known occurrences of petrel. and occurrences (Daly and Magnacca Cyanea kauaulaensis, Labordia We consider the orangeblack 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007a, p. 173). lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and Hawaiian damselfly vulnerable to Hylaeus anthracinus occurs in 15 total Phyllostegia helleri are threatened either extinction due to impacts associated locations from Hawaii Island, Maui, by landslides, rockfalls, treefalls, with low numbers of individuals and Kahoolawe, Molokai, and Oahu, but has drought, or erosion, or a combination of low numbers of populations because not been recently observed in its last these factors. this species is known from only 5 of 8 known location on Lanai; H. assimulans • Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii Island, Maui, is found in 5 total locations on Maui, hematos, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu), where it Lanai, and Kahoolawe, but has not been ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia occurred historically, and because of the observed recently on Oahu or Molokai; lorenciana, and Nothocestrum current reduction in numbers on each of H. facilis is found in 2 total locations on latifolium are declining and they have those five islands. Jordan et al. (2007, p. Oahu and Molokai, but has not been not been observed regenerating in the 247) conducted a genetic and observed recently from Lanai and Maui; wild. comparative phylogeography analysis (a H. hilaris is known from one population • The only known wild individuals of study of historical processes responsible on Molokai and has not been observed Cyperus neokunthianus, Kadua for genetic divergence within a species) recently from Lanai and Maui; H. haupuensis, and Stenogyne kaalae ssp. of four Hawaiian Megalagrion species, kuakea is known from one small area on sherffii are extirpated; there is one including the orangeblack Hawaiian Oahu; H. longiceps is known from 6 remaining individual of Deparia damselfly. This analysis demonstrated total locations on Maui, Lanai, Molokai, kaalaana, and only two individuals of Megalagrion populations with low and Oahu, but has not been collected Phyllostegia brevidens. Kadua genetic diversity are at greater risk of from several historical locations on haupuensis, Phyllostegia brevidens, and decline and extinction that those with those islands; and H. mana is known Stenogyne kaalae ssp. Sherffii only exist high genetic diversity. The authors from 3 locations on Oahu. Threats to in propagation. found that low genetic diversity was these species include agriculture and • The following single-island observed in populations known to be urban development; habitat destruction endemic species are known from fewer bottlenecked or relictual (groups of and modification by nonnative than 250 individuals: Asplenium animals or plants that exist as a remnant ungulates, nonnative plants, fire, diellaciniatum, Cyanea kauaulaensis, of a formerly widely distributed group), drought, and hurricanes; the effects of Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra including populations of the climate change on habitat; loss of host hematos, Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. The plants; and predation or competition by Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, following threats to this species have all nonnative ants, wasps, and bees. The

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effects of these threats are compounded introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana is by the low numbers of individuals and 1875, and currently inhabits areas from unavailable (Daly and Magnacca 2003, populations of the seven yellow-faced sea level to the upper boundary p. 10). bees. (Howarth 1985, p. 156). Individuals of Loss of Host Plants Through the European honey bee have been Hybridization Competition observed foraging on Hylaeus host Natural hybridization is a frequent plants such as Scaevola spp. and The seven yellow-faced bees are phenomenon in plants and can lead to Sesbania tomentosa (ohai) (Hopper et dependent upon native flowering plants the creation of new species (Orians al. 1996, p. 9; Daly and Magnacca 2003, for their food resources, pollen and 2000, p. 1949), or sometimes to the p. 13; Snelling 2003, p. 345). Although nectar, and for nesting sites. Introduced decline of species through genetic we lack information indicating invertebrates are a threat to yellow-faced assimilation or ‘‘introgression’’ Hawaiian Hylaeus populations have bees, by outcompeting native Hylaeus (Ellstrand 1992, pp. 77, 81; Levin et al. declined because of competition with for use of host plants for pollen, nectar, 1996, pp. 10–16; Rhymer and Simberloff the European honey bee for nectar and and nesting sites. This effect is 1996, p. 85). Hybridization, however, is pollen, it does forage in Hylaeus habitat compounded by the impacts of especially problematic for rare species and may exclude Hylaeus species nonnative ungulates on native host that come into contact with species that (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188; Lach 2008, p. plants for Hylaeus (see Factors A and C). are abundant or more common (Rhymer 155). Hylaeus species do not occur in Nonnative plants are a threat to the and Simberloff 1996, p. 83). We native habitat where there are large seven yellow-faced bees and their host consider hybridization to be a threat to plants because they: (1) Degrade habitat Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis numbers of European honey bee and outcompete native plants; (2) can because it may lead to extinction of the individuals, but the impact of smaller, increase the intensity, extent, and original genotypically distinct variety, more moderate populations is not frequency of fire, converting native as noted by biologists’ observations of known (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). shrubland and forest to land dominated the Oahu occurrences (Kawelo 2009, in Nonnative, invasive bees are widely by nonnative grasses; and (3) may cause litt.). Only 15 to 20 individuals on Oahu documented to decrease nectar volumes the loss of the native host plants upon express the true phenotype of the and usurp native pollinators (Lach 2008, which the yellow-faced bees depend variety (Ching 2011, in litt.). p. 155). There are also indications that populations of the European honey bee (Factor A). Drought, fire, and water No Regeneration are not as vulnerable as Hylaeus species extraction may lead to loss of host Lack of, or low levels of, regeneration to predation by nonnative ant species plants within the known ranges of (reproduction and recruitment) in the (see ‘‘C. Disease or Predation,’’ above). populations of yellow-faced bees, and wild has been observed, and is a threat Lach (2008, p. 155) observed that are discussed in ‘‘A. The Present or to seven plants: Cyrtandra hematos, Hylaeus bees that regularly collect Threatened Destruction, Modification, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens pollen from flowers of the native tree or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range,’’ ssp. ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, Metrosideros polymorpha were entirely above. Lepidium orbiculare, and Nothocestrum absent from trees with flowers visited by Climate Change latifolium (see ‘‘Low Numbers of the big-headed ant (Pheidole Individuals and Populations,’’ ‘‘Plants,’’ megacephala), while visits by the Our analyses under the Act include above), proposed for listing in this rule. European honey bee were not affected. consideration of ongoing and projected The reasons for this are not well As a result, Lach (2008, p. 155) changes in climate. The terms ‘‘climate’’ understood; however, seed predation by concluded that the European honey bee and ‘‘climate change’’ are defined by the rats and ungulates, inbreeding may have a competitive advantage over Intergovernmental Panel on Climate depression, and lack of pollinators are Hylaeus species, as it is not excluded by Change (IPCC). ‘‘Climate’’ refers to the thought to play a role (Wagner et al. the big-headed ant. Other nonnative mean and variability of different types 1999, p. 1451; Wood et al. 2007, p. 198; bees found in areas of native vegetation of weather conditions over time, with 30 HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer and Lorence and overlapping with native Hylaeus years being a typical period for such 2010, pp. 20–21; PEPP 2010, p. 73; PEPP population sites include Ceratina measurements, although shorter or 2014, p. 34). species (carpenter bees), Hylaeus longer periods also may be used (IPCC albonitens (Australian colletid bees), H. 2013, p. 1450). The term ‘‘climate Competition With Nonnative strenuus (NCN), and Lasioglossum change’’ thus refers to a change in the Invertebrates impavidum (NCN) (Magnacca 2007b, p. mean or variability of one or more There are 15 known species of 188; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 19– measures of climate (e.g., temperature or nonnative bees in Hawaii (Snelling 22). While it has been suggested these precipitation) that persists for an 2003, p. 342), including two nonnative nonnative bees may impact native extended period, typically decades or Hylaeus species (Magnacca 2007b, p. Hylaeus bees through competition for longer, whether the change is due to 188). Most nonnative bees inhabit areas pollen base on their similar size and natural variability, human activity, or dominated by nonnative vegetation and flower preferences, there is no both (IPCC 2013, p. 1450). Various types do not compete with Hawaiian bees for information that demonstrates these of changes in climate can have direct or foraging resources (Daly and Magnacca nonnative bees forage on Hylaeus host indirect effects on species. These effects 2003, p. 13); however, the European plants (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188; may be positive, neutral, or negative and honey bee (Apis mellifera) is an Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 19–22). It they may change over time, depending exception. This social species is often has also been suggested parasitoid on the species and other relevant very abundant in areas with native wasps may compete for nectar with considerations, such as the effects of vegetation and aggressively competes native Hylaeus species; however, interactions of climate with other with Hylaeus for nectar and pollen information demonstrating nonnative variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation) (Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Daly and parasitoid wasps forage on the same (IPCC 2007, pp. 8–14, 18–19). In our Magnacca 2003, p. 13; Snelling 2003, p. host plants as H. anthracinus, H. analyses, we use our expert judgment to 345). The European honey bee was first assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. weigh relevant information, including

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uncertainty, in our consideration of 103–105). Stream-gauge data provide conservation concern (because they face various aspects of climate change. evidence of a long-term decrease in multiple non-climate threats) (Fortini et Climate change will be a particular precipitation and stream flow on the al. 2013, pp. 25, 37). The specific challenge for the conservation of Hawaiian Islands (Oki 2004, p. 4). This impacts of climate change effects on the biodiversity because the introduction long-term drying trend, coupled with habitat, biology, and ecology of and interaction of additional stressors existing ditch diversions and periodic El individual species are largely unknown may push species beyond their ability to Nin˜ o-caused drying events, has created and remain a subject of study. However, survive (Lovejoy et al. 2005, pp. 325– a pattern of severe and persistent stream in the assessment of more than 1,000 326). The synergistic implications of dewatering events (Polhemus 2008, in Hawaiian plants, including 319 already climate change and habitat litt., p. 26). Altered seasonal moisture listed as threatened or endangered, a fragmentation are the most threatening regimes can have negative impacts on strong relationship emerged between facets of climate change for biodiversity plant growth cycles and overall negative climate vulnerability scores and current (Hannah et al. 2005, p. 4). The impacts on native ecosystems (US– threats and conservation status (Fortini magnitude and intensity of the impacts GCRP 2009, pp. 32–33). Long periods of et al. 2013, p. 5). Therefore, we of global climate change and increasing decline in annual precipitation result in anticipate that the other 11 plant species temperatures on native Hawaiian a reduction of moisture availability, an proposed for listing are likely to be ecosystems are the subjects of active increase in drought frequency and similarly vulnerable to climate change research. intensity, and a self-perpetuating cycle effects. The projected landcape- or The average ambient air temperature of nonnative plant invasion, fire, and island-scale changes in temperature and (at sea level) is projected to increase erosion (US–GCRP 2009, pp. 32–33; precipitation, as well as the potentially globally by about 4.1 degrees Fahrenheit Warren 2011, pp. 221–226) (see ‘‘Habitat catatrophic impacts of projected (°F) (2.3 °Celsius (C)) with a range of 2.7 Destruction and Modification by Fire,’’ increases in storm frequency and °F to 6.7 °F (1.5 °C to 3.7 °C) by 2100 above). Overall, the projected increase severity, also point to likely adverse worldwide (IPCC 2007, in litt.). These in variance of precipitation events will impacts of climate change on all 10 of changes would increase the monthly change patterns of water availability for the animal species considered in this average temperature of the Hawaiian the species (Parmesan and Matthews proposal because they rely on abiotic Islands from the current value of 74 °F 2006, p. 340), changes that point to conditions, such as water temperature, (23.3 °C) to between 77 °F to 86 °F (25 changes in plant communities as a or habitat elements, such as host plants, °C to 30 °C). Temperature has been consequence over the coming decades. likely to be substantively altered by rising over the last 100 years, with the Tropical cyclone frequency and climate change. greatest increase occurring after 1975 intensity are projected to change as a In summary, based on the best (Alexander et al. 2006, pp. 1–22; result of climate change over the next available information, we conclude that Giambelluca et al. 2008, p. 1). On the 100 to 200 years (Vecchi and Soden changes in environmental conditions main Hawaiian Islands, predicted 2007, pp. 1068–1069, Figures 2 and 3; that result from projected climate changes associated with increases in Emanuel et al. 2008, p. 360, Figure 8; Yu change are likely to negatively affect all temperature include a shift in vegetation et al. 2010, p. 1371, Figure 14). In the 49 species we are proposing to list as zones upslope, a similar shift in animal central Pacific, modeling projects an endangered in this rule. Climate change species’ ranges, changes in mean increase of up to two additional tropical effects, including increased inter-annual precipitation with unpredictable effects cyclones per year in the main Hawaiian variability of ambient temperature, on local environments, increased Islands by 2100 (Murakami et al. 2013, precipitation, and hurricanes, are likely occurrence of drought cycles, and p. 2, Figure 1d). In general, tropical to impose additional stresses on all 11 increases in the intensity and numbers cyclones with the intensities of ecosystems and all 49 species, thus of hurricanes (Loope and Giambelluca hurricanes have been an uncommon exacerbating current threats to these 1998, pp. 514–515; U.S. Global Change occurrence in the Hawaiian Islands. species. The probability of a species Research Program (US–GCRP) 2009, pp. From the 1800s until 1949, hurricanes going extinct as a result of these effects 10, 12, 17–18, 32–33). were only rarely reported from ships in increases when its range is restricted, its The forecast of changes in the area. Between 1950 and 1997, 22 habitat decreases, and its abundance precipitation is highly uncertain hurricanes passed near or over the declines (IPCC 2014, pp. 14–15). These because it depends, in part, on how the Hawaiian Islands, and 5 of these caused 49 species all persist with small El Nin˜ o-La Nin˜ a weather cycle (a serious damage (Businger 1998). A population sizes and highly restricted or disruption of the ocean atmospheric recent study shows that, with a possible fragmented ranges. They thus face system in the tropical Pacific having shift in the path of the subtropical jet increased risk from stochastic events important global consequences for stream northward, away from Hawaii, such as hurricanes, which can weather and climate) might change more storms will be able to approach extinguish an important proportion of (State of Hawaii 1998, pp. 2–10). and reach the Hawaiian Islands from an the remaining individuals, and from However, over the past 100 years, the easterly direction, with Hurricane Iselle environmental changes because these Hawaiian Islands have experienced an in 2014 being an example (Murakami et species may lack ecological or genetic annual decline in precipitation of just al. 2015, p. 751). adaptive capacity (Fortini et al. 2013, over 9 percent (US–NSTC 2008, p. 61) As described above (see ‘‘Climate pp. 3–5). and a steady decline of about 15 percent change vulnerability assessment for In addition to indirect impacts over the last 15 to 20 years (Chu and Hawaiian plants,’’ above; Table 3), 28 of resulting from changes in habitat and Chen 2005, pp. 4802–4803; Diaz et al. the 39 plant species in this proposal disturbance regimes, these species may 2006, pp. 1–3). Models of future rainfall were included in the recent analysis of experience direct impacts of climate downscaled for Hawaii generally project the vulnerability of Hawaiian plants to change, for example, physiological increasingly wet windward slopes and climate change conducted by Fortini et stress in the orangeblack Hawaiian mild to extreme drying of leeward areas al. (2013, 134 pp.). All 28 species scored damselfly caused by increased stream in particular by the middle and end of as moderately to highly vulnerable, as temperatures to which the species is not the 21st century (Timm and Diaz 2009, did most other species in the analysis adapted (Pounds et al. 1999, pp. 611– p. 4262; Elison Timm et al. 2015, pp. 95, that already are considered to be of 612; Still et al. 1999, p. 610; Benning et

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al. 2002, pp. 14246, 14248). These hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Joinvillea recruitment in the wild are unknown aspects of climate change and their ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua and uncontrolled, and any competition impacts on native species and haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, from nonnative plants or habitat ecosystems may be exacerbated by Lepidium orbiculare, Nothocestrum modification by ungulates or fire, or human demand on Hawaii’s natural latifolium, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. other threats, could lead to the resources; for example, decreased helleri, Pritchardia bakeri, Santalum extirpation of these species. availability of fresh water will magnify involutum, Stenogyne kaalae ssp. We consider the threat of competition the impact of human water sherffii, and Wikstroemia with invertebrates an ongoing threat to consumption on Hawaii’s natural skottsbergiana. Low numbers and small the yellow-faced bees, Hylaeus streams and reservoirs (Giambelluca et occurrences of these plants result in anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, al. 1991, p. v). Although we do not greater vulnerability to stochastic events H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and consider climate change to be a current and can result in reduced levels of H. mana, proposed for listing in this threat, we anticipate that climate change genetic variability leading to diminished rule. Nonnative wasps and bees are impacts are likely to contribute to the capacity to adapt to environmental aggressive and can prevent use of the multiple stressors affecting the status of changes. Under these circumstances, the native host plants required for food and all of these species, and are likely to probability of long-term persistence is nesting by all seven yellow-faced bees. become a threat to most or all of them diminished, potentially resulting in The projected effects of increasing in the future. extirpation and extinction. This threat temperature and other aspects of climate applies to the entire range of each of change on the 49 species may be direct, Summary of Factor E these species. such as physiological stress caused by We consider the threat from artificial We also consider the impacts from increased temperature or lack of lighting and structures to be an ongoing limited numbers of individuals and moisture, or indirect, such as the threat to the band-rumped storm-petrel populations to be an ongoing threat to modification or destruction of habitat, in Hawaii, proposed for listing in this all 10 animal species proposed for increased competition by nonnative rule, because these threats can cause listing in this rule. species, and changes in disturbance injury and mortality, resulting in a loss The threat to the band-rumped storm- regimes that lead to changes in habitat of breeding individuals and juveniles, petrel from limited numbers and (e.g., fire, drought, flooding, and and this threat is expected to continue populations is ongoing and is expected hurricanes). The specific and into the future. The potential threats of to continue into the future. cumulative effects of climate change on injury or mortality, or loss of food We also consider the impacts from each of these 49 species are presently sources, caused by the activities of limited numbers of individuals and unknown, but we anticipate that these commercial fisheries, and injury or populations to be an ongoing threat to effects, if realized, will exacerbate the mortality from ingestion of plastics and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the current threats to these species and marine debris, can contribute to further anchialine pool shrimp Procaris become a threat to most or all of them decline in the Hawaiian population of hawaiana, and to the yellow-faced bees in the future. the band-rumped storm-petrel. Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. We consider the threats from facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. Proposed Determination for 49 Species recreational use of, and dumping of longiceps, and H. mana. The threat from Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), trash and introduction of nonnative fish limited numbers of individuals and and its implementing regulations at 50 into, the pools that support the populations is ongoing and is expected CFR part 424, set forth the procedures anchialine pool shrimp Procaris to continue into the future because: (1) for adding species to the Federal Lists hawaiana proposed for listing in this A single catastrophic event may result of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife rule to be threats that have the potential in extirpation of remaining populations and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the to occur at any time, although their and extinction of these species; (2) Act, we may list a species based on: (A) occurrence is not predictable. The use of species with few known occurrences are The present or threatened destruction, anchialine pools for dumping of trash less resilient to threats that might modification, or curtailment of its can lead to accelerated sedimentation in otherwise have a relatively minor habitat or range; (B) oOverutilization for the pool, exacerbating conditions impact (on widely-distributed species); commercial, recreational, scientific, or leading to its senescence. Nonnative fish (3) these species may experience educational purposes; (C) dDisease or prey on, or outcompete, native reduced reproductive vigor due to predation; (D) tThe inadequacy of herbivorous anchialine pool shrimp that inbreeding depression; and (4) they may existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) serve as the prey base for predatory experience reduced levels of genetic oOther natural or manmade factors species of anchialine pool shrimp, and variability leading to diminished affecting its continued existence. Listing may also prey on Procaris hawaiana. capacity to adapt to environmental actions may be warranted based on any Changing the anchialine pool system by changes, thereby lessening the of the above threat factors, singly or in dumping of trash, introduction of probability of its long-term persistence. combination. nonnative fish, and sedimentation may The threat from hybridization is an We have carefully assessed the best also affect habitat for the orangeblack unpredictable but ongoing threat to scientific and commercial information Hawaiian damselfly. Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, as available regarding the past, present, We consider the impacts from limited has been observed at occurrences on and future threats to each of the 49 numbers of individuals and populations Oahu. species proposed for listing. We find to be an ongoing threat to all 39 plant We consider the threat to Cyanea that all of these species face threats that species proposed for listing in this rule, kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra hematos, are ongoing and are expected to and especially for the following 19 Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens continue into the future throughout plants: Asplenium diellaciniatum, ssp. ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, their ranges. Habitat destruction and Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyperus Lepidium orbiculare, and Nothocestrum modification by agriculture and urban neokunthianus, Cyrtandra hematos, latifolium from lack of regeneration to development is a threat to four plants Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. be ongoing to continue into the future (Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca pusilla, Gardenia remyi, Hypolepis because the reasons for the lack of villosa, Pseudognaphalium

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sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and axis deer, black-tailed deer, cattle, sheep of band-rumped storm petrel is Solanum nelsonii) and six animals (the and mouflon, rats, and slugs; see Table presently in danger of extinction orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the 3); to the band-rumped storm petrel (by throughout its entire range, based on the anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris owls, cats, rats, and mongoose); to the immediacy, severity, and scope of the hawaiana), Hylaeus anthracinus, H. orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (by threats described above. Therefore, on assimulans, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps) backswimmers); and to the seven the basis of the best available scientific (Factor A). Habitat destruction and yellow-faced bees (by ants and wasps) and commercial information, we modification by nonnative feral (Factor C). Predation by nonnative fish propose to list the following 49 species ungulates or nonnative plants poses a is a potential threat to the orangeblack as endangered in accordance with threat to 46 of the 49 species (all except Hawaiian damselfly and the anchialine sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act: the for Cyanea kauaulaensis, Hypolepis pool shrimp (Factor C). The inadequacy plants Asplenium diellaciniatum, hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, and the of existing regulatory mechanisms (i.e., Calamagrostis expansa, Cyanea anchialine pool shrimp) (Factor A). inadequate protection of habitat and kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, Fifteen of the plant species (Exocarpos inadequate protection from the Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis, introduction of nonnative species) poses hematos, Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, an ongoing threat to all 49 species glabra var. pusilla, Exocarpos menziesii, Labordia lorenciana, Nothocestrum (Factor D). Injury and mortality caused Festuca hawaiiensis, Gardenia remyi, latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, by artificial lighting and structures are Huperzia stemmermanniae, Hypolepis Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca ongoing threats to the band-rumped hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Joinvillea villosa, Ranunculus mauiensis, storm-petrel (Factor E). There are ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua Sanicula sandwicensis, Santalum ongoing threats to all 49 species due to fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia involutum, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos factors associated with low numbers of lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus, and individuals and populations (Factor E). Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, Solanum nelsonii), the orangeblack The threat of low numbers to seven Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum Hawaiian damselfly, and all seven plants (Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, yellow-faced bees, are threatened by hematos, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea Phyllostegia brevidens, Phyllostegia habitat destruction and modification ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia helleri, Phyllostegia stachyoides, from fire. Nineteen of the plant species lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and Portulaca villosa, Pritchardia bakeri, (Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus Nothocestrum latifolium) is exacerbated Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, Gardenia by lack of regeneration in the wild molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. (Factor E). Recreational use of, and Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. dumping of trash and nonnative fish sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, huapuensis, Labordia lorenciana, into, anchialine pools is a threat to the Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, Schiedea Lepidium orbiculare, Ochrosia anchialine pool shrimp and also to the pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, Sicyos haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly that macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, helleri, P. stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, may use that habitat (Factor E). Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Competition by ants, wasps, and bees Wikstroemia skottsbergiana; and the molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, for the food and nesting resources, following animals: the band-rumped R. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, including loss of native host plants, is storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro), the and Schiedea pubescens, and Solanum a threat to all seven yellow-faced bees orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly nelsonii) and the band-rumped storm- (Factor E). These threats are exacerbated (Megalagrion xanthomelas), the petrel are threatened by the destruction by these species’ inherent vulnerability anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris and modification of their habitats from to extinction from stochastic events at hawaiana), and the yellow-faced bees either singly or in combination: any time because of their endemism, Hylaeus anthracinus, Hylaeus landslides, rockfalls, treefalls, or low numbers of individuals and assimulans, Hylaeus facilis, Hylaeus flooding (Factor A). Habitat loss or populations, and restricted habitats. In hilaris, Hylaeus kuakea, Hylaeus degradation, or loss of host plants, or addition, we are concerned about the longiceps, and Hylaeus mana. mortality, and water extraction, due to projected effects of rising temperature Under the Act and our implementing drought is a threat to Deparia kaalaana, and other aspects of climate change on regulations, a species may warrant Huperzia stemmermanniae, Phyllostegia all 49 species (Factor E). We recognize listing if it is in danger of extinction or stacyoides, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. that limited information exists on the likely to become so throughout all or a mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, exact nature of impacts that these significant portion of its range (SPR). Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos species may experience, but we Under our SPR policy (79 FR 37578, lanceoloideus, and Solanum nelsonii; anticipate that climate change effects are July 1, 2014), if a species is endangered and to the orangeblack Hawaiian likely to exacerbate the current threats or threatened throughout a significant damselfly; and all seven yellow-faced to these species and may become a portion of its range and the population bees (Factor A and Factor E). Habitat threat to most of all of them in the in that significant portion is a valid loss and mortality resulting from future. DPS, we will list the DPS rather than the hurricanes is a threat to the plant The Act defines an endangered entire taxonomic species or subspecies. Pritchardia bakeri, the band-rumped species as any species that is ‘‘in danger We have determined that the Hawaii storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian of extinction throughout all or a population of the band-rumped storm- damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced significant portion of its range’’ and a petrel is a valid DPS, and we proposed bees (Factor A). Overcollection for threatened species as any species ‘‘that to list that DPS. Each of the other 48 commercial purposes poses a threat to is likely to become endangered species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands the anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris throughout all or a significant portion of proposed for listing in this rule is highly hawaiana (Factor B). Predation and its range within the foreseeable future.’’ restricted in its range, and the threats herbivory is an ongoing threat to 33 of We find that each of the endemic occur throughout its range. Therefore, the 39 plant species (by feral pigs, goats, Hawaiian species and the Hawaiian DPS we assessed the status of each species

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throughout its entire range. In each case, shortly after a species is listed and we invite you to submit any new the threats to the survival of these preparation of a draft and final recovery information on these species whenever species occur throughout the species’ plan. The recovery outline guides the it becomes available and any range and are not restricted to any immediate implementation of urgent information you may have for recovery particular portion of that range. recovery actions and describes the planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER Accordingly, our assessment and process to be used to develop a recovery INFORMATION CONTACT). proposed determination applies to each plan. Revisions of the plan may be done Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, species throughout its entire range. to address continuing or new threats to requires Federal agencies to evaluate Likewise, we assessed the status of the the species, as new substantive their actions with respect to any species Hawaii DPS of the band-rumped storm information becomes available. The that is proposed or listed as endangered petrel throughout the range of the DPS recovery plan also identifies recovery or threatened with respect to its critical and have determined that the threats criteria for review of when a species habitat, if any is designated. Regulations occur throughout the DPS and are not may be ready for downlisting or implementing this interagency restricted to any particular portion of delisting, and methods for monitoring cooperation provision of the Act are the DPS. Because we have determined recovery progress. Recovery plans also codified at 50 CFR part 402. Section that these 48 species and one DPS are establish a framework for agencies to 7(a)(4) of the Act requires Federal endangered throughout all of their coordinate their recovery efforts and agencies to confer with the Service on ranges, no portion of their ranges can be provide estimates of the cost of any action that is likely to jeopardize ‘‘significant’’ for purposes of the implementing recovery tasks. Recovery the continued existence of a species definitions of ‘‘endangered species’’ and teams (comprised of species experts, proposed for listing or result in ‘‘threatened species.’’ See the Final Federal and State agencies, destruction or adverse modification of Policy on Interpretation of the Phrase nongovernmental organizations, and proposed critical habitat. If a species is ‘‘Significant Portion of Its Range’’ in the stakeholders) are often established to listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of Endangered Species Act’s Definitions of develop recovery plans. When the Act requires Federal agencies to ‘‘Endangered Species’’ and ‘‘Threatened completed, the recovery outlines, draft ensure that activities they authorize, Species’’ (79 FR 37578, July 1, 2014). recovery plans, and the final recovery fund, or carry out are not likely to plans will be available on our Web site jeopardize the continued existence of Available Conservation Measures (http://www.fws.gov/endangered), or the species or destroy or adversely Conservation measures provided to from our Pacific Islands Fish and modify its critical habitat. If a Federal species listed as endangered or Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER action may affect a listed species or its threatened under the Act include INFORMATION CONTACT). critical habitat, the responsible Federal recognition, recovery actions, Implementation of recovery actions agency must enter into consultation requirements for Federal protection, and generally requires the participation of a with the Service. prohibitions against certain activities. broad range of partners, including other For the 49 plants and animals Recognition through listing results in Federal agencies, States, proposed for listing as endangered public awareness and conservation by nongovernmental organizations, species in this rule, Federal agency Federal, State, and local agencies; businesses, and private landowners. actions that may require consultation as private organizations; and individuals. Examples of recovery actions include described in the preceding paragraph The Act encourages cooperation with habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of include, but are not limited to, actions the States and other countries and calls native vegetation), research, captive within the jurisdiction of the Natural for recovery actions to be carried out for propagation and reintroduction, and Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), listed species. The protection required outreach and education. The recovery of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the by Federal agencies and the prohibitions many listed species cannot be U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and against certain activities involving listed accomplished solely on Federal lands branches of the Department of Defense animals and plants are discussed, in because their range may occur primarily (DOD). Examples of these types of part, below. or solely on non-Federal lands. To actions include activities funded or The primary purpose of the Act is the achieve recovery of these species authorized under the Farm Bill Program, conservation of endangered and requires cooperative conservation efforts Environmental Qualitiy Incentives threatened species and the ecosystems on private and State lands. Program, Ground and Surface Water upon which they depend. The ultimate If these species are listed, funding for Conservation Program, Clean Water Act goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery actions will be available from (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.), Partners for recovery of these listed species, so that a variety of sources, including Federal Fish and Wildlife Program, and DOD they no longer need the protective budgets, State programs, and cost share construction activities related to measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of grants for non-Federal landowners, the training or other military missions. the Act calls for the Service to develop academic community, and The Act and its implementing and implement recovery plans for the nongovernmental organizations. In regulations set forth a series of general conservation of endangered and addition, pursuant to section 6 of the prohibitions and exceptions that apply threatened species. The recovery Act, the State of Hawaii would be to endangered wildlife. The prohibitions planning process involves the eligible for Federal funds to implement of section 9(a)(1) of the Act, codified at identification of actions that are management actions that promote the 50 CFR 17.21, make it illegal for any necessary to halt or reverse the species’ protection or recovery of the 49 species. person subject to the jurisdiction of the decline by addressing the threats to its Information on our grant programs that United States to take (which includes survival and recovery. The goal of this are available to aid species recovery can harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, process is to restore listed species to a be found at: http://www.fws.gov/grants. wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect; or point where they are secure, self- Although these species are only to attempt any of these) endangered sustaining, and functioning components proposed for listing under the Act at wildlife within the United States or the of their ecosystems. this time, please let us know if you are high . In addition, it is unlawful to Recovery planning includes the interested in participating in recovery import; export; deliver, receive, carry, development of a recovery outline efforts for these species. Additionally, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign

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commerce in the course of commercial section 9 of the Act. The intent of this conservation as to use and the use of all activity; or sell or offer for sale in policy is to increase public awareness of methods and procedures which are interstate or foreign commerce any the effect of a proposed listing on necessary to bring any endangered listed species. It is also illegal to proposed and ongoing activities within species or threatened species to the possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or the range of species proposed for listing. point at which the measures provided ship any such wildlife that has been Based on the best available information, pursuant to the Act are no longer taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply the following activites may potentially necessary. to employees of the Service, the result in a violation of section 9 of the Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as National Marine Fisheries Service, other Act, this list is not comprehensive: amended, and implementing regulations Federal land management agencies, and (1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, (50 CFR 424.12), require that, to the State conservation agencies. possessing, selling, delivering, carrying, maximum extent prudent and We may issue permits to carry out or transporting of the species, including determinable, the Secretary will otherwise prohibited activities import or export across State lines and designate critical habitat at the time the involving endangered wildlife under international boundaries, except for species is determined to be an certain circumstances. Regulations properly documented antique endangered or threatened species. Our governing permits are codified at 50 specimens of these taxa at least 100 regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state CFR 17.22. With regard to endangered years old, as defined by section 10(h)(1) that the designation of critical habitat is wildlife, a permit must be issued for the of the Act. not prudent when one or both of the following purposes: For scientific (2) Activities that take or harm the following situations exist: purposes, to enhance the propagation or band-rumped storm-petrel, the (1) The species is threatened by taking survival of the species, and for orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the or other human activity, and incidental take in connection with anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris identification of critical habitat can be otherwise lawful activities. There are hawaiana), and the seven yellow-faced expected to increase the degree of threat also certain statutory exemptions from bees by causing significant habitat to the species, or the prohibitions, which are found in modification or degradation such that it (2) Such designation of critical habitat sections 9 and 10 of the Act. causes actual injury by significantly would not be beneficial to the species. With respect to endangered plants, impairing essential behavior patterns. Besides the unpermitted collection of prohibitions outlined at 50 CFR 17.61 This may include introduction of the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris make it illegal for any person subject to nonnative species that compete with or hawaiana for trade for the aquarium the jurisdiction of the United States to prey upon the 10 animal species or the hobby market, we do not know of any import or export, transport in interstate unauthorized release of biological imminent threat of take attributed to or foreign commerce in the course of a control agents that attack the life stage collection or vandalism under Factor B commercial activity, sell or offer for sale of any of these 10 species. for these plant and animal species. The in interstate or foreign commerce, or to (3) Damaging or destroying any of the available information does not indicate remove and reduce to possession any 39 plant species in violation of the that identification and mapping of such plant species from areas under Hawaii State law prohibiting the take of critical habitat is likely to increase the Federal jurisdiction. In addition, for listed species. threat of collection for the pool shrimp endangered plants, the Act prohibits (4) Introduction of nonnative species or initiate any threat of collection or malicious damage or destruction of any that compete with or prey upon the 29 vandalism for any of the other 48 such species on any area under Federal 49 species proposed for listing, such as species proposed for lising in this rule. jurisdiction, and the removal, cutting, the introduction of competing, Therefore, in the absence of finding that digging up, or damaging or destroying of nonnative plants or animals to the State the designation of critical habitat would any such species on any other area in of Hawaii. increase threats to a species, if there are knowing violation of any State law or (5) The unauthorized release of any benefits to a critical habitat regulation, or in the course of any biological control agents that attack any designation, a finding that designation violation of a State criminal trespass life stage of these 49 species. is prudent is warranted. Here, the law. Exceptions to these prohibitions Questions regarding whether specific potential benefits of designation are outlined in 50 CFR 17.62. The activities would constitute a violation of include: (1) Triggering consultation Hawaii ESA prohibits take of plants; section 9 of the Act should be directed under section 7 of the Act, in new areas however, the Hawaii ESA affords no to the Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife for actions in which there may be a protection of habitat (HRS 195D–4(a)). Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION Federal nexus where it would not We may issue permits to carry out CONTACT). otherwise occur because, for example, it otherwise prohibited activities is unoccupied; (2) focusing conservation Critical Habitat involving endangered plants under activities on the most essential features certain circumstances. Regulations Section 3(5)(A) of the Act defines and areas; (3) providing educational governing permits are codified at 50 critical habitat as (i) the specific areas benefits to State or county governments CFR 17.62. With regard to endangered within the geographical area occupied or private entities; and (4) preventing plants, the Service may issue a permit by the species, at the time it is listed people from causing inadvertent harm authorizing any activity otherwise . . . on which are found those physical to these species. prohibited by 50 CFR 17.61 for scientific or biological features (I) essential to the Because we have determined that the purposes or for enhancing the conservation of the species and (II) designation of critical habitat will not propagation or survival of endangered which may require special management likely increase the degree of threat to the plants. considerations or protection; and (ii) species and may provide some measure It is our policy, as published in the specific areas outside the geographical of benefit, we determine that Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR area occupied by the species at the time designation of critical habitat is prudent 34272), to identify to the maximum it is listed upon a determination by the for all 49 species proposed for listing in extent practicable at the time a species Secretary that such areas are essential this rule. is listed, those activities that would or for the conservation of the species. Our regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(2)) would not constitute a violation of Section 3(3) of the Act defines further state that critical habitat is not

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determinable when one or both of the If you feel that we have not met these recordkeeping requirements, following situations exists: (1) requirements, send us comments by one Transportation. Information sufficient to perform of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES Proposed Regulation Promulgation required analysis of the impacts of the section. To better help us revise this designation is lacking; or (2) the proposed rule, your comments should Accordingly, we propose to amend biological needs of the species are not be as specific as possible. For example, part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title sufficiently well known to permit you should tell us the numbers of the 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, identification of an area as critical sections or paragraphs that are unclearly as set forth below: habitat. written, which sections or sentences are Delineation of critical habitat requires too long, the sections where you feel PART 17—[AMENDED] identification of the physical and lists or tables would be useful, etc. ■ biological features, within the 1. The authority citation for part 17 geographical area occupied by the National Environmental Policy Act (42 continues to read as follows: species and areas outside the U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– geographical area occupied by the We have determined that 1544; and 4201–4245, unless otherwise noted. species, that are essential for their environmental assessments and conservation. Information regarding environmental impact statements, as ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h), the List of these 49 species’ life functions is defined under the authority of the Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, as complex, and complete data are lacking National Environmental Policy Act follows: for many of them. We require additional (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not ■ a. By adding entries an entry for time to analyze the best available be prepared in connection with listing ‘‘Storm-petrel, band-rumped’’ scientific data in order to identify a species as an endangered or (Oceanodroma castro) in alphabetical specific areas appropriate for critical threatened species under the order under BIRDS; and habitat designation and to prepare and Endangered Species Act. We published b. By adding entries for ‘‘Bee, yellow- develop a proposed rule. Accordingly, a notice outlining our reasons for this faced’’ (Hylaeus anthracinus), ‘‘Bee, we find designation of critical habitat to determination in the Federal Register yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus assimulans), be ‘‘not determinable’’ at this time. on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus facilis), Required Determinations ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus hilaris), References Cited ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus kuakea), Clarity of the Rule A complete list of references cited in ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ (Hylaeus We are required by Executive Orders this rulemaking is available on the longiceps), and ‘‘Bee, yellow-faced’’ 12866 and 12988 and by the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov (Hylaeus mana), and ‘‘Damselfly, Presidential Memorandum of June 1, and upon request from the Pacific orangeblack Hawaiian’’ (Megalagrion 1998, to write all rules in plain Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR xanthomelas) in alphabetical order language. This means that each rule we FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). under INSECTS; and publish must: c. By adding an entry for ‘‘Shrimp, (1) Be logically organized; Authors anchialine pool’’ (Procaris hawaiana), (2) Use the active voice to address in alphabetical order under The primary authors of this proposed readers directly; CRUSTACEANS. rule are the staff members of the Pacific (3) Use clear language rather than The additions read as follows: jargon; Islands Fish and Wildlife Office. (4) Be divided into short sections and List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 § 17.11 Endangered and threatened sentences; and wildlife. (5) Use lists and tables wherever Endangered and threatened species, * * * * * possible. Exports, Imports, Reporting and (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate popu- Historic range lation where endan- Status When listed Critical Special Common name Scientific name gered or threatened habitat rules

******* BIRDS

******* Storm-petrel, band- Oceanodroma cas- U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA rumped. tro.

******* INSECTS Bee, yellow-faced .... Hylaeus anthracinus U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA Bee, yellow-faced .... Hylaeus assimulans U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA Bee, yellow-faced .... Hylaeus facilis ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA Bee, yellow-faced .... Hylaeus hilaris ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA Bee, yellow-faced .... Hylaeus kuakea ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA Bee, yellow-faced .... Hylaeus longiceps .. U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA Bee, yellow-faced .... Hylaeus mana ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA

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Species Vertebrate popu- Historic range lation where endan- Status When listed Critical Special Common name Scientific name gered or threatened habitat rules

******* Damselfly, Megalagrion U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA orangeblack Ha- xanthomelas. waiian.

******* CRUSTACEANS

******* Shrimp, anchialine Procaris hawaiana .. U.S.A. (HI) ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA pool.

*******

■ 3. Amend § 17.12(h), the List of helleri, Phyllostegia stachyoides, ■ b. By adding entries for Asplenium Endangered and Threatened Plants, as Portulaca villosa, Pritchardia bakeri, diellaciniatum, Cyclosorus boydiae, follows: Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. ■ a. By adding entries for Calamagrostis molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, pusilla, Huperzia stemmermanniae, expansa, Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyperus Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, neokunthianus, Cyrtandra hematos, sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, and Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, Schiedea in alphabetical order under FERNS AND hawaiiensis, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, Sicyos ALLIES. ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia The additions read as follows: Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, § 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants. Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum Wikstroemia skottsbergiana in latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, alphabetical order under FLOWERING * * * * * Phyllostegia brevidens, Phyllostegia PLANTS; and (h) * * *

Species Historic range Family Status When Critical Special Scientific name Common name listed habitat rules

FLOWERING PLANTS

******* Calamagrostis Maui reedgrass ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Poaceae ...... E ...... NA NA expansa.

******* Cyanea None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Campanulaceae ..... E ...... NA NA kauaulaensis.

******* Cyperus None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Cyperaceae ...... E ...... NA NA neokunthianus.

******* Cyrtandra hematos .. Haiwale ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Gesneriaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Exocarpos menziesii Heau ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Santalaceae ...... E ...... NA NA Festuca hawaiiensis None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Poaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Gardenia remyi ...... Nanu ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Rubiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Joinvillea ascendens Ohe ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Joinvilleaceae ...... E ...... NA NA ssp. ascendens.

******* Kadua fluviatilis ...... Kamapuaa ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Rubiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA Kadua haupuensis ... None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Rubiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Labordia lorenciana None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Loganiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

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Species Historic range Family Status When Critical Special Scientific name Common name listed habitat rules

******* Lepidium orbiculare Anaunau ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Brassicaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Myrsine fosbergii ..... Kolea ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Myrsinaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Nothocestrum Aiea ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Solanaceae ...... E ...... NA NA latifolium.

******* Ochrosia haleakalae Holei ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Apocynaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Phyllostegia None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Lamiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA brevidens.

******* Phyllostegia helleri ... None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Lamiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Phyllostegia None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Lamiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA stachyoides.

******* Portulaca villosa ...... Ihi ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Portulacaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Pritchardia bakeri ..... Baker’s loulu ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Arecaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Pseudognaphalium Enaena ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Asteraceae ...... E ...... NA NA sandwicensium var. molokaiense.

******* Ranunculus Makou ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Ranunculaceae ...... E ...... NA NA hawaiensis. Ranunculus Makou ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Ranunculaceae ...... E ...... NA NA mauiensis.

******* Sanicula None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Apiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA sandwicensis.

******* Santalum involutum Iliahi ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Santalaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Schidea diffusa ssp. None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Caryophyllaceae ..... E ...... NA NA diffusa.

******* Schiedea pubescens Maolioli ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Caryophyllaceae ..... E ...... NA NA

******* Sicyos lanceoloideus Anunu ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Cucurbitaceae ...... E ...... NA NA Sicyos macrophyllus Anunu ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Cucurbitaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Solanum nelsonii ..... Popolo ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Solanaceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Stenogyne kaalae None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Lamiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA ssp. sherffii.

******* Wikstroemia Akia ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Thymelaceae ...... E ...... NA NA skottbergiana.

******* FERNS AND ALLIES

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Species Historic range Family Status When Critical Special Scientific name Common name listed habitat rules

******* Asplenium None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Aspleniaceae ...... E ...... NA NA diellaciniatum.

******* Cyclosorus boydiae Kupukupu makalii ... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Thelypteridaceae .... E ...... NA NA Deparia kaalaana .... None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Athyraceae ...... E ...... NA NA

******* Dryopteris glabra Hohiu ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Dryopteridaceae ..... E ...... NA NA var. pusilla.

******* Huperzia None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Lycopodiaceae ...... E ...... NA NA stemmermanniae. Hypolepis Olua ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Dennstaedtiaceae ... E ...... NA NA hawaiiensis var. mauiensis.

******* Microlepia strigosa None ...... U.S.A. (HI) ...... Dennstaedtiaceae ... E ...... NA NA var. mauiensis.

*******

* * * * * Dated: August 25, 2015. James W. Kurth, Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2015–24305 Filed 9–29–15; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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