Z´AKLADY ASTRONOMIE a ASTROFYZIKY II Látka Prednášená

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Z´AKLADY ASTRONOMIE a ASTROFYZIKY II Látka Prednášená ZAKLADY´ ASTRONOMIE A ASTROFYZIKY II L´atka pˇredn´aˇsen´aM. Wolfem Na z´akladˇesv´ych pozn´amekz pˇredn´aˇskya dalˇs´ıliteratury sepsal M. B´ılek, korektury, doplˇnkyM. Zejda Verze 1: 6. z´aˇr´ı2010 Toto je zat´ımpracovn´ıverze skript. Je ne´upln´aa m˚uˇzeobsahovat menˇs´ıfaktick´echyby. V pˇr´ıpadˇe,ˇzenˇejakouobjev´ıte,nebo se v´ambude zd´atnˇejak´aˇc´asttextu nesrozumiteln´a, upozornˇetepros´ımautora nebo pˇredn´aˇsej´ıc´ıho.Doch´azkana pˇredn´aˇskuse doporuˇcuje. 2 Obsah 1 Atmosf´erick´aa vnˇeatmosf´erick´aastronomie 5 1.1 Uvod.......................................´ 5 1.2 Vliv atmosf´ery na astronomick´apozorov´an´ı. .5 1.2.1 Extinkce v atmosf´eˇre . .5 1.2.2 Seeing . .8 1.3 Bal´onov´aastronomie . .8 1.4 Druˇzicov´aastronomie . .9 2 Optick´aastronomie 13 2.1 Optick´edalekohledy . 13 2.1.1 Konstrukce dalekohled˚u . 13 2.1.2 Charakteristiky dalekohledu . 21 2.1.3 Optick´evady dalekohled˚u . 25 2.1.4 Okul´ary . 29 2.1.5 Filtry . 35 2.1.6 Mont´aˇze . 36 2.2 Optick´edetektory a jejich vyuˇzit´ıve fotometrii . 38 2.2.1 Nˇekter´eobecn´echarakteristiky fotometrick´ych detektor˚u. 39 2.2.2 Oko . 39 2.2.3 Fotografick´aemulze . 44 2.2.4 Foton´asobiˇce . 46 2.2.5 CCD . 48 2.3 Spektrografy . 53 2.3.1 Hranolov´yspektrograf . 55 2.3.2 Mˇr´ıˇzkov´yspektrograf . 55 3 R´adiov´aastronomie 63 4 Infraˇcerven´aastronomie 65 5 Rentgenov´aastronomie 67 6 Astronomie gama z´aˇren´ı 69 3 7 Astronomie gravitaˇcn´ıch vln 73 8 Neutrinov´aastronomie 75 9 Pˇr´ıstroje sluneˇcn´ıfyziky 79 10 Doporuˇcen´aliteratura 83 4 Kapitola 1 Atmosf´erick´aa vnˇeatmosf´erick´a astronomie 1.1 Uvod´ Pozorov´an´ıvesm´ırn´ych tˇelesz povrchu Zemˇe,na dnˇevzduˇsn´ehooce´anu, je pro astron- omy velmi omezuj´ıc´ı.Zemsk´aatmosf´era velmi dobˇrefiltruje z´aˇren´ıpˇrich´azej´ıc´ız vesm´ıru na povrch Zemˇe.V´ysledkem je, ˇzeˇzeZemˇem˚uˇzemevidˇetjen velmi omezen´erozsahy vl- nov´ych d´elekz´aˇren´ı,naz´yvan´a okna\. Viditeln´esvˇetlospad´ado jednoho z takov´ych oken " (obr. 1.1). Okno s viditeln´ymsvˇetlemna jedn´estranˇeomezuje oz´onov´avrstva v zemsk´e atmosf´eˇre,kter´asilnˇezachycuje ultrafialov´ez´aˇren´ı. Na opaˇcn´estranˇeokna, pˇridelˇs´ıch vlnov´ych d´elk´ach, se nach´az´ı oblast infraˇcerven´ehoz´aˇren´ı, kter´ezachyt´avaj´ı pˇredevˇs´ım molekuly vody, metanu a oxidu uhliˇcit´eho.Teprve pro delˇs´ıvlny v r´adiov´eoblasti je obloha pro z´aˇren´ıpr˚uzraˇcn´a. 1.2 Vliv atmosf´eryna astronomick´apozorov´an´ı 1.2.1 Extinkce v atmosf´eˇre Kaˇzd´epozorov´an´ız povrchu Zemˇenebo obecnˇejize zemsk´eatmosf´eryje atmosf´erouovlivnˇeno. Z´aˇren´ıje pˇrisv´empr˚uchodu atmosf´erouzeslabeno absorpc´ıa rozptylem. Souhrnnˇese tento jev naz´yv´aextinkce. Pˇriabsorpci je foton zachycen nˇejakou molekulou. Energie dopadaj´ıc´ıhofotonu pˇritom zp˚usob´ıexcitaci t´etomolekuly nebo dokonce vede k jej´ımu rozpadu. Absorpce se projevuje ´ubytkem z´aˇren´ına vlnov´ych d´elk´ach charakteristick´ych pro jednotliv´edruhy molekul a vytv´aˇr´ı ve spektru zdroj˚uabsorpˇcn´ıˇc´arynebo p´asy. Napˇr´ıklad molekulov´ya atom´arn´ı kysl´ıka dus´ıkp˚usob´ıabsorpci pˇredevˇs´ımultrafialov´ehoa rentgenov´ez´aˇren´ı,atmosf´erick´y oz´onv ultrafialov´emoboru a vodn´ıp´arav infraˇcerven´eoblasti. V optick´emoboru nejsou vznikl´eabsorpˇcn´ıˇc´arypˇr´ıliˇsv´yznamn´epro astronomick´afotometrick´amˇeˇren´ı,zaj´ımav´e jsou snad jen p´asyoz´onu, jejichˇzintenzita se mˇeˇr´ıpro urˇcen´ıcelkov´ehomnoˇzstv´ıoz´onu v 5 Obr´azek1.1: Spektr´aln´ıpropustnost zemsk´eatmosf´ery. Pˇrevzatoz NASA/IPACP. atmosf´eˇre. Pˇrisr´aˇzcefotonu s atmosf´erickou ˇc´astic´ı dojde zpravidla k odch´ylen´ı fotonu z jeho p˚uvodn´ıhosmˇeru,dojde k jeho rozptylu. Na ˇc´astic´ıch vˇetˇs´ıch neˇzje vlnov´ad´elka se svˇetlo odr´aˇz´ı; tento rozptyl pak uˇznez´avis´ı na vlnov´ed´elce.Na ˇc´astic´ıch menˇs´ıch neˇzje vl- nov´ad´elka proch´azej´ıc´ıhoz´aˇren´ı,se smˇermˇen´ıdifrakc´ı.V ´uplnˇeˇcist´eatmosf´eˇrese svˇetlo rozptyluje na shluc´ıch molekul vzduchu, a to pˇribliˇznˇe´umˇernˇe λ−4, coˇzs dobrou pˇresnost´ı odpov´ıd´aRayleighovu rozptylu. Barevn´az´avislostrozptylu na pevn´ych zrn´ıˇck´ach a mal´ych vodn´ıch kapiˇck´ach ˇr´adovˇesrovnateln´ych s vlnovou d´elkou svˇetlase d´acharakterizovat vz- tahem bλ−g, kde b je faktor turbidity1 a g je parametr, kter´ys rostouc´ıvelikost´ıˇc´astic kles´a.Za norm´aln´ıch okolnost´ıdosahuje hodnot kolem 1,3 (tomu odpov´ıd´apr˚umˇerˇc´astic zhruba 1 mm), ale pˇrizneˇciˇstˇen´ıatmosf´eryvˇetˇs´ımiˇc´asticemi,napˇr.po v´ybuchu sopky, m˚uˇze nab´yvat hodnot i menˇs´ıch neˇz0,5, zat´ımcov m´ıstech ovlivnˇen´ych pr˚umyslovou ˇcinnost´ı produkuj´ıc´ıvelmi mal´eˇc´asticeje tento parametr i vˇetˇs´ıneˇz1,5. Optick´evlastnosti atmosf´eryjsou velmi sloˇzit´ea promˇenliv´ea nedaj´ı se spoˇc´ıtat z nˇejak´ych snadno mˇeˇriteln´ych veliˇcin. Extinkce je tedy obecnˇez´avisl´ana vlnov´ed´elcedopadaj´ıc´ıhoz´aˇren´ıa zp˚usobujekromˇe ´ubytku energie dopadaj´ıc´ıdo detektor˚utak´ezˇcerven´an´ıpozorovan´ych objekt˚u(obr. 1.2), tj. zvyˇsov´an´ıjejich barevn´eho indexu. Proto, stejnˇejako jasnosti objekt˚u,extinkci studujeme v barevn´ych fotometrick´ych syst´emech (viz kaptitola 2.1.5). Vliv extinkce na jasnosti hvˇezdje z´avisl´yna ´uhlov´ev´yˇscepozorovan´ych hvˇezd,se zmenˇsuj´ıc´ıse ´uhlovou v´yˇskou (zvˇetˇsuj´ıc´ıse zenitovou vzd´alenost´ı z) roste. Tlouˇst'ku at- 1Turbidita je m´ıra´uhrnn´eenergie, kter´ase pˇripr˚uchodu svˇeteln´ehopaprsku vrstvou disperze o jed- notkov´etlouˇst'ce rozpt´yl´ına vˇsechny strany od tohoto paprsku. Jej´ıhodnota je ´umˇern´ahustotˇeˇc´astic. 6 Obr´azek1.2: Celkov´aextinkce se d´arozdˇelitdo dvou sloˇzek- Rayleighova rozptylu na molekul´ach, kter´yje st´alouvlastnost´ıatmosf´ery, a rozptylu na vˇetˇs´ıch pevn´ych a kapaln´ych ˇc´astic´ıch (aerosolech), kter´yje velmi promˇenn´y; na obr´azkuje zachycena situace, kter´a odpov´ıd´amˇeˇren´ım na 65cm dalekohledu Astronomick´eho´ustavu Ondˇrejov za pomˇernˇe kvalitn´ıch podm´ıneks vyˇsˇs´ıpr˚uzraˇcnost´ıatmosf´ery. Absorpce nen´ıbr´anav ´uvahu. Pˇrevzato z http://www.asu.cas.cz/ lenka/prednasky/318ext.htm. mosf´ery, kterou mus´ısvˇetlopˇrekonat, naz´yv´ame vzduˇsnouhmotou. Velikost vzduˇsn´ehmoty X je nejmenˇs´ıpro objekt v zenitu, obecnˇeji lze aproximovat vztahem X = sec z: (1.1) tato aproximace nebere v ´uvahu ani zakˇriven´ıZemˇeani refrakci, proto se pouˇz´ıv´apˇresnˇejˇs´ı vztah (Young & Irvine, 1967) X = sec z 1 − 0; 0012 sec2 z − 1 : (1.2) Pro hodnoty z = 60◦ maj´ı oba vztahy takˇrka identick´ehodnoty. Pro z = 60◦ je X ≈ 2. Jestliˇzebychom pozorovali nˇejakou hvˇezdupo celou noc a n´aslednˇezakresl´ıme napozorovan´einstrument´aln´ıhvˇezdn´evelikosti v˚uˇcivzduˇsn´ehmotˇe,dostaneme pˇr´ımkovou z´avislost2. Smˇernicepˇr´ımkydefinuje tzv. extinkˇcn´ıkoeficient k. Koeficient mˇen´ıkonstantn´ı, mˇen´ıse noc od noci, v naˇsich podm´ınk´ach vˇetˇsinoui bˇehemnoci. Hvˇezdnouvelikost hvˇezdylze opravit o vliv extinkce dle tzv. Bouguerova3 z´akona mλ0 = mλ − kλX; (1.3) 2To ovˇsemplat´ıjen za pˇredpokladu, ˇzeje atmosf´erahomogenn´ıa extinkce st´al´a,coˇzbohuˇzelv naˇsich podm´ınk´ach velmi ˇcasto nen´ısplnˇenoa tak bˇeˇznˇezaznamen´amepr˚ubˇeˇzn´ezmˇeny extinkce v pr˚ubˇehu jedn´e noci. V´ıceviz napˇr´ıkladna http://www.asu.cas.cz/ lenka/prednasky/318ext.htm. 3ˇcti bug´erova\ " 7 Obr´azek 1.3: Extinkˇcn´ı koeficient je smˇernic´ı pˇr´ımky fitovan´e z´avislost´ı in- strumetn´aln´ı magnitudy objektu o konstantn´ı mimoatmosf´erick´e jasnosti na optick´e hmotˇe. Atmosf´era mus´ı b´yt homogenn´ı a extinkce ˇcasovˇe st´al´a. Pˇrevzato z http://www.asu.cas.cz/ lenka/prednasky/318ext.htm. kde m0 je hvˇezdn´avelikost, jakou by pozorovan´yobjekt mˇelmimo zemskou atmosf´eru. Re´aln´apozorov´an´ıale zpravidla vyˇzaduj´ıpeˇclivˇejˇs´ıkorekce a redukce, kter´ejsou podrobnˇe pops´any v Harmanec (2010). 1.2.2 Seeing Neklid atmosf´ery, seeing, vznik´a,protoˇzese m´ıs´ıatmosf´erick´evrstvy r˚uzn´ych teplot a tedy i r˚uzn´ych index˚ulomu. Tak´ezn´am´epoblik´av´an´ıhvˇezdna obloze tzv. scintilace je projevem neklidu atmosf´ery. Seeing deformuje obrazy hvˇezdna sn´ımkuvelkou rychlost´ı, typicky ˇcastˇejineˇz100kr´atza sekundu. V bˇeˇzn´emsn´ımkuhvˇezdn´ehopole s expoziˇcn´ıdobou sekundy aˇzminuty tak m´ıstobodov´ych obraz˚uhvˇezdvznik´aobraz hvˇezdrozmazan´ydo kotouˇck˚u(tzv. seeing disc), kter´yse oznaˇcujejako point spread function\ - PSF (viz " 2.1.2). M´ıruseeingu charakterizujeme pomoc´ıveliˇciny FWHM (z anglick´eho full width at half maximum, coˇzznaˇc´ıˇs´ıˇrku(obrazu hvˇezdy)v polovinˇemaxima (obr. 1.4). Seeing se v CRˇ pohybuje kolem 2-5 00, na nejlepˇs´ıch pozorovac´ıch m´ıstech svˇetazpravidla kles´ak 1 00, ale m˚uˇzedos´ahnoutaˇz0,4 00. Bez adaptivn´ıoptiky je jak´ykoliv dalekohled, co do rozliˇsovac´ıschopnosti, srovnateln´ys 10-20cm dalekohledem na obˇeˇzn´edr´aze kolem Zemˇe. 1.3 Bal´onov´aastronomie Jedn´ımz nejjednoduˇsˇs´ıch prostˇredk˚u,jak otevˇr´ıtdalˇs´ıokna do vesm´ıru,kter´auzavˇrela zemsk´aatmosf´era, je bal´onov´aastronomie. K pozorov´an´ıvesm´ırn´ych objekt˚use pouˇz´ıv´a 8 Obr´azek1.4: Definice FWHM pln´eˇs´ıˇrkyv polovinˇemaxima (full width at half maximum). Pˇrevzatoz http://www.skyobserver.net a http://en.wikipedia.org/. pˇr´ıstroj˚uzavˇeˇsen´ych pod bal´ony a vyn´aˇsen´ych s jejich pomoc´ıdo v´yˇskyaˇz30 km. Pouˇz´ıvaj´ı se dalekohledy o pr˚umˇeruaˇz1 metr. Pˇr´ıstroje na bal´onech slouˇz´ızejm´enake studiu in- fraˇcerven´eho,r´adiov´eho,rentgenov´ehoi gama z´aˇren´ıvesm´ırn´ych objekt˚u.Napˇr´ıkladv roce 2007 se ale pomoc´ıbal´on˚uvypouˇstˇen´ych v Antarktidˇep´atralopomoc´ıaparatury BESS po ˇc´astic´ıch antihmoty.
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