50th Anniversary Year

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL OCTOBER 1974 60 CENTS

1 -

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Has any insurance company or underwriter declined to accept or refused to renew your insurance? if yes, give particulars on separate sheet. (yes or no) Have you or any other persons or members of your household who will drive your car had any accidents during the past two years? if yes, give particular?on separate sheet. (yes or no) Do you plan to travel in Canada? (yes or no) Signature of Applicant Date ,J American Foreign Service Association Officers and Members of the Governing Board THOMAS D. BOYATT, President F. ALLEN HARRIS, Vice President EDWIN L. MARTIN, Second Vice President RICHARD H. MELTON, Secretary JULIET C. ANTUNES, Treasurer CHARLOTTE CROMER & JOHN PATTERSON, AID Representatives FRANCINE BOWMAN, RICHARD B. FINN, CHARLES O. HOFFMAN & RAYMOND F. SMITH, State Representatives STANLEY A. ZUCKERMAN, USIA Representative FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL JAMES W. RIDDLEBERGER & WILLIAM O. BOSWELL, Retired Representatives

October 1974: Volume 51, No. 10 Journal Editorial Board RALPH S. SMITH, Chairman FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY YEAR G. RICHARD MONSEN, Vice Chairman FREDERICK QUINN JOEL M. WOLDMAN EDWARD M. COHEN ERIC GRIFFEL JAMES F. O’CONNOR SANDRA L. VOGELGESANG President Ford on 50 Years of the Foreign Service 6 Staff RICHARD L. WILLIAMSON, Executive Director Communication re: The STEPHEN F. WALLACE, Counselor Future of Foreign Assistance HELEN VOGEL, Committee Coordinator and AID (cont’d) 8 C. B. SANNER, Membership and Circulation PHILIPPE RENARD Accelerating Promotion 16 Foreign Service Educational NATHANIEL DAVIS and Counseling Center The Present Challenge MARY JANE BROWN & CLARKE SLADE, Counselors to the Foreign Service 18 JACK PERRY Journal Our Diplomatic Establishment: Lights SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL, Editor and Shadows of 50 Years 21 MclVER ART & PUBLICATIONS, INC., Art Direction SMITH SIMPSON The Clouded Image: American Advertising Representatives Opinion and the JAMES C. SASMOR ASSOCIATES, 520 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10036 (212) 683-3421 Developing Countries 24 ALBERT D. SHONK CO., 681 Market St., San Francisco, Calif. JOHN W. SEWELL 94105 (415) 392-7144 JOSHUA B. POWERS, LTD., 46 Keyes House, Dolphin Sq„ The New China Tourism London SW1 01-834-8023/9. International Representatives. of the ’70s 28 JOHN K. FAIRBANK ® American Foreign Service Association, 1974. The Foreign Service Jour¬ nal is published twelve times a year by the American Foreign Service Performance Evaluation: Association, 2101 E Street, N.W., Washington D.C. 20037. Telephone The Annual Inventory 29 (202) 338-4045 PAUL V. WARD State Department Rigidity: Second-class postage paid at Washington, D.C. and at additional post office. Testing a Psychological Hypothesis 32 DAVID GARNHAM USIA at the Crossroads 35 GEORGE G. WYNNE The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is the journal of professionals in The Making of Diplomacy 40 foreign affairs, published twelve times a year by the American Foreign ROSE H. FALES Service Association, a non-profit organization. Life and Love in Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and is not intended to indicate the official views of the Department of State, the the Foreign Service 49 United States Information Agency, the Agency for International Develop¬ ment or the United States Government as a whole. Membership in the American Foreign Service Association is open to the DEPARTMENTS professionals in foreign affairs overseas or in Washington, as well as to Editorials 4 persons having an active interest in, or close association with foreign affairs. FSJ Book Essay: Four Ambassadors, Membership dues are: Active Members—Dues range from $13 to $52 Three Decades, Two Questions 44 annually depending upon income. Retired Active Members—Dues are JEAN L. LALOY $30 annually for members with incomes over $15,000; $15 annually for FSJ Bookshelf 47 less than $15,000. Associate Members—Dues are $20 annually. For subscription to the JOURNAL, one year (12 issues); $6.00; two years, Letters to the Editor 58 $10.00. For subscriptions going abroad, except Canada, add $1.00 annu¬ AFSA News 60 ally for overseas postage. Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Historical Abstracts and/or America: History and Life. Microfilm copies of current as well as of back issues of the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL are available through the University Microfilm Li¬ brary Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 under a contract signed Oc¬ Cover: Woman with Flowers, by Barbara Ebersole tober 30, 1967. A special offer for members of the American Foreign Service Association only. FOREIGN POLICY 25% OFF The price of keeping well-informed Here is a sampling of the kind of □ I am an AFSA member. Please enter has gone down. headline-making articles which have my subscription at the special rate for appeared in FOREIGN POLICY: AFSA members only: two years - All AFSA members are now eligible eight issues - for $15. for a special discount on their sub¬ • Tad Szulc’s exclusive account of how □ I am not an AFSA member. Enclosed scriptions to FOREIGN POLICY: Henry Kissinger negotiated the Viet¬ is $10 for a one-year subscription. two years - eight issues - for only $15. nam cease-fire That’s $5 off the newsstand price; • George F. Kennan’s reflections on the $3 off the regular subscription price. Soviet Union 25 years after his famous Name “X” article As an AFSA member, you will par¬ • The first major articles on oil, food, Address ticularly want to take advantage of and mineral resources - all months this opportunity to subscribe to the ahead of other publications City- “increasingly influential” journal • Major articles on the continuing stra- (Time) that is “refreshingly lively and tagic debate, by Morton Halperin and State, zip contentious” and “almost invariably Jeremy Stone, Paul Nitze, Herbert stimulating” (Newsweek). In a study Scoville, Paul Warnke, Albert Make checks payable to FOREIGN carried out at The American University, Wohlstetter, and others POLICY and mail to: FOREIGN FOREIGN POLICY was chosen as • A regular feature, Washington Date¬ POLICY, Subscription Department, one of the two journals considered line, which reports on trends and 155 Allen Blvd., Farmingdale, N. Y. necessary for professional competence moods behind the scenes in the nation’s 11735. by key policy-makers in Washington - Capital and that was after only one year of • Views and opinions by such diverse publication! In the years since, observers as M.A. Adelman, Les Aspin, FOREIGN POLICY’S circulation has Lucius Battle, Lester Brown, Zbigniew nearly tripled, and its influence con¬ Brzezinski, John Chancellor, Barber tinues to grow with each issue Conable, Harold van Buren Cleveland, published. Richard Falk, John Kenneth Galbraith, Leslie Gelb, Peter Grose, Stanley Hoffmann, Robert Hunter, Stanley Karnow, Edward M. Kennedy, Anthony Lake, Walter Levy, Charles W. Maynes, Edwin O. Reischauer, Walter Scheel, John Tuthill, Richard Ullman. FOREIGN Join your colleagues who already con¬ FOLIO NUMBER lb. | Al l |'>'4. $2 so sider FOREIGN POLICY an indis¬ pensable part of their professional libraries. Use the coupon below to

r Nw enter your subscription at the special /Vft Wakui/.urtn? To Act rate for AFSA members only. But act i IS I'HERE A SIRA ITCH now - you won’t want to miss a I ARMS RACE I! ' single issue. Rivals, but No Race’ Albert Wohlstetter Comments: Paul H. Nitze Joseph Alsop. Monon H H°lper‘n& Jeremy J.s,„ne

Itt In Defense

h Philtppi 7 'OdeenDefense Budget* Km I he Media And Foreign Policy Charles IV. Bray

_ WHA"ilfll I WAS I THE US ROLE: More Than Admitted El^belhFarntworTh h Ch Paulp",T *" «8«da E. S,9munS 157

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Le*l‘e H. Gelb P IK2 Letters l(> P3J EDfTDRIAL

A Tragic Loss

THIS ISSUE of the JOURNAL honors the Association's tion to service and a willingness to sacrifice, sometimes 50th anniversary. Celebration of our Golden Jubilee, in a most tragic way. On August 28 I wrote to President however, is overshadowed by and tragically linked to Ford thanking him for speaking to the Association on the senseless murder of our colleague and very, very July 1st. The letter included the following paragraph: good friend, Rodger Davies. “As delighted as we were to have you speak Rodger was an outstanding Foreign Service officer. to us on a happy occasion, I speak for all in the His personal and professional characteristics and the Foreign Service in stating that your remarks at experience he had gained embodied those qualities the plane-side memorial service for Ambas¬ which represent the finest qualities of the corps. He met sador Davies meant even more to us. Rodger his end also in the finest tradition of the Service Davies was a close personal friend and col¬ —bravely, calmly, doing his duty. But in addition to league for several years. He will be greatly being a splendid diplomat, Rodger was also a fine missed by all of the Service. We therefore par¬ human being, warm, quiet, personable—the kind of in¬ ticularly appreciate your joining us in express¬ dividual it is a pleasure and benefit to know. Like many ing our sorrow—a task which has occurred all in the Foreign Service, I worked closely with Rodger too frequently in recent years. over the years, particularly after 1971 as we both dealt “It goes without saying, Mr. President, that with the Cyprus problem which eventually generated as Foreign Service career persons we pledge the assassin’s bullet. our full support and commitment to the I have been to too many funerals and memorial ser¬ achievement of your Administration’s foreign vices recently as AFSA President to honor colleagues policy goals. You have our every wish for con¬ who have suffered tragic and heroic deaths at the hands tinued success as you assume the respon¬ of thugs or political fanatics who in some twisted fash¬ sibilities of the Presidency.” ion think they can advance their cause through sense¬ As we enter our second half century, I would like to less killing. Representing the Association on such occa¬ hope that 1 and my successors will not have to write sions is the most emotionally painful and yet most emo¬ quite so many letters of this sort in the future. But when tionally rewarding aspect of being AFSA President. the occasion demands 1 hope we can all meet crises as The pain is in the death of friends, the reward is in Rodger Davies did. Homer, writing about an earlier public recognition that the Foreign Service meets the war in the Eastern Mediterranean, described a fallen severest tests of professionalism and sacrifice in the comrade in terms eminently applicable to Rodger: nation’s service. “The kindest of manners, On our 50th anniversary as the professional associa¬ The gentlest of hearts, tion of a unified Foreign Service, Rodger’s death re¬ In death a hero, as in life a friend.” minds us all that for fifty years a commitment to the With best regards to all of you on our 50th anniver¬ Foreign Service and to representing this country abroad sary. has always meant and will always mean a real dedica- TOM BOYATT 4 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 There’s always a little bit of home you can bank on.

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EXPANDED PAPERBACK EDITION The Future of PRESIDENTS, Foreign Assistance BUREAUCRATS and Aid ... cont’d AND PHILIPPE RENARD

FOREIGN THE DISCUSSION and analysis on the role of US1A, AID and the political appointment of non-career am¬ bassadors which the Foreign Service JOURNAL has conducted in recent issues is, in my opinion, one of the POLICY most noteworthy contributions for the betterment of the The Politics of Organizational Reform Foreign Service in recent memory. The editorial on by I. M. DESTLER “The Future of Foreign Assistance and Aid,” (FSJ, July ’74) with its open invitation for discussion and di¬ vergent opinion is notable in this regard. It is hoped that 'k'k'k it will open the windows to more than one view and that For this paperback edition, the author has pro¬ these views will be accepted as honest opinions, profes¬ vided an epilogue which takes into account foreign sionally voiced, regardless of whether or not they are policy developments since 1971. He considers the currently in vogue. Nothing could be better or more implications of the appointment of Henry Kiss¬ healthy for AFSA or the Foreign Service, as long as inger as Secretary of State and deals with some of these opinions are cogently written and stated dispas¬ the larger issues raised by the events of the past sionately. The stifling of the dissenting opinions of the two years. “Old China Hands” or the brilliantly written views of George F. Kennan are of too recent memory to make "This important book contains both a critical his¬ the same mistake again. tory of the numerous and ineffective proposals The recent editorial correctly points out that “As a since 1945 to reform the conduct of foreign policy result of our government’s ad hoc approach to foreign and a sophisticated strategy for enhancing the role assistance since the Marshall Plan, there has never of a Secretary of State responsive to presidential been established a long term commitment to the func¬ needs. The author calls for more attention to bu¬ tion of foreign assistance as an adjunct to foreign policy reaucratic realities and less to neatly rational but or to professionalism in its implementation.” unreal machinery ."—Foreign Affairs Such was not the intention of the Marshall Plan or US foreign assistance in its early stages. The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to re-establish the economic in¬ "This is the best study that has been done on gov¬ ernment reorganization in the field of national se¬ frastructure of war-devastated countries and later, in curity policy. It shows an appreciation of the reali¬ the early ’50s, to assist in this same kind of development ties of bureaucratic politics so often lacking in in the various newly independent nations emerging from such studies."—Morton H. Halperin. colonial status, as well as in some of the older, but obviously under-developed, nations of the world. Paper, $3.45. Also available in cloth, $12.50. American foreign aid was just one of the weapons em¬ Write for our Political Science catalogue. ployed during the Cold War and was relevant in its time Order from your bookstore or direct from and in its application. As can be seen throughout much PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS of history, nations tend to fight their current wars with Princeton, New Jersey 08540 the successful weapons of the last. This was not true of the weapon of foreign aid when it was first introduced; sir" sir" 'Jr- sir" sir" sir" sir- but, as has been stated far too often recently to need y\7\7\y\7\7\7\7\7\ repeating again, the Cold War is over. AID was not, at

Philippe Renard is an American freelance writer who, for the past eight years has been working in Southeast Asia, India and Africa. He is currently in Latin America.

8 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 Great news for mothers of cavity-prone children! Most children don’t brush properly or often enough. That’s why the dental scientists at Lever Brothers invented a new fluoride dentifrice called Ainf. If you have children, read on:

Most cavities happen between the results were astounding. Aim has stannous fluoride, ages of five and fifteen. In tests with 1,300 children, Aim the proven cavity-fighter. You’re a conscientious parent. was preferred 2 to 1 over the leading A child in the cavity-prone years needs You make your children brush with fluoride toothpastes. Chances are, the all the help you can give. Be sure his fluoride toothpaste. You don’t ques¬ better a child likes his toothpaste, the toothpaste contains an anti-cavity in¬ tion fluoride’s effectiveness. But they more thoroughly he’ll brush. gredient that’s been established as ef¬ still seem to get more cavities than Why new Aim is a gel, fective by dental research. they should. not a paste. Why? Could be your children have The speed at which a toothpaste dis¬ poor brushing habits. Could be solves is called the “Dispersal Rate.” they’re also eating too many sweets. Because Aim is a gel, not a paste, it has And they probably don’t brush prop¬ an exceptionally fast dispersal rate. erly or often enough. Surveys show the average child brushes less than 30 seconds at a time. Shocking! How new Aim encourages children to brush longer. Dentists have long stressed that

there’s no better cavity prevention A im has the precise amount of stannous fluoride than brushing. Even a fluoride tooth¬ established as effective against decay. paste can’t do its best if a child brushes too briefly or too infrequendy. Stannous fluoride has been re¬ That’s why Lever scientists en¬ searched more thoroughly than any Aim's new clear blue gel formula spreads faster other anti-cavity ingredient. Aim has than paste. the precise amount of stannous fluo¬ ride established as effective by dental This means when a child brushes authorities in reducing tooth decay. with Aim, it spreads its good taste Ask your dentist about Aim. faster than paste in the normal brush¬ ing time. Add it up: A flavor to promote better brushing. A gel that disperses faster Unique gel formula and is low in abrasion. The precise is low in abrasion. amount of stannous fluoride estab¬ In order to clean teeth, all toothpastes lished as effective against decay. must be somewhat abrasive. That’s Like any dentifrice, Aim can be Children prefer Aim 2 to 1 over the leading flu¬ oride pastes. Chances are, the better a child likes how they keep teeth clean. of significant value only when used his toothpaste, the longer he’ll brush. But many mothers are con¬ conscientiously in a program of good cerned about abrasion. So Lever sci¬ dental care and regular visits to your hanced Aim’s fluoride formula with entists designed new Aim to be among dentist. flavoring compounds known to be the lowest in abrasion of all leading If you have a cavity-prone child, especially appealing to children. The toothpastes. ask your dentist about Aim.

., c Foreign

Madison Ave. Take Aim against cavities! From the JOURNAL of Fifty Years Ago, October, 1924

“These foundations have proved their ability to accomplish herculean tasks on smaller budgets without the multi¬ layered bureaucratic insulation en¬ demic to government organizations in general.’’

that time, seen as a permanent policy nor intended as a career agency. It was an immediate answer to an im¬ mediate problem. Its transient nature was the primary justification for bringing in personnel at salaries inflated above those which their colleagues of equal responsibil¬ ity were earning in “the old line agencies” in the belief that Government could not expect to recruit expertise on a temporary basis at regular, career government salaries. As on other occasions in government, time begets permanence and we soon had career-temporary employees. The editorial, again correctly, points out that “the time has come to recognize that some form of US foreign assistance will be a major aspect of our foreign policy for the foreseeable future,” and suggests that Congress develop a foreign assistance establishment having 1) “a commitment to the development assistance function” and 2) “a meaningful and dependable career system for those personnel involved in the administra¬ tion of a world wide assistance program.” I would sug¬ gest that the time has come for the US to start working

Salt Making in Sicily with those infrastructures, which we have spent so much time and money in developing, in an equitable PHOTOGRAPHS OF NATIVE INDUSTRIES business relationship so that those structures develop Are Desired By normally into sound economic bases. To this end Con¬ THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC gress should appropriate less money for direct aid and MAGAZINE make more funds available to the existing sources of Manuscripts describing the countries of the international financing such as the World Bank, the world, their products and their people are also Export-Import Bank, the Asian Development Bank, desired, but must be accompanied by collections of clear, sharp, and interesting photographs for the Overseas Private Investment Corporation, the In¬ illustration. ternational Development Association and various re¬ Consular Contributors gional banking establishments. Frederick Simpich, Robert P. Skinner, A. T. Another suggestion would be that Congress make Haeberle, Ernest Lloyd Harris, Harry A. McBride, Maurice P. Dunlap, and Alexander more funds available to the privately endowed founda¬ Weddell. tions of known excellence such as The Ford Founda¬ In each case, the State Department, to tion, The Asia Foundation, and The Rockefeller Foun¬ which all articles from consular dation, to name but a few. These foundations have writers are submitted, has been glad to approve publication. proved their ability to accomplish herculean tasks on Perhaps some native photographer or some smaller budgets without the multi-layered bureaucratic friend is seeking a magazine outlet for pictures insulation endemic to government organizations in gen¬ or articles. Tell them also of this market in eral. Foundations are already participating in AID The Geographic. projects and in this era of the shrinking dollar and All material accepted Brochure descriptive is paid for promptly of material desired epidemic inflation there is little justification for having at attractive rates, and and booklet about The the funds come from Congress to AID to the Founda¬ that which is unavail¬ Society and Magazine tion to the project before application. The efficiency of able returned promptly mailed on request. by insured post. Address, The Editor. the foundations has been achieved primarily because of two factors: 1) their insistence on proven excellence as National Geographic Magazine the criteria for hiring their personnel and on assign¬ WASHINGTON. D. C., U.S.A. ments made on this basis; and 2) the foundations have a great deal more freedom to get on with the project with-

10 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. October, 1974 JUST PUBLISHED John K. Fairbank

IMAGES AND POLICIES IN CHINESE-AMERICAN RELATIONS

From America's dean of Chinese studies—his first collection since 1967. Seventeen pungent and scholarly essays in which Fairbank examines such key questions as the true nature of China's foreign policy and our own equally misrepresented China policy, the Vietnam War as the last gasp of "gunboat diplomacy", the nagging problems of Taiwan and the status of China scholarship. A brilliant and stimulating investigation of the whole range of misconceptions and illusions that have clouded U.S.-China relations over the years. 256 pages • Illustrated • $6.95 • Knopf

EMPEROR OF CHINA by Jonathan Spence

The intimate self-portrait of a magnificent ruler: K'ang-hsi, 1654—1722

// A masterpiece!" N.Y. Times says: "Poignant... —Theodore H. White "Extraordinary authentic and candid." // ... Beautiful. A feat of —Washington Post Unique... scholarship, a literary achieve¬ Time Magazine hails ment, a real tour de force." exotic, human and splen¬ Spence's re-creation of "a —Theodore Shabad did reading." man achingly alive." —Publishers Weekly // "Across three centuries // A gem... Spence has brought a fas¬ I am moved one of the most remark¬ cinating man to life." and delighted . . . Most able literary events of —Walter Clemons, readers will be haunted by 1974.' Newsweek it." —Harold Bloom -Chicago Daily News

$8.95 • Alfred*A*Knopf out the often stultifying side-effects of the relationship world, but without foreign advice and guidance, does of the program to current US/Recipient Country rela¬ not necessarily mean that we are the nation most cap¬ tions. able of advising all others on similar problems, or that As a matter of practical business acumen and intelli¬ we have a divine mission to do so. The purpose of our gent use of natural, secondary and human resources, foreign assistance policy should be the use of American would it not be better for Country A, if they needed to funds and technical expertise to substitute for the lack build a major power source or capital project, to be able of these resources in Country A; it should not be a lever to go to a banking consortium, for example, of Chase Manhattan, FNCB and United California Bank to bor¬ row money made available to them by Congress under Life and Lqpve in the Foreign Service adequate control, with the bank providing guidance as to its application and arranging American technical ex¬ pertise of proven ability for consultation and advisory opinion in the construction? The loan would be with American funds, have an American personnel input and would be less expensive for Country A than having AID set up a new office with the usual battalion of technical advisors and then the contingent of adminis¬ trative support personnel bringing up the van. Putting such loans on a strictly business basis would have the added advantage of developing technical expertise in Country A, loosening the political strings as to whether the project will be tied to future American goals and current military “needs” in that area as well as inculcat¬ ing a positive and healthy national pride in self accom¬ plishment. It also puts the granting of loans on the basis of past performance and fiscal responsibility rather than current political relations. Because the United States has developed its own frontiers and built its own economic infrastructure, not “Madam Ambassador, this is the Embassy's Station Chief only more successfully than any other nation in the and his deputy.'’

Security returns to Peking. Security’s steel lift vans were among the last to leave Mainland China, a quarter-century ago. And the first to return last summer, when we moved the German Ambassador from Washington to the new Diplomatic Mission in Peking, Peoples Republic of China. Security has been helping government families move around the world since 1890. A more recent tradition, insured security once you’ve arrived, began in 1897. Our Government Service Policy covers household and personal effects against fire, theft, mysterious dis¬ appearance, windstorms, floods and breakage during your stay anywhere in the world. The annual premium is the same, whether you’re in Pretoria or Peking. Worldly goods valued at $10,000 would be covered at a rate of $130 per year (and lower to AFSA members.) Upon request, at an additional pre¬ mium, the policy can insure in transit. Goods in per¬ manent storage in the United States are not covered. A separate all-risk auto transit policy is also available. For specific rate information, please contact our In¬ surance Department. #frurit{) jSfnt'agf (Jrnnpanji of tUashingfon MAIN OFFICE: 1701 Florida Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 PHONE: (202) 234-5600/ MARYLAND: Bethesda-Chevy Chase, Marlow Heights, White Oak/ VIRGINIA: Alexandria, McLean PHILIP LARNER GORE, President

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FILL OUT AND MAIL TODAY! to force Country A into line with current US foreign A Half Century of Foreign Affairs policy or to provide the necessary motivations for As Viewed by the Press Country A to purchase all American equipment to be used in the construction of the project. America’s rec¬ The most important development in foreign affairs of the past ord at trying to win friends and influence allies with half century has been (a) the creation of nuclear weapons, (b) AID has been notably unsuccessful. Countries worth the gradual realization that nuclear weapons have no ideological having as either are not for sale. coloration, and (c) thus the understanding that whether we shall The editorial points out that the treatment AID has live together or die together depends on the willingness, first of received in recent years and AlD’s “awkward” per¬ all, of those who control the policies of the United States and the sonnel system have drained the taxpayer unnecessarily Soviet Union to restrain their mutual suspicions of the motiva¬ and have resulted in a loss of professionalism because tions of each other in the search for that fundamental relation¬ of the lack of a dependable career system for its person¬ ship that alone can assure the continuity of the globe and make possible the improvement of the lot of those who inhabit nel. There can be little argument with that. But this is it.—Chalmers M. Roberts, author of “The Nuclear Years’’ and not to say that we should continue to keep putting new “First Rough Draft: A Journalist’s Journal of Our Times.” Col¬ patches on an old garment. What might be more benefi¬ umnist for the Washington POST. cial for the taxpayer, more complementary to future foreign policy and at the same time of more real value to One of the most important developments is the enlarged role the recipient countries is to come up with a new gar¬ of public opinion in the formulation of foreign policy at home and the enlarged role of public diplomacy in the conduct of ment by devising a new system for foreign assistance foreign policy abroad. that is responsive to their needs and as relevant to the This stems from three factors: times as was the Marshall Plan at its inception. The 1) The position of the US as a Great Power in an ideologically point is that once a program has lost its relevance or the divided and shrinking planet. world has passed it by, it should be allowed to die grace¬ 2) The communications explosion which brings world events fully, thankful that it served its purpose in its day, but constantly and vividly into the home of every citizen. knowing and accepting that its day has come and gone. 3) The democratization of foreign policy as manifested in citi¬ This, in effect, is what the editorial is asking: that a new zens' demands for participation in shaping foreign policy be¬ concept of aid be envisioned, although for obvious cause their own peace and lives are so visibly at stake. As a result of these developments over the past half century, parochial reasons it cannot suggest a concept that does US Ambassadors and their staffs have the delicate but essential not include AID. To provide the forum for the presen¬ duty of expounding American foreign policy to the peoples as tation and discussion of such ideas will be of inestima¬ well as to the Governments to which they are accredited. ble value to the Foreign Service and is the epitome of —Roscoe Drummond, Washington Columnist, the Los Angeles professionalism on the part of AFSA and the JOURNAL. TIMES Syndicate.

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NATHANIEL DAVIS

f HERE ARE old bureaucrats and Under the present system in the GS-15, with no immediate relief in there are bold bureaucrats, but Foreign Service, the number of sight. Inflation has been accelerat¬ there are no old, bold bureau¬ promotions is tied to vacancies in ing, and pensions increasing at one crats.” The Secretary has asked the next higher grade—the excess percent more than the rise in the us, in effect, to defy that old adage of jobs over people in the career. cost-of-living. The average senior and find a way to enable the bright, When the system is in balance, one FSO retiree gets tax-free income the bold and the relatively young to new vacancy at Class One for the better part of two years. have a chance at senior responsibil¬ mathematically creates at least five Even if an officer has not reached ity before they sedimentate above more, as each promotion creates a 35 years’ service, cost-of-living in¬ the eyebrows and wash empty the vacancy in the promoted man's old creases in his or her pension are recesses of daring. class, cascading promotions down outstripping the benefits derived I shall not try here to address the at least through FSO-6. In the from adding two percent annually question of selecting the best from middle grades particularly, promo¬ to the pension base. If officers get among the many, or reliably docu¬ tions are tied to vacancies by spe¬ good jobs after retiring, they may menting superior performance. cialty, following the idea that the double the income they received in You have probably heard enough numbers of career people up and the Service. from me on these subjects in a rival down the Service should roughly The results have been notable. publication. correspond with the jobs to be During FY 1974 58 FSOs at Class I shall also resist the temptation done. Our gross failure to observe One and above retired. In addition to use the pages the JOURNAL this rule in the 1960s produced 11 FSRUs retired. By the time you offered me so generously in this senior under-employment—the read these words, the August Golden Jubilee issue to pontificate, walking-the-corridors and make- “open-season” on retirement will or write high-sounding generalities work phenomenon—and inflation have come and gone—with at least on the half-century behind or ahead in rank—or degradation of job re¬ thirty more such retirements if the of us. The Service is people—and sponsibility. past can be a guide. In FY 1974 65 their morale, aspirations and hopes There is some ineludible FSO-ls and above left the Service matter for the next 50 years, as for mathematics in all of this. I see for all causes. No FSO-ls or CMs the last. Therefore, I make no only three variables if we wish to were appointed through lateral apology for my use of this space to accelerate real promotions in the entry, and 45 FSO-2s were pro¬ talk about promotion. Foreign Service: 1) Thin out the moted. So Class One-CM con¬ Most officers in our Service present senior ranks; 2) reduce tracted by 20 persons. On July 1, sense that promotions have slowed inward-flowing from the outside 1973 there were 344 FSO-ls and since the first two postwar dec¬ into the upper ranks of our Foreign CMs; and on July 1, 1974 there ades, when we had an expanding Service system, or 3) expand the were 324. For Class Two, the con¬ Service. We may someday have number of real jobs, or vacancies, traction is even more substantial: one again, but the realistic prospect at the top. Let’s look at each of 393 to 353, a decrease of 40. is that it will not be soon. It may be these possibilities. This is a way to thin out the that good officers are already feel¬ senior ranks, but is it a good one? ing the internal need to reduce their Not altogether. My colleagues in hopes—to anticipate, say, retire¬ Thinning Out. Through a com¬ PER and I have looked at each ment from Class Three instead of bination of undesirable develop¬ name among the 55 senior retirees Class One. Neither the Secretary ments, retirement has now become in March to examine whether re¬ nor we want a Service of reduced extraordinarily attractive. The tirement was skimming the cream expectations and lowered sights, so $36,000 executive ceiling is advanc¬ or resulting in the less-good depart¬ how do we make room at the top? ing down through FSO/FSR-2 and ing the active ranks. The answer is

16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 that it seems to have done a little of kind of upward mobility we all not be sealed off between them. both. There were half a dozen of¬ seek. We have tenured employees in at ficers among the 55 who, I felt, Lateral Entry. AFSA is under¬ least four pay plans (FSO, FSRU, were among our finest—and some standably concerned about seepage FSS and GS) and all have legiti¬ others who were very good indeed. through the permeable walls of our mate aspirations for upward mobil¬ I regard this development as a fail¬ Foreign Service system at the ity, good assignments, career de¬ ure and a frustration. I also believe upper-middle and top grades. Any velopment, educational and train¬ the young are not always the bold career service must be a closed ing opportunities and a fair shake. and bright, and the seasoned of¬ system to some degree if incentives Giving a better shake to non-FSO ficer may sometimes be the wisest and opportunities are to be tenured employees is among the and the best. Retirements of our maintained—to induce the best of top items on our agenda in PER. finest officers are wasteful of mil¬ our young Americans to submit During the past fiscal year there lions of dollars of training and themselves to rigorous entrance have been 228 FSR appointments preparation over a lifetime, and a examinations, to spend long years from outside the Department under cost in human and psychic terms in tropical ports and on lonely the level of Deputy Assistant Sec¬ that leaves me deeply uneasy. sands, to learn Chinese, Hungarian retary. Of these 13 were schedule As many of you know, selection- and Finnish, and to act always as a C-type—or essentially political. out resumed on January 31, 1974. deployable, expendable resource, The rest were doctors, auditors, In Class Two and above, 15 officers world-wide available, substan¬ security and communications were identified for relatively sub¬ tively competent, professionally specialists, INR analysts, com¬ standard performance or reached flexible and ready for what comes. mercial officers in the exchange Time in Class. Almost all of these The multiplier theory works both program, etc. The Secretary has 15 elected retirement in March. ways, and every outside appoint¬ recently approved a practice Additionally, one or two Chiefs of ment at the Class One level whereby Schedule C-type ap¬ Mission retired who might have an¬ —whether political or otherwise pointments will expire within a ticipated the possible applicability —cascades down as at least five month of the expiration of the ten¬ of Section 519 of the Foreign Ser¬ fewer Foreign Service promotions. ure of the principal (as in the case vice Act. There were good officers We professionals delude our¬ of a Special Assistant) or one in all of the above-mentioned selves, however, if we think our month after the end of the Ad¬ categories, and some extraordinary political leadership will eschew ministration. ones, but no system can altogether outside hires, whether political or Adding to the Available Jobs. avoid this, and the Service seems purely merit-motivated. It is un¬ The third variable is to increase the to have been made better by the reasonable to expect this. If we are number of jobs at the top. A year creation of these vacancies for honest with ourselves, we must ago, there were 70 career Ambas¬ promoting our rising talent. admit that there are important jobs sadors, and there are now 75. A I notice a deep ambivalence in which Foreign Service officers are year ago there were 52 career offi¬ the Service, reflected in AFSA, ill-equipped to do and significant cers in Departmental positions at over selection-out. As between re¬ responsibilities which Foreign Ser¬ the level of Deputy Assistant Sec¬ tirement and selection-out, it vice officers have shown them¬ retary and above; and there are seems little short of silly to count selves reluctant to undertake. We now 56. New posts have been mainly on retirement, which makes should also admit that some leaven¬ opened, most dramatically in the no discrimination as to the quality ing is good for us. The Foreign Trucial states, and the changes do of the officer. How much more Service is not a members’ protec¬ not reflect any shift in the balance sensible to identify those we can tive and benevolent society, and between career and non-career ap¬ more easily spare? The Service is the day we start to become so will pointments, but for promotion pur¬ even more ambivalent on the be the day we begin to atrophy. poses they do mean nine more top- mathematics of the question. There We must also recognize that the level jobs. is the deepest reluctance to face up question is more complicated than I have already written as much to the relationship between accel¬ some career FSOs would like to as I expect you want to hear about erated promotion and the opening recognize. The Foreign Service is out-of-agency details. Every added of vacancies. Some clutch at Sec¬ an organism with a number of detail at the Class One level that tion 519 to escape the dilemma, as¬ membranes, and osmosis should we will be able to count on in our serting that enforced Chief of Mis¬ planning would cascade down as at sion retirements (which by no least five promotions. While senior stretch of the imagination could ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆ officers represent 19 percent of the exceed half-a-dozen a year) could ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆ officer corps, they compose 28 open the broad road to accelerated percent of the officers on detail. promotion throughout the system. ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ More than half of the officers as¬ Section 519 will be used. But this signed to other agencies are in can only affect numbers at the e Grades 1 through 3. margin. The present extraordinary Jl r On January 18 of this year, a new retirement incentives will pass—at J Act of Congress made non¬ least I hope they will—and when ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ V OJ reimbursable details of Foreign that happens, selection-out of some Service officers of over 90 days il¬ kind will be essential, I think, if we ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆ legal, and we have been obliged in wish to create and maintain the ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆ Continued on page 57

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 17 “By such slow stages, through such various channels, has the great river of diplomacy changed its bed. The water is the same as formerly, the river is fed by the same tributaries and performs much the same functions. It is merely that it has shifted itself a mile or so in the sand.”—Sir Harold Nicolson

THE PRESENT CHAU ENGE TO THE FOREIGN SERVICE

JACK PERRY

DIPLOMATS are usually leery of jected to more public and Congres¬ the Foreign Service may be listed. talking about new eras because sional scrutiny than at any time they are professionally aware of since the Truman Administration. First, To Start From the persistent things in interna¬ At this time, with so much of our Where We Are tional relations. Even tradition¬ national policy passing through a Although ambassadors may be alists, however, are now aware of landscape of interrogation marks, sent to lie abroad for the common¬ huge changes converging from sev¬ the Foreign Service is given the wealth, diplomats are failures if eral directions. The United States opportunity of serving under a new they lie to themselves. At this time has withdrawn from direct in¬ Secretary of State, who seems sure we need to confront ourselves with volvement in the fighting in In¬ to leave important marks in his¬ the most honest estimates of where dochina. We have moved onto new tory. From their low estate of the our actions have brought us. To planes in our relations with Russia past few years, the Service and the recognize the vast damage at home and China, even if many old prob¬ Department are presented the chal¬ and abroad caused by our Vietnam lems remain. We are facing up to lenge of rising into relevance. Our policy, for example. To look at finding new ways of dealing with traditions, our people and our out¬ where our consumption of energy old allies in Western Europe and in look qualify us to contribute impor¬ curve is taking us. To see that the Latin America. We are looking tantly to the new period in Ameri¬ arrogance of power is not merely a again at some old strategic shib¬ can diplomacy. red herring of Senator Fulbright’s boleths. Galvanized by the oil situ¬ The temptation will seize us, no but a charge that many countries ation, we are taking economics as doubt, to avoid the heat of the still level against us. To look hon¬ seriously as politics. And at home, kitchen and stay in some kind of estly at how far detente can go, and we have gone through a series of safe managerial retreat. We will be how far it cannot go. severe political shocks which have tempted to eschew opinions and First of all, we need to recognize resulted in foreign policy being sub- cultivate skills, regarding foreign that the past decade, beginning policy not as a democratic process with President Kennedy’s assassi¬ but as a series of directives. But nation in 1963 and going on through some of us believe that making and our internal controversies over Jack Perry, former member of the JOURNAL carrying out foreign policy in a civil rights and Vietnam and down Editorial Board, has remained an interested democracy ought to be an open through the Watergate matter, has and valued contributor to its columns. He process, in which professional dip¬ brought big changes in the founda¬ has served in Moscow and Paris, as well as on assignment to the Council on Environ¬ lomats have an important contribu- tions of our foreign policy at home mental Quality, and has just left for his post tive role. It is in this sense that and in its setting abroad. The way in Bucharest. some of the present challenges to foreigners think about our country

18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 has changed a great deal in the “To grasp the extent of this malady, one need merely course of this decade. In the eyes ask how long it has been since a major foreign policy of many, we are not the super¬ was the subject of public debate before it was power supreme, or even the leader adopted." of the free world, but one nation among the others—and a nation, at sionals know what that is, and how of speaking candidly to press and that, with a lot of problems at hard it is. public without breaching confiden¬ home. tiality. The line between openness At the same time, Americans Third, To Let the People in On Foreign Policy and leaks is hard to draw, but the have started to look at their place professional diplomat knows how in the world with a fresh eye, it We diplomats have been victims to draw it. would seem. Vietnam brought of a malady that has struck the Ex¬ Diplomats cannot initiate a pol¬ deep disillusionment about the ecutive Branch repeatedly since icy of greater openness, but they duty, as we had seen it since Tru¬ World War II. In this sickness, can advocate it within the councils man, to guarantee the security of policy-makers believe that the of government, and are essential to much of the world. Inflation and people do not understand foreign carrying out such a policy once energy problems helped re-focus policy, which must therefore be adopted. The foreign policy pro¬ attention on domestic priorities. conducted in secrecy by the fessional in a democracy has the Meanwhile the Constitutional de¬ experts—by the men with security challenge to be the defender of the bates occasioned by Watergate clearances who understand inter¬ people’s right to participate fully in brought into question what had national affairs. The role of the the foreign policy process. been the increasingly accepted Congress, according to this way of supremacy of the Presidency in thinking, is to approve what the Fourth, To Be Partners foreign affairs. Executive Branch does, and the With the Congress It is within this re-shaping of out¬ role of the people is to applaud The corollary to the above point look and of power relationships choices made. The diplomat, for is that the diplomat should readily within the United States and be¬ his part, is to justify and explain acknowledge the Constitutional tween it and the rest of the world policies already adopted. To grasp role of the Congress in foreign af¬ that the honest diplomat has to find the extent of this malady, one need fairs and should be prepared to his own place, and that of the De¬ merely ask how long it has been work intimately with the Congress partment and the Foreign Service. since a major foreign policy was in the making and implementing of Second, To Defend Diplomacy the subject of public debate before foreign policy. This does not imply it was adopted. any slackening of loyalty to the Professional diplomats know by At present there is a great de¬ Secretary and the President, but it year-in year-out rubbing of shoul¬ mand in the country at large for does imply the diplomat’s willing¬ ders with foreigners that the recon¬ openness in the making of ness to work closely with a Con¬ ciling of diverse national interests policy—and this will mean foreign gress bent upon reasserting its pre¬ is something that does not end, policy as well as domestic policy, rogatives in foreign affairs. The something that requires under¬ in all likelihood. It will mean that Secretary has already set the ex¬ standing and patience by those at the President, the Secretary of ample for us; but we have to review home. This knowledge does not State, the Congress, and the entire our habits, and work out the prac¬ come instinctively. In order to foreign affairs establishment will be tical arrangements of partnership. promote the true national interest, increasingly called upon to outline Too often in the past the entire a diplomat must sometimes stand foreign policy choices to the peo¬ burden of working with Congress up to those at home who under¬ ple. This is not to say that the prin¬ was put upon the Secretary, the mine long-term interests for the ciple of confidentiality, which Assistant Secretaries, and a few sake of expediency and short-run every diplomat knows is vital to di¬ people in the Bureau of Congres¬ gain. Consulting with allies is tedi¬ plomacy, need be transgressed; it sional Relations. Broad, informal ous, even perilous, but the dip¬ does mean that a larger degree of contacts in a variety of settings be¬ lomat must urge it. Keeping on de¬ public participation in foreign tween working-level diplomats and cent terms with governments policy-making is possible and de¬ people up on the Hill, both elected ideologically unsympathetic to our sirable. The best Foreign Service representatives and staffers, were own, or publicly critical of us, is officers have always known the art not encouraged. Little attention often unpleasant, but wise. The was given to expansion of chan¬ American diplomat will be accused ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ nels, for example by having each of seeing everything from the other ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ Bureau establish its own relation¬ fellow’s point of view—or worse, ship with the Hill, as is the case of sacrificing American interests in ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ with many Departments in domes¬ pursuit of some vague international tic affairs. No doubt a higher de¬ state of goodwill—but he must en¬ gree of centralization of contacts is dure this, and insist that planetary necessary in foreign affairs; but neighbors must eventually look even so, there would seem to be through each other’s eyes. As we ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ much room for a broadening of the give our best advice to the Secre¬ Hill-Foreign Service relationship. tary, our constant challenge will be ☆ ☆☆☆☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ If Congressional resurgence in to give diplomatic advice. Profes¬ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ foreign affairs is one of the facts of

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 19 American public life, then profes¬ the Earl of Courtown’s statement: the Service will speak out as vigor¬ sional diplomats ought to meet the “The stranglehold of paper implies ously as some Senators have done Congress halfway, or better, and what so many people feel, that about the shameful practice of sell¬ get the partnership working prop¬ bureaucracy today is our master ing Ambassadorships. John Ken¬ erly as soon as possible. And instead of being our servant. This neth Galbraith’s suggestion of sev¬ neither side should pretend that it arises from administration being eral years ago, to have a Foreign will be easy. considered as an end in itself rather Service Association panel to com¬ than a means to an end.” ment on the professional accepta¬ Fifth, To Go Beyond Many diplomats feel that if we bility of high-level diplomatic ap¬ Traditional Diplomacy are given hard and important jobs pointments, in the manner of the At all the symposiums and to do, we are capable of organizing Bar Association, may be worth re¬ roundtables nowadays they are ourselves around the work to be considering. Standing up to the rest talking about moving beyond tradi¬ done, without frills and fuss. In re¬ of the bureaucracy is also timely: tional diplomatic concerns to the cent times we have been scrutiniz¬ we badly need to reestablish the real problems of the planet towards ing papers for typographical errors, central position of State and the the end of the 20th century— over¬ writing sequels to policy studies, Foreign Service in foreign policy. population, shortages of food and debating NSSMs, splitting our¬ This involves a whole range of bat¬ energy, threats to the environment, selves up into cone systems, and so tles, of course, from upper-level helping the underdeveloped, im¬ on, because we did not have suffi¬ negotiations with Defense or proving the functioning of the cient responsible work to do. If we Treasury down to an Embassy world economy, and so on. Dip¬ put the horse before the cart, give political section’s refusal to let lomats, while remaining aware that diplomats proper jobs and adminis¬ CIA usurp the function of political power is power and international ter the people around the jobs reporting. The challenge to State politics is still politics, ought to be rather than vice-versa, we may and the Service is to serve the na¬ in the vanguard of those who are render some real service. This may tional interest, conceived as not merely talking at symposiums be the hardest challenge of all. broadly and as variously as possi¬ but are trying to engage the nations Pride in the Foreign Service ble. in solving the problems. The dip¬ tradition needs rekindling, and this We will be lured by the argument lomats, who know by experience may already have begun. The that the President makes foreign what a small neighborhood our Open Forum idea is an important policy, with the Secretary of State planet is—and how impossible it is contribution, for its continuation as his chief advisor, so that the dip¬ to secede from it —should know and enlargement should signify a lomatic service is essentially a better than anyone else that trans¬ readiness at all levels to listen to group of clerks to carry out the pol¬ political diplomacy is what the fu¬ ideas and frank opinions coming up icy as made. That argument over¬ ture of international relations is from within the ranks. At times in simplifies a complex democratic mostly about. There is a great chal¬ the past, conformity and loyalty process. Acceptance of it signifies lenge here for the Department and seemed to be the cardinal virtues, a non-thinking Foreign Service, a the Service to bring the nation’s and all of us know men who ruined group of robot diplomats, which is attention—not once, but re¬ their careers by staunch advocacy not fitting for our country. The ar¬ peatedly, day in and day out—to of unaccepted positions. If the dip¬ gument leads towards quadren- the grinding, gritty problems that lomatic service is to be a career to nialism in foreign policy, that is the have to be worked out painstak¬ be proud of, as it has been in most bending of all policy towards the ingly in cumbersome multilateral of our history, then we must con¬ election or re-election of a Presi¬ organs, with little credit to those tinue to attract able young men and dent every four years. That is not that work them out—and with a women with the promise that they our system. The President makes new problem looming behind every can deal with significant matters in foreign policy, with the important solution. a meaningful way and retain a participation of the Congress and reasonable hope of attaining posi¬ the underlying agreement of the Sixth, To Put Our Own tions of prestige and influence. If people, on the basis of enduring na¬ House In Order there is no responsibility at the bot¬ tional interests: that is our system. The familiar cliche is that tom of the ladder, no contribution It requires not automatons but Foreign Service people are impres¬ to make in the middle, and no room thinking civil servants who give sive singly but unimpressive collec¬ at the top, of course the Service honest advice based on their con¬ tively; put together, we become the will decline in the quality of its ception of enduring national in¬ Fudge Factory. Those of us who people. terests. The American diplomat have served in other agencies, Our best tradition is charac¬ constitutes part of a permanent other countries, and in other terized by professionalism, by a government dealing with foreign af¬ spheres besides government will thorough understanding of our fairs, and as Administrations come defend the proposition that the country and its relationship to the and go he keeps his eye on lasting Foreign Service has large numbers world, by a courage of conviction, national interests, telling his new of people to be proud of; but look¬ and by an ideal of service. Too ac¬ superiors every four years the situ¬ ing at our collective selves from the tive a concern for the perquisites of ation as he honestly sees it. outside, we have to confess to the profession is not typical of the Put it all together, and the dip¬ many of the shortcomings that tradition; but strong defense of our lomat is driven to the undiplomatic others are all too ready to remark responsibilities is. Perhaps the time assertion that right now we really on. Many of us would subscribe to has now come, for example, when do face one hell of a challenge. ■

20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 How many a man has dated a new era in his life from the reading of a book.—Henry David Thoreau

Lights and Shadows of 50 Years

SMITH SIMPSON

O NLY SINCE WORLD WAR II has and Sir Harold Nicolson’s of diplomacy akin to what military material about and from the dip¬ Dwight Morrow—the one a career histories, studies and memoirs lomatic establishment reached im¬ officer, the other a political—stood would offer of the military process pressive proportions and analytical as rarities; and memoirs by the of¬ if they omitted the guts of battles character. It is extraordinary that ficers themselves were few and and wars—the strategies, which as late as 1939 about all that existed scattered, defying any systematic determined which battles and wars in book form on the State Depart¬ triangulation of American diplo¬ should be engaged in and the tac¬ ment was a genial, indulgent “In¬ macy. Illustrative of these were tics, logistics, organization and side the Department of State” by Henry Lane Wilson’s “Diplomatic personal qualities determinative of the New York TIMES correspon¬ Episodes in Mexico, Belgium and outcome. It was all insightful and dent assigned to the Department, Chile” (1927), A. L. P. Dennis’s fascinating but it came, in sum, to Bertram Hulen; sympathetic vol¬ “Adventures in Diplomacy” meager fare. umes in the American Secretaries (1928), Hugh R. Wilson’s “Educa¬ Beginning with Robert Bendin- of State series edited by Samuel tion of a Diplomat” (1938) and the er’s sharply critical and not exactly Flagg Bemis; and a few other, in¬ choice “Diplomatically Speaking” unbiased expose, “Riddle of the dependent biographies of occu¬ of Lloyd C. Griscom, which, ap¬ State Department” (1942), and pants of that position such as Tyler pearing in 1940, deflected at least continuing through Harold Stein’s Dennett’s of John Hay and Philip one university student to the gutsy study of the internal battles C. Jessup’s of Elihu Root. On the Foreign Service. Astride biog¬ within the State Department over Foreign Service, materials were raphy and memoirs lay Burton J. the Foreign Service Act of 1946 (in harder to come by. Some familiar¬ Hendrick’s charming “Life and his “Public Administration and ity was required with Congres¬ Letters of Walter Hines Page” Policy Development: A Case sional reports and the landmark (1923). But the American conduct Book,” 1948), Bryton Barron’s study of the old National Civil Ser¬ of diplomacy was by no means un- emotional “Inside the State De¬ vice Reform League, published in exceptionably charming. Unjustly partment” (1946), James L. 1919 and prophetically entitled treated by the ruling clique of our McCamy’s “The Administration “Report on the Foreign Service.” diplomatic establishment, Dennis of American Foreign Affairs” Of individual diplomatic officers, committed suicide—a Charles (1950), Robert E. Elder’s balanced along with Dennett’s Hay, Allan Thomas of his day. but limited “The Policy Machine” Nevin’s biography of Henry White Most of this literature, whether (1960) and my own “Anatomy of written by historians, biographers the State Department” (1967), all or practitioners, was concerned of that changed as far as the State Smith Simpson, a retired Foreign Service with the unilinear progression of Department was concerned. It officer, is author of' Anatomy of the State events and careers rather than any now became the focus of analysis Department," as well as many articles on exploration of the strategies, tac¬ US diplomacy. These articles have ap¬ seeking to portray how it works peared in the JOURNAL, THE NATION and tics, techniques and skills ex¬ and why it slips. Little of this new THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY planatory of the process of interna¬ literature, however, set out to ex¬ OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. tional politics, presenting views of plain the Department in its en-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 21 “This was the program which Wilson’s “Memoirs of an Ex- affairs in the American mind ef¬ produced the George Kennans Diplomat” (1945), Willard Beau- fected by World War I, which, in and Charles E. Bohlens who lac’s “Career Ambassador” (1951) turn, brought international rela¬ thereby. . . got the kind of educa¬ and Joseph C. Grew’s “Turbulent tions courses to American univer¬ tion which fitted them to recog¬ Era” (1952) that this familiarity sities. To this development John nize the significant and profound began to evolve through full-length M. Allison referred in his notable memoirs from Foreign Service “Ambassador from the Prairie” in Soviet-American relations.” ranks. They were supplemented by (1973), reporting that he took one tirety, in its overall functioning, J. Rives Childs’s “American such course pioneered at the Uni¬ much of the effort being expended Foreign Service” (1948), the first versity of Nebraska by the well- on it as a policy-making body. This effort of a Foreign Service officer known Norman L. Hill. University reflected the mesmerization of to explain what he does, but he students were thus graduated with academicians with decision¬ made the mistake of writing it while a serious interest in international making, to the neglect, almost on active service. The Department problems and politics and as vari¬ total, of what happens to decisions so censored it that Childs tried ous of these wound their way into once made. Indeed, there con¬ vainly to prevent its publication. the Service serious diplomatic tinues much inclination in the Having subsidized the venture by practitioners began to multiply. academic community to consider giving the author a leave of ab¬ The founding of a School of the policy contributions of the dip¬ sence, the establishment had its Foreign Service at Georgetown in lomatic and consular posts as way. W. Wendell Blancke fared 1919 gave further impetus to this, either non-existent or inconsequen¬ better in 1969 by awaiting retire¬ as did the later establishment of the tial, these posts being, in their re¬ ment to publish “The Foreign Ser¬ Fletcher School of Law and Di¬ mote and inadequate view, simply vice of the United States.” Little plomacy. dispatch centers. So that commu¬ known but apt was a case study of In addition, there were two far¬ nity seems to have lagged behind the psychological and ethical prob¬ sighted realists within the diplo¬ the public in general in its under¬ lems of a vice consul in Indonesia matic establishment who contrib¬ standing of diplomacy and dip¬ immediately after World War II uted notably to this evolution. One lomatic agencies, the Department which was included in Harold was Robert F. Kelley, who joined —and even more the Foreign Ser¬ Stein’s casebook mentioned above. the consular service in 1922 and, vice—continuing to be to it some¬ The Service of post-war years having been a Russian specialist at thing like Africa before the expedi¬ has not been a wholly new Service Harvard, by a series of happy acci¬ tions of David Livingstone, known or of wholly new perspectives. It dents shortly became chief of the rather by its external coastline and has harbored many carry-overs Division of Eastern European Af¬ the configurations of its more con¬ from the earlier side-line diplomacy fairs in the Department. Anticipat¬ spicuous policy-making rivers than which had demanded little more of ing the time when the United by its enormous interior tributary practitioners than a pair of ears, a States would have diplomatic rela¬ systems and human complexities. pair of legs to trot to Foreign tions with the Soviet Union, he ini¬ McCamy and I tried to break Ministries, a pen, then a typewri¬ tiated a four-year program of Rus¬ through these limitations, to ex¬ ter, and an ability to write in de¬ sian studies abroad—in the cultural plore the interior, including the cul¬ cipherable English. For the most and political environment of ture and mentality of the hinterland part, these survivors were dilet¬ Europe, to provide greater inhabitants. The loquacious “Fires tantes, having sought appointment realism—with subsequent tours of in the In-Basket” of John P. to satisfy a longing for travel, hunt¬ duty as close to the Soviet Union Leacacos followed in 1968 and ing opportunities, socializing with as officers could be posted. This John Franklin Campbell’s “The notables or simply the prestigd of was the program which produced Foreign Affairs Fudge Factory” “diplomatic status.” Alexander the George Kennans and Charles three years later. An interesting Kirk’s remark that the reason he E. Bohlens who thereby acquired light in this new development is joined the Service was because his something significant—and even that practitioners themselves have mother wanted diplomatic facilities profound—to write about. Through joined in. of travel was ope of his ironic re¬ the efforts of a colleague interested Government agencies have also marks which contained a germ of in professionalism in US diplo¬ joined in the expeditions, with the truth. Even the better officers are macy, they got the kind of educa¬ Hoover Commission leading off in acknowledging in their memoirs tion which fitted them to recognize 1949, the Bureau of the Budget and published in recent years that they the significant and profound in the Senate Foreign Relations entered the Service not from any Soviet-American relations. Committee participating later professional interest in foreign pol¬ The other was Prentiss Gilbert, through the Brookings Institution icy or diplomacy but because they the first and only US Observer to and the State Department itself did not know what else to do. the League of Nations. Gilbert was through various committees. All of Along with the dilettantes were independent-minded, original, hos¬ this, however, came to fairly some serious practitioners and with tile to cliche thinking. He had had stilted, organizationally slanted these came a subtle change in our broad experience, understood in¬ studies. No one would have gained diplomatic establishment, our dip¬ ternational politics and, highly dis¬ from them any familiarity with di¬ lomatic literature and thence the trustful of the residual Wilsonian plomacy or of the State Depart¬ public relations of the establish¬ idealism in the American view of ment as a diplomatic organism. ment. This was brought about by diplomacy, used his assignment in It was not until Huntington the altered posture of international Geneva to educate and train

22 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 younger colleagues on his staff in political appointees and this, too, cultural diplomacy exists, so far as the international maneuvers which has been of great range, from such I am aware, except John Mecklin’s enmeshed and manipulated the shockingly superficial and dis¬ “Mission in Torment” (1965) de¬ League. From that realistic, far¬ torted memoirs as Joseph E. scribing our Saigon mission. Of the sighted-effort came outstanding of¬ Davies’s “Mission to Moscow” memoirs and studies of our South¬ ficers like James W. Riddleberger, (1941), which he saw to it was east Asian fiasco, relatively few Llewellyn Thompson and Jacob D. made into a movie, to the solid and have focused on our diplomatic Beam. illuminating Carlton J. H. Hayes’s performance. Of these, three of the Such are the factors which ac¬ “Wartime Mission in Spain, more sharply illuminating are count for the emergence of a light 1942-1945” (1945), Stanton Chester L. Cooper’s “The Lost drizzle of literature by career dip¬ Griffis’s “Lying in State” (1952), Crusade: America In Vietnam” lomatic officers in the 1940s and Claude G. Bowers’s “My Mission (1970), Edward G. Lansdale’s “In 1950s, including George Kennan’s to Spain: Watching the Rehearsal the Midst of Wars” (1972) and “American Diplomacy, 1900- for World War II” (1954) and David Halberstam’s “The Best 1950“ (1951). This falling weather, “Chile Through Embassy Win¬ and the Brightest” (1972). which gradually became a brisk dows, 1939-1953” (1958), along Some additional features of this shower and is now approaching a with Chester Bowles’s “Ambas¬ period have been the appearance of downpour, has ranged from the sador’s Report” (1954), John H. the novel on diplomacy (including first full-length memoir of a long¬ Morrow’s “First American Am¬ that analysis of our Southeast term Foreign Service officer bassador to Guinea” (1967), and J. Asian diplomacy in the guise of a —Beaulac’s—to Donald Dun¬ Kenneth Galbraith’s “Ambassa¬ novel, “The Ugly American,” ham’s collection of delightful vig¬ dor’s Journal” (1969)—all present¬ which appeared in 1958, two years nettes (“Envoy Unextraordinary,” ing the overseas aspect of diplo¬ after Graham Greene’s “The 1944), Cecil Lyon’s “The macy. Such memoirs as Roger Quiet American,” both focused on Lyon’s Share” (1973) and Bartley Hilsman’s “To Move a Nation” Ed Lansdale, whose memoir was Yost’s “Memoirs of a Consul” (1967) and Charles Frankel’s earlier mentioned); the first full- (1955). Within this range have fall¬ “High on Foggy Bottom,” two length portrayal of a State Depart¬ en other full-length memoirs of years later, dealt with the Depart¬ ment civil servant (Katharine long-termers—from Post Wheeler ment. Crane’s “Mr. Carr of State: and his wife, Hallie Erminie Rives Dean Acheson, of course, oc- Forty-seven Years in the Depart¬ (a cousin of J. Rives Childs), cupie a unique place in all this and ment of State,” 1960); the appear¬ Grew, Robert Murphy, Kennan, so do 1 memoirs. Although not a ance in 1967 of Max Savelle’s Bohlen, Allison—and more limited careeris. mode of appointment, pioneering and exhaustive study of reminiscences from Ellis O. Briggs he was one in fact and he had the “The Origins of American Diplo¬ (“Farewell to Foggy Bottom,” advantage of a two-year tutelage in macy: The International History of 1964), Waldemar Gallman (“Iraq strategic thinking and organiza¬ Anglo-America, 1492-1763”; under General Nuri,” 1964), tional management under his pre¬ studies of the diplomatic roles of Henry S. Villard (“Affairs at decessor, General Marshall. A the President and Secretary of State,” 1965) and Philip Bonsai’s warmer, wittier, more humane State; books on negotiating with (“Cuba, Castro and the United chief we have never had and his communist regimes; and serious ef¬ States,” 1971) recounting special “Present at the Creation” (1969) forts to grapple with diplomacy as a aspects or periods of diplomatic stands alone in its analysis of pol¬ political science. experience. The Wheeler-Rives icy decisions and executory moves Among the latter, several memoir, “Dome of Many Col¬ in terms of strategies, tactics, tech¬ pioneering and landmark studies oured Glass” (1955), is unique for niques and personal qualities—a have attested to our growing in¬ its husband-wife collaboration, model of memoir writing and a re¬ terest in our planetary relations. each contributing alternating chap¬ buke to those who think of diplo¬ These have included the one solid ters, and for its blazing candor. macy as simply an art and not one historical study of our diplomatic Both of them writers of of the social sciences. service, Warren F. Ilchman’s distinction—he a one-time jour¬ Our diplomacy of aid—and “Professional Diplomacy in the nalist and she a novelist with best¬ economic diplomacy in general United States, 1779-1939: A Study sellers to her credit—their book is a —has received little attention. No in Administrative History” (1961) kind of diplomatic “Gone With the memoir of our informational and which is more than its subtitle sug¬ Wind” of 860 spellbinding pages, gests; Graham H. Stuart’s unique too candid, it seems, regarding the ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆ “American Diplomatic and Consu¬ rivalries and jealousies which ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆ lar Practice” (rev. 1952), which is a wracked the Service to have been political science approach to dip¬ reviewable in the Foreign Service ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ lomacy and consular work; and JOURNAL, but it added to public en¬ Charles W. Thayer’s “Diplomat” lightenment as well as literary di¬ E (1959), the first effort of a Foreign version. Service officer to essay a political In addition to the expanding lit¬ dJ science analysis of his calling. erature of our career practitioners, ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ Coming eleven years after Rives who possess more than fleeting ex¬ 0J Childs’s more limited study, it is periences and fugitive judgments, ☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆ truly a notable attempt to concep- has been a spilling downpour from ☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆ Continued on page 51

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 23 “What do Americans believe now nearly three decades after the end of World War II?’’ eluded American Opinion image: and the Developing Countries

JOHN W. SEWELL

F HE MAJOR CHANGES which have longer emphasize the entire less American outlook on the develop¬ taken place in our relations with developed world as an arena of ing world. Indeed, there is a great the rest of the world during the past competition with the Soviet Union deal of disillusionment and doubt two years dramatize a period of or China, US relations with the de¬ both in and outside Washington transition in US foreign policy. veloping countries have fallen into concerning our relationships with The long-standing confrontation neglect. Despite Secretary of State the developing countries and the between the two major superpow¬ Kissinger’s acknowledgment that role of aid in their development. ers has waned, and the massive “a world community cannot re¬ Congressman John Brademas was American involvement in South¬ main divided between the perma¬ reflecting a very widespread im¬ east Asia, which many saw as the nently rich and the permanently pression when he said that “both culmination of this ideological con¬ poor,” there has been a general de¬ Congress and the Executive frontation, has ended. cline in US governmental support Branch perceive the American However, the “new era” of US for the development of the poor public, if not hostile to, certainly foreign relations that these changes countries in policy decisions and not enthusiastic for, foreign aid.” symbolize is also marked by new negotiations on trade and monetary But is that perception correct? problems that will pose great dif¬ matters, the equitable distribution Survey data* on how Americans ficulties for Americans. Most of food and energy resources, de¬ view global poverty and develop¬ Americans have been dismayed by velopment assistance, and the shar¬ ment indicate that the perceptions the apparent vulnerability of the ing of revenue from the exploita¬ of Washington policymakers and US economy in recent months. tion of the oceans. The most recent the opinion of the public at large The sacrosanct dollar has been de¬ example has been the grudging may be far apart. valued twice, food prices have American response to UN Secre¬ What the Public Thinks skyrocketed, inflation is rampant, tary General Waldheim’s call for The survey, which assesses and oil has become expensive and special relief for the countries American attitudes on governmen¬ sometimes scarce. Moreover, we hardest hit by this year’s price in¬ tal as well as private commitments are only beginning to understand creases in food, fuel, and fertilizer, to global development, US foreign the growing dimensions of global and the ill grace with which the aid and trade policies, budget interdependence in trying to find American delegation agreed to re¬ priorities, and a range of other is¬ solutions for emerging problems consider our opposition to linking a sues concerning world poverty and such as preserving our own envi¬ new issuance of the IMF’s Special development, revealed the follow¬ ronment, controlling the narcotics Drawing Rights (SDR's) to de¬ ing: trade, sharing the resources of the velopmental purposes only after 1 .The American public has not seas, shaping the potential of the developing-country members become isolationist and Americans burgeoning technology, and assess¬ of the Committee of Twenty do not want to withdraw from ac¬ ing the implications of the multina¬ threatened other monetary system tive participation in the world. tional corporations. In all of these reforms that were in the interest of Although Americans lack even a areas, Americans will find that the rich countries. minimal understanding of the di¬ they have to deal on the basis of What does the public think of mensions of the grave problems increasing equality with a much this trend in US policy? During the facing three quarters of the world’s greater number of states, many of “cold war” period, public opinion population, they express a strong which fall into the category of de¬ supported the main lines of US sympathy for the problems of the veloping countries. foreign policy. But what do Ameri¬ Yet as the cold war has waned cans believe now nearly three dec¬ *For the questions, detailed results, and and American policymakers no ades after the end of World War II? analysis of this survey, see Paul A. Are they still concerned and sym¬ Laudicina, “World Poverty and Develop¬ John W. Sewell is Vice President of the pathetic about the problems of de¬ ment: A Survey of American Opinion," Overseas Development Council, a private, Monograph No. 8 (Washington, D.C.; non-profit research and public education velopment and the plight of people Overseas Development Council, 1973). This organization dealing with American policies in the developing countries? survey, conducted by Peter D. Hart Re¬ towards the developing countries. A former The current wisdom maintains search Associates, Inc., consisted of one- Foreign Service officer, he was Assistant to that the bitter experience of the hour interviews with a representative sam¬ the President of Brookings Institution be¬ Vietnamese conflict and the press¬ ple of Americans. To minimize “leading" fore joining the ODC. Mr. Sewell spe¬ respondents, the survey relied primarily on cializes in the relationships between re¬ ing nature of our domestic prob¬ open-ended questions and avoided the pro- search and public policy. lems come to predominate the con, either-or and multiple choice formats.

24 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 poor abroad. Moreover, when they United States providing foreign trial countries in the percentage of are provided with information assistance to the poor countries, GNP devoted to development as¬ about these problems, their con¬ with only 28 percent opposed. The sistance), voluntary development cern tends to increase, and they fact that this support for the idea of assistance from the American peo¬ show a greater willingness to sup¬ furnishing foreign assistance is not ple has risen to an all-time high. In port actions to help solve them. at present automatically translat¬ 1971, voluntary contributions from 2. Americans regard world able into support for US official aid the American public amounted to hunger and poverty as very serious programs is not a contradiction, $889.6 million (with aid to Israel problems deserving “top priority” but an expression of public dis¬ excluded). United States voluntary attention, but give precedence to satisfaction with these programs as contributions (.06 percent of GNP) domestic poverty needs when they are now perceived to operate. were second only to those of Swe¬ asked to assign first place to one or Although the American public den (.07 percent), and significantly the other. knows little about aid programs, it above the average of 0.4 percent. They show more optimism about believes that too much of US offi¬ Further confirmation of the the short-run feasibility of alleviat¬ cial aid is wasted in our own survey’s findings is provided in a ing US poverty than poverty bureaucracy, and that US aid does new study by public opinion abroad. They also feel a more di¬ not get to those who need it most in analyst Louis Harris (“The An¬ rect responsibility for dealing with the poor countries. Americans also guish of Change,” W. W. Norton, domestic poverty. question the integrity of some reci¬ 1974). Harris concludes that there 3. Americans do not, however, pient governments in handling aid is a large gap between the policies see the solution of domestic and in¬ funds. Americans will support and those ternational problems as conflict¬ 6. Even when given the oppor¬ measures policymakers think their ing. Rather, the public’s views on tunity to reallocate funds within the constituents will support. Dealing all aspects of US development federal budget, a majority of those with a range of contentious issues policies appear to be governed by expressing views (49 percent) such as Vietnam, women’s rights, two major misperceptions: a) Most chose to either maintain or in¬ domestic poverty and crime, Har¬ Americans are unaware of the true crease—not cut—the amount bud¬ ris concludes that: “. . . the pub¬ dimensions of world poverty as geted for foreign economic assis¬ lic. . .is far more sophisticated, far compared with domestic poverty; tance. In contrast to this position more concerned, and far more ad¬ b) Most Americans also have an in¬ on foreign economic assistance to vanced than the leadership be¬ flated idea of how much the United the poor countries, the survey re¬ lieved. It can be said with certainty States today spends on foreign de¬ sults show that a majority (52 per¬ that the people by and large have velopment assistance, erroneously cent) of Americans favor cutting been well ahead of the leaders.” the foreign military assistance believing that the United States is The Washington Perspective actually spending far more in terms budget. The survey further shows of relative wealth than other rich that one of every two people re¬ If these findings are correct, why nations. But when provided with gards the US provision of military does public policy not reflect the more facts about the true situation, training and equipment as an inef¬ basic sympathy Americans seem to many Americans show willingness fective and unacceptable form of have for the problems of the poor to change to favor allocating a foreign aid. countries?* The answer can be greater proportion of the budget for 7. Americans do not believe aid found in two separate factors: the overseas poverty programs. should be used as a political tool; disappearance of the development 4. Cold war considerations, they feel that those countries most coalition of the post-World War II which were the major rationale for in need of US economic assistance period and the peculiar relationship providing assistance to the poor should be favored in its allocation. between public opinion and public countries in the 1950s and 1960s, Public Support is strongest for di¬ policy, particularly as it involves have lost much of their credibility. rect, visible programs aimed at al¬ the legislative branch. For more The reasons for US foreign de¬ leviating such basic problems as than twenty years, public support velopment assistance enumerated hunger and malnutrition, disease, for the developing countries was by those interviewed were over¬ and illiteracy. This conclusion in¬ focused on aid and was mobilized whelmingly humanitarian and dicates that the bilateral aid legisla¬ * The actual polling for the survey was con¬ moral. The survey results also tion passed last year emphasizes ducted in late October 1972, before the clearly show that, as of the fall of the type of aid most Americans Arab oil embargo, and before the current 1972 (when the survey was con¬ favor. inflationary spiral had reached its current ducted), the increasing evidence of peak. Undoubtedly, these events will have Many foreign policy specialists affected public opinion to some degree. US economic interdependence will be suspicious of these results, Certainly, Americans are now much,more with other countries had not yet if only because the findings do not aware of their dependence on the outside made any significant impression on seem to agree with the commonly world, particularly for energy. But these the public as a reason for assisting accepted wisdom about the state of events probably have not changed the over¬ all pattern of American attitudes towards the poor countries. American public opinion on inter¬ global poverty and development, simply be¬ 5. Despite these misperceptions national issues. But some collateral cause these attitudes are too deep-rooted. It and this lack of knowledge, and de¬ data bears out the survey’s accu¬ is indicative, for instance, that most Ameri¬ spite the decline of the cold war racy. For instance, at the very time cans have tended to blame the oil com¬ rationale for US assistance, more panies, and not the oil countries for the that US government assistance has shortages of gasoline and fuel oil. In the than two thirds (68 percent) of the been declining (the US now ranks absence of other data, therefore, one can public supports the principle of the twelfth among the fourteen indus¬ safety assume that the results remain valid.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 25 at the national level by a triangular ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ is now quite clear that the old coali¬ partnership consisting of the Ex¬ tion of private groups cannot be ecutive Branch (which saw aid ☆ ☆☆☆☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ■£ resurrected without an entirely largely as an important tool in the ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ new effort based on a recognition cold war), key members of Con¬ of their fundamental reservations. gress, and a variety of private groups (which basically agreed Congress and Foreign Policy with the aims of American foreign The disaffection with US policy policy and also supported de¬ f rampant among those who for¬ velopment aid for various other ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ merly constituted a development reasons). And indeed it is worth ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ coalition has reinforced the view of remembering that as a result many policymakers in Washington foreign economic aid has been ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ that the public is hostile, or at least supported—albeit grudgingly—at apathetic, toward government pro¬ multibillion-dollar levels by every grams to help the poor countries administration and every Congress cally elected regimes such as the —and especially toward all forms since the end of World War II. one recently overthrown in Chile. of foreign assistance. This belief is But today this support is waning, This feeling is heightened in the certainly one major reason why in part because this coalition no case of foreign aid by the fact that government interest in maintaining longer exists. The Executive military and economic assistance or expanding such programs is so Branch still favors assistance pro¬ are still closely linked legislatively. low. But despite the fact that US grams, largely on short-range polit¬ The second reservation held by foreign aid programs continue to ical grounds, but its support is con¬ the former development consti¬ receive congressional support, siderably less vigorous. Moreover, tuency is increasing awareness of there still appears to be a substan¬ congressional support is now frag¬ our social and economic problems tial discrepancy between the mented; while many continue to here at home. Many former sup¬ public’s basically positive and support development cooperation, porters of overseas development sympathetic response to the prob¬ others, reacting against Vietnam have come to wonder whether lems of world poverty and de¬ and other overseas commitments, Americans should not adhere more velopment and the reluctant and no longer wish to see it continued closely to the old adage that “char¬ generally declining response of in any form. Many members of ity begins at home.” A notable ex¬ policymakers to those same prob¬ Congress and many of the private ample of this change in opinion has lems. organizations that used to be part occurred within the American Why is there such a discrep¬ of the foreign aid coalition—-and churches and labor unions. One ancy?* One reason is that the way still potentially are the natural con¬ would expect the churches and the issues are presented to the pub¬ stituency for aid to the developing church-related groups to be provid¬ lic in a survey is not normally the countries—now hold two major ing moral leadership for global de¬ way they are presented to reservations that have sharply de¬ velopment. But until recently they policymakers for decision. Issues creased their former enthusiasm. had virtually ceased to be impor¬ frequently reach policymakers in First, many question the funda¬ tant supporters of development forms which obscure their impact mental aims of US foreign policy, aid, partly because of Vietnam, but on the development of the poor particularly with respect to the de¬ also because they now give pri¬ countries. Members of Congress veloping countries, because these mary importance to problems of generally vote not on abstract aims appear to them to be tied to domestic poverty. American trade questions, but on complex and im¬ the past and largely irrelevant to unions also have changed their po¬ perfect proposals which seldom the problems of the next decade. sition on an issue of great impor¬ lend themselves to clear-cut This criticism, which arose mainly, tance for the development of poor choices. but not exclusively, out of our dis¬ countries; once strong supporters A decision in the trade field, for astrous experience in Southeast of free trade, many are now press¬ instance, is liable to be quite com¬ Asia, has spawned widespread dis¬ ing for protectionist trade legisla¬ plex. In the ODC-sponsored sur¬ approval of the use of aid for tion and for measures designed to vey, many more respondents said short-range political or security restrict the overseas investments of they would favor freer trade with purposes rather than for the prob¬ multinational corporations. Much the poor countries if they could lems of global poverty. In addition, of the fear of free trade and invest¬ take it for granted that American many believe that in most countries ment prevalent among union lead¬ workers would be totally protected development has made the rich ers arises from their perception of from the adverse consequences of richer and has not helped the poor. the threat to American jobs from more cheap imports. But members With this disapproval has come a imports from the “cheap labor” of Congress have no opportunity to reluctance to give financial support areas of the world, primarily the vote for or against freer trade in a to any foreign policy that assists poor countries. bill that provides total worker pro- such conspicuously repressive re¬ As a result of these factors, the gimes (as, for example, the military views of the private organizations *1 am indebted to former ODC Visiting Fel¬ government of Greece), while cut¬ that used to form the backbone of low, Charles Paolillo, for much of the ma¬ ting off assistance (and, indeed, non-governmental support for terial in this section. His analysis of con¬ gressional decision-making on foreign pressuring international organiza¬ overseas development in the form economic issues will be published by ODC tions to follow suit) to democrati- of aid have changed drastically. It later this year.

26 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 tection; more likely, they must de¬ gress (as well as policymakers in to gain acceptance for, and support cide whether to vote for or against the Executive Branch) have no of, our foreign initiatives.” freer trade with developing coun¬ strong personal views on develop¬ Unfortunately the pleas for tries under a system of partial ment issues. Since clear signals on agreement on foreign policy issues protection for affected workers and these issues are likewise still lack¬ ring hollow for two reasons. First industries. They then must decide ing from the public, other the foreign affairs community has if the amount of protection is decision-making factors tend to no systematic way of assessing sufficient—a quite different ques¬ play an unusually important role. A public opinion on foreign policy is¬ tion from the question posed in the Congressman’s position on de¬ sues. As Bernard Cohen points out survey. velopment assistance to other in his excellent book “The Public’s Another reason for the apparent countries may be partly designed to Impact on Foreign Policy,” the discrepancy is that while a survey pressure the Executive Branch on Department of State long ago gave is taken in a neutral context, gov¬ some other issue, such as the re¬ up any attempt to assay public ernment action, of course, is taken duction of defense expenditures or opinion, relying instead on intui¬ in a political context. Regardless of the increase of funds for domestic tion reinforced by reading the New what a member of Congress be¬ programs. Or he may be heavily in¬ York TIMES and the Washington lieves his constituents feel about a fluenced by the state of relations POST. Moreover, little systematic particular issue, he may also try to between the Executive and the work is being done privately, ex¬ assess the possibility that his posi¬ Congress. Or in the absence of cept for that sponsored by tion on the issue will be distorted, presidential leadership, he may Potomac Associates. As a conse¬ thereby costing him constituent cast his vote with the committee quence, there is little understand¬ support. Whatever his own opin¬ chairman who is managing the ing within the foreign affairs com¬ ion, he may feel unable to support bill—simply because he is a com¬ munity of how public opinion does, the US development assistance mittee chairman himself and has a or could, affect foreign policy. program for fear of being accused stake in the committee system. Or Until recently, it had even be¬ of voting for “foreign handouts” he may vote with the leadership of come fashionable to downplay the while his own district cannot get his party because he does not know impact of public opinion on foreign funds for medical care or educa¬ what else to do. The variations are policy. But what the American tion. endless, and often the total weight public thinks is important in deter¬ Still another reason is that of these other factors is at least as mining the general direction of na¬ policymakers do not view the pub¬ great as the weight of substance tional policies, although scholars lic as an undifferentiated mass. On and public opinion combined. have argued for a number of years any given issue they generally do about just what its precise impact is not ask “What does the public What Can Be Done? and how public opinion is transmit¬ think?” but rather, “What are the Currently two strong subthemes ted to our policy makers. Public views of business, labor, minor¬ are being voiced in the foreign pol¬ opinion is important if only be¬ ities, the young, the old, the farm¬ icy community concerning public cause policy makers pay attention ers, the miners, the liberals, the opinion. The first is a fear of a new to it; for the policymaker, public conservatives, the rich, the poor?” “isolationism,” somehow akin to opinion may be a matter of concern A policymaker generally assesses that which manifested itself after even though it may not be a direct any group’s views according to that World War I. According to this influence or constraint. It has polit¬ group’s importance to him, as well view Americans are turning inward ical force as long as the as according to his assessment of and focusing either on domestic policymaker either receives en¬ the particular issue’s actual impor¬ problems or on their own self¬ couragement for positions he wants tance to the group. Those whose gratification. This gloomy conclu¬ to take, or in contrast, sees some political support is essential but sion is buttressed by those who cite limitations on effective action. The uncertain carry greater weight than survey data showing a lessened de¬ key to the importance of the public those whose support can be taken sire on the part of Americans to in the policy process, therefore, is for granted, and those whose sup¬ come to the aid of close allies, and whether or not it will accept or op¬ port is unattainable are often disre¬ a series of congressional actions, pose strongly the policies proposed garded. particularly the diminished en¬ by the Congress and the Executive Finally public opinion often is thusiasm for foreign aid and the de¬ Branch. not the main influence on decisions sire to cut US troop strength in Finally there is little understand¬ taken by Congress and the Execu¬ Europe. ing among policymakers about how tive Branch. Clearly, the substance The second subtheme involves Americans are informed and of the issue itself is important, as the search for a new agreement on mobilized on issues of international are the other issues that so often the directions and goals of Ameri¬ importance. We are at a time when are included in foreign aid bills can foreign policy. The Secretary the need for public understanding —for example, end-the-war of State’s plea at the Pacem in and support of forthcoming Ameri¬ amendments or anti-impoundment Terris conference to “ . . . search can policies may be even more cru¬ amendments. In the case of over¬ for a new consensus” was echoed cial than in the past. But little effort seas development, as on other is¬ by former Undersecretary of State is being made to understand how sues, the strength of a pol¬ Katzenbach in FOREIGN AFFAIRS, the public can be educated on icymaker’s own knowledge and who gave first priority to “ . . . foreign policy issues and how some opinion tends to guide his decison. discussions sufficient to establish form of agreement on the broad However, many members of Con¬ the domestic consensus necessary Continued on page 54

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 11 Travelers are not only visitors, but ruler of China. In general, outside guests who deserve special treat¬ influences were excluded, and THE NEW CHINA ment. those permitted were mediated In 1971-72 Americans admitted through this regulatory system. TOURISM to Peking began to join the select Commerce was not the law of in¬ OF THE ’70s company of those from all over the ternational life, but something world who have met Prime Minis¬ sought by the foreigner and granted ter Chou En-lai. The China visitors by a self-sufficient Chinese realm JOHN K. FAIRBANK who have dined with him can vie only in certain circumstances. For with one another as to who had the nomad and seminomad bar¬ TODAY WE HAVE contact with the more hours of contact, who stayed barians of Inner Asia, there were Chinese state, not with the Chinese later into the small hours. Mr. horse fairs on the frontier, where people, as we used to do up to Chou has used these occasions to Chinese teas and silks could be ex¬ 1949. China has stood up and as¬ provide news and enunciate changed for cavalry mounts. Just serted her sovereignty. In pre¬ policies, but also and primarily, no as Confucian social theory exalted liberation China the American had doubt, to appraise foreign attitudes the official over the merchant his unequal treaty privileges. His and opinions. Usually his banquets within Chinese society, so the rights of travel and residence, were held in the Great Hall of the major aim in foreign relations was made universal by the most- People that flanks the big square in to establish personal contact with favored-nation clause, had long set front of the old Peking Palace—a outside rulers as a basis for har¬ the precedent that China was wide regal building of imposing propor¬ monious relations. Foreign trade open to foreign visiting. The with¬ tions with banquet rooms for each was a subordinate consideration. holding of a visa by the Chinese of China’s provinces, quite aside In the present dispensation government would have been an from the Hall itself, which can seat China does not propose to live by extraordinary act. In postliberation 10,000 delegates, or the banqueting foreign trade, but is interested in China, the foreigner comes only as area for 5,000 diners. The routine certain outside goods and tech¬ an invited guest specifically given a on these occasions was so beauti¬ niques. The new state has no visa. Today China’s strict limita¬ fully personalized and friendly as thought of renewing what foreign tion of access is a refreshing con¬ to outshine Madison Avenue’s best historians have called the tribute trast in Chinese eyes to the subser¬ efforts in public relations. For ex¬ system, yet there are certain ele¬ vience of treaty times. The rev¬ ample, delegations could stand on ments today that echo the past. olutionary generation deem it only three tiers inconspicuously availa¬ The old Canton trade for a century appropriate that foreign contact ble in front of a backdrop for group and a half before 1842 was the prin¬ like all other developments should photographs of distinction, while cipal channel of contact for Euro¬ be under rational and purposeful individuals in ones, two, and threes pean merchants. During the annual control. could be photographed with the trading season, they came and The opening toward America Prime Minister in a friendly pose, lived in the Thirteen Factories, a has become, for the moment, a all in a matter of seconds, with ex¬ ghetto area on the banks of the foreign policy campaign. Selected cellent photographs available the Pearl River outside the city walls travelers are given opportunity to next day. of Canton. There they dealt with report their impressions of rev¬ This newly cultivated friendship designated counterparts, the Hong olutionary progress. This new style has complex roots, and its forms of merchants and smaller shopmen, began in 1971 with the ping-pong expression are influenced by long bargaining over the qualities and players and journalists like traditions on both sides. If it is to quantities of goods. By custom Seymour Topping and James Res- be more than a superficial stunt and they were allowed to make certain ton of THE NEW YORK TIMES. It the product of a friendship cam¬ visits to see sights and observe was highlighted by the Nixon visit paign that could run its course like Chinese life without participating in early 1972, and has been re¬ any other campaign, then the in it. They were forbidden to study corded in books or articles by the American participants need to get Chinese writing or export Chinese young, self-styled radicals of the it into perspective as an activity of books that might contain secrets of Committee of Concerned Asian the Chinese revolutionary state. the realm. Today the Canton Trade Scholars, a galaxy of popular writ¬ But this hopeful augury of con¬ Fair similarly permits foreign mer¬ ers like Barbara Tuchman, John structive future relations is not in¬ chants to come to almost the same Kenneth Galbraith, Harrison Sal¬ consistent with certain continuities area on the Pearl River for limited isbury, and even Joseph Alsop, to from an earlier day. The treaty sys¬ periods of commercial negotiation. say nothing of academic visitors tem of the period 1842-1943 was Entertainments and edifying com and Overseas Chinese. The guided preceded by the many centuries of tacts with Chinese life are ar¬ tour is based on the premise that the tributary era. The tribute sys¬ ranged. Students of the 18th cen¬ the institutions of the new China tem had a long history stemming tury might well find that today are worth seeing and that the ob¬ from the Han, and by the beginning there are similar problems of trans¬ servation of proper behavior is of the Ming Dynasty in 1368 it had lation, interpretation, verification edifying, just as Confucius said. become fairly well institutionalized. of quality, bargaining over terms of The essence of it was that foreign payment and, in addition, the en¬ Copyright ® 1974 by John K. Fairbank. From the forthcoming book, “China Per¬ ingress into China was not a tertainment of the foreigner at ceived” by John K. Fairbank. Printed by natural right but a concession or Chinese banquets and through the permission of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. boon given the foreigner by the Continued on page 56

28 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 Performance evaluation is, then, something of an executive art and science in itself.—Herbert E. Meyer PERFORMANCE EVALUATION: The Annual Inventory PAUL V. WARD

I N JUNE AND JULY of each year institute a formal, written appraisal tasks and improve its capacity in practically everyone in the Foreign procedure which provides “objec¬ the process. Service of the State Department is tive” justification for manage¬ How many of these roles do faced with what is commonly ment’s decisions in these areas. people expect the Foreign Service viewed as a “necessary evil” Thus, there is an administrative Performance Evaluation System to where the ends justify some means, purpose for a formal review of em¬ fulfill? The answer would depend and we don’t seem to have any bet¬ ployees’ performance. That is, to on the perspective of the respon¬ ter means than the ones at hand; serve as a basis for decisions on dent. Let’s assume that all of them that is, the Performance Evalua¬ salary increases, promotions, as¬ are consistent with the expecta¬ tion Report. Each year some signments, and terminations. tions of at least some people in the changes are made in the form and Another objective is usually Department. instructions, but “plus ?a change, How well does the present sys¬ plus c’est la meme chose.” more implicit than explicit. That is to control or mold the behavior of tem fulfill the desirable objectives? I would submit that the “vicious One could write a book on each cycle” can be broken and a new employees and that of their supervisors—to ensure that job re¬ topic, but a few generalizations will start made toward a much more serve to illustrate the complexity of satisfactory system—from the view¬ lated activities, and in many cases personal ones, are within the limits the issue of reform in an ongoing points of “rator,” “ratee,” and the system. organization as a whole. I do not established by the organization’s leadership. Promotions—Is the current sys¬ presume to have the “ultimate so¬ tem a valid basis for just decisions? lution.” There isn’t one, but there Since many people like feedback I believe the majority view in the seem to me to be several steps that about how well they are doing on Department is that it is not. could be taken to deal more effec¬ the job, another role of a formal Selection-Out—Because of the tively with a rather complex prob¬ evaluation system is to give them nature of the system (generally un¬ lem, with the stakes being the kind some indication of how they are realistically high ratings and sus¬ of Foreign Service we will have in perceived by higher levels. This ceptibility to personal bias) it is the next decade. function is particularly important in probably even less valid as an in¬ an organization where many inter¬ strument for identifying the mar¬ Performance Evaluation: personal relationships are not con¬ ginal performer. For What Purpose ducive to open and concrete two- Assignments—Most people Why does the Department of way communications. This infor¬ would probably agree that corridor State and Foreign Service, or any mative role perhaps should be reputation is more used than the large organization, have a formal more central than it usually is. written record in making assign¬ performance evaluation system? Related to the control function, ments, particularly for people who Once the number of people in an but somewhat different, is have been in the Service for some organization has reached a point management’s desire to use the time. where each member does not know performance rating system to moti¬ In order to fulfill these three all others personally, where deci¬ vate employees to improve the functions effectively, what are the sions must be made on assignment quality and increase the quantity of basic criteria a system would have of personnel to tasks which require their performance. to meet? specialized experience and qualifi¬ An evaluation process may also • Valid data in universal cations, and where access to higher be needed to identify executive tal¬ categories that allow comparisons paying positions is limited, the ent. to be made. usual administrative response is to An additional role, which is in • Information that is relevant to conflict with some of the above, the objective. That is, data which would be to serve as a crucial vari¬ discriminate between better per¬ Mr. Ward has served in Paris, Martinique, able in the creating of an organiza¬ formers and weaker performers Sierra Leone, and the Dominican Republic, tional climate that is conducive to must be the basis of the written in such different jobs as political, (1) the fulfillment of both organiza¬ record. economic-commercial, consular and ad¬ tional purposes and member needs, • The system must be perceived ministrative functions. He most recently re¬ ceived a Master's in Public Administration and (2) the development of energet¬ as valid and just by employees. at Harvard University and is currently as¬ ic and creative people who effec¬ • It must be sensitive to signed to the Department. tively perform the organization’s changes in (a) knowledge, (b) at-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 29 titudes, (c) ability, and (d) perfor¬ objectives discussed earlier. An Administrative decisions would mance. even more fundamental question is then be made on the basis of “ob¬ How do these specific criteria re¬ whether or not it is possible for any jective” scores rather than subjec¬ late to the functions outlined one general system to serve all tive personal judgments. Here above? those functions. Many experts on again the results could be made Identify Potential Executives— the subject have come out in favor known to the individual, just as col¬ The degree to which the system of multi-method systems. lege entrance exam scores are, for meets the requirements of this item What are some alternatives? purposes of guiding him in personal will determine its usefulness in One would be to have a promo¬ career decision making. The under¬ picking out potential leaders. The tion system that is semi-automatic lying assumption of this system is Foreign Service system appears to during the middle grades (Diplo¬ that only valid tests would be used be nowhere near that selective. macy for the 70’s Task Forces rec¬ for a specific purpose. (Such a sys¬ Mold Behavior—There is a good ommendation) and have the junior tem seems antithetical to our pro¬ bit of subjective commentary that and senior promotions based on fessional self-image, but would would indicate the current system composite data collected over a probably be more accurate in its is pretty good as a unilateral con¬ period of time from a variety of selectivity and predictability than trol device for supervisors, but the sources. This should permit the present system.) The individual questions is, is unilateral control supervisor-subordinate relations to could choose for himself the timing desirable? follow increasingly the manage- of attempts to qualify for new Inform—Some research has in¬ ment-by-objectives pattern, which levels of responsibility and/or pay. dicated that periodic performance in turn would fulfill the continuing Specialized tests could be used to evaluation systems tied to salaries objectives of feedback and motiva¬ sort out people for special assign¬ or promotions are not effective in tion. Assignments would be based ments. providing useful feedback to em¬ on general personnel office data I don’t think it is worthwhile to ployees. In addition to the general and reputation as they now are. devote space to discussing systems phenomenon of portraying every¬ A variation on the above theme that might be based solely on one as practically walking on water would be to take the supervisor out seniority or solely on the informal the system has other shortcomings. of the business of performance subjective judgments of manage¬ Any criticism seems to have a evaluations altogether and let a ment, although they are theoretical negative impact on performance team of personnel specialists work¬ options. rather than motivating improve¬ ing with the Inspector General’s Although I am not advocating ment. Praise has little effect one staff accomplish that task, using a any particular system at this point, way or the other. variety of instruments and getting it is evident that there are several Motivate—Here again there is input from an individual’s subordi¬ different alternatives to our present evidence (studies in General Elec¬ nates and peers, as well as super¬ one and that other single systems, tric) that an effective informative visors. These reports could be used or preferably a multi-method ap¬ and motivating system which leads for administrative purposes and to proach, might be more effective for to improved performance requires: provide feedback to the individual the Department. The important (a) establishment of specific goals, on how well he was doing. Such a thing is that studies of reform pos¬ (b) day-to-day feedback and coach¬ system would not necessarily pre¬ sibilities should not be limited to ing, and (c) mutual goal setting. clude a management-by-objective tinkering with the present scheme, (Current efforts to adopt a operation, nor a competitive, merit to the exclusion of other options. management-by-objectives (m-b-o) promotion system. A self-rating philosophy seem to be in the right procedure might fit in well in this Fine Tuning Present System direction, but successful im¬ approach. Assuming that for the moment plementation of such a philosophy Another option would be to set the Department decides to keep requires a much more systemic up a system of points (as proposed the basic one-on-one periodic rat¬ change than simply requiring, by some AFSA activists) whereby ing system it now has, there are through regulations, that the paper a person earns promotions by ac¬ improvements that could be made exercise be done in anticipation of complishing self-improvement of in the current Foreign Service pro¬ filling out a performance evaluation formal training programs, taking cedure to make the resultant data report that is already seen by many difficult assignments, etc. This and ratings more valid. The De¬ as an unpleasant chore.) would allow an individual to set his partment could, for example: Creating a Self-Renewing Cli¬ own pace and he would always Eliminate the use of terms mate—A performance evaluation know exactly where he stood in (“qualities” and “attributes”) system can be an initial impetus in terms of achieving his personal which are subject to such varying the direction of a dynamic and goals. This system would reward interpretations. As indicated above progressive organization, but it will both effort and merit and could be the terms and definitions used only flourish and grow in a suppor¬ structured to direct behavior to¬ should be based on some evidence tive and responsive environment. ward the future needs of the or¬ that the resulting “scores” will dif¬ ganization as well as the individual. Alternative Systems ferentiate between better perform¬ There are also proponents of ers and poorer performers, at least. I believe it is evident to most using only a battery of standar¬ Research has shown that the use of participants that the existing policy dized objective tests to measure the present group of factors is and its implementation do not meet personality traits, performance needless duplication as they all are the criteria for any of the desirable skills, knowledge and attitudes. highly correlated.

30 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 Eliminate the overlap between sign ratings or scores. This will ac¬ ployee should all be instructed not the proposed lists of performance complish two things. One, it will no to make general statements but to “qualities” and personal “attri¬ longer require the rating officer to describe specific events in the re¬ butes.” Recent research has indi¬ “play God,” and consequently porting period. These events cated that both types of categories should enhance the openness and should be chosen by the rated of¬ should be included for a more reality orientation of the supervi¬ ficer as valid examples of his cen¬ complete picture of the individual. sor-subordinate relationship. Sec¬ tral tasks. They should focus on (1) The specific lists should be re¬ ondly it will enlarge the sample of describing a significant problem or vised, however, so that one of persons on whom comparisons are task faced by the rated officer, (2) them clearly describes how well made. his proposed course of action, (3) the employee accomplished his Select only the most outstanding the barriers to accomplishment of specific assignments while the FSOs to serve on the promotion the objective, (4) what the em¬ other refers to more generalized, panels and give them special train¬ ployee actually did, (5) the im¬ enduring personality traits. ing in the whole evaluation pro¬ mediate results, and (6) the long Determine what the four “most” cess, in much the same manner that term consequences for both the and four “least” checks attributed BEX members now receive orien¬ rated employee and his unit. There to the terms described above will tation from external consultants. are at least two advantages to this tell the promotion boards, other Have two groups review all the re- system. Both the rating and rated than that various rating officers see officers can focus on more con¬ different aspects manifested by “I believe it would be best to crete “facts” rather than the more their subordinates. Does one com¬ leave the system alone for at abstract concepts, and disagree¬ bination tell the panel member that least one year and spend the ments can be pinpointed more pre¬ the individual has higher potential time developing commitment at cisely in their respective state¬ for senior jobs than another indi¬ ments. Secondly, the review and vidual with a different profile of all levels for a fundamental change and doing the research promotion panels in Washington check marks? This obviously re¬ can base their evaluations on more quires some pre-use research be¬ that would produce a viable so¬ directly objective data rather than fore a list is finalized. Unless such lution for the problem that second-hand abstractions. discriminations are possible, how¬ everyone knows exists, but Instead of having the reviewing ever, the check lists are not very doesn’t quite know how to officer critique the rating officer’s useful. solve.” report, have him give his own per¬ Print the instructions for each formance evaluation from another section on the form itself. That will cords. One to assign ratings on the perspective. The local review take up valuable space, but here continuum and make recommenda¬ panel can take care of ensuring again research indicates that the tions for promotions as is now fairness and non-discrimination degree of consistency between rat¬ normally done by the rating officer, and the Washington panels will ing officers is improved by the and the second to play the tradi¬ have the benefit of two, hopefully close proximity of instructions to tional role of weighting and ranking independent, reports from close to the data to be recorded. officers within a class for the the individual’s work. Prepare the forms and their in¬ promotion list. The advantage of structions so that no identification this system is to have someone Status Quo with Pilot Research will be available to the promotion make overall ratings and recom¬ Considering the results of past panel members. This can be ar¬ mendations who does not have to change efforts in the Department ranged by having the right pages of work with the individual on a day and other large organizations, one the form permanently bound to¬ to day basis and also who does not should keep in mind that small gether with a consular type seal be¬ have to determine where he falls on changes in the performance evalua¬ fore a cover page with all the the promotion list. If the second tion system, especially those in¬ names is signed. Thus the identifi¬ panel questions the rating given in itiated from the top, usually result cation page can be covered with an a particular case a meeting of the in an initial flurry and then a return envelope with a code number for two sub-panels should work out the to status quo ante. use by the panel which will then difference. As a result, I believe it would be consider only the reports per se. The reports of the first sub¬ best to leave the system alone for Instructions should prohibit speci¬ panel, that is the continuum rating at least one year and spend the time fic proper names which would indi¬ and promotion recommendation, developing commitment at all cate post of assignment or other should be furnished to the em¬ levels for a fundamental change facts which might unduly influence ployee as feedback on how his per¬ and doing the research that would the panel member’s assignment of formance was viewed at the De¬ produce a viable solution for the a rank or score as a result of the partment level, but not his final problem that everyone knows ex¬ “halo effect.” position on the ranking list. Such ists, but doesn’t know quite how to Delete the requirement that each detailed information has been solve. A more precise consensus rating officer assign overall value shown in private companies to be a definition of the “problem” should judgments ranging from “inade¬ disincentive. be formulated; several different quate” to “extraordinary.” Have I insist on the critical incident small pilot projects could be car¬ him only present detailed observa¬ reporting technique. In other ried out to test new techniques of tions as to what he sees and leave it words, the rating officer, the re¬ goal setting, performance evalua- up to a panel in Washington to as¬ viewing officer and the rated em¬ Continued on page 52

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 31 Do the shapers of diplomatic practices display more flexibility than, say, architects? Than busi¬ ness executives? State Department RigidityrTESTING A PSYCHOLOGICAL HYPOTHESIS DAVID GARNHAM

F HERE is A broad consensus that the storms, to resist the pressures of siderations make the psychological the State Department is one of the peoples and events, and to turn over hypothesis more plausible. First, more inept institutions of the US the policy to his successor in the same members of the Foreign Service of¬ government. Because State’s per¬ condition in which it was when he re¬ ficer corps are, to some degree, formance is considered mediocre, ceived it from his predecessor (Charles self-selected. And, as J. P. Lovell and because the Foreign Service Frankel, in “High on Foggy Bottom,” 1969). (“Foreign Policy in Perspective” officer corps is the Department’s 1970) has written, “it is clear that most important personnel group From the moment a young Foreign variations in career choices occur Service officer enters the confines of (although only twelve percent of the bureaucracy he feels the disciplines to some extent according to varia¬ State’s employees are FSOs), it is of caution and conformity; his mind tions in personality. Thus, those not surprising that the Foreign may be as devoid of the “little who enter the Foreign Service . . . Service is often blamed for State’s grooves” which the late Texas Senator by no means represent a random difficulties. A chronic criticism is Tom Connally ascribed to it as that of a cross section of the population in that State’s officials are timid, babe in arms, but by the time he terms of their personalities and at¬ rigid, and noncreative. Nearly reaches his first post, he has become titudes.” A second consideration is everyone who is exposed to the part of the system (Henry Serrano Vil- that the Service’s selection process Department receives an impres¬ lard, “Affairs at State,” 1965). tends to perpetuate characteristics sion of pervasive conservatism. An officer who gains a reputation for of the Foreign Service officer Consider the following quotations: persistence in making his views known, corps. As John E. Flarr has stated: You should go through the experience particularly on measures the lines of which have already been formulated, of trying to get any changes in the Both the Walther and Fielder-Harris thinking, policy, and action of the comes in the end inevitably to make a studies hold that the oral examining career diplomats and then you’d know nuisance of himself . . . Independence panels tend to select from among those of mind—-and I write without any in¬ what a real problem was (Franklin D. who have passed the written examina¬ tended irony—is a quality which de¬ tion “young people they consider most Roosevelt, quoted in “Beckoning tracts seriously from the value of a dip¬ Frontiers,” by M. S. Eccles, 1951). like the successful officers already in lomat (J. Rives Childs, “Foreign Ser¬ the system.” This, of course, is not The bureaucratic routine through vice Farewell,” 1969). which foreign service officers must go surprising. As Theodore Caplow produces capable men, knowledgeable This study tests a psychological points out, any functioning hierarchy about specific parts of the world, and explanation of State Department will “evaluate the candidate as a poten¬ excellent diplomatic operators. But it rigidity. The psychological hy¬ tial in-group member, and will there¬ makes men cautious rather than im¬ pothesis asserts that State is rigid fore give special attention to his conge¬ aginative (Dean Acheson, in “The because the Department’s em¬ niality in the broadest sense,” includ¬ Secretary of State,” edited by D. K. ployees, and especially Foreign ing "his ability to conform to the habits Price, 1965). and standards of his elders” (“The Service officers, are inflexible. We Professional Diplomat,” 1969; see also Ideas must always be studied, cleared know that some individuals are R. Walther, “Orientations and Be¬ here, coordinated there. The product more rigid and cautious than havioral Styles of Foreign Service Of¬ of that process is not likely to diverge others, and we would expect an or¬ ficers," 1965; F. Fielder and G. Harris sharply from what has been inherited. ganization to resist change if the “The Quest for Foreign Affairs Offi¬ In most of the bureaus of the Depart¬ average rigidity of its personnel cers—Their Recruitment and Selec¬ ment there is a feeling created by the was high. This psychological tion,” 1966). procedure of rotating people in and out of posts ... A man comes to an as¬ hypothesis underlies many ap¬ signment, and he is told what policy is. praisals of State’s deficiencies. For If one considers the frequent al¬ He must find a way to navigate through example, A. M. Schlesinger Jr. in lusions to FSO timidity, the role of “A Thousand Days” (1965) has self-selection in Foreign Service “State Department Rigidity: Testing a Psychological Hypothesis,” by David written, “one almost concluded recruitment, and the Service’s Garnham is reprinted from INTERNA¬ that the definition of a Foreign penchant for selecting new officers TIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY, Vol. 18, No. Service officer was a man for who are similar to present officers, 1 (March 1974) pp. 31-39 by permission of whom the risks always outweighed it appears quite possible that the the publisher, Sage Publications, Inc. David Garnham is Assistant Professor of the opportunities.” Foreign Service may constitute a Political Science at The University of In addition to the consensus that self-perpetuating group of psy¬ Wisconsin-Milwaukee. FSOs behave cautiously, two con¬ chologically rigid individuals.

32 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 The Psychological Hypothesis Gough (“An Interpreter’s Syllabus ecutives, military officers and for the California Psychological physicians. To test the psychological Inventory,” 1968) asserts “A very Further evidence of Foreign hypothesis, FSO flexibility was high score on Fx (18-19 and above) Service flexibility appears in the measured using the Fx subscale of . . . [seems] to presage a mercurial, research of Mennis (“American the California Psychological In¬ too volatile temperament.” Foreign Policy Officials,” 1971). ventory (CPI). The CPI is one of The Fx items were included in a Mennis compared a sample of the most highly respected and questionnaire mailed worldwide to FSOs (n = 37) with a sample of widely used multidimensional 500 Foreign Service officers in military officers (n = 58). The psychological testing instruments.* May 1970. The sample included Foreign Service officers were Fx measures “the degree of flexi¬ only officers from the eight lowest selected from political officers as¬ bility and adaptability of a person's grades, i.e., FSO-8 through signed to geographical bureaus in thinking and social behavior.” (H. FSO-1; the sample was randomly Washington; the military sample G. Gough. “Manual for the selected from the January 1970 was drawn from officers in “Geo¬ California Psychological Inven¬ Foreign Service List. The ques¬ graphic Area-Political” positions tory,” 1969.) Fx also measures the tionnaire was completed by 274 of¬ in the Office of International Se¬ absence of rigidity which D. A. ficers, and the Department of State curity Affairs (ISA), the Army’s Hills (“The California Personality Mail Room returned 22 question¬ International Policy Division, the Inventory Flexibility Scale,” 1960) naires as nondeliverable. The ad¬ Navy’s Operations 61, and the Air defines: justed response rate (when nonde- Force’s International Affairs Divi¬ as the generalized habitual tendency to livered questionnaires are sub¬ sion. Mennis examined the cogni¬ respond persistently to new situations tracted from the denominator) is 57 tive styles of these groups using Fx with previously appropriate responses percent. and a short-form of Rokeach's when such persistence is not adaptive. In other words, although the situation If the psychological explanation Dogmatism Scale. Mennis scored or problem has changed, the person of State Department rigidity is the scales using a Likert-type for¬ continues to respond as if there had valid, we would expect FSO mat, and he used Guttman scaling been no change, with inadequate resul¬ psychological flexibility to be low. to produce a final five-item dog¬ tant performance. We might also predict, as the matism scale and a ten-item rigidity Basically, rigid individuals resist Foreign Service literature sug¬ scale, i.e., ten items from the Fx change; highly flexible individuals gests, that senior officers occupy¬ scale scored to measure rigidity. are very adaptable. Indeed H. G. ing more influential positions are The two scales were merged to as¬ less flexible than junior officers. sess a “doctrinaire” cognitive style The data do not support these pre¬ which is both dogmatic and rigid *F.r consists of 22 true-false items; it may dictions. The Fx mean for the (see Rokeach’s “The Open and be scored to measure either flexibility or rigidity. As a measure of flexibility the sum Foreign Service sample (n = 266) is Closed Mind” for a discussion of of the false responses is used. See M. 14.25; the standard deviation is 3.4, the difference between dogmatism Rokeach ("The Open and Closed Hind” and the range is 5-22. Gough has and rigidity). Because the number I960) for a listing of the Fx items. For dis¬ published Fx means and standard of items was reduced and a differ¬ cussions of the CPI. and the Fx subscale, see H. G. Gough ("Manual for the Califor¬ deviations for a number of occupa¬ ent scoring procedure was nia Psychological Inventory," 1969) and O. tional groups (see Table 1). The adopted, it is not possible to com¬ K. Buros ("The Sixth Mental Measure¬ Foreign Service mean is very high, pare directly Mennis’s Foreign ments Yearbook," 1965). and the standard deviation is quite Service sample with my sample. One previous application of Fx is particu¬ typical. Gough reports an Fx mean However, Mennis rejected the null larly germane to the present study because it established a relationship between for only one group (psychology hypotheses of equal FSO and psychological flexibility and creativity. The graduate students) which is higher military rigidity, dogmatism, and psychologist D. W. MacKinnon ("Personal¬ than the Foreign Service mean. doctrinaireness. FSOs were sig¬ ity and Realization of Creative Potential," The null hypothesis of equal Fx nificantly less doctrinaire, less 1965 and "The Personality Correlates of Creativity," 1962) drew three samples of means is rejected at the .001 level dogmatic, and more flexible than American architects which he labeled Ar¬ (using a two-tailed t-test) when their military counterparts. chitects I (n = 40), Architects II (n = 43), Foreign Service officers are com¬ As I have indicated, the Foreign and Architects III (n =41). The first sample pared with architects, business ex¬ Service literature suggests that was selected by a panel of architecture pro¬ fessors. Architects I were considered to be among the most creative contemporary ar¬ TABLE 1 chitects. Architects II lacked individual reputations for creativity, but they had all PSYCHOLOGICAL FLEXIBILITY (Fx) AND OCCUPATION worked with architects from the first group. Occupational Group n Mean Fx S.D. Architects HI were a cross-section of 266 14.2 3.4 American architects. An architectural panel Foreign service sample assessed the creativity of work by the three Psychiatric residents 262 13.9 3.4 groups. The null hypotheses of equal Research scientists 45 13.3 3.9 creativity were rejected at the .001 level; Ar¬ Physicians 312 10.7 4.0 chitects / were judged more creative than Architects 124 10.6 4.2 Architects II. who were judged more crea¬ City school superintendents 144 9.7 3.4 tive than Architects III. The CPI was ad¬ Business executives 107 9.3 3.6 ministered to the three samples, and Fx was Military officers 343 8.5 3.5 one of the scales which differentiated the Dentists 59 8.1 3.7 groups. Architects / were more flexible than Machine operators 105 7.8 3.4 Architects II. and Architects II were more 6.9 3.1 flexible than Architects III. Salesmen 85

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 33 older (senior) officers are more TABLE 2 rigid than younger FSOs. For ex¬ FOREIGN SERVICE GRADE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FLEXIBILITY ample, in their case study of the at¬ Grade n Mean Fx tempt to establish PPBS in the One 31 13.7 State Department, F. C. Mosher Two 45 13.3 and J. E. Harr (“Programming Three 45 14.5 Systems and Foreign Affairs Four 64 14.5 Leadership,” 1970) contrast “the Five 43 14.9 older and more traditional ambas¬ Six 28 14.9 sadors in the Foreign Service Seven 8 13.0 [who] were inclined to be skeptical F6 257= 1.38 of radically different approaches” with “the young officers [who] seemed especially receptive to new religious background, regional and reward conformity. The effect ap¬ ideas and were innocent enough background, or an officer’s func¬ pears to be due in large part to the in¬ not to worry about possible risks to tional cone, e.g., administrative, teraction of two factors. The first is the their later careers in associating consular, economic, or political. fiercely competitive nature of the Ser¬ themselves with a radical new un¬ Obviously, psychological flexibil¬ vice resulting from the selection-out dertaking that might turn out to be ity within the Foreign Service of¬ principle. The second is the excep¬ controversial.” This is not an iso¬ ficer corps is very high and tional importance of the efficiency re¬ lated observation, and a negative port in determining the rate of an homogeneous. If only the psy¬ officer’s advancements. The knowl¬ relationship between age and Fx chological evidence were consid¬ edge that the good opinion of his was predicted. Such a finding could ered, we would predict that State supervisor is crucial in determining support the psychological hypoth¬ would be dynamic and innovative whether he advances at a normal rate esis. State’s rigidity might have a rather than sluggish and rigid. or falls behind and is eventually psychological basis (despite high selected out can act as a powerful de¬ overall FSO flexibility) if the more Conclusions terrent to a forthright expression by an influential, older, and higher rank¬ Clearly, the empirical evidence officer of views on policy matters ing officers are less flexible. does not support the psychological which may be at variance with the There is a significant negative re¬ hypothesis: Foreign Service views of his supervisor.** lationship between age and Fx (p < psychological flexibility is homo¬ The central assumption of the .05), but r equals only -.14. The geneous and high. Indeed, 18 per¬ systemic hypothesis is that even null hypothesis of no relationship is cent of the sample have Fx scores highly flexible individuals will be¬ rejected, but the relationship is ex¬ above 17, which Gough describes have cautiously if they perceive tremely weak. Furthermore, an as possibly too flexible. Is it possi¬ that caution is rewarded and inno¬ analysis of variance did not support ble to reconcile State’s alleged vation is penalized. the hypothesis that higher-ranking rigidity with the finding that mem¬ Having failed to confirm the officers (e.g., Grade One and bers of the Department’s principal psychological explanation of State Department rigidity, the systemic Grade Two officers) are less flexi¬ career service are extremely flexi¬ ble than lower-ranking officers ble? One plausible alternative to hypothesis appears to be quite a (e.g., Grade Six and Grade Seven the psychological explanation of plausible alternative. Several au¬ officers; see Table 2). The null State Department conformity is a thors have advanced systemic ex¬ hypothesis of no relationship be¬ planations, but these studies, with “systemic” hypothesis which is the partial exception of C. Argyris, tween Foreign Service rank and based on the fact that human be¬ psychological flexibility is not re¬ havior is strongly influenced by so¬ “Some Causes of Organizational jected. Fx is weakly related to age, cial context. This hypothesis em¬ Ineffectiveness within the De¬ and age is strongly related to phasizes characteristics of the partment of State,” (1967) are im¬ Foreign Service grade; therefore, it State Department social system. pressionistic (in addition to Ar¬ is useful to employ analysis of The systemic hypothesis assumes gyris, see I. M. Destler, “Presi¬ covariance to examine the relation¬ that FSOs are not more rigid than dents, Bureaucrats and Foreign ship between Fx and grade control¬ other individuals of similar age, Policy,” 1972; John E. Harr, “The ling for age—i.e., age is the education, and intelligence; it sug¬ Issue of Competence in the State covariate. For the analysis of gests, rather, that professional dip¬ Department,” INTERNATIONAL covariance Fe 256 = .94; there is lomats work within a social milieu STUDIES QUARTERLY, March, even less evidence to reject the null which induces conformist be¬ 1970; A. M. Scott, “The Depart¬ hypothesis of no relationship when havior. The promotion process is a ment of State: Formal Organiza¬ tion and Informal Culture,” age is controlled. part of the Department’s social My findings are that FSO flexi¬ system which can serve as an ex¬ INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUAR¬ TERLY, Spring, 1969; and Depart¬ bility is high; there is no relation¬ ample. One report in “Diplomacy ship between Foreign Service rank for the 70’s” (US Department of ment of State “Diplomacy for the and Fx, and there is only a weak 70’s,” 1970). Therefore, a data- State, 1970) makes the following based test of the systemic hypoth¬ relationship between age and Fx. I assertion: esis now seems appropriate. ■ have conducted other analyses The Task Force found a widespread which indicate that psychological belief among Foreign Service officers ** A specific instance of this phenomenon is flexibility is not related to career that the promotion system tends to discussed by C. Wolf, Jr. in "Indonesian satisfaction, occupational success, stifle creativity, discourage risk-taking, Assignment," 1952.

34 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 “We cannot know what the future holds. We do know, however, that change is the only constant in world affairs. And we know our Agency is charged with helping to fashion that change.’’—Edward R. Murrow

GEORGE G. WYNNE

The nature of present day foreign rela¬ lomacy,” designed to win support minish the enemy’s will to fight tions makes it essential for the United for our cause, persuade and influ¬ while rallying support for the Al¬ States to maintain information ac¬ ence foreign opinion, were present lied cause. Leaflets were dropped tivities abroad as an integral part of the at the creation of the Republic, the by artillery shell, aircraft and bal¬ conduct of our foreign affairs. United States early on withdrew loon over the German lines to en¬ President Harry S Truman behind its moat of two oceans and courage surrender and publicize Executive Order 9608 American war aims. In World War August 31, 1945 left diplomacy to the diplomats. Except, that is, in times of major II, millions of “safe conduct” THE FOUNDERS of the United war and domestic strife when the passes were dropped on enemy States pleaded the merits of their government found it helpful to talk lines promising good treatment and cause before the world with a team directly to foreign audiences other an honorable way out of the war, a of talented communicators headed than the officials of foreign minis¬ technique that was later copied by Benjamin Franklin, and the tries. During the Revolutionary with spotty success in Korea and Declaration of Independence itself War, crudely-printed leaflets called Vietnam. These direct propaganda was a public position paper that on the Hessian soldiers to defect to appeals to enemy soldiers and sought to explain and justify out of the American side and promised civilians in enemy and enemy- “a decent respect to the Opinions land and freedom to those that did. occupied countries which became of Mankind” the American col¬ About 5,000 of the enemy heeded known as “psychological warfare” onists’ revolt against the estab¬ the offer. During the Civil War the or “psychological operations” in lished order. But while the Union campaigned for the support the absence of a shooting war, forerunners of today’s “public dip- of European public opinion on the were practiced from the start by slavery issue to the point of pub¬ the major ideological protagonists lishing an open letter by President of this century. At their first dip¬ George G. Wynne is a frequent contributor to the JOURNAL. His “2,000 Years to a Lincoln to the people of England. lomatic negotiations at Brest Lit- More Powerful Vocabulary” in the January In World War I, the Committee on ovsk in 1917, Communist nego¬ issue elicited many letters and comments Public Information headed by tiators, headed by Leon Trotsky, which will be reported by Mr. Wynne in an George Creel, a journalist friend of threw leaflets from the windows of early issue. He is also the author of the re¬ President Wilson, responded to their special train urging German cently published “Why Geneva?” which gives an insight into international confer¬ German propaganda initiatives troops to overthrow their govern¬ ence diplomacy. with a mass media effort to di¬ ment and join the world revolution. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 35 Blatant and often deceitful cam¬ a while in the State Department would tend to give educational ex¬ paigns of coercion and subversion Office of International Information change programs a propaganda organized by the Nazi and Stalin and Cultural Affairs that evolved flavor.” Accordingly, when the regimes beating the drums of the through a series of reorganizations Agency was created, the cultural mass media served to give the word within the State Department, exchange program remained with “propaganda” a bad name, par¬ budget cuts and recommendations the Department of State, a situa¬ ticularly in the United States. As by congressional committees into a tion that has persisted into the employed by the Goebbels Prop¬ semi-autonomous unit within the present and was further set in con¬ aganda Ministry, the concept be¬ Department organized in January crete by the Kennedy Administra¬ came synonymous with the tech¬ 1952 as the International Informa¬ tion with the appointment of an nique of the “Big Lie.” Advocacy tion Administration (IIA). The IIA Assistant Secretary of State for information directed officially at absorbed all the information and Educational and Cultural Affairs. foreign audiences over, under, and educational exchange as well as While the creation of a separate around their own governments, cultural relations functions with agency of government gave belated though conceded to be necessary, foreign countries, the latter carried organizational recognition to the consequently took on some of that out since 1937 in a minor way by fact that the conduct of public distasteful hue and continued to be the State Department and placed diplomacy—the search by major viewed with suspicion by the tradi¬ under OWI direction during the governments for the sympathy of tional diplomatic establishment and war years. foreign peoples—had become an most legislators who were, and are, The creation of a separate indispensable component of the apprehensive over a mass media United States Information Agency conduct of foreign relations, the propaganda tool in the hands of the by President Eisenhower in August structural anomaly that resulted incumbent Administration. (As an 1953 reflected on the one hand the from the separation of information aside, the word “propaganda” recognition that a major power and cultural exchange programs lived up for centuries to its per¬ must concern itself directly with placed all activities in direct sup¬ fectly legitimate origin derived public opinion abroad, on the other port of foreign policy initiatives from “propagation of the a desire by the Secretary of State outside the direct control of the faith”—propaganda fide—prac¬ John Foster Dulles to rid his De¬ foreign policy makers while retain¬ ticed by the Roman Catholic partment of responsibility for oper¬ ing the climate-building educa¬ Church.) ations that went beyond traditional tional and cultural programs that By the same token, World War diplomatic activities, had a prop¬ exercise only an indirect, long- II and the events leading up to it aganda flavor, dealt directly with range effect on foreign relations, made information activities con¬ foreign audiences, and were dis¬ inside the Department of State. ducted abroad acceptable though tasteful to the practitioners of It is a tribute to American prag¬ they continued to be conceived in government-to-government diplo¬ matism, to the tact and the skills of narrow, direct and short-range macy. The propaganda orientation USIS officers around the world propaganda terms. Nazi, and later of the new agency, which is the and in the backup services at head¬ communist, propaganda distortions source of its continuing identity quarters, that this jerry-built struc¬ had to be countered and the belief crisis, was further accentuated by ture with its messy lines of respon¬ in America’s high purposes sus¬ the cold war context that gave it sibility, overlapping and dual tained abroad. From this thought birth. In his first State of the Union hierarchies in policy and cultural process sprang a succession of or¬ message, President Eisenhower programing formulation was able to ganizations and provisional ar¬ called the reorganization of the in¬ work as well as it did over the past rangements to conduct information ternational information effort by 20 years. Like his predecessors, campaigns aimed at foreign audi¬ the United States essential to the James Keogh, the present Director ences in support of American nation’s security. “There is but of USIA, considers as the policies beginning with the one way to avoid global war,” the Agency’s main task the balancing hemisphere-oriented Coordinator President said, “and that is to win of the spectrum of information of Inter-American Affairs (Nelson the cold war.” USIA was to mount about the United States that Rockefeller) in 1940, the Voice of the big guns in the battle for mens’ reaches foreign audiences, the America in 1942 and later that year minds. The Congressional view of placing into perspective of our ac¬ the consolidated foreign and the necessary but unappetizing tions and policies that affect other domestic effort to boost morale propaganda role devised for the countries and the correction of mis¬ with facts and figures that was new agency was expressed in the interpretations of the workings of known as the Office of War Infor¬ resolution of the Hickenlooper this country. This task goes on mation (OWI), directed by news Committee—a Senate subcommit¬ around the world no matter how commentator Elmer Davis, which tee set up to study the proposed poorly the organizational lines are became the forerunner of the Un¬ reorganization — which recom¬ drawn: “Whether our officers are ited States Information Agency mended that responsibility for edu¬ broadcasting on the Voice of (USIA). Offices of the OWI cational and cultural relations not America,” Mr. Keogh recently abroad were named the United be taken over by the new Informa¬ told the Public Relations Society of States Information Service tion Agency but remain with the the United States, “editing a (USIS), a name that stuck when Department of State. The absorp¬ magazine in Arabic, or scheduling USIA was constituted as a sepa¬ tion of the cultural function by a performance by Duke Ellington rate agency in 1953. The residual USIA would be “inadvisable,” the in Moscow, or setting up an exhibit OWI functions had been lodged for committee resolution stated, “and in Bulgaria, or arranging a lecture 36 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 by a Fulbright professor in New and that larger audiences than tions of foreign governments on is¬ Delhi, or assisting a French TV merely foreign ministries need to sues important to the United producer to plan a series on be addressed by our official rep¬ States. Tom Sorensen, who helped American environmental pro¬ resentatives has been paralleled in run the Agency during the Ken¬ grams, or giving the facts about US our own country by the demo¬ nedy Administration, quotes an trade policies to a Japanese editor, cratization—with a small ‘d’— and unnamed top USIA official in his it is all part of the same effort—the subsequent opening of the Foreign book “The Word War” as saying extremely important work of ex¬ Service to all the groups that to¬ that: “In times of calm the State plaining our country and our peo¬ gether make up this nation. In Department expects less from us ple, of correcting or minimizing other contexts this process has than we are capable of doing. In misunderstandings that clog or been identified as the “decline of times of crisis, they put an intoler¬ contaminate relations between the the WASP,” and nowhere has this able burden of expectations on our US and other countries.” been more apparent than in the The need for our officers to be public diplomacy sector which it¬ engaged around the world in a wide self was organized in response to gamut of activities with a great va¬ the greater popular participation in USIA IN CAPSULE riety of audiences is given by the the decision-making processes of Readers not entirely familiar with the fact that nowadays more vocal other nations. By background, Agency’s operations might find the segments of the population than character and inclination, our re¬ facts and figures cited below helpful in ever before influence the way rep¬ sponse mechanism has been the evaluating this article. Views ex¬ resentative governments run major least tradition-tied and estab¬ pressed in the article are the author’s countries and there are an unpre¬ lishment-oriented of the lot and it and do not represent an official position cedented number of opinion mol- has probably had a leavening effect of either Agency or Department. ders busily molding and articulat¬ on the Foreign Service beyond its USIA currently: own ranks. While more an anec¬ • operates the Voice of America ing the views of these new interest which broadcasts in 36 languages groups. Public opinion now is a dotal than statistical evidence of around the world to an audience of many-splendored thing and even this trend, the four working ambas¬ many millions, closed societies are showing in¬ sadorships assigned at the moment • produces or acquires more than creasing signs of sensitivity to pub¬ to USIS officers are occupied by 150 film and television documentaries lic opinion in their own and other four outstanding officers of whom annually for showing to overseas audi¬ countries. A bad world press is dis¬ three are black and one is a ences and assists producers from other tinctly unhelpful to the image coun¬ woman. The professional back¬ countries in preparing documentaries tries try to project. It used to be ground of the USIS career officer, about the U.S., that diplomats needed to gain the our average FSIO, if there is such • teletypes texts of U.S. policy state¬ an animal, also tends to be some¬ ments, speeches and background mate¬ ear of only a handful of their col¬ rial to 127 USIS posts five days a week. leagues in the foreign ministries what more diverse, reflecting in These texts and the speed of their receipt and possibly other government of¬ many cases a later entry into the are often of crucial importance to our fices. The rest out there didn’t mat¬ service from the private sector. representatives in placing U.S. de¬ ter, at least not as far as the formu¬ While the exercise of public dip¬ velopments into perspective with host lation of government policy was lomacy by the United States country officials and media, concerned. Now, USIS posts even through the United States Informa¬ • publishes magazines in 27 lan¬ in small and medium-size countries tion Agency—what the late George guages, distributes them in over a maintain audience lists containing V. Allen, one of the ablest USIA hundred countries, the names and addresses of literally directors, called government talk¬ • builds and circulates abroad some ing directly to people—has finally 50 exhibits annually dealing with life in thousands and tens of thousands of the United States, individuals whom our posts find it come into its own, our official per¬ • maintains and supports nearly 300 essential to address and include on ception of information and cultural libraries abroad in U.S. information mailing and invitation lists. And programs as solely in the service of centers, reading rooms and bi-national there are more tools to do the job. short-range foreign policy goals has centers in 98 countries, Besides the conventional article haunted the Agency from its incep¬ • organizes discussions, lectures, placement, radio/TV and exhibits tion. It has led to exaggerated ex¬ seminars, press conferences, and cul¬ projects, library and exchange-of- pectations with cultural and infor¬ tural events to acquaint host country persons activities, we now have mation efforts applied directly to audiences with aspects of American life such things as custom-made video immediate objectives and consid¬ relevant to their interests, ered practically as weapons in our • administers educational and cul¬ tape recordings (VTR), produced tural exchange programs abroad for the in response to local needs and op¬ cold war arsenal. Exaggerated tac¬ State Department, portunities, and the fledgling elec¬ tical expectations have been fol¬ • maintains personal contact and cul¬ tronic dialogue (ED) which links a lowed by bitter recriminations with tivates a dialogue with opinion leaders in VTR presentation on a subject of the Agency’s leadership in Con¬ the 109 countries in which USIS posts interest with a genuine trans¬ gress on such occasions as appro¬ are operating. oceanic press conference by an priations hearings, and elsewhere It does all this with 9,572 people, overseas conference call with the in the public prints when the over half of them local national em¬ spokesman on the tape. Agency proved unable to quantify ployees, on a 1974 budget of $224 mil¬ The widening recognition that the unquantifiable—success in lion. foreign opinion matters for molding public attitudes abroad America, not only in times of war, and their direct impact on the ac¬ FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 37 backs. Then after the crunch they of its operators. The increasing corporations such as the British revert to normal and tend to forget perception that this short-range Council and the BBC. France, that they are still dealing with a focus is only part of a larger pur¬ which maintains the most exten¬ psychological problem.” What is pose in the altered international sive and expensive foreign infor¬ true about the Department’s occa¬ climate of the late 20th century has mation and cultural program of the sionally exaggerated expectations led to the renewed current crisis of western nations, has as its main ob¬ of USIA applies in even greater the Agency’s identity and purpose. jective the promotion of the French measure to the Congress where the In failing to articulate sufficiently language abroad, a task that em¬ Agency, which is spending today frequently and convincingly the ploys more than 30,000 teachers about the same in real dollar terms larger climate-building role of pub¬ with about half a million students as the year it was founded* has lic diplomacy, government now attending French-sponsored been buffeted with an almost an¬ spokesmen have allowed the future schools abroad. The effort costs in nual regularity in appropriation and of the Agency to be tied to the the neighborhood of half a billion authorization controversies. It has deep-seated American suspicion of dollars a year, more than double been feast or famine, more often government communications. W. the USIS budget, and no one seri¬ the latter, usually without refer¬ Phillips Davison comments per¬ ously asks what it has done for the ence to the intrinsic merit of the ceptively in his “International “force de frappe” lately. The Fed¬ Agency’s information and cultural Political Communication” that US eral Republic of Germany too, services as part and parcel of the official “communications activities spends half again as much as the required diplomatic apparatus of a have been criticized as inconse¬ US to project in the most general world power operating in the com¬ quential exercises and treated with way the image of economic, institu¬ munications age. Just after the start disdain while at the same time so tional and social progress in the of the Korean War, Congress much is demanded of them that new Germany through a string of nearly tripled the Agency’s ap¬ their failure to achieve results subsidized private and quasi¬ propriations for 1951, the next year beyond their powers is used to jus¬ official organizations such as the it was cut back again radically, pre¬ tify the original low opinion.” It is Goethe Institutes which offer lan¬ sumably because the justness of a paradox that Americans as a rule guage instruction, conduct ex¬ the American cause was not univ¬ accept without a squawk advo¬ change programs, arrange book ersally acknowledged in consequ¬ cacy, i.e. propaganda, in all as¬ publications and engage local elites ence of the stepped-up USIS ac¬ pects of daily life, in advertising, in a continuing dialogue. Even East tivities. When USIA Director Ar¬ religion, politics, the editorial page Germany which only recently thur Larson, an Eisenhower ap¬ and lately unfortunately even its began interacting with the western pointee, made a maladroit public spillover into the other columns, world, carries its image-building remark critical of the Democrats at but retain their pronounced dis¬ forward under a low profile cultural a speech in Honolulu during 1957, taste of its use in international umbrella. A long way from Marx, the Senate Appropriations Sub¬ communication. its cultural centers abroad are committee, chaired by then- The suspicion with which the called the Herder Institutes, now Senator Lyndon B. Johnson, Agency’s work is regarded domes¬ that Goethe is already spoken for. promptly cut the Agency budget tically is in large part due to the Herder, a 19th century poet, trans¬ almost 40%, lopping off $50 million ignorance of its foreign operations, lated Shakespeare into German. from the Administration’s request but it is unable to make friends at The Soviet Union leads the world of $140 million. On the other side home and build up a constituency by a wide margin in the use of re¬ of the spectrum, there was talk in precisely because of ingrained sus¬ sources to project the picture of a the Senate in 1949 that a massive picions that the Administration in society that favors peace and propaganda campaign might be a power could use its skills and friendship with all nations, em¬ bargain substitute for the Atlantic facilities to build a propaganda bodies the anti-colonial aspirations Pact. It is a consequence of the machine. It is a kind of vicious cir¬ of developing countries, and is skewed parameters of purpose as¬ cle that other nations have broken, committed to peaceful coexistence signed USIA by many legislators or better said, never constructed, with ideological adversaries. While that the specter of Joe Stalin—i.e. by taking a long-range view, keep¬ no hard figures are available, it is Soviet intransigence in negotia¬ ing foreign policy explanations estimated that the USSR now tions and the jamming of the Voice apart from cumulative cultural im¬ spends almost a billion dollars of America—became the best pacts and refraining from an annual annually—roughly four times the friend the Agency ever had in Con¬ cost/benefits analysis of govern¬ USIA budget—to publish and dis¬ gress during its formative years. ment-sponsored information pro¬ tribute abroad nearly a hundred The peaks and valleys of the ap¬ grams abroad. The United King¬ million books in dozens of lan¬ propriations landscape have lev¬ dom with one-sixth the GNP of the guages, to support some 13,000 elled somewhat in recent years but US spends about as much as we do foreign students mainly from de¬ the Agency, unwittingly or not, merely to project the image of a veloping countries in the Soviet continues to be viewed as a prop¬ highly-civilized country, rich in Union and teach Russian to an es¬ aganda instrument and tied to tradition yet modem in outlook. A timated 20 million people abroad, short-range purposes even by some respectable distance from any di¬ according to Soviet figures, besides rect government manipulation of conducting a range of other foreign * Though there were then less than half the number of independent countries in which the long-range image projection is policy support activities both of a USIS offices are maintained ( UN member¬ maintained by having the effort short and long-range character. ship in 1953 was 60, in 1974 135). managed by publicly-chartered Even Japan, a relative newcomer

38 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 to international information and USIS officer in the field reporting ance of diversity among nations is cultural programs, now has public to two different masters in surely more difficult to assess than relations officers in 146 foreign Washington? the promotion of American exports posts and established a govern¬ or an effort to win understanding ment-subsidized foundation that THREE QUARTERS of the respon¬ for some restrictive US trade prac¬ will have an endowment of $330 dents to an AFSA survey among tices. Our public diplomacy estab¬ million to sponsor cultural ex¬ its US IA membership favor cul¬ lishment, comprising information changes with foreign countries. tural and information programs and cultural officers and headed by These figures indicate the gen¬ under one organizational roof but the PAO at each Embassy, is in eral acceptance of public diplo¬ there is no clear consensus on charge of both the short and the macy and the expenditure con¬ where that roof ought to be built long range efforts and at times nected with it as a legitimate con¬ —inside or outside the Depart¬ these might be at cross purposes. cern and responsibility of govern¬ ment. Rarely has an Agency or an Charles Frankel who was Assis¬ ment. This recognition is also pres¬ activity been scrutinized, debated, tant Secretary of State for Educa¬ ent in the United States but is still plucked apart and reassembled the tional and Cultural Affairs in the tempered here by the confusion be¬ way USIA and its predecessors 1960s argues persuasively1 that ad¬ tween diplomatic apples and have been since the end of World vocacy of day-to-day US foreign oranges—the lumping under one War II. More than a dozen internal policy positions is not always com¬ roof of direct and indirect policy reviews, study commissions, task patible with the promotion of sym¬ support operations in the informa¬ forces, advisory groups and panels pathetic understanding of Ameri¬ tion and cultural field with the need appointed by the President, the can life and institutions. He notes to justify both in terms of short- that “the capital an officer builds range expectations. But the current ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆ up in performing the tasks of cul¬ self-questioning by the Agency and ☆ ☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆ tural liaison, he loses in performing ongoing studies within the larger the tasks of an advocate,” and he review of the government’s foreign quotes Dean Rusk as having said policy mechanisms by the Murphy that those cultural exchange pro¬ Commission,* whose Report is due grams make the best propaganda next June, show that perceptions that have no propaganda purpose. are changing and that there is The organizational structure for awareness of the need to bring our public diplomacy that will emerge public diplomacy in line with from the deliberations of the Mur¬ America’s new and more modest phy Commission and the inputs of ☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆ other study groups such as the role in the world. As one of five, 2 rather than two global power cen¬ Congress—notably the Senate Stanton Panel will need to recog¬ ters, this task, in Secretary Foreign Relations Committee— nize and balance both the direct Kissinger’s words “requires a dif¬ and even the two political parties, and indirect support of American ferent kind of creativity and have focused on the flaws and the purposes by our operators abroad. another form of patience than we goals of the Agency. These groups In so doing the question has to be have displayed in the past ... in and the reorganizations thqt flowed faced whether it might not make the ’70s our role will have to be to directly or indirectly from their better organizational sense to re¬ contribute to a structure that will recommendations generally recog¬ verse the current pattern and place foster the initiative of others.” nized and diagnosed correctly the the direct support of foreign policy Conformance to these precepts will major problems but never sliced within the State Department and adjust our public diplomacy to the through the tangle of mechanisms the indirect support outside it in a steady effort required for long- and purposes to create a clean-cut public body that would not only re¬ range goals and make our people and balanced model that would ac¬ ceive funding and policy direction better listeners instead of merely commodate both the short and the from the official foreign affairs breathless advocates of what is ex¬ long-range, the direct and the indi¬ community but also inputs from the pedient for today. The great debate rect policy support functions of our private sector. The Voice of over the Agency’s ultimate pur¬ foreign information and cultural America which supports policy di¬ poses has now been joined among programs. While perceiving that rectly and indirectly could be the experts and the commu¬ the public diplomacy spectrum placed under the control of either nicators. At issue: How to rec¬ covers both these segments and the Department or the public cor¬ oncile the confusion of purposes that a mix of short and long range poration but as more of its broad¬ among foreign policy advocacy and programs may be pursued in either casts are devoted to cultural topics bridge-building for our society, of them, the model has always been than the day’s news and commen¬ how to end the historical anomaly weighted towards the direct or tary, the public corporation with its that splits responsibility for infor¬ short range policy support side, representation from the arts and mation and cultural exchange pro¬ probably because it is always the humanities would on balance prob- grams between the Agency and the one easier to define and measure '“Tlie Neglected Aspect of Foreign Af¬ Department and has the same progress against in terms of coun¬ fairs," The Brookings Institution, 1966p. 34. try programs. Progress towards a 2Panel on International Information. Edu¬ *Commission on the Organization of the cation and Cultural Relations. Georgetown Government for the Conduct of Foreign world of peace in which there is University, chaired by Frank Stanton. Policy, established by the Congress in 1972, good will towards the United chaired by Amb. (Ret.) Robert D. Murphy. States, mutual respect and toler¬ Continued on page 50

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 39 “Through the passage of the Rogers Bill the serious limitations and inadequacies inherent in our present Foreign Service adjustment have been removed, and a substantial basis of reor¬ ganization achieved . . . the country receives its best assurance of security and substantial achievement in the future conduct of its foreign affairs.’’—Charles E. Hughes Making Diplomacy

ROSE H. FALES

EDITOR’S NOTE: The Rogers Act of May 24, had been referred by him to the Presi¬ But the following issue of the 1924, introduced by John Jacob Rogers, dent and had received the entire ap¬ BULLETIN Representative from Massachusetts, 1913- mourned: proval of the Chief Executive . . . The Rogers Bill has failed of pas¬ 1925, provided for the following: amalga¬ In the meantime, the Committee mation of the Diplomatic and Consular Ser¬ sage! After a phenomenal series of vices into a unified Foreign Service; new concluded that it would be desirable to achievements in which its merits were appointments to be made after examination; run through the entire bill with Mr. definitely established, it became entan¬ all appointments to be made by commission Carr on the stand in order that its vari¬ gled in the Senatorial logjam at the end to a class; readmission to the Foreign Ser¬ ous features might be thoroughly ex¬ of the Sixty-seventh Congress, as did vice of career officers after service as a plained with respect to their technical many other important measures, and chief of mission; provision of a retirement bearing on the service organization . . . died on the calendar for want of suffi¬ and disability system; representation allow¬ Following which the Committee will cient time for its proper consideration ances; and home leave. likely proceed to the consideration of the bill. It may be stated that there is an Rarely has a bill of this character T HE ROGERS ACT was not only an encouraging prospect of a favorable re¬ aroused so little opposition or elicited idea whose time had come, but it port. such fulsome (sic) praise and commen¬ was a classic example of what And, in February, the BULLETIN dation throughout the entire course of forces, pressures and hard work reported as follows: its journey upward toward final enact¬ are required to transform a move¬ The Chamber of Commerce of the ment. The Committee on Foreign Af¬ ment for reform into an Act of United States, in a letter to Represen¬ fairs had labored earnestly and with Congress. In January of 1923, the tative John Jacob Rogers, which is great effect in shaping its provisions AMERICAN CONSULAR BULLETIN, printed in the hearings, strongly advo¬ towards the ends which it was sought to achieve. At every turn the legislative predecessor of the JOURNAL, cated the enactment of the bill . . . The present session of Congress will intent was clear; America must have a editorialized: Foreign Service equal to that of any Hearings have actually begun on the terminate on March 4, leaving very few other country, and to do this the Ser¬ Rogers Bill. On Monday, December legislative days ahead. However, the vice should be made to appeal to the 11. the Secretary of State appeared be¬ Rogers Bill has created much interest best material the country affords. fore the Committee on Foreign Affairs and there appears to be no well defined of the House of Representatives to opposition to the measure. Wilbur J. Carr, then Director of present his views with respect to H.R. Former Ambassador John W. the Consular Service, was quoted 12543 for the reorganization and im¬ Davis said in his testimony printed in Consul Tracy Hollingsworth provement of the Foreign Service. His in the same issue of the BULLETIN: Lay’s book, ‘‘The Foreign Service statement was a full endorsement of the “I have read this bill, and it seems to of the United States” (1925), “In provisions of the bill, which he stated me it presents four features which, if I my judgment, if you enact it, you may use the phrase, are cardinal points have a bill which will furnish the Mrs. Fates spent weeks in the Library of of reform in this question. Manifestly, basic structure of the organization Congress researching the periodicals of 50 if we are to get good men in the Service years ago to find out what they were saying and hold them, after they get there, we for your Foreign Service for 50 then about diplomacy, the foreign service must set them to work under conditions years—a bill on which you can and the Rogers Act. LIFE, CONTEMPORARY, which are agreeable, that will stimulate build any kind of a foreign service COLLIER'S, the SATURDAY EVENING POST, you please, a bill in which you can FORUM, the WOMAN’S HOME COMPANION, their personal ambition, and that will AMERICAN MERCURY and others all had induce them to remain in the Service provide for ministers, ambas¬ some comments to offer on foreign affairs after they have had the experience sadors, secretaries and consuls in and its practitioners. which makes them valuable.” the light of what you believe to be

40 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 Rogers Act was not always front But even more important to the page news but almost, because legislators was the pressure by ex¬ Americans had a new and riveting panding business and banking in¬ fascination with foreign affairs terests for first class professional which absorbed them even more expertise in all those far-flung than the domestic issues of the day. places on the unfamiliar globe, Teapot Dome, the Scopes trial, where the dollar, not yet recog¬ radio, airplanes, prohibition, taxa¬ nized as Almighty, was competing tion, the Ku Klux Klan and on the world’s market. women’s suffrage were all seen But now we are the greatest nation of against the background of war creditors, of contractors and of tourists debts, reparations, immigration, that history has ever known . . . Every the World Court, the occupation of construction contract requires dip¬ lomatic support and pressure. Every the Ruhr, disarmament—almost as foreign loan requires investigation. The if the great national debate which diplomatic cases arising from our resulted in the non-participation in enormous trade are myriad and mul¬ the League of Nations had con¬ tifarious. (Sterling Usher, AMERICAN firmed America’s involvement MERCURY, May 1924). Hon. John Jacob Rogers with the power politics of the older Secretary Charles Evans societies. Hughes spelled it out to Congress: Public opinion, to which the There has too long been too great a responsive to the opinion of the Congress was just as susceptible as distinction between the political in¬ country.” now, was firmly isolationist, and terests of the Diplomatic Service and The tourists, the journalists and was convinced that the desirable the commercial interests of the Consu¬ the businessmen streaming abroad isolation of the United States from lar Service. Both are engaged in politi¬ in a reverse Atlantic migration, foreign entanglements could be ef¬ cal work, both are engaged in commer¬ discovered that the only people fectively served by well-informed, cial work. You cannot at this time take who had any experience with this economics out of diplomacy. If you intelligent diplomats who would would protect our interests on the one mystifying, but intriguing Old detect in time the machinations of side, you must support them on the World were the consuls and the the wily Europeans to involve other, and 1 believe that the two diplomats. Who they were, where Americans in their quarrels. But branches of the service . . . should be they lived, what they did, and what neither the public, nor the jour¬ drawn together and treated as an inter¬ they were like, became important nalists who helped to mold their changeable unit. (WORLD’S WORK. July to both the serious observers of opinions, nor the Congress, were 1922). foreign affairs and the inquisitive sure that all men in the American During five years of legislative public. diplomatic or consular establish¬ gestation between 1919 and 1924, Within fifty years America may be ments were red-blooded, demo¬ Representative John Jacob Rogers leading the world . . . We are witness¬ cratic, intelligent or well-informed and Wilbur J. Carr marshaled their ing . . . the opening phase of another enough to make the world safe for forces well. They sought and ob¬ great Westward movement of the democracy. tained strong, if laconic, Executive center of civilization, comparable to backing from the President: the drift from Asia and Egypt and In spite of the theory that there is a The Foreign Service of the Govern¬ Greece toward Italy and Gaul. (H. G. new era of open diplomacy, neither the ment needs to be reorganized and im¬ Wells, “A Forecast of World Affairs,” Congress nor the public know much proved. (Calvin Coolidge: Inaugural CURRENT OPINION, October 1924) about what the State Department is With what dismay must the shades of supposed to do or whether it does it or Address 1923) Bismarck, Castlereagh, or Cavour not...... and from Secretary of State view this evolution.—this transfer of Ignorance is a terrible handicap. For Hughes: diplomacy from the privacy of the instance, if the President could have In view of the multiplication of inter¬ King's Closet to the hustings. (Bronson taken advantage of the information national questions and of the interrela¬ Batchelor, President of the Institute of from an efficiently organized State De¬ tion of political and economic prob¬ American Business, “Democracies partment he could have been instruct¬ lems, it should be apparent that the na¬ and Foreign Policy,” FORUM, August ing the American public about the war tional interests demand thoroughly 1924). in 1915 . . . We need to retain the very trained foreign service officers. The great issue in this year of grace considerable brains and ability which (Foreword to “The Foreign Service of is, how shall we justify our existence as have been dimmed by disorganization the United States” by T. H. Lay) a powerful nation?—how shall we do in the past, give them a chance and add Fortunately, Wilbur J. Carr and the service to the world that is due from to them as rapidly as possible. Unless Joseph C. Grew, then Under Sec¬ us?—how shall we find and take our the public desires this and makes its retary of State, had become as sen¬ place in the procession that is headed desires known, and Congress will pro¬ sitive to the nuances of public opin¬ toward the New Era? (E. S. Martin, vide the added money even in the face ion as the Congress itself. When Editorial in LIFE, January 17, 1924) of the necessity for general retrench¬ the Bill came up for the last time in What an injustice would be done to ment, we shall lose much of our present January 1924, they were well re¬ the Anglo Saxon race, to which human¬ opportunity for influencing the world ity owes so much of its progress, if it towards our ideals, lose much of the hearsed and ready to out-appeal all were to be judged by its diplomats. friendship of their nations . . . and in¬ the public appeals. Carr master¬ (Sigmund Munz, CONTEMPORARY, crease the risk of future wars. (March minded the operation, and Grew, March 1922) of Events, WORLD’S WORK, August, finally convinced to cast the lot of The tortuous passage of the 1919). his beloved diplomatic corps with

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 41 that ot the consuls, trained Hugh foreign criticism. It was obvious to Late one bitterly cold and rainy Gibson, then Ambassador to Po¬ all that none but an extremely rich night a Bobby found a man wander¬ land, as spokesman for the dip¬ man could afford the major embas¬ ing about and told him to go home. lomats, wisely assessing himself to sies unless Congress appropriated “Home,” cried the man, “I have be a red flag in the legislative more money. no home. I am the American Am¬ arena. The Rogers Bill was ex¬ At the Committee hearings in bassador.” plained as an instrument for God, January 1924, the question was The New York TIMES, February Country, for Peace and for Trade. asked: 10, 1924, in an article “Uncle All were willing to sound like an Do you really agree with the tes¬ Sam’s Homeless Diplomats,” re¬ overseas Chamber of Commerce in timony of Ambassador Davis that the ported Ambassador Gibson in Po¬ order to convince the Congress weight and standing of an ambassador land had to return his house to his that a truly career professional is affected by the character of the build¬ landlord who had become Premier, foreign service was necessary for ing he lives in? and by agreement had to remove Yankee competition. They spoke Former Undersecretary of State the bathrooms which he had had patiently, eloquently and copi¬ Franklin Polk—“Undoubtedly. “The present niggardly policy pro¬ installed in order to return the ously, and they disarmed the critics duces the most extravagant display in property as it was received! The ar¬ by admitting that sometimes the the American diplomatic service. Most ticle went on to point out that in services had not been democratic of the American ambassadors in our 52 missions, we owned only or sharp enough salesmen for the Europe for the last half century have twelve houses. Every business had Flag. been rich men, sometimes mere mil¬ its “Exhibition Rooms” where the COLLIERS had an article in lionaires, who have shocked both public was received to be im¬ November 1923 about the Consul¬ Europeans and Americans by the pressed, so why not the business of ar Corps entitled, “He Has Jobs lavish scale on which they lived. The diplomacy? The TIMES went on to for Rising Young Men.” selfish shortsightedness of the Ameri¬ suggest that the war debts, recog¬ It is the business of the Consuls to can congressman who wishes to spend the people’s money where it will im¬ nized as uncollectible, should be know what the other people are think¬ used to buy houses for Uncle Sam. ing, report it to the State Department. press his constituents with his own im¬ portance instead of impressing the This would be preferable to the They are the first line of contact: Di¬ idea of Senator Lafollette, just plomacy could not function without world with his country’s, has resulted them. . . . Today it is the extraordinary in Berlin, as it has in other Capitols of back from Europe, who suggested diplomat who comes in contact with Europe, in the summary dispossessing that mini-White Houses be built more than the ruling clique and the of the nation’s representatives. (Com- around the world. toddle and talcum set. monsense in American Embassies, Ambassador Myron T. Her¬ Grew, helping to prepare from March of Events, WORLD’S rick’s purchase of the property on WORK, August 1923) the Avenue D'lena was front page Gibson’s testimony before the A story circulated in most of the House Committee on Foreign Af¬ news in the New York TIMES in periodicals of the ’20s concerned March 1924. fairs, wrote: Ambassador Joseph Choate in We must get it out of the minds of the Herrick profited $75,000.00 in francs public that the consular service is the London. Ambassador Choate had . . . small panic on Paris bourse . . . only one that looks after the business spent many weeks in a hotel while State Department has no criticism . . . side. Rather the diplomatic service, in trying to find a suitable residence. it didn’t know about the purchase but its commercial activities paves the way has explicit confidence . . . charac¬ for the consular service to function at teristic of Herrick’s patriotism ...” all. (“Turbulent Era,” by Joseph C. An article in WOMAN’S HOME Grew, 1952) Our Homeless Diplomat COMPANION says that he cabled Gibson testified: the House Appropriations chair¬ Diplomacy has not become a matter man, “If you take it, the govern¬ of business, but business has become ment will make $400,000; if you so international in character that it has leave it, I will make $400,000.” more and more need for the assistance and support of diplomacy. In discussing the need for proper In rebuttal to the common mis¬ embassies and the proper sort of apprehension that all the diplomats men to staff them, the press re¬ were “tea drinkers with the white ferred constantly to Benjamin spats and cookie pushers,” Gibson Franklin. Some cited him as a man went on to say in later testimony: of affairs, not a professional dip¬ As a matter of fact, we have a ser¬ lomat; but he was just as firmly vice to be proud of, and the so-called cited by the diplomats as a profes¬ white spatter is of no importance sional in foreign affairs. Con¬ beyond the fact that he is obnoxious. It troversy swirled about his manner has been said that the diplomatic ser¬ of dress . . . if he was successful in vice is more spat upon than spatted. homespun, why did others need os¬ The problem of where the tentation? It was Ambassador American Ambassador lived re¬ Herrick who seemed to have the flected the entire debate, involving final word; when asked in Paris the problems of career vs. non¬ about the argument, he smiled and career, representation allowances, said, “No American Ambassador salaries, retirement, and especially in Paris today could afford home- Bobby—“Come, move on home." the questions of national pride and U.oate—“Home! home! 1 have no home; 1 am the American Ambassadoi." spun.” (SATURDAY EVENING POST, 42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 May 8, 1926). Comparisons were well as rich could accept such ap¬ business. . . . To become Counselor or continually being made with Great pointments and the ability and charac¬ First Secretary earning $10,000 is not Britain whose Diplomatic Service ter of the diplomatic service would the bait that attracts young men who was considered a model, but whose consequently improve. (March of want to work. historical background, salaries, Events, WORLD’S WORK, August, William P. Fletcher, the brilliant housing and allowances we could 1922). career man in Rome, who rented never dream of matching. The Not everyone felt that way. Rep. the Raspiogli palace himself re¬ Tom Connally of Texas was op¬ New York TIMES pointed out that ceived this mention. Wellington simply sent his troops, posed. “Appropriations of public Fletcher wasn’t complaining. He’s who were camping on the Elysee money for entertainment purposes been at it too long to be soured by this affords temptation for abuses and appalling lack of Congressional after Waterloo, to occupy the foresight. He remembers the time Charasti Palace, and gave the magnifies the importance of the so¬ cial duties of consuls and sec¬ when he was “promoted” from Cuba French Government $20,000 for to China—and had to pay for his pas¬ the property, now worth five mil¬ retaries.” A former Democratic leader was quoted as saying . . . sage to the Orient out of his salary of lion. The British Ambassador to fifteen hundred a year. . . It was be¬ Washington got $12,500 for salary, this sort of allowance would permit coming increasingly clear to me that a staffed residence at no cost to “the secretaries to meet and mingle this man operated just as a business himself, plus $97,350.00 for ex¬ socially with Kings, Queens and man did: that he was the same shrewd penses in representing his monarchs, the princes and the Pennsylvania Yankee he would have government. . . . Former Ambas¬ princesses, and the lords and ladies been had he stayed in his uncle’s law of Europe, to have them tango and office in Greencastle, only he was deal¬ sador John W. Davis testified in ing with governments and dignitaries embarrassing detail about how he kowtow around with royalty.” In desperation Carr was forced to instead of street railways and widows had had to spend $50 to $60 . . . This man who had adopted diplo¬ thousand a year to keep up even plead, “It is hardly necessary to say that the State Department does macy as a career, just as you or I might the modest style appropriate in a adopt plumbing or sawing wood, had sober and grieving post-war Lon¬ not seek authority to supply uni¬ an almost commercial pride in getting don, and he stressed that he would forms and motor cars to ambas¬ on with his business. sadors and ministers.” However, (Fletcher had also told Collins not be able to afford to maintain the proponents of this new concept Knightsbridge house recently given that he was trying not to speak brought in Mark Twain: to the United States by J. P. Mor¬ much Italian any more as it was A $17,500 Ambassador is a bil¬ ruining his Spanish, and that there gan, Jr. for our new Embassy. lionaire in a paper collar, a King in a No one, but no one, wanted to breech-clout, and an archangel in a tin were 17 Spanish speaking posts to increase Ambassadorial salaries; halo. one Italian.) $17,500.00 (unchanged until after No matter what phase of the In Madrid Mr. Collins inter¬ World War II) was adequate. “All Rogers Act was under considera¬ viewed Alexander P. Moore who we want is equipment to do our tion, money and business seemed rather favored political appointees work,” said Gibson in response to to be the criteria used to measure like himself: a committee member’s question, success. Frederick L. Collins Being an Ambassador is just like sell¬ “May I ask why this extra allow¬ wrote a series of interviews in the ing a bill of goods. I’m selling America ance is called representation?” to the Spanish people, that’s all. In WOMAN’S HOME COMPANION, Pittsburgh, when 1 wanted anything This apparently controversial new with our men in Paris, Brussels, done, I went to some ward-leader; in idea was explained in the journals Berlin, London, Rome and Madrid Madrid 1 go to some Duke or other of the day as being the equivalent ... it was not clear from his series with a long name. of an expense account in business. that the career men all won out Ambassador Moore called King This allowance should in no sense be over the non-career. Alfonso, “Chief’ . . . “The King part of the salary: it should be used Alanson B. Houghton, Ambas¬ seemed to like it. They get tired of only as an expense account, and any sador to Germany, serious, able all this falderal.” Moore liked his unused portion should revert to the and experienced though he was, work ... he defined his mission as public treasury. There is a danger in did not like the career status. “doing things a little better than the giving our diplomatic representatives The average young man in the dip¬ other fellow,” and he seemed to huge salaries: the places would be lomatic service is not the kind of young enjoy some measure of success at likely to become political plums with all man with whom you would wish to do this. His giant red and silver the demoralization that this would anything very important in your own limousine rushed by the British imply. . . . The fact is that no Ambas¬ sador at one of our great capitols can Ambassador “as if he were live in simple decency on less than ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ hitched.” $50,000 a year. The American Ambas¬ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ The law-makers had to be con¬ sador in London, for example, is vinced that the Bill was a modest obliged to give a reception on the ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ expenditure of public funds. The Fourth of July to all the American resi¬ original estimate of the increased dents in that town. Even if he fed them annual cost of the entire package only sandwiches and coffee, the func¬ was $328,000 (with $50,000 the first tion costs him not far from $2,000. . . . year to set up the pensions), but A total budget of $50,000—including ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ Connally felt that it would eventu¬ salary and allowances—would enable ally cost $500,000 a year for retire¬ him to fulfill his duty with all the dig¬ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ nity and modesty that his position ment alone. makes necessary. Then poor men as ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ Continued on page 53 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 43 sented a challenge but not a threat Kennan addresses himself not so to the Western world. He adds the much to a critique of the Soviet RSJ BQDK ESSAY comment, “I could say much the Union as to a questioning of US Four Ambassadors, Three same today.” In discussing Ameri¬ actions and policies. In this, he Decades, Two Questions can foreign policy, Mr. Harriman comes the closest of the four au¬ warns of the danger of becoming thors to the European mentality JEAN L. LALOY arrogant: (and perhaps to the new mentality AMERICA AND RUSSIA IN A CHANG¬ In the present world situation, we have currently -emerging in America). ING WORLD, by W. Averell Harriman. to keep a sufficiently strong military We are used to criticizing our¬ Doubleday, 1971. position, but we have to guard against selves. We have all known not only MEMOIRS, 1950-1963, by George F. a growing arrogance of power. 1 don’t alternating triumphs and defeats Kennan. Little, Brown, 1972. like to admit it, but the danger exists, but also the false vanity of total vic¬ WITNESS TO HISTORY, 1929-1969, by (p. 169) tories that leave the victors worse Charles E. Bohlen. W.W. Norton, Here we find a reassertion of the off than the vanquished. We doubt 1973. American liberal tradition founded UNDERSTANDING THE RUSSIANS, by ourselves. Kennan seems to share Foy D. Kohler. Harper & Row, 1970. on a realistic appraisal of the forces something of this European point at work but seeking to orient them of view. He reveals his disap¬ toward an ideal, if I still dare use pointments and his doubts with ex¬ THESE FOUR BOOKS, all written such a word. treme frankness. by former American ambassadors Foy D. Kohler’s book is more to the Soviet Union, are a gold But in certain other respects didactic but no less astute. It com¬ Kennan deviates from the Euro¬ mine of reflections. In them, one bines recollections of his activities finds records of conversations, ex¬ pean outlook. In him, thought and in the USSR with views formed action are not always reconciled, cerpts from correspondence, por¬ since he has been teaching at the and the solutions he recommends traits of personalities, narrative ac¬ University of Miami. The result is counts, and personal judgments. sometimes appear difficult to ap¬ a work both of reference (he often ply. That was true of the proposal They also reveal four men, each of cites little-known Soviet sources) whom played an important role in he made in the Reith Lectures in and of actual experience, as well as 1957 for a reciprocal withdrawal of international diplomacy. one which presents a series of Different as they are, all four forces from the center of Germany. highly perceptive judgments con¬ To a certain extent, it was also true represent that type of American cerning US-Soviet relations. Koh¬ who has always been liked in of the policy of “containment,” ler is without doubt more reserved which Kennan tells us was dis¬ Europe. Besides the culture and than Harriman in his estimate of tradition common to our two conti¬ torted from its intended meaning the chances for true friendship be¬ by the military and the realists. nents, they embody a certain tween the two countries; yet he freshness and elan that seemed to One can imagine that this former remains open and confident in the diplomat feels more at home in typify America—or, more espe¬ future. His book will enlighten all cially, the often naive image of Princeton than he did in Moscow, who read it. but one can also be thankful for his America entertained on this side of Then there are the two memoir¬ the Atlantic—from the days of contributions to diplomacy as well ists, George F. Kennan and as to political thought in general. Washington and Franklin to those Charles E. Bohlen, two friends of Wilson and Franklin D. Roose¬ Bohlen, for his part, looks, re¬ who never totally agreed with each flects, and relates. One finds in his velt. The foremost symbol of this other, yet were never really in dis¬ idealistic and idealized America book many evidences of his talents agreement. As I write these lines, I as a raconteur, so much ap¬ was General George C. Marshall, recall again the places where I met whom each of our four authors preciated by his friends. But he them for the first time—Bohlen at also understands. And he under¬ mentions with respect and admira¬ the Oriental Languages School in tion tinged with sadness. The stands because he is always at Paris in 1932, Kennan at the peace with himself. He tells us that times, certainly, have greatly NATO Defense College in 1951. changed. he sometimes behaved “like a How many days and how many tri¬ fool,” and he even cites documents W. Averell Harriman’s book, for als have since gone by! the most part, reproduces lectures proving that he was wrong—for Their books fit their personal¬ example, about the Cuban crisis he delivered in 1969, since sup¬ ities. Bohlen’s reflects a man who and about the acuteness of the plemented by personal commen¬ was (since, alas, one must speak of taries, enabling the reader to savor Sino-Soviet conflict. (Almost him in the past) sure, elegant, aris¬ everyone of us has made many mis¬ both the vivacity of the spoken tocratic, with a hint of irony in his word and the added depth of ret¬ takes. I certainly have, and espe¬ clear eye, a man with a pragmatic cially about the Sino-Soviet con¬ rospection. The volume, which outlook that sometimes bordered contains a wealth of assorted flict.) At the same time, Bohlen’s on skepticism, but at the same time cool and balanced view does not memories and observations, con¬ a person of straightforward charac¬ cludes with an interview given by confirm the position of the ter and innate honesty. Kennan’s “realists” who see the USSR as a the author in 1946, in which he as¬ reveals a man “too proud not to be serted that the Soviet Union prc- power like any other. He describes shy,” as he himself says—a per¬ quite accurately the complications First published in PROBLEMS OF COM¬ sonality of astonishing subtlety, caused by Communist ideology as MUNISM, Washington, D.C., May-June, with a generous and troubled mind much for the Soviet regime itself as 1974 and a scrupulous sincerity. for its adversaries. On the other

44 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 hand, he does not ascribe every¬ size, but it is doubtful if either will be dictator. And up to a certain point, thing to ideology. He apportions permitted to maintain any appreciable cunning has its virtues. Someone fairly. armed force. The result would he that who prefers cold and calculating The book also presents a subtle the Soviet Union would be the only im¬ vengeance is, after all, less likely to but very revealing portrait of portant military and political force on set the house on fire than an emo¬ the continent of Europe. The rest of tional pyromaniac. Stalin was cun¬ Stalin—a man who, Bohlen notes, Europe would be reduced to military stands “high on the list of the and political impotence. (Bohlen, p. ning and therefore deliberate. He world’s monsters.” Perhaps Boh¬ 153) accommodated the Finnish Social len is overinclined to defend the Democrats, abandoned the Greek The second is an excerpt from an Communists, and spared the Yu¬ position he always held regarding earlier volume of Kennan’s mem¬ the truly collegial nature of the goslav Communists. Was he, then, Soviet leadership. But, on the oirs and recalls his judgment of the liberal? Or moderate? No, he was Soviet attitude with regard to simply prudent. He weighed the whole, he provides much informa¬ Europe in the spring of 1945: tion of great interest. This is true as risks; he calculated. well of the chapter devoted to his ... The Russians had, as they saw it, If this was the case, how does tour of duty as US Ambassador in little to gain from a real collaboration one explain the intensity of the with us in the reconstruction of crisis? Shouldn’t the parties have Paris from 1963 to 1968. Although Europe; but they had much to gain by his observations are circumspect, dangling before our eyes the prospect reached an accommodation? those who know how to read be¬ of such collaboration and inducing us Many arguments have already tween the lines will find there much to defer constructive measures of our been advanced in opposition to 1 food for thought. own until it could be realized. ... those who hold that the misunder¬ Of the many questions raised by The third is Harriman’s recollec¬ standing was primarily due to these remarkable works, I shall re¬ tion of a brief but illuminating con¬ Truman’s rigidity, to Byrnes’s nar¬ strict my comments to just two: the rowness, or to Hull’s “open door” versation he had with Stalin at the 2 origins of the “cold war,” and the Potsdam Conference in July 1945. policy. But one answer to the problem of communication among He writes: question was given as early as 1946 governments, then and today. by no less an authoritative source The first time I saw him [Stalin] at the than Maxim Litvinov. Talking with Conference, I went up to him and said THE BIG QUESTION that arose in that it must be gratifying for him to be American news correspondent .►the-wake of World War II—a ques¬ in Berlin after all the struggle and the Richard C. Hottelet on June 18, tion somewhat forgotten today tragedy. He hesitated a moment and 1946, Litvinov amazed his inter¬ —was none other than how to stop then replied, “Czar Alexander got to viewer with the frankness of his Stalin (then on the way to dominat¬ Paris.’’ It didn’t need much of a clair¬ remarks. According to a cabled re¬ ing Germany) without bringing on voyant to guess what was in his mind. port received by the US State De¬ an open conflict. This was, in fact, (Harriman, p. 44) partment, the only real problem. Iran, There are several other reasons Hottelet asked him [Litvinov] if suspi¬ Greece, Czechoslovakia, China, for believing that in May 1945 Sta¬ cion, which seems to be large motivat¬ even Korea—all these represented lin and his colleagues estimated ing force in Soviet policy, would be challenges of varying but more or that the fruit of victory for them mitigated if West were suddenly to give less acceptable degree. Yet the would be not “world revolution” in and grant all Russian demands like crux of what came to be known as but supreme authority—the right to Trieste, Italian colonies, etc . . . whether that would lead to easing of the cold war, but what was in fact a deciding voice—on the European situation. the struggle for Germany and continent. Did not Molotov, He [Litvinov] said it would lead to hence for Europe, was whether or Stalin’s faithful lieutenant, again West being faced after period of time 3 not it was possible to devise and define the “socialist camp” in 1955 with next series of demands , adhere to a proper policy without as extending “from the Pacific al¬ Responsibility for the misunder¬ risking war—neither appeasement, most to the Atlantic”? Almost! standing is shared, as always, but it for which so many Europeans were Some adverbs are quite revealing. is unequally shared. A large part of ready, nor open conflict. What Against this interpretation, some it must be laid at Stalin’s door. Let then? recent historians invoke Stalin’s Three excerpts are worth citing us see why. caution, his occasional retreats, the Bohlen, supported to a large ex¬ in this connection. The first is from moderation he showed toward Fin¬ a memorandum drafted by Bohlen tent by Harriman, maintains that land, the temporizing tactics he Stalin’s attitude changed after at the end of the Tehran Confer¬ sought to impose on the French 2G. Kolko, in his “The Politics of War: ence and outlines his estimate of and Italian Communists. These The World and United States Foreign Pol¬ Soviet aims in postwar Europe: are, indeed, known facts. But do icy, 1943-45” (New York. Random House, . . . Germany is to be broken up and they signify that an understanding 1968), describes then Secretary of State kept broken up. The states of Eastern, was possible? Stalin was not a Cordell Hull's policies as “the classic pur¬ Southeastern and Central Europe will suit of national self-interest in an ill-fitting gambler. “A monster of cunning, a wrapper of internationalist rhetoric” based not be permitted to group themselves monster of spite”—that was how into any federation or association. on the old doctrine of the “open door.” Jean Payart, the counselor and 3US Department of State, “Foreign Re¬ France is to be stripped of her colonies lations of the United States, 1946,” Vol. 6, and strategic bases beyond her borders guiding spirit of the French Em¬ bassy in Moscow between 1930 Washington, D.C., US Government Print¬ and will not be permitted to maintain ing Office, 1969, p. 763. (Litvinov at this any appreciable military establish¬ and 1940, characterized the Soviet time was Deputy Foreign Minister, but two ment. Poland and Italy will remain ap¬ *G. F. Kennan, “Memoirs 1925-1950,” months later Moscow announced that he proximately in their present territorial Boston, Little Brown & Co., 1967, p. 257. had been relieved of his official duties.)

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 45 Yalta. He ascribes this change, in affair in April 1943. But was that within the US governmental sys¬ part, to Stalin’s realization of the possible given the military situation tem sometimes functions quite risks that a policy of relative toler¬ that existed at that time? In any badly. In some instances we find ance would lead to in Eastern event, seeing that nothing hap¬ the State Department raising hasty Europe, and in part to the Soviet pened, Stalin proceeded to ma¬ and ill-considered questions: one leader’s discovery of tempting neuver under cover of the interal¬ such move prompted Kennan to prospects not only in Germany but lied agreements to impose his uni¬ dispatch his much-publicized “long also in France, Italy, and Belgium. lateral will in Poland. Thus, he telegram” to Washington in Feb¬ In Kennan’s opinion, the proper succeeded not only in erecting a ruary 1964.4 On other occasions, course for the Western allies to military and political bulwark to the ambassador does not succeed take would have been to abandon protect the stronghold of his power in getting through to his superiors. the idea of maintaining the wartime in the USSR, but also in establish¬ And sometimes an internal situa¬ entente and instead enter into an ing the corridor toward Germany tion develops that virtually par¬ agreement with the Soviet Union which every Bolshevik had consid¬ alyzes all intragovemmental com¬ allocating spheres of influence, ered essential since 1920. Finally, munication: the chapters that leaving each party free in its own by all this, Stalin justified—both to Bohlen and Kennan devote to the zone. Foy Kohler sees the USSR’s himself and to all those who had In a sense, communication with domestic problems as a determin¬ previously criticized him—his ing factor behind Soviet policy in claim to be the faithful executor of one’s adversaries is more sure this period—i.e., the need to rees¬ Lenin’s policy. What Lenin had than communication with one’s tablish the revolutionary legitimacy failed to achieve—the extension of partners. . . It is comparable to of the Communist Party and the Bolshevism beyond the borders of putting together an intricate need to control—in order to re¬ the Soviet Union—Stalin accom¬ piece of machinery which, by strain more effectively—the ex¬ plished from 1943 on. He moved virtue of delicate adjustments . . . hausted Russian masses longing for forward step by step, assessing at can sometimes be made to run. a respite and for an entente with each step the reaction of his allies the Allies. McCarthy era are terrifying to and playing up to their sensitivities read. On occasion, it is the Secre¬ Personally, I do not believe that in some areas, but never deviating Stalin “changed” after Yalta. Nor tary of State who makes things from the line he had chosen for at¬ difficult—e.g., Dean Acheson by do I believe that an agreement set¬ taining his essential objective. only half listening to Kennan, and ting up spheres of influence would In the circumstances that existed have settled the problem. The very John Foster Dulles by packing at that time, it was extremely dif¬ Bohlen off to the Philippines. Such notion of spheres of influence im¬ ficult to make Stalin change his pol¬ plies a preponderance, but not a difficulties are multiplied by the icy. It was nevertheless important proliferation of bureaus, agencies, monopoly, of influence for each at least to discern what was hap¬ party within its own sphere; and it task forces, and panels. Nor is the pening. This the four diplomats US situation in this respect unique: also implies a certain degree of did, each in his own way. But who permeability of each sphere by the it is just one example of a general listened to them? The general pub¬ phenomenon. influence of the other side. When lic goodwill that existed in the West the latter does not exist, it is not a The problem becomes still more toward the USSR in wartime serious when it involves communi¬ fair contest. For then one sphere is quickly changed into an undoubt¬ more fragile than the other and cation between governments. As edly overemotional hostility. Even long as there is the bond of a com¬ cannot resist. That is what hap¬ today, Western public opinion pened after 1945 in China, pre¬ mon political idea, such as existed wavers between trust in the policy among the Western allies in the cisely the area where there was an of detente and distrust of Com¬ early stages of the postwar recon¬ attempt at setting up spheres of in¬ munist “totalitarianism.” fluence, probably with the prior struction of Europe, misunder¬ The problem that this raises is standings work themselves out. approval of Stalin. one of communication between My own conviction is that Stalin But whenever “national interests” governments and responsible offi¬ become the decisive impulse, dis¬ was a prisoner of the policy he fol¬ cials, as well as between the pub¬ cord is the rule. Statesmen believe lowed after August 23, 1939. Hav¬ lics of different countries. Means ing divided up Poland with Hitler, that they can surmount the diffi¬ of communication exist, but mis¬ culty by speaking directly to one how could he believe that a reborn understandings continue. Poland would willingly accept al¬ another, but most of the time one 4 liance and “friendship” with the IT HAS OFTEN been said that Kennan’s famous "long telegram," di¬ vided into five sections totalling 8,000 Soviet Union? the Soviet leader present-day ambassadors are re¬ words, was prompted by an inquiry from the found himself forced either to ac¬ duced to the role of mere postmen. State Department as to the reasons for the knowledge his 1939 mistake or to In my view, however, they can bet¬ USSR's sudden refusal to join the World dominate Poland completely. In ter be regarded as intelligent “ter¬ Bank and International Monetary Fund. order to prevent him from choosing minals”—as indispensable chan¬ Annoyed at Washington’s lack of response to his earlier warnings about the nature of the latter course, the Western nels of communication between Soviet postwar policy, Kennan seized the leaders would have had to issue an governments. occasion to deliver what he called in his absolute and unreserved non On this point, the four books "Memoirs” a “telegraphic dissertation” possumus from the moment of the under review provide much food presenting a comprehensive analysis of Soviet policy and its implications for the Soviet break with the Polish gov¬ for thought. They make it quite United States. Excerpts are reprinted in ernment in London over the Katyn clear that internal communication Annex C of the volume cited in footnote 1.

46 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 finds that they accomplish nothing All this is set against the back¬ because of a lack of preparation. | BOOKSHELF ground of Kissinger’s early years in In a sense, communication with Germany, his education, expan¬ one’s adversaries is more sure than sion through such forums as the communication with one’s part¬ Harvard International Seminar and ners. Occurring less frequently, it The Man at the Center his books on nuclear warfare in preparation for his later search for is generally based on prepared KISSINGER, by Marvin Kalb and Ber¬ texts. It is comparable to putting nard Kalb. Little, Brown and Com¬ weapons balance in the strategic together an intricate piece of pany. arms talks with the Soviet Union. machinery which, by virtue of deli¬ “Kissinger” plows through the cate adjustments (in this case, AMERICAN FOREIGN policy in the early disillusion of endless, fruit¬ commas, synonyms, or shifted years 1969-1974 has revolved less, secret negotiations with the paragraphs), can sometimes be around four major developments North Vietnamese, the Secretary’s made to run. Within alliances this and crises: the Vietnam war and strange early belief that somehow is rarely the case, and the results subsequent Paris Agreement end¬ staged withdrawals of US forces are not always favorable. ing direct US participation; the from Vietnam would force Hanoi There remains one final point. If China breakthrough; detente with to negotiate seriously, his addiction one relies on the conclusions the Soviet Union (with its satellite to trying to read meaning into reached by the authors of these SALT I agreements), and the still vague “signals” from the Com¬ books, one surmises that progress unfinished story of the Middle East munist side (a technique he con¬ toward an understanding between coupled with the separation of stantly warned newsmen to avoid), the Soviet Union and the countries forces agreements there that ap¬ the upheavals that followed the of the West will be slow and dif¬ pear to be holding. April, 1970 invasion of Cambodia, ficult, and that in the long period of The scope, diversity and com¬ and the breakthrough that came groping known as detente the plexity of the issues imbedded in when Hanoi submitted a nine point United States must continue to each of the four would normally plan in 1971 that eventually became play a leading role. On both these rule out any one man shaping the the basis of settlement—such as it points, it is not certain that there is final outcome. Yet at the center of is. today an implicit and stable under¬ each stands the rotund figure of Somewhat strangely, and proba¬ standing among the Western lead¬ one Henry Alfred Kissinger, Na¬ bly without the authors’ intent, it is ers. Since 1969 we have been tional Security Adviser to the Pres¬ the now-deposed President Nixon operating in a new phase. An effort ident of the United States and Sec¬ who emerges as the strong man is being made to build a “structure retary of State. who made the Paris accords hap¬ of peace,” but does this idea have Obviously it would take a book pen. When the Communists balked the same meaning for the responsi¬ to chronicle the details of this over translating their nine points ble leaders on both sides of the At¬ man’s odyssey through such a vol¬ into a detailed agreement that lantic? There is also talk of moving atile, five-year sweep of history, could not be read ambiguously, it from confrontation to negotiation, and that is what the brothers Kalb, was Nixon who stepped in with the of reestablishing a stable world. Marvin and Bernard, both Wash¬ controversial 12-days of intensive But this assumes a whole set of ington-based CBS correspondents, B52 bombings of the north. Rapid prior conditions. Communication have done in 549 well-paced pages. agreement followed. The reader, within alliances must be as good if For the person who wants in¬ however, is left to wonder whether not better than communication be¬ sights and at least some degree of Nixon received a signal that mean¬ tween “great partners.” An at¬ understanding of these events this ingful talks would follow when he tempt must be made to define the book is a must. It is written in lucid halted the raids, or simply gambled role to be played in today’s world style. It benefits from inside details and lucked out. by the medium powers which are provided by Kissinger in confer¬ Meanwhile the authors are strong enough to have some pre¬ ences with the authors. And simultaneously providing impres¬ tensions but not strong enough to perhaps it also suffers, because of sive detail on the China break¬ make them prevail. Lastly, there this, from having too much of the through, Kissinger’s secret July must be a greater effort to under¬ Kissinger-provided point of view. 9-11, 1971 trip to Peking, with the stand the intentions of the adver¬ Yet the Secretary emerges as a help of Pakistan’s Yahya Kahn, sary or whoever proclaims himself, fully fallible, but multi-dimen¬ and the subsequent 1972 summits ideologically, as such. sioned man of enormous talents, in both Peking and Moscow. What formerly went unchal¬ energy, intelligence and back¬ Of particular interest is the ques¬ lenged today requires reflection, ground. tionable haste with which the final research, exhanges of views, and The story begins with parts of the SALT I agreements clarification. Would it be presump¬ Kissinger’s early forays into gov¬ were thrown together in order to tuous to hope that the example of ernment activities, including a se¬ have them ready for signature at the four American diplomats cret Vietnam peace probe for the Moscow. whose books we have discussed late President Lyndon Johnson, his The Middle East emerges as a may inspire us to raise, among al¬ introduction to and hiring by the separate drama of its own, that lies, the questions that must be new Nixon administration, and his slowly drew Kissinger into its vor¬ answered if we are to cope with the movement onto stage center at a tex. There is a dramatic, moving challenges, not of the next three moment of potential change in account of the 1970 crisis when decades, but of the present one?B world affairs. Syrian armored columns, with

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. October. 1474 47 Moscow’s blessing, invaded Jor¬ burglary. But Woodward and Kuusinen’s book deserves a place dan, pitching the United States and Bernstein soon found many dis¬ alongside the not entirely dissimilar Soviet Union toward potential in¬ turbing links. It was they who first memoirs of Evgenia Ginzburg and tervention and confrontation. dialed the phone numbers in How¬ Nadezhda Mandelstam. Of equal import is the near con¬ ard Hunt’s address book. And it The author, who died in Finland frontation that came when both was they who first interviewed and in 1970, promised herself she Moscow and Washington alerted gained the confidence of Hugh would write this book while she forces during the final stages of the Sloan, the former CRP treasurer was in the slave labor camps at October, 1973, “Yom Kippur” and the first man to provide them Vorkuta in the Soviet Arctic. Pub¬ War. Kissinger's subsequent mara¬ and the American people with any lishing her memoirs, she wrote, thon negotiating efforts produced tangible, direct information on the “seemed the only means of aveng¬ separation of forces agreements be¬ committee’s relationship to the ing myself on those who had tween first Israeli and Egyptian White House. Bernstein and robbed me of my freedom.” In forces, then Israeli and Syrian. Woodward found themselves in an this, her resolution was not unlike The book suffers in places from enviable position for journalists of that of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. “conventional-wisdom” type not only reporting, but also making Like the author of “The Gulag Ar¬ judgments. Some seep through in the news. chipelago,” she appeared to fear pre-judging the future of South The 300 pages of “All the that without such accounts of life Vietnam, and in dubbing the alert President’s Men” do more than as it actually had been lived in the of US forces in the Yom Kippur just catalogue the hard, investiga¬ Soviet Union, future generations War as “clearly not Kissinger’s tive reporting of two men. There is would never fully understand the finest hour.” Yet one finds it hard nothing detached about the writing realities of our time. ,to argue with the result: the Soviets in this book. The authors reveal to In this, however, both she and backed down and the fighting was us all the ploys and tricks em¬ Solzhenitsyn are surely mistaken. stopped. ployed in their trade to get at the For what emerges from her de¬ But in one sense this is unfair truth, and this book is a testament scriptions of the functioning of the sniping at an otherwise good book. to their success. We are introduced Soviet state apparatus is not a de¬ It is well worth reading by anyone to the major personalities and see spairing conviction that Soviet interested in current history, and in the inner workings of a major state secretiveness will forever the historic figure of an immigrant Washington newspaper. prevent the world from knowing Jew who has startled the world This book offers no pretense to the inner history of the Soviet re¬ with his successes at the negotiat¬ being the definitive book on gime. Rather it is, at least for this ing table. Watergate. What it does offer the reviewer, a conclusion that the na¬ —JAMES CARY reader, though, are insights into the ture of the Soviet bureaucratic sys¬ Chief of Bureau, Washington, machinations of Nixon politics and tem effectively guarantees that Copley News Service a better understanding of the affair even the most well-placed actors in which all but paralyzed the Ameri¬ Soviet society are really helpless to Woodstein’s Work can government. falsify in any effective way the evi¬ —TOM THOMPSON dence of their doings buried here, ALL THE PRESIDENT’S MEN, by CarI Bernstein and Bob Woodward. Simon Inner History there, and everywhere in the & Schuster, $8.95. Soviet state archives. The very THE RINGS OF DESTINY: Inside Soviet comprehensiveness of these ar¬ Russia from Lenin to Brezhnev, by IT WAS EARLY in the morning on chives, when combined with the ul¬ June 17, 1972, when Metropolitan Aino Kuusinen. William Morrow, $7.95. timate insecurity which even the police detectives surprised and ar¬ most powerful officials cannot but rested five men as they were in¬ A REFLECTIVE PERSONAL account feel, makes it certain that when the stalling sophisticated bugging and of a life well-lived, in far-away archives come someday to be wiretapping devices inside the places and in highly unusual cir¬ opened (in ten years or in a Democratic National Headquar¬ cumstances, is likely to be much hundred), future scholars will have ters at the Watergate Apartment more rewarding reading than much less difficulty recording the complex. Since then the American academic reconstructions of things actual deeds and misdeeds of the public have daily seen on their past; and this is surely the case Russian leaders of these genera¬ news screens and read in their with Aino Kuusinen’s memoirs of tions than Solzhenitsyn and others newspapers the slow, bewildering her life as wife of a member of the so pessimistically assume. and often shocking unraveling of ruling elite in the Soviet Union, as But since none of us can count the Watergate break-in. intelligence agent for the Comin¬ on still being around a hundred What facts we do now know tern in the United States and in years hence, we must make the about Watergate can be credited to Japan, as prisoner in a Soviet con¬ most of works such as the present the initial persistence of just a centration camp, and finally as free one. And since official documents, handful of men in discovering the citizen back in her native Finland. even in the best of circumstances, full truth—in the judiciary, Judge Her book offers a remarkable view are but pale and blurred reflections John J. Sirica, and in the press, of people and places, some of the of the real world, there is and there Carl Bernstein and Bob Wood¬ greatest importance and others will always be an extra satisfaction ward. They were two young never well-known and now little in reading such an absorbing per¬ Washington POST reporters origi¬ remembered. As a record of the sonal testament as this one. nally assigned to cover a third-rate past and as literature, Mrs. —THOMAS A. DONOVAN

48 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 and L^pve in the Foreign S©rvice

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"Anyone else care to take issue with the Ambassador's views on use of the ' 'If you're getting that picture for a visa, forget it. The 'dissent channel'?" law’s been changed."

R "Which one of you wrote that piece for OPEN FORUM?” “Detente, shmetente-In this restaurant we will never serve cottage * cheese and ketchup!"

.50 'm r: ^

"When she comes to, sir, would you please ‘' Next time keep a civil tongue in your head. "But the message from Washington said the 5 explain that it’s no reflection on her charac- Remember, this is a U.S. Consulate . . ." Inspectors would be arriving this Friday-" 6 ter'? We have to fingerprint everyone before / we can clear them for the Foreign Service.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 49 USIA AT THE CROSSROADS Charles Frankel observes that What could all this mean to the from page 39 “cultural relations involve a capac¬ role of the PAO and his informa¬ ity to hear what others are saying, tion and cultural affairs colleagues ably be better equipped to give not only a capacity to speak one's in our posts abroad? When both di¬ general program direction as long own piece” and a wise professor rect and indirect policy support in¬ as a direct policy channel is main¬ once called “the big ear” the most itiatives are integrated into Mission tained to the Department. important tool for explaining the operations more closely than ever A watchdog commission of United States to foreign visitors. before, the question that might be prominent Americans, while not This is an oft-neglected corollary to raised in the smaller Embassies involved in actual operations, Edward R. Murrow’s famous re¬ could be: why a separate orchestra might have an oversight responsi¬ mark that conveying information conductor in the person of the bility to insure that short and long “that last three feet” is the most PAO for a two or three piece range efforts go in tandem, that difficult of all. In the same vein, combo? The senior man, be he on good will deposits are not used up Wilson Dizard quotes Adlai the information or cultural side, indiscriminately for momentary Stevenson1 in his UN days as hav¬ could give the cues and be called tactical or budgetary reasons as ing said “America needs to turn up PAO, but the Ambassador himself when major installations are closed its hearing aid,” a concept that ought to be conducting the Mission or opened, or tested local programs could imply an entire new mandate to the tune of “Public Diplomacy reorganized radically by officers for the Agency in facilitating a two is Everybody’s Business!” In fact, that may have an axe to grind or a way flow of information in place of with the policy-making and reputation to build in Washington. the current one way pattern, and in negotiating functions now largely Central to the philosophical un¬ the process opening a number of removed from the Ambassador’s derpinning of the revised Agency doors that have been shut by the duties, public relations may well be model in an environment that has sound of our own voice.2 his most important diplomatic re¬ presented the United States with sponsibility. new opportunities for constructive 'Wilson Dizard, "The Future of the Over¬ When—and if—this day arrives, seas Information Program," manuscript, dialogue is the empathy compo¬ Washington 1974. USIA, like the proverbial nent, what Barbara White in her committee-built horse that turned z“ The Message Becomes the Medium," ar¬

1973 study on the future of USIA ticle by author in USIA COMMUNICATOR, out to be a camel, may finally as¬ calls the “mutuality of interests.” February 1974. sume its intended form. ■

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50 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. October, 1974 DIPLOMATIC ESTABLISHMENT it certainly is. .. it raised the question from page 23 The Foreign Service JOURNAL sharply whether diplomacy is tualize diplomacy in modern terms. itself has reflected these changes in indeed susceptible to a scientific It has not supplanted but it is far attitude. If its pages are not so approach. The consensus was more realistic and up-to-date than copious as one would have ex¬ that it certainly is." Harold Nicolson’s “Diplomacy.” pected and hoped, they at least John E. Harr’s “The Profes¬ have reflected growing skepticism, books as those mentioned above, sional Diplomat” (1969) has an ex¬ un-ease and willingness to ques¬ but academic minds are too chan¬ cellent opening chapter on the de¬ tion. I have no doubt that if neled to other fields than diplo¬ clared subject before getting into Wheeler and Rives were to publish macy. Diplomacy being rarely organizational problems and the “Dome of Many-Coloured Glass” taught in our institutions of higher Crockett reforms. It provides ma¬ today, the JOURNAL would review learning except in unilinear form by terial post-Ilchman, as do studies it. It has even learned to laugh a history departments means that emanating from the Herter Com¬ little and one should mention, in there is little learning, higher or any mittee in the early 1960s and the any “lights and shadows” review, other, about diplomacy. book on which Frederick C. those delectable “Fables of the Perhaps, in the next 50 years, Mosher and Harr collaborated Foreign Service” which John this will change and the Foreign Stutesman (now it can be told) in¬ concerning the effort to introduce Service JOURNAL on that occasion systems analysis into the diplomat¬ augurated and those equally choice will have more to celebrate than an ic establishment (“Programming motion picture stills, “Life and amplitude of materials explicatory Systems and Foreign Affairs Love in the Foreign Service,” of our calling. Perhaps by then we Leadership,” 1970). The extraor¬ which began when Robert W. Rin- may even have professionalized dinary surge of American interest den came across a cache in China. our diplomacy and our political of¬ has thus assaulted much of the The latter were collected in a slim ficers will see it as primarily politi¬ periphery of diplomacy excepting volume which Shirley Newhall cal action with political reporting the one segment on which Acheson published in 1969. and analysis assuming their proper alone has ventured. More works Anyone must ask how much of place as supplementary to action could be cited but the limitations of this downpour has sunk into gen¬ rather than as now their principal space compel an invitation to be eral consciousness or indeed into functions. ■ extended to the avid reader to re¬ his own and how much has run off pair to the bibliographies of Robert the surface, outstripping the time B. Harmon (“The Art and Practice and capacity of both public and of Diplomacy: A Selected and An¬ practitioner to absorb it? I have no notated Guide,” 1971), Richard doubt that it has run off a good part If you can wade through some extraneous Fyfe Boyce and Katherine Randall of the diplomatic community. Our (but funny) material on post reports, selec¬ Boyce (“American Foreign Ser¬ failure to professionalize our call¬ tion out, assignments and representation vice Authors. A Bibliography,” ing and therefore to require some allowances, you will find some valuable 1973), and Elmer Plischke (in my familiarity with its literature for tips on etiquette in “Instruction in Diplomacy: The admission and the shocking failure Liberal Arts Approach,” 1972). to utilize to this end the introduc¬ The fact that bibliographies have at tory “orientation” of newly com¬ last become available is a sign of missioned officers at the Foreign the change which has overtaken us. Service Institute has produced a Mention of that volume on “In¬ hardly literate Foreign Service. struction in Diplomacy” merits a Apart from this is the fact that of¬ few words of amplification, for it, ficers, once on duty, are too driven too, is a landmark, which I do not in their daily tasks to do much read¬ hesitate to say, for I was only the ing and the funding of sabbaticals editor and one contributor, it being has hardly been high on the list of the product of many minds. It departmental budget priorities so evolved from a two-day meeting in that a “year off” to catch up a bit Philadelphia sponsored by the has reached only a pitiful fraction American Academy of Political of the total corps. and Social Science to bring to¬ As far as the academic commun¬ An introduction to foreign service life for gether scholars and practitioners ity is concerned, I am constantly the student contemplating the career, a for a concerted effort to analyze astonished at professional meetings chuckle for friends and relatives back home, diplomacy, define it in accurate of political scientists to find how this 64-page book is only $1.00 from: terms and examine whether it little of this literature has been ab¬ American Foreign Service Assn. should be taught as an integral part sorbed. The product of a presti¬ Dept. L, 2101 E St., N.W. of the liberal arts program of our gious graduate school in foreign af¬ Washington, D. C. 20037 institutions of higher learning. No fairs who is now teaching univer¬ such effort had ever been under¬ sity courses in international rela¬ Please send copies of Life and Love taken before and it raised the ques¬ tions asked me the other day: in the Foreign Service at $1.00 per copy to: tion sharply whether diplomacy is “What do diplomats doT’ An an¬ Name indeed susceptible to a scientific swer to this has been available for Address approach. The consensus was that some time if one will read such

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 51 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION promotees under the present pro¬ new battery of selection tests is re¬ from page 31 cedures. levant here). • Studying the impact of the • Analyze the impact of dif¬ tion and feedback to employees. present report and interview on the ferent procedures on the organiza¬ The outcome of such controlled subsequent performance of em¬ tional climate, including the pro¬ studies could provide the basis for ployees and their relationships with ductivity of various units. (A few system-wide changes that would supervisors. offices in the Department and have a greater chance of success smaller missions overseas would than armchair-derived solutions. probably be agreeable to participat¬ SOME TASKS for the pilot project ing in such pilot research.) stage of the research would be to: • Collect and synthesize data THE KINDS of studies that could • Delineate the criteria that from employees at all levels on serve to define the problem might discriminate between high per¬ their perceptions of the impact of include: formers and low performers. various performance evaluation • Determining what factors Operationalize the meaning of procedures on their behavior and contribute to a person’s promotion meritorious performance so that motivation. under the present system and cal¬ evaluation instruments can be de¬ • Start the procedure of man¬ culating their respective weights signed to measure the important agement-by-objectives called for through statistical analysis. and not the peripheral behavior. by the instructions to rating offic¬ • Developing a picture of (HEW a few years ago engaged in ers and evaluate its success before what types of performance and such a study to develop a new in¬ requiring and expecting it to be in¬ personal qualities are considered strument for PHS officers. Perhaps corporated effectively in the meritorious by supervisors and the Department could learn from service-wide formal evaluation sys¬ whether or not these perceptions their experience.) tem. are shared by subordinates. • Compare different mea¬ • Experiment with a split-role • Attempting to learn why the sures to find ones with the most re¬ system. That is, see if it is possible present requirement for two inter¬ liability among raters and the most to have one procedure for getting vening counseling interviews is not validity when correlated with the information to support promotion effectively met. above mentioned performance decisions and another to encourage • Analyzing the correlation criteria (a US IA sponsored study employees to improve performance between management-AFSA pro¬ of the characteristics of superior and provide them with feed-back motion precepts and the records of FSIOs in developing a possible on their progress. ■

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. October. 1974 53 THE CLOUDED IMAGE form sensed the widespread public the first step toward attracting in¬ from page 27 disillusionment with the effective¬ creased public support is to ensure ness and objectives of official that the aims of our aid programs outlines of new foreign policy can American aid programs, and they do not conflict with the public’s be achieved. It, therefore, be¬ designed their bill to focus these priorities and that they are clearly hooves all of those who advocate programs on the problems of the understood by the public to be ef¬ more public discussion of foreign poor majority within the develop¬ fective in dealing with the problems policy issues and the creation of a ing countries. In this particular of the poor abroad. The new de¬ new “consensus” to begin thinking case, the Congress was responsive velopment aid legislation passed about how Americans get their in¬ to the public’s negative opinion of last year—which focuses explicitly formation on foreign affairs in this the existing program. on agriculture, education, health, country. Certainly some degree of In the future there will be a need and population control, and which “consensus” on US development for much greater positive public supports a new approach to de¬ policy may be more possible than is support for the policies needed to velopment aimed at reaching the commonly thought. It is interesting meet the pressing needs of the poor poor directly—should enhance the that on issues where groups seek to countries. To generate this sup¬ acceptability and effectiveness of create a constituency, new initia¬ port, however, will take an effec¬ US development aid. But if the tives are possible. The experience tive package of development new approach is to win support, of organizations supporting family policies, greatly increased national the public must be made more planning is a good example. De¬ leadership, and a renewed effort to aware of the new program and the spite the general negative feeling inform Americans on these issues. progress of its implementation. toward development assistance, The first step is to create a de¬ The mobilization of public opin¬ the Congress never has failed to velopment assistance program ac¬ ion is further complicated by the provide substantial amounts for ceptable to a majority of Ameri¬ lack of a single, clear-cut policy family planning programs. cans. Most Americans do not un¬ measure around which public sup¬ Public opinion can even act in a derstand the purposes and opera¬ port might be rallied. The tradi¬ negative way, as it did last year in tion of US development aid pro¬ tional vehicle for the mobilization the successful congressional initia¬ grams, and many believe that a lot of support has been the foreign aid tive to reform the bilateral aid of aid is wasted in our own bureau¬ authorization bill. However, the program. The members of Con¬ cracy or absorbed by elites in the current foreign aid bill is a particu¬ gress who took the lead in this re¬ developing countries. Therefore, larly ill-suited measure for this

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54 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 purpose—largely because it com¬ countries—-just as the widely pub¬ lic about the critical importance of bines development aid with mili¬ licized reports of the Civil Rights the complex new issues of global tary aid and a number of other con¬ Commission were so effectively interdependence and to mobilize troversial programs, such as police used to call public attention to the support through a partnership in¬ assistance and aid to Indochina. plight of minorities in this country. cluding the Executive Branch, Therefore, one of the early steps The importance of national lead¬ concerned members of Congress, should be to split the development ership on development issues can¬ and private organizations. aid and military aid authorizations. not be understated. Whether in the It is likewise important to begin Finally it is important that the fed¬ Legislative or Executive Branch, an educational campaign which in¬ eral government begin to treat all policymakers have a great deal of volves not only national leadership development-related measures in a latitude to advocate and carry out but also the private sector, particu¬ coordinated way. Development policies that are genuinely respon¬ larly the media, churches, educa¬ aid, trade and monetary policy, sive to the needs of poor tors, and voluntary organizations. private investment, energy, food, countries—and to do so without Without such an effort, the public ocean resources, environment, and suffering on election day. Such support needed to support wise other fields, all profoundly affect policies would engender no strong government policy is not likely to the poor countries. The new de¬ opposition and, with the proper be forthcoming. Clearly no attempt velopment assistance legislation leadership, could even gain a sub¬ to create an informed public opin¬ recognizes these interrelationships stantial degree of positive public ion or to renew support for a great¬ in calling for the head of the support. However, it is also clear er US contribution to the develop¬ Agency for International De¬ that this support will not come ment of the poor countries will be velopment to chair an inter-agency about unless positive steps are easy. But if successful, it could be¬ committee to coordinate all US taken both within and outside the come a significant and constructive policies and programs related to government to mobilize public influence on government policy, the development of the poor coun¬ opinion. outweighing many of the extrane¬ tries. It also requires the Executive The critical element of a re¬ ous factors that now too often •Branch to submit an annual report newed US response to the de¬ shape decisions. The effort should to Congress on actions affecting velopment needs of the poor coun¬ be made. For government policy overseas development. This report tries is national leadership. This based on the support of the people could be turned into a powerful de¬ leadership, which has been largely is more likely to be not only the vice to focus attention on Ameri¬ missing for at least a decade, is best but also the most enduring can policy toward the poor necessary both to educate the pub¬ kind of policy. ■ STUART & MAURY, Inc. Moving To ~s REALTORS Sales • Rentals • Insurance The Washington Area? Let Town and Country guide the way. Specializing in Residential Properties We’ll send you plete relocation Northwest Washington our complemen¬ services, rental Montgomery County, Maryland tary information housing and prop¬ kit containing lo¬ erty management. Member: Multiple Listing Service cal tax and salary 5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. scales; a financing school, recreatio own Washington, D. C. 20016 health facilities; and every ountry thing else you’ll need OPEHTIES INC Telephone: (202) 244-1000 know about living and b REALTORS ing in Northern Virginia W-FS, 3807 Mt. Vernon Ave., Let Vs Know You Saw Our Ad In The Journal Plus, details on our com Alexandria, Va. 22305

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 55 THE NEW CHINA TOURISM artificial anachronism, this princi¬ affluence—has shown its cultural from page 28 ple may be one of the hopes for the limitations. The innate Chinese curio trade. future, a possible solution for prob¬ feeling for a code of civility and Another motif running from the lems usually created by American etiquette, which once contributed old Canton Trade era underground tourists abroad. A guest is ex¬ to building up the tribute system to to the present is the Chinese pref¬ pected to offer constructive criti¬ mediate Sino-foreign relations, is erence to have someone in charge cism, but not destructive. Since he again proving its value to set limits of the foreign visitor. A bearer of is not simply a commercial buyer of and give shape to the new Ameri¬ alien culture and heterodox social his visit, his money cannot com¬ can contact with China. It is this, thought is a misfit in Chinese soci¬ mand the situation. American as much as the stereotypical think¬ ety. It is preferable for such people tourists can no longer try to bring ing of American visitors, that im¬ to be treated as guests for whom Emporia into Hangchow, or Kan¬ parts so much similarity and even some recognized Chinese authority sas City to Shanghai. On this new, tedious repetitiousness to the flood is responsible. In the old Canton managed basis, with Americans as of travel reports offered the days, there were guarantors and guests and Chinese as hosts, American public. “China: Behind “security merchants” who stood Sino-American relations have been the Mask” proves to be little dif¬ surety for the foreigner’s doings a limited contact but certainly fruit¬ ferent from “A China Passage,” while he was in China. Today a vis¬ ful thus far. “China Returns,” or “The 800 itor is usually an invitee of a The new relationship is being Million” simply because the same Chinese government office. This structured more by the Chinese sights, the same briefings, and the puts the Chinese state representa¬ than by the Americans. One hopes same cultural reactions were in¬ tives in the position of hosts, re¬ this may continue. We now know volved. The probing questions of sponsible for the happiness and that American expansion is resisti¬ the individual Westerners have welfare of the visitor as well as for ble, while the Chinese social order been almost as predictable as the any deviations. The host is gener¬ seems less malleable than we once data-laden answers of the orthodox ally in the driver’s seat, expected thought. Between two such mas¬ collectivist briefing officers. Closer to proffer civilities and amenities to sive and diverse societies, contact contact between two distinct cul¬ ensure harmonious relations. A must be mediated through institu¬ tures inspires a mutual reassertion guest in the Chinese code of man¬ tions. Yet the institution of Ameri¬ of their distinctive values. In this ners is bound, by rules of reciproc¬ can tourism, like that of the new cultural stalemate, which may last ity, to repay this kindness by Japanese tourism—an expression for a long time, guided tourism is a proper conduct. Far from being an of commercial-industrial-material plain necessity. ■

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56 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 ACCELERATING PROMOTION a steady flow of responses. There —and some may threaten—I be¬ from page 17 are now some 200 officers on detail lieve our present job-manpower the ensuing months to convert all with 38 agencies and international balance will sustain a further ad¬ such details to reimbursable status organizations. While some are bal¬ vance in 1975 promotions. “The anced by exchanges, most are or reclaim the officer. Moreover, job crisis” for senior FSOs may be straight out-of-agency details. I be¬ since January, by one of those cyc¬ passing. There are still senior lieve that the Foreign Service of FSOs we have trouble placing, as lical conjunctions that sometimes occur, details of more than 40 per¬ the United States is exactly that, there will continue to be so long as cent of our officers who were serv¬ and that Foreign Service officers selection-out is at its present level, can and will serve their country and officers’ reputations—rightly ing with other agencies were due to with loyalty and effectiveness in or unfairly—preceded them. But terminate. Under these circum¬ other departments and give their even after reclassification, 105 stances, I report with some satis¬ superiors full satisfaction as they faction that the number of FSOs on FSO/R I jobs are being filled by bring the broad and special skills of FSO 2s and below, while only 47 detail is now greater than it was at the Foreign Service to varied tasks. FSO Is are in jobs classified below the beginning of the year. I am their grade. It is already a seller’s proud that FSOs are serving as Promotions have been going up at the middle and senior grades. market in the junior ranks of the Under Secretary of Flealth, Educa¬ Foreign Service, and the buyer’s tion and Welfare, Deputy Assis¬ The Class 1 to Career Minister list tant Secretary of the Treasury, this year was the largest since 1969. market at the senior ranks is fast disappearing. We are also increas¬ Deputy Assistant Secretary of De¬ The following table shows promo¬ tions from the next four classes as a ing mobility and opportunities for fense in the case of two officers, non-FSO personnel. The seven Deputy Director and Assistant Di¬ percentage of eligible officers rector of AC DA, Deputy Assis¬ 1972 1973 1974 tant Secretary of the Interior, and Class II to I 6% 11% 14% (45 officers) as senior staff members of the Class III to II 8% 9% 12% (63 officers) NSC. Good officers in good jobs Class IV to 111 9% 12% 12% (81 officers) spread the word. Class V to IV 17% 23% 31% (162 officers) Since we recently, for the first time, asked officers to tell us of whose files were reviewed): lean years in promotions for the their interest in specific detail as¬ Barring RIFs, BALPAs, OP- Foreign Service just might be signments, we have been receiving REDs and such developments drawing to their close. ■

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 57 Evaluation procedures are hard focus on this objective. Our sup¬ LETTERS ID | to devise for conditions imposed by porting assistance programs, on the foreign service. The new form is other hand, seem deliberately Evaluating Performance not perfect, but it’s much better, aimed at the creation of permanent ■ When space is scarce, why does and I expect after some experience client states such as Vietnam, the JOURNAL print an anachronism we’ll be able to make it better Cambodia, Jordan, and Egypt. For such as Charles S. Kennedy’s again. AFSA committees and the the apparent sake of political expe¬ comments on the new State De¬ Department deserve our congratu¬ diency, we keep pouring in dollars. partment performance evaluation lations and gratitude for hours of The Treasury Department may forms (FSJ, August 1974)? There hard work improving the evalua¬ have to borrow the money from, surely are not many members of tion procedure. How about some say Germany, in order to support the Foreign Service left in 1974 constructive ideas, Mr. Kennedy, local oligarchies who use the funds who feel with Mr. Kennedy that instead of the weary criticisms? to buy goods from Japan! This they cannot produce a candid And, FSJ, how about printing situation is dangerous because: evaluation without commenting some positive thoughts instead of (a) There is little or no incentive upon “race, creed, color, age, na¬ the old petrified carping? for the recipients of our aid to de¬ tional origin, or sex.” WILLIAM C. HARROP velop their own productive capac¬ We’re talking about how an of¬ Canberra ity or improve their export poten¬ ficer has delivered during the year AID Organization tial. Thus the need for cash drops on the responsibilities assigned to ■ I cannot resist the opportunity continues unabated, worsening our him or her. Whether he is yellow or to reply to the editorial in the July already weak balance of payments white or his wife is a Presbyterian 1974 issue of the JOURNAL. I feel position and probably hurting our just isn’t the point, except that he that the editorial is by and large a export trade as well. has civil rights like other Ameri¬ good one, yet there is one state¬ (b) Congress may soon tire of cans. ment which I believe to be mislead¬ this whole sordid mess and impose And Mr. Kennedy objects to ing, to wit, AFSA has “already even more drastic cuts in aid, leav¬ cutting down on the length of re¬ succeeded in widening training op¬ ing our clients able neither to fend ports. We are trying to evaluate portunities for officers and staff for themselves nor to help us meet one another through an extrava¬ employees.” I realize that one of the political objectives which os¬ gantly structured system including AFSA’s most persistent problems tensibly dictated our giving them weeks of hard-to-spare hours on lies in communicating with its aid in the first place. selection boards. The discipline of membership. Having said this, I In my humble opinion, it would prescribed, uniform length is a should like to know precisely what seem both economically and politi¬ major advance in the new form. AFSA has done on widening train¬ cally wise to condition our support¬ Any woman (or man) who can’t ing opportunities. 1 myself have ing assistance on self-help mea¬ give a clear picture in six pages of certainly not seen many training sures such as realistic exchange how well a subordinate has fulfilled announcements coming across my rates, pricing systems, etc. that will agreed work requirements desk, nor have my supervisors maximize the incentives for broad shouldn’t be an FSO anyway. been notably less rigid in approving participation by the people of the And, frankly, the complaint that Applications for Training than in aid-receiving countries in their own the new form allots a half inch the past. Thus, I ask, what have economic development. more to “effectiveness and candor you done? I also believe that such an ap¬ as a rating officer” than to “mana¬ In the same editorial you solicit proach would be helpful to the gerial ability” bores. No one is ideas to help AFSA structure its job-security of AID employees. In challenging the importance of man¬ priorities. My own will be confined those cases where such conditions agerial ability, but it’s about time to essentially two areas: (a) The ob¬ are rejected or unlikely to be ful¬ we evasive FSOs were rated on jectives of AID; and (b) The or¬ filled, I would suggest that the De¬ our performance as raters. Ask ganization needed to carry out partment of State administer and anybody who has labored on a those objectives. appropriate the funds. If that alter¬ selection board trying to sort out all The Objectives of AID-1 believe native is not acceptable, then 1 the vague, laudatory treacle. that the fundamental objective of would suggest that the aid be with¬ Finally, the truism about the dif¬ all AID assistance —whether it is held. AID must in fact become ficulty of working in an isolated titled development grant, develop¬ only what its name implies: the post with a subordinate who has ment loans, supporting as¬ Agency for International Devel¬ read a candid evaluation. First, our sistance, or what have you— opment. Constitution, thank goodness, is should be to help countries (b) The Organization—What is increasingly interpreted as insisting help themselves to become inde¬ sorely needed is a meaningful and upon open ratings. Second, the pendent of the need for our aid as dependable career system for those challenge of management, particu¬ soon as practicable. I believe that personnel who are involved in the larly in our dispersed Foreign Ser¬ only on this basis can there be any administration of a world-wide as¬ vice system, is to be open with one assurance of continued Congres¬ sistance program. I would urge that another, be candid—and still to sional support. Presumably, this organizational changes be kept at a function effectively together and to objective already underlies our de¬ minimum and that these changes be achieve that magic sense of partici¬ velopment programs, but I believe designed to insure that the objec¬ pation. It’s fascinating and it’s very that immediate measures should be tives outlined above can be carried difficult, but not impossible. undertaken to assure that there is a out in an efficient and orderly way.

58 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 AFSA can help accomplish AID wish to negotiate with Manage¬ break in relations, but I think we objectives and goals by assuring ment officials in an often fruitless have enough experience over these that personnel are trained to ad¬ and not very rewarding exercise. last years to realize that our re¬ minister AID programs. AFSA Name withheld by request straint has not helped in this re¬ should push for periodic training A Reflection gard. It is obvious that diplomatic which should be given to every of¬ protocol and safeguards can and ficer and secretary. In addition, ■ I have, as requested, read and usually are ignored. The criminals AFSA must push for a rational reflected upon the last paragraph of even when self-declared and placement system, meaning that Mr. Smith Simpson’s review of known are politically absolved! every qualified AID employee can “The Lyon’s Share,” in the Au¬ Moreover, we can do something have the chance to compete for gust FSJ Bookshelf: about making Embassy buildings Finally, I liked the references to the in¬ every vacancy, and that the “who terests and activities of Mrs. Lyon who, as a secure. Our architects have suc¬ you know routine” becomes a Foreign Service daughter, knew what was ceeded in making them look like thing of the past. AFSA will have expected of her in a diplomatic service. fortresses and garnered ill will to push vigorously for this place¬ There was never a question in her mind thereby, but they are far from that. whether she would do what was expected, ment system, as GS Personnel or required, of her. That is worth reading Foreign Service officers and types have for too long held these —and reflecting upon—these days. staff will continue to do their duty. reins and will not easily relinquish I find that, somehow, the more I Someone should speak out on their them. Finally, I would urge that do so, the less I care for Mr. behalf. the rating and promotion systems Simpson's attitude. LEONARD J. SACCIO Ambassador, ret. be refined. The current perfor¬ MARY M. STOLZENBACH mance rating system is a start in the Tokyo Woodbury, Conn. right direction, but needs much clarification and refinement. Embassy Security Letter to AFGE Local 1812 I am delighted to see that AFSA ■ The public should be made ■ The special April issue of wants to improve the effectiveness aware of the highly questionable AFGE’s NEWS & VIEWS has of our foreign aid. I feel that one policy of our government with rela¬ come to my attention. Several mis¬ way to accomplish this would be to tion to the security of our Embas¬ statements in this issue should be urge AID to encourage a free flow sies and other diplomatic missions. corrected for the record. of ideas. In AID, one of the This policy has two aspects: First, the Thomas Fund adver¬ greatest impediments to a continu¬ 1) We permit no action to defend tisement was in fact printed in the ing exchange of ideas is the preva¬ our personnel except the re¬ May 1974 issue of the FOREIGN lence of persons holding key posi¬ treat to the upper floors of the SERVICE JOURNAL on page 7. tions in the Agency who are per¬ building even in cases of ag¬ Second, AFSA considers that sonally so insecure that they use gressive attacks where it is the suit instituted by the Thomas their bureaucratic clout to squelch clear that the host govern¬ Fund to compel due process in or intimidate personnel, or twist ment is not capable of pre¬ procedures for selection out based to their own exalted image any venting the attack (Cyprus) or on substandard performance ideas that have their origin with does not intend to do so (as served a useful purpose, even persons of lower rank or lesser apparently true in Panama in though we did not agree with all power. To remove this impediment 1964); elements of the Fund’s initial brief. to permanent, vigorous and con¬ 2) Physical security require¬ AFSA strongly supported this goal structive policy debate within ments are given minor atten¬ by consulting with and assisting the AID. I would suggest that AFSA tion except after the fact. attorney for the plaintiffs, and by urge Administrator Parker’s office In Cyprus the menace of sur¬ submitting a brief which concurred to examine the personnel records rounding buildings should have with their position in most re¬ and operating procedures of key of¬ been evident—yet there were only spects. AFSA would hope that ficials. Those who are found to wooden shutters to protect the in¬ AFGE’s other objectives in re¬ consistently interfere with the free terior. At another Embassy (a new spect to the foreign affairs com¬ flow of ideas should be advised to building inaugurated recently) munity of the United States gov¬ change their obnoxious practices every office is within the range of ernment will all be equally con¬ or be transferred to other less re¬ the surrounding apartments and of¬ structive. sponsible positions. In addition, fice buildings—and there are no I would appreciate it if this letter AFSA itself should encourage the shutters at all. I should make dear could be printed in the next issue of free flow of ideas and not merely that the government in that country AFGE’s NEWS & VIEWS in order content itself with receiving ideas is completely capable and would, to correct the record. from the "In-Group.” AFSA must without doubt, stop any attack on THOMAS D. BOYATT learn to be responsive to all the Embassy but could hardly keep President members’ ideas and not reject under constant surveillance the these ideas simply because some numerous apartments and offices And AFGE’s Reply personnel may be unable, for one from which a sniper could operate. ■ I have reviewed your letter of reason or another, to contribute I realize that allowing our people May 23, 1974. I have also reviewed time to work on committees, come to repulse an attack is something a the files. to AFSA’s boring and tiring meet¬ superpower shies away from. We Surely you jest! ings which are laden with long- do not wish to be accused of “mur¬ FRANK A. CHIANCONE winded reports, or simply do not der” or make “martyrs” or suffer a General Vice President

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. October, 1974 59 Rick Williamson management, we were forced to personnel have been eroded even seek some very basic changes in a faster than those of federal em¬ THIS MONTH IN WASHINGTON very short period of time. As a re¬ ployees generally, because of the sult, very little else has gotten done higher inflation rates abroad. We This has been one of THOSE in AFSA this month except for the have also written to the Chairman months. You know the kind—it precepts and those things which of the Senate and House Post Of¬ starts out a perfectly good month urgently required immediate atten¬ fice and Civil Service Committees, and by the end of it you are about tion such as signing the payroll urging them to hold hearings on ready for a padded cell. So, if this checks. A lot of things (such as this matter, and requesting the op¬ month’s column lacks a bit of answering correspondence, plan¬ portunity to testify on behalf of an sparkle and zip, you will know ning for Foreign Service Day, and immediate increase for federal em¬ why. It's not that it has been a bad getting this column written on time ployees. As this is being written, month for the Association, all so that I am not ashamed to show the chances for overturning the things considered. On the con¬ my face when I talk to Shirley President’s recommendation look trary, we got a number of useful Newhall) have suffered in the pro¬ fairly good. things accomplished this month. It cess. The Intermediate Boards did Our effort to get the larger in¬ has just been a bad month for me. convene on time on September 10, crease for federal employees to The cause of the difficulty has but the precepts weren’t finished which they are statistically enti¬ been the extreme urgency with until the night before. We will re¬ tled, and to have this increase im¬ which we and State management port more fully on those negotia¬ plemented on the 1st of October have had to approach this year’s tions next month. rather than have it delayed, brings precept negotiations. Tom Boyatt In any event, in addition to the up a point which we have not pre¬ and the Director General had precept negotiations, a number of viously stressed. We have consis¬ agreed earlier this year that major other things have happened this tently supported the efforts of steps should be taken to move for¬ month. We joined a number of other federal employee organiza¬ ward the convening of selection other unions and professional as¬ tions, whether trade unions or pro¬ boards so that the promotion list sociations in objecting strenuously fessional associations, on matters could be released earlier next year to efforts by OMB and the Civil of pay, leave, retirement, etc. In¬ than it was this year. In order for Service Commission to juggle the deed AFSA is the largest organiza¬ this to work, the Threshold Review Bureau of Labor’s statistics so as tion representing professionals as Panels needed to begin in August, to minimize federal pay compara¬ their exclusive representative out¬ and the Intermediate Boards bility increases. The Association side of the classified service, and as needed to begin their work in Sep¬ objected strenuously to this ma¬ such occupies something of a tember. Once the decision was nipulation of the data so as to result unique position. Whenever the in¬ made that the Intermediate Selec¬ in a 5.5 percent increase for federal terests of all federal employees are tion Boards would convene on Sep¬ workers, although the data clearly at stake, AFSA has been very ac¬ tember 10, we and State manage¬ supports at least a 7.3 percent in¬ tive with the Hill, the press, and ment were under extreme pressure crease. Our letter to the Civil Ser¬ elsewhere. We have been told re¬ to conclude those portions of this vice Commission and OMB ob¬ peatedly by other organizations year’s precepts which needed to be jected to this kind of manipulation, that our role in this process has in effect so that the Intermediate and also objected to the procedures been a very helpful one. In short, Boards could convene. This meant they had used which had the prac¬ where the interests of the Foreign reaching agreement on the general tical effect of denying hundreds of Service are the same as the in¬ precepts, including those portions thousands of federal employees terests of other federal employees, of the precepts concerning selec¬ any real input into the federal pay we are quick to work together with tion out which required action on comparability process. Subse¬ other organizations to defend our the part of the selection boards, as quently, Steve and I testified be¬ common interests. What makes well as agreement on the Inter¬ fore the President’s Advisory AFSA different is that when the in¬ mediate Board Precepts and the Committee on federal pay, object¬ terests of the Foreign Service differ special directives for the Specialist ing not only to the 5.5 percent in¬ from those of other federal em¬ Boards. Since, as we indicated in crease, but also strenuously object¬ ployees, we never have a conflict our reports on selection out and the ing to the decision by President of loyalties. We are the only or¬ cone system in last month’s Ford to put off the timing of the ganization concerned solely with JOURNAL, the views of the Service federal increase for three months, the well-being of Foreign Service were in substantial disagreement stressing, among other things, that personnel. with the precepts proposed to us by the real wages of Foreign Service This month we finally had the

60 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 first “conferral” on Executive In addition, we have continued to titude is not as surprising as it is Order 11636. The executive order strengthen our standing programs. disappointing. Furthermore, the under which we operate calls for an Complementing the continued relative youth of the two Agencies annual meeting of parties to discuss pursuit of professional objectives combined with their less homogen¬ how the executive order should be has been our new effort to improve ous character and dual FS/GS per¬ modified. We have been pressing employee benefits and personnel sonnel systems compound the for such a meeting for over a year practices in a large number of Association’s problems in dealing because we felt some changes were areas. And while our efforts on the with the Agencies. Certainly the needed in the rules under which we professional front have been situation is better in State, where represent Foreign Service interests strengthened as a result of our new the management of the agency is in with the Agencies. We have re¬ role, some have expressed doubts the hands of career Foreign Ser¬ peatedly stressed the need for the about the ability of the Association vice personnel who share a com¬ Order to be an organic and consis¬ to face management staunchly mon interest in the good of the tently improving instrument, the when representing the interests of Foreign Service, even though their need for a separate set of rules for employees in the bargaining unit. perspective is inevitably different. employee relationships in the This charge of “company un¬ The structural and attitudinal de¬ Foreign Affairs Agencies, and the ionism” has been heard from a few ficiencies of AID and USIA will especially strong need for the em¬ of our own members as well as be long and hard to overcome, for ployees to have an input into the from outside critics. even now the managements of rules which affect their careers and This allegation is groundless, as these Agencies are attempting to livelihood. Unless these needs can the record of our negotiations subvert the whole spirit of E.O. be met through an improved Ex¬ clearly shows. If there were any 11636 by proposing a drastic in¬ ecutive Order, the pressure for lingering doubts, they were finally crease in the number of “manage¬ legislation embracing the Foreign set to rest this month. For the first ment officials” excluded from Service in a government-wide em¬ time. AFSA took management to AFSA's “bargaining unit.” Such ployee relations system will be¬ court, with AI D management win¬ changes would serve to exacerbate come irresistible and will almost ning the dubious honor of being AFSA/management relations, en¬ inevitably lead to the imposition of first among the three Agencies to courage adversary confrontation a Civil Service rules and practices on be the defendant. The issue cen¬ lei GM and UAW. and polarize the to the Foreign Service, a long¬ tered on AI D’s arbitrary and polit¬ Foreign Service community. In standing goal of many in other gov¬ ically motivated RIF of 66 person¬ many cases the Foreign Service ernment unions and of many in the nel in the Office of Public Safety. experience and consciousness is Civil Service Commission. The Association did not succeed in much greater among AFSA offi¬ obtaining its immediate objective cers and negotiators than that of Steve Wallace of a temporary restraining order AID and USIA management, so it and an injunction from the Federal will be incumbent upon us to take TRANSITION AND REFLECTION District Court against AID. which the lead in educating these man¬ would have kept the affected per¬ agement officials as to the legiti¬ From its humble beginning, the sonnel employed pending the out¬ mate needs and aspirations of the Association has grown to nearly come of the case. This was a most Foreign Service. This may be 7.300 members and continues to unfortunate outcome for the RIF’d AFSA’s biggest single task. expand its roles and professional personnel, but in another sense we activities. Last year, when AFSA did win an important point. If the AID AFFAIRS was elected to be the exclusive rep¬ substance of the case is won in the 1. The promotion freeze con¬ resentative of the Foreign Service end, the employees will have to be tinues to be of particularly rankling personnel of the three Foreign Af¬ rehired with back pay. In either concern. We have filed an unfair fairs Agencies, fears were voiced event, the fact that AFSA did take labor practice; and if discussions by some that professional activities court action demonstrates that we produce no compromise in the im¬ would suffer. These fears, fortu¬ will take any steps necessary to de¬ mediate future, we will probably nately, have proven groundless. fend and protect the rights of file a formal complaint and attempt Our status as exclusive representa¬ Foreign Service employees. to take the issue before the tive has added strength to our ef¬ Provided that AFSA continues Employee-Management Elections forts of improving professionalism to have the funds to take court ac¬ Commission. in the Foreign Service. As Tom tion when needed, the recent suit 2. After reaching agreement with Boyatt mentioned in his Pres¬ also should have a longer range AID management on a program for ident's Report in the August issue, salubrious effect on the attitudes of training Foreign Service staff for this has been particularly true in management in all three Agencies. Foreign Service positions, man¬ Congress on such matters as our This would apply particularly to agement at the 11th hour decided opposition to the sale of ambas¬ AID and US IA where certain that there were elements of the sadorships, our achievement of a management officials prefer to agreement that were unpalatable. reform of the Foreign Service Act view AFSA more as General Nevertheless, we are optimistic for eliminating the abuses of political Motors would view the United a change that agreement will be and personal considerations in the Auto Workers. But then, noting reached soon. selection process, and our success that AID and USIA are postwar 3. We have recently received in obtaining Foreign Service re¬ latecomers to the Foreign Service, from management a proposal for¬ tirement for career AID personnel. the lag factor in management’s at¬ malizing an executive development

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 61 program which exists in the federal same meeting to begin to consult zerland. Last year Ms. Antunes government. This is an important seriously on increasing per diem served as a member of the AFSA subject, one that has long-term im¬ payments at FSI. Elections Committee. plications for many career AID After many months of negotia¬ 1974-75 Scholarships Awarded personnel, and will therefore re¬ tions, we have reached agreement To Foreign Service Juniors ceive considerable analysis by the with management on increased Association. household effects shipments, a The Scholarship Committee 4. The unfair practice charge of major improvement which will be (formerly the Committee on Edu¬ AI D’s RIF procedures and the as¬ of particular benefit to single em¬ cation) submitted its annual report signment of Agency Occupational ployees. There remain several un¬ to the Governing Board of the Specialty Codes (AOSCs) may resolved issues with regard to the American Foreign Service Associ¬ soon be reaching its way to the negotiating process on this ques¬ ation on June 3, 1974, and re¬ Employee-Management Relations tion, particularly the effective date quested approval of the list of Commission for resolution. In the of this important new benefit. We grants for the academic year meantime, many of the RIF’d of¬ think it should go into effect im¬ 1974-75. ficers from Public Safety have filed mediately, but management wants The awards this year were made grievances with the Grievance to wait until next summer, or even on the basis of the financial need of Board and Appeals with the Civil later, without providing us the fi¬ the family, in accordance with the Service Commission. nancial cost data to explain why it Resolution of the Board of Direc¬ should take so long to implement. tors of September 18, 1972. Joint Agency Members’ Interests The Headquarters Staff, using AFSA’s New Treasurer the College Scholarship Service’s We are near agreement with reports, recommended the order of management on a procedure which the allocations. The Committee re¬ we hope will eliminate many of the viewed the work of the Headquar¬ difficulties employees have faced ters Staff to determine the in obtaining compensation for ir¬ applicant’s eligibility requirements regular and occasional overtime. and to audit the allocation of the The chief innovation is that in applicant's category of need. The emergency situations supervisors Committee followed the policies will be able to order up to eight and procedures of the Scholarship hours of overtime without obtain¬ Manual, approved by the AFSA ing prior approval from the au¬ Board of Directors on September thorizing officer. This change 10, 1973. should help to end the practice of Any member of the Association employees being whipsawed be¬ having a recommendation would tween supervisors who order over¬ assist the Committee by presenting time and authorizing officers who it in written form addressed to the refuse to approve it, a problem Committee’s attention. which had the practical effect of The Committee continues to re¬ denying overtime payment to hun¬ Juliet C. Antunes view suggestions and proposals dreds of employees, particularly in that in addition to need, would give the Staff Corps. A native of Troy, New York, weight to the scholarship attain¬ A large difference remains be¬ Ms. Antunes is a graduate of the ments and the general worthiness tween the AFSA and management College of Saint Rose (BA) and the of applicants in the allocation of positions with regard to duty over¬ State University of New York at awards. When a feasible proposal time. Management’s latest pro¬ Albany (MA). She entered the is formulated, the Committee will posal would not define duty over¬ Foreign Service in 1966 and was present its findings to the Govern¬ time as regularly scheduled, but assigned to USIS Brussels as a ing Board for consideration. would authorize monetary com¬ Junior Officer Trainee. This was This year, in response to pensation for about one percent of followed by a stint in Paris as Pro¬ queries, 334 packets of scholarship employees who earn more than a gram Assistant at the Cultural materials were distributed, 142 ap¬ GS-10, Step 10 (who can’t demand Center. In 1969 Ms. Antunes was plications were completed, and a it under current regulations). We assigned to London as Assistant minimum of 50 awards were rec¬ have proposed that duty overtime Cultural Affairs Officer. While ommended. be defined as regularly scheduled, there she served as USIS represen¬ Fifty-one scholarships have been except when individuals perform it tative on the AFSA Board. awarded this year, to Foreign Ser¬ less often than once every 26 In late 1972 Ms. Antunes re¬ vice children who will be attending weeks. turned to Washington and was as¬ colleges and universities ranging As a result of a meeting with the signed to the Board of Examiners from Dartmouth to the University Disputes Panel, the management as a Deputy Examiner on the Polit¬ of Hawaii. The recipients and their of the three agencies agreed to im¬ ical Panel. She then spent a year on respective awards follow: plement by September 15 an out-of-Agency assignment to the Edick A. Anderson, III, Edward T. agreement reached with AFSA National Endowment for the Arts. Wailes Memorial; Heather Lynn An¬ three months ago to lower Currently she is assigned to IWE derson, Edward T. Wailes Memorial; emergency visitation deductibles. as desk officer for the United Mark Kennan Anderson, Edward T. Management also agreed at the Kingdom, Ireland, Italy and Swit¬ Wailes Memorial; Maria Carolina Bar-

62 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 gas, George H. DeMange Memorial; New to the Ed Board especially valuable to AFSA. Mrs. Matthew St. John Bargas, Selden Cha¬ Jordan worked for the Association pin Memorial; Barbara Lee Bryniarski, for over three years. We will all Gertrude Stewart Memorial; Patricia miss her sorely and the AFSA staff Ann Bryniarski, Gertrude Stewart and AFSA members wish her the Memorial; Christopher Mark Chad- best. bourne, AAFSW; Deborah Tate Dod- deridge, J. F. Begg Scholarship; Linda AAFSW News Diane Dodderidge, Berlin American .Women’s Club; Andrew James Gibb, Book Fair Coming AAFSW/Ladies’ Group in Rabat; Maha Anwar Hadid, Charles E. Merrill Inflation-free books at the As¬ Trust; Mahmoud Anwar Hadid, sociation of the American Foreign William B. Benton Memorial; C. Service Women’s Book Fair ‘74 Nicholas Hodge, Gertrude Stewart will go on public sale on October Memorial; P. Christopher Hodge, Gertrude Stewart Memorial; Michel 7-11, from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. at the Alexander Ivy. AAFSW; Ann Pamela Exhibition Hall of the State De¬ Jurecky, James L. Carson Memorial; partment, 2201 C Street. Proceeds Jane Elizabeth Jurecky, Julius C. from this 14th annual fair will go to Holmes Memorial; Mary F. Jurecky, Sandy Vogelgesang (FSO-5) is the Education/Scholarship Fund, Selden Chapin Memorial; Gabriela M. joining the JOURNAL'S Editorial according to Dawn Vine, Book Kozlowski, Natalia Semler Memorial; Board. Fair Chairman. Richard LaRocca. Dr. Wayne Wilcox She admits to being a mid- Family Day, “G” rated for Family Memorial; Martha Frances Victorian Midwesterner who has State Department, US IA and AID Lyman, AAFSW; Mary Frances Mat- personnel, is Sunday, October 6 tran. AAFSW; Kevin Michael McNeill, digressed from the Taft turf of Wilbur J. Carr Memorial; Peri Alain Ohio to concern about feminist from 2 p.m. to 5 p.m. A building Neilson, AAFSW/US Government rights and the role of the American pass will be required at the C Street Wives of Tegucigalpa; Thu Huong Intellectual Left. entrance, Margaret Dickman, Nguyen, Arthur B. Emmons Scholar¬ In her better-behaved moments Family Day chairman, reminds ship; Stephen James Nolan, Edward T. in the State Department, she drafts employees. Wailes Memorial; Margaret Mary Pur¬ cables and memoranda for Dorothy Wolfson is chairman of cell, Frederick S. Quin Memorial; Mary EUR/RPE and continues her ac¬ the 27 volunteers who have worked Grace Purcell, AAFSW; Catherine tive role with the Secretary’s Open all year on the Fair. Jane Reinhardt, Paris Fund; Charles Among the thousands of books, Henry Reinhardt, Paris Fund; Renata Forum Panel. Ms. Vogelgesang just concluded from floor to ceiling, one will find Xochitl Rick, Herbert Peck Fales school books and how-to books, Memorial; Robin Stephanie Rick, her elected term as Panel Chair¬ Ernest L. Ives Memorial; Russell M. person. Previously, she served as enduring fiction and non-fiction, Rick, Given by an anonymous donor in editor-economist in EB, political valuable reference books, books on memory of Thomas Tait; Mark Augus¬ analyst in INR, and assistant cul¬ Ecology, Anthropology, Psychol¬ tine Ryan, Marjorie Gallman Memor¬ tural affairs officer in Finland. ogy, and Sexology, books in ial; Michael Barry Sedgley, Charles E. She was a history major at Cor¬ foreign tongues, on the sound of Bohlen Memorial; John Gould Shaw, nell University and received an music, on ESP and the extension of AAFSW; Timothy W. Shaw, AAFSW; MA, MALD, and Ph.D. from the the mind. Allene Teruko Shimomura, Charles E. In the Foreign Language Merrill Trust; James Lee Smith, Fletcher School of Law and Dip¬ lomacy. With one book just pub¬ Corner, chairman Mrs. E. Spauld¬ Honorable David K. E. Bruce; Sydney ing will reign; in the Rare Book Benita Sowell, Honorable David K. E. lished by Harper and Row, she Bruce; Sarah Patricia Springer, continues to look for new excuses Corner, veteran volunteer Mildred Honorable Clare H. Timberlake; to plague friends with Germanic Bell may be consulted; in the Norman Sean Terry, Gertrude Stewart syntax. Stamp Corner, amateur philatelist Maijorie Forbes will offer her ex¬ Memorial; Edward Andrew Tsoy, A Loss to our Ranks Honorable Jefferson Patterson; pertise; and in the Art Corner, ar¬ Elizabeth Moon Tsoy, Vietnam Eloise Jordan, AFSA’s popular tist Virginia Knepper will assist in Memorial; Martha Jean Wagner, and charming receptionist, re¬ decision making. Betty Haselton, AAFSW; Rebecca Louise Wagner, signed from the Association on chief of Cashiers, promises quick AAFSW/American Community of Ya¬ August 23. We are describing her and pleasant service from her many ounde; Ursula Anna Wagner, Charles helpers. E. Bohlen Memorial; Wylla Worth as the receptionist simply because Waters, AAFSW/Belgrade Women’s many visitors and telephone callers Come, bring your friends to meet Club; Kristen Marie Wellde, AAFSW; will recognize her in that capacity. other friends at the Fair. Come Sara Sloan Wile, American Women’s Others who spent longer periods of during your coffee break or on your Group of Bonn. time in the AFSA headquarters or way to lunch, between medical ap¬ AFSA appreciates the support who served on committees will pointments or FSI classes. Come of its members and friends for this know that this is far from a full de¬ every day to examine the books program over the years and finds scription of her duties, both volun¬ that are replaced hourly if neces¬ especially welcome the splendid teer and assigned, and of her sary. Come prepared to buy. Come support of the AAFSW. capabilities. Her able coordination as you are. You are expected. of the Scholarship Program and her Shopping bags will be made JOIN AFSA work with that committee was available. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1974 63 rn I SPECIAL Michalka. Charles Kirkland SERVICES Michalka, son of FSO-retired and Mrs. Earl R. Michalka, was fatally stabbed during a robbery in his Listings in this Special Services column are 40c per word, less 2% for payment in advance, Marriage Washington apartment on July 14. minimum 10 words. Mail to Special Services, Conlin-Long. Carrie Patricia Con- He is survived by his parents, 1208 FSJ, 2101 E St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037. lin, daughter of FSO and Mrs. Hardee Road, Coral Gables, Fla. Michael M. Conlin, was married 33146, and a brother, John. on September 6 to Larry Long in Schnare. Margaret Kloss Schnare, Washington, D.C. widow of FSO Lester L. Schnare, BOOKS died on July 10 in New York City. Deaths She accompanied her husband to THE OWL AND THE PUSSYCAT, a bookshop for posts at Genoa, Milan, Rangoon, children, happily mails books worldwide. Yes, we Altaffer. Maurice W. Altaffer, Calcutta and Tehran, before his re¬ do accept orders for adult books. Marvelous FSO-retired, died on July 11 in catalog, $1.00. Order now for Christmas deliv¬ tirement in 1955. Mrs. Schnare is ery. 321 South Ashland Ave., Lexington, Ky. Zurich. He entered the Foreign survived by a daughter, Margaret 40502, USA. Service in 1921 and served at Ber¬ E. Schnare, Apt. 12J, 250 West lin, Stuttgart, Frankfort, Aleppo, 85th St., New York, New York Nogales, Dresden, Zurich and 10024. Bern, and as consul general at Sobolewski. George H. Sobolew- Bremen and Palermo, before his ski, former FSL at Warsaw, died REAL ESTATE retirement in the early ‘50s. He is on June 22 in Hempstead, L.I., survived by his wife, Jeanne R. Al¬ N.Y. He is described by Ambas¬ HOME LEAVE THIS FALL OR WINTER? Apartment in taffer, Rigistrasse 18, 8006 Zurich, Tiburon, California; floor-to-ceiling views of SF sador Richard T. Davies as “the from every room; two bedrooms and two baths; Switzerland and by five children. mainstay of the General Services completely furnished down to cat by fireplace Davies. Rodger P. Davies, Ambas¬ Section at the Embassy in Warsaw and Cougar in garage; swimming, tennis, sail¬ sador to Cyprus, was killed by gun¬ from 1947 to 1960.” In 1960 he ing; five minutes walk to town center, stores and fire on August 18 in the Embassy in ferry to San Francisco. Write: Les Squires, 20 emigrated to the US and became an Harbor Oak Drive, No. 11, Tiburon, CA, 94920. Nicosia. Ambassador Davies en¬ American citizen. He is survived tered the Foreign Service in 1946 by his wife, Halina, and a daugh¬ and served at Jidda, Damascus, ter, of 100 Washington St., Hemp¬ BEGG INTERNATIONAL, INC. is the sister company Benghazi and Tripoli, Baghdad and stead, L.I., New York 11550. and international real estate counterpart of as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Begg, Inc., Realtors, who have for so many years State for Near East and South assisted FSO's to buy and sell their houses in the Asian Affairs before his assign¬ Washington area. Begg International specializes New Careers in best quality real estate overseas. For your re¬ ment to Cyprus. He received the tirement or holiday home in Portugal, Spain, the merit honor award in 1967 and was Piltti Heiskanen, now retired Caribbean, etc., consult: Begg International, appointed Career Minister in 1969. from US I A, writes from Moedling, Inc., Realtors, 1714 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., He is survived by a daughter, Ann Austria, “I am working as a cor¬ Washington, D.C. 20009. Tel: (202) 387-4805. Dana Davies, a son, John Davies, respondent for Suomen Kuvalehti, both of 35 Hillcrest Road, Ber¬ the most important weekly news¬ keley, California 94705; and his magazine in Finland. My first as¬ mother. signment was an interview with Field. Pattie H. Field, FSO- Chancellor Bruno Kreisky of Au¬ retired, died on July 16 in Denver. stria. This week’s issue carries my EDUCATION Miss Field was the first woman latest work, an interview with Lt. admitted to the Foreign Service Gen. Ensio Siilasvuo, the Com¬ THE FOREIGN SERVICE Educational and Counsel¬ under the Rogers Act and the first mander of the UNEF. . . The large ing Center welcomes your inquiries. A continua¬ woman to represent the US abroad Sewdish-language daily Hujvud- tion of the services available for 15 years by stadsbladet published a short story AFSA's Consultant in Education and Youth Con¬ as an FSO and Vice Consul. She cerns, sponsored by AAFSW and AFSA with addi¬ retired in 1957. of mine. . . So I can highly recom¬ tional expanded activities. Write FSECC, 2101 E Ivy. Michel M. Ivy, FSO-retired, mend retirement into journalism Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 or call died on July 29 in Wheaton. Mr. and writing in general.” (202) 338-4045. Ivy transferred from the OSS to William R. (Red) Duggan writes the Department of State in 1945 from retirement: “Fortunately 1 and served at Madras and Bombay have found my retirement here in and as executive secretary with the Oregon fascinating—busy and Policy Planning Council before his comfortable in a marvelous envi¬ retirement in 1968. He is survived ronment. (Perhaps it is one of the by his wife, Muriel, 12705 Connec¬ last and best—this Oregon.) In ad¬ ENTERTAINMENT ticut Ave., Wheaton, Md., three dition to lecturing on political sci¬ HAVE YOUR NEXT affair, foreign or domestic, at daughtei's, a son and two grand¬ ence at Willamette University in the FOREIGN SERVICE CLUB. Open every weekday children. The family requests that for luncheon, special rooms available on reserva¬ Salem, I am also engaged in writ¬ tion for private parties. Inquiries invited for expressions of sympathy be in the ing, outside lecturing and consul¬ cocktail parties, dinner parties, receptions, etc. form of contributions to the AFSA tancy, with Ford Foundation, on Phone 338-5730. Scholarship Fund. African affairs.” 64 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1974 THERE’S AN IMPORTANT \m> AVAILABLE THROUGH YOUR MEMBERSHIP IN THE AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION.

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