“Ernous qui garni son castiel” The Lords of and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300): the (Military) Establishment of a Baronial Power1

Robin Moens Oudenaarde. from map, Detail Jacobthe van Deventer 1548c. (died 1575)

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 195 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) “Ernous qui garni son castiel” The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300): the (Military) Establishment of a Baronial Power

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Fig. 1: The Land of Oudenaarde c. 1250 on a geographical map of the of (northwest) and Hainaut (southeast). Scale 1:500.000. Thin line: nowadays borders of . Thick line: borders of the counties of Flanders and Hainaut. The major fiefs held from the lords of Oudenaarde are in white with a grey border, the other possessions are: from left to right (and from dark grey to light) the barony of Oudenaarde (acquired before 1038), the barony of Pamele and the Land between Maarke and Ronne (taken together as they were quite interwoven – acquired before 1064), the Tenement of Inde around (acquired before 1089) and the castellanies of and Lessines (acquired before 1110). Places indicated on the map: 1 – ; 2 – ; 3 – ; 4 – Courtrai; 5 – Aalst; 6 – ; 7 – Oudenaarde; 8 – Lessines; 9 – Ronse; 10 – Hubermont (Ellezelles); 11 – Flobecq; 12 – La Royère; 13 – Tournai; 14 – ; 15 – ; 16 – . Sources for all maps and designs: ArcGIS Online. De Ferraris (1771-1778). Google Maps. Van Deventer (1545). Villaret (1745-1748). Duvosquel (1985-1996). Sanderus (1641-1644). Other, complementary sources are indicated in the legend of the image concerned. Though the establishment and evolution of established their dominium constructing their castles in general has already been widely and fortifications in the border zone between the thoroughly studied as to the French realm, an counties of Flanders and Hainaut, where the analysis of the long-term evolution of such centre of their domain was situated. ‘Arnold, castral sites in the High and - above who defended his castle’ (see the Anglo-Norman all - of the strategies followed during their title above) – thus the chronicler Philipp Mousket construction and improvement seems still to be praised the prowess of Arnold IV of Oudenaarde most wanting.¹ The present paper will try to in 1225.² It can be a significant image for the answer (partially) to this lacuna by studying the whole lineage of the Arnolds, lords of castles of the lords of Oudenaarde from c. 1050 Oudenaarde, who expanded their dominion by till c. 1300, a period in which these lords tried to constructing castles.

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But before starting this study, the word ‘castle’ of encellulement, ‘encellment’, as Fossier did), in itself should be briefly reflected on. As because of political and economic reasons.⁶ Coulson proposed, it seems more adequate to Nowadays one tends to speak about several speak about ‘fortresses’ or ‘fortification’, terms incastellamento waves: a first around the year quite often (though in a very confused way) 1000, to which some add another (an used by the medieval sources to describe what “encastellation of the castles”) c. 1050-1100 we commonly tend to call ‘castles’. A ‘castle’ and a third wave (the biggest one or ‘stone was above all the seat of a castellany: a wave’) c. 1150-1200 with often a very slow territorial rather than military organisation and development and a great continuity between not necessarily implying a fortified building at the two phases (and even previous the centre of it (e.g. the castellany of Leffinge- settlements.⁷ Slijpe, which had only a farm as its seat).³ Still I would suggest another succession of it remains quite difficult to define such waves for the Land of Oudenaarde, that will fortifications. In Normandy around 1099 such structure the present article. Firstly the a fortress would be any building with a rampart different periods of the acquisition and over 3m. In thirteenth-century Champagne the creation of the Land of Oudenaarde which minimum criteria became a masonry wall of coincide with the construction of the first 5m, flanked by towers and mostly surrounded fortification at Oudenaarde (1), the by a ditch.⁴ According to these criteria the annexation and construction of the first Oudenaarde fortresses that will be described fortress of Ronse (2) and the acquisition of hereafter can all be classified as such – though Lessines and Flobecq with their first not always explicitly called a ‘castle’. But out of fortresses (3). Afterwards will come two practical motives the words ‘fortress’ and phases of real incastellamento: the ‘castle’ will be used as synonyms in the present orientation of the towns of Pamele- article. Oudenaarde, Lessines and Flobecq on their As the textual evidence (what is a castle?) respective fortresses (4) and the creation seems to be requiring some critical of elaborated defence systems around the reservation, a variety of approaches will be castles and with integration of the towns combined in the present article in order to under Arnold IV (5). study the fortresses of the lords of 1. The Turris Aldenardensis (1038/1064) Oudenaarde. Historical or archival sources On the artificial island of Oudenaarde a will be taken into account, but also maps, tower must have been constructed before archaeological findings, iconographic 1064 and a residence must have existed material etc. With this variety of sources and from before 1038 as in that year Hugh I bore with comparative researches an attempt will already the name of ‘Oudenaarde’. Till now be made to fill in the lacunae in the source not many traces of this first castle have been material (e.g. archaeological excavations are found, but for some eleventh-century timber still lacking for Lessines and Hubermont).⁵ posts (most probably from 1016-1041) on Incastellamento means the organisation of the southwest of the thirteenth-century population centres (towns and villages) castle.⁸ The exact location of the tower is still around castles and/or other centres (e.g. much debated. I myself would opt for a churches, in which case it is better to speak situation in the middle of the later castle.⁹

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castle of Oudenaarde was in fact a transformed castle motte, by its size (c. 60m diameter) quite normal for a motte. Thus it would indicate a motte of c. 10-15m height.¹⁵ The question remains whether the first tower was already built on a motte (because then it would have been one of the very first in the Low Countries) or not rather a ringfort around a tower that was then ‘enmotted’ c. 1100, which would seem more probable.¹⁶ Only further excavations could (perhaps) solve this question. Another open question is when the Burgschelde, the moat between the (artificial) castle island and the town of Fig. 2: Oudenaarde c. 1038-1064. To the left the Oudenaarde, was dug. Still, the strict motte and bailey (with the church of St. Walburga) separation between the comital town and of the ’s castle can be seen, to the right the castle of the lord of Oudenaarde. The chapel of St. the castle island would favour an eleventh- Amand can be seen on top of the map. century origin.¹⁷ 2. The Annexation of Ronse (c. 1089) Noteworthy is that at only some 300m In 1089 a member of the house of Oudenaarde distance another castle was built the so- appears for the very first time as advocate of St. called ‘stone of England’, a comital castle Hermes chapter of Ronse. As the most powerful mostly dated c. 1053, though there could lords in the immediate neighbourhood of Ronse already have been a residence in. Rests of the it was quite logical that they would become moats of this castle have been found during advocates of Ronse and the connected ‘Tene- excavations in 1994, 2001-2002 and 2008.¹⁰ ment of Inde’.¹⁸ The first motte of Ronse was The parish church of St. Walburga must then presumably the Old Motte van den Bock in the have been the count’s chapel, situated on the northern part of the town.¹⁹ bailey of his castle.¹¹ Around 1050 or 1075-1100 there were in the Low Countries two types of fortress: ringforts, as the comital castle of Oudenaarde, and the newly appeared castral mottes, both surrounded by moats (which were very important status symbols).¹² The vertical tower (as the turris of Hugh and Arnold I) on the motte was a further status symbol and sign of power (political, social, economic, territorial): the lord was the one who “turrim ... tenuerit”.¹³ Or as Mesqui had it: the keep – often still a wooden structure Fig. 3: Ronse c. 1089. From north to south: the – ‘incarnated the sovereignty of the castle Old Motte, the church of St. Hermes and the lord’.¹⁴ I assume that the thirteenth-century church of St. Martin.

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3. Pamele, Lessines and Flobecq c. 1110-1130 Lessines The beginning of the eleventh century saw an The village of Lessines was certainly older expansion of the territory and of the castles than Flobecq. Around 980 there must already in possession of the lords of Oudenaarde, have been a village on the Dender island, which all began with a lady. which shifted to the left bank before 1100.²³ There must also have been some kind of Pamele / Oudenaarde noble residence since the middle of the The lady in question was Matilda of eleventh century at the latest, presumably on Oudenaarde, only (known) daughter of the site of the later castle.²⁴ Arnold II († 1107). It seems that this lady’s role 4. The first incastellamento: Arnold III in establishing the power of the lords of (1144-1162) Oudenaarde on the right bank of the was quite fundamental. Firstly for the The first real wave of ‘encastellation’ can be creation of a real town at Pamele, just encountered under Arnold III, grandson of opposite to the town of Oudenaarde and to Matilda. Arnold III seems to have turned to her own Tower.²⁰ his estate for expressing his family’s growing power, thus integrating himself in a wave of Flobecq noble show-off castle-building.²⁵ It was Probably it was also under Matilda that indeed this lord of Oudenaarde who, for the Flobecq and Lessines (with their first first time, strengthened all the family’s fortresses?) came into the hands of the house fortresses and actively promoted the of Oudenaarde.²¹ The question remains establishment of small towns around these whether Matilda had already founded a castle fortresses, probably serving – in a certain at Flobecq. The distance from the centre of the sense – as a supplementary bailey to the town (c. 500m) would rather testify against it, castle.²⁶ though the fact that ‘Flobecq’ was already Lessines adopted as a surname in 1087/1088 would speak for it. Its distance from the village church The interventions of Arnold III seem the placing the castle close to a stream in marshy clearest and the most profound in Lessines.²⁷ ground could perhaps counterbalance the He must have been the one who moved the distance argument.²² town of Lessines to the north, organising it around the hill on which the St. Peter’s church was build in the second half of the twelfth century.²⁸ Probably it was around the same time that the chantries in St. Peter’s church were founded and the leper colony established.²⁹ The (no doubt square, stone) keep of Arnold’s castle was erected on the highest hill where nowadays the Moulin Dooms still can be seen towering over the town. Such a hill fortress, though rather uncommon in Flanders, was quite typical for Hainaut.³⁰ The bailey, Fig. 4: Flobecq c. 1110 (?).

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 199 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) anyhow, was situated closer to the Dender Flobecq), most probably also as a kind of and thus a typical Flemish moated bailey. To coercive castle facing the city of Oudenaarde, moat the keep, however, some works were guaranteeing the lord’s influence on the necessary. A brook was diverted and two big count’s town.³⁶ ponds (the Haut Rivart and Bas Rivart – partly on the site of the former village) were created to provide a water protection to the hill fortress.³¹ This military and residential ensemble of castle and town seems to have been quite impressive c. 1150.³²

Fig. 6: Oudenaarde and Pamele c. 1150. The town of Pamele, on the other hand, developed principally in this period. Several water works were made on the Scheldt river, thus creating several small islands that became kind of supplementary baileys of the Fig. 5: Lessines c. 1150. The horizontal lines indicate the probable site of the town c. 1110, the castle.³⁷ The first ramparts of Pamele must chequered lines the town c. 1150. have come into existence in this period, thereby imitating its twin town Oudenaarde: Flobecq moats around the inhabited centres were The overall structure of the castle of Flobecq dug and the gate tower (the so-called Stone must date back to Arnold III’s days: a (certainly Gate) on the stone bridge over the Scheldt square, stone) keep on a big motte with c. shortcut was built.³⁸ 80m diameter at the basis, with a big, Ronse crescent-shaped bailey (c. 100m x 180m, with two entrances) and an immense moat around the whole complex. All in all a very (Anglo- )Flemish castle of the plain.³³ The immense size of this castle could suggest a desire to make out of Flobecq the centre of a defence ring with Lessines, Oudenaarde and Ronse grouped around it.³⁴ Pamele / Oudenaarde

Of the castle c. 1150 little is known, only that Fig. 7: Ronse c. 1250. Indicated with chequered it was used in that period.³⁵ Still, it is most lines is the expansion of the town, outside of the probable that just as in Flobecq there stood a chapter’s Franchise. To the northeast the motte of stone tower on a large motte (though a bit the lords of Wattripont can be seen with its two smaller – c. 60m diameter to c. 80m at southern defensive mottes (serving also as bailey?).

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Motte was abandoned before the end of the Philippian castle became in fact quite soon thirteenth century, at which period the lordly the sign of a position taken in favour of or residence was the Lord’s Motte (‘s Heeren against the French monarchy (with the castle Mote). This fortress was, however, the of Coucy as a most famous example).⁴² residence of the the lord of Wattripont, since The rectangular scheme seems to have 1126 at the latest sub-advocate of Ronse, and come from antique Roman fortresses (e.g. therefore most probably erected by him in Portchester castle) (fig. 49) and / or from the course of the twelfth century. This castle Muslim castles (in Spain and in the Holy consisted of a moated motte crowned by a Land), though the extent of the oriental tower and surrounded by two (artificial) influence is still much debated.⁴³ It is islands and two more mottes.³⁹ however already retrievable towards the 5. The second incastellamento: Arnold IV middle of the twelfth century in the Anglo- (1213-1242) and John I (1242-1292) Norman realm: the castles of Chinon (eleventh century), Hastings (c. 1070), Around 1200 a new type of castle appeared: the Bramber (c. 1070), Warwick (c. 1070), Arundel Philippian castle, so called after the French king (c. 1070), Lewes (c. 1066-1088), Windsor (c. Philipp II Augustus, who seems to have been the 1070-1100, London (the Tower, c . 1100), most important promoter of this new kind of Portchester (c. 1130, fig. 49), Burwell (c. 1143- fortress. Most commonly the castle of Druyes- 1144; fig. 30), Helmsley (c. 1120-1150), the les-Belles-Fontaines (c. 1170-1190; fig. 35) and outer bailey of Ludlow (c. 1140-1170), and the royal Louvre (c. 1200) (fig. 45) are seen as Wolvesey Palace (c. 1135-1171); and in the the first fortresses of this new type.⁴⁰ The counties of Flanders and Hainaut: the castra Philippian castle or gothic castle was a mostly of Bruges (ninth century) (fig. 29); Ghent quadrangular (though sometimes also (around the count’s castle, twelfth century?; polygonal, but always geometrical) lowland fig. 38), Pamele (c. 1150, fig. 6), Chimay, fortification, with circular towers on the corners Douai, Leuze, and the castles of Avesnes (c. and flanks (mostly with a diameter of 8-10m), a 1106), Mortagne-du- (c. 1150?) (fig. gate between two towers and sloped wall bases 43), (Salle-le-Comte c. 1160- mostly surrounded by a large moat, in 1180, also Château-le-Comte c. 1150?), often also but not necessary with a round keep. Chimay, (fig. 50) and the The ideal type seems to have been a castle of aforementioned Lessines (fig. 5). 60m x 60m with nine towers (two of which In France it can be retrieved in the palace of flanking the gate), that is three on every side Provins (c. 1100); in the Champagne region and with c. 20m between the towers.⁴¹ in the castle of Pierrefonds (c. 1100, situated in The Philippian castle seems to have had in Picardy, quite close to the Low Countries). It the first place a symbolic role. Therefore, they seems to have been above all a typical scheme were princely fortresses in the thirteenth for palatial buildings (Provins, Windsor, the century, especially outside of the French London Tower, Wolvesey, the Salle-le-Comte ‘heartlands’. In fact outside of the Capetian at Valenciennes etc.), that is – as Bragard territories most Philippian castles spread only noticed – an expression of symbolic power after c. 1225 – with some powerful baronial (starting from the square tower).⁴⁴ Another families (Avesnes, Oudenaarde) in Flanders element of the palatial structures was taken: and Hainaut as great exceptions. The the residential building, mostly opening up

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 201 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) on the south side (thus situated on the north- Flobecq (along with at least three other ern side of the fortress). By its very existence castles of the lords of Oudenaarde) was one this small palace in the castle showed how of the very few castles constructed in important the symbolic role of the fortress Flanders and Hainaut in this period. Thus the was: it was at the same time a residence and lord of Oudenaarde showed himself a a military bulwark, meant to express noble powerful lord acting against the royal and grandeur in all its aspects. The residential comital prohibitions exactly in the period in buildings were mostly modelled on the clas- which the count of Champagne and other sical, Carolingian scheme aula – camera – powerful French lords tried to defend their capella, which was often used in the urban territories and expand their influence by the palaces. Added to this complex were normally construction of new, philippian fortresses.⁴⁸ the service rooms.⁴⁵ Being the first of the new fortresses of Arnold IV (which fact again underlines Flobecq’s strategic role) the scheme of this castle was still quite classical. The centre of the castle of Flobecq was the keep on the twelfth-century motte (still the main element on the drawing made of this castle c. 1275 in the Veil Rentier), but the basis of the motte was enwalled and probably moated, as was the bailey with its 900m long and c. 1.75m thick wall constructed on oak stakes. This wall was at least 10m high and had flanking towers of 8,5-11m Fig. 8: Flobecq c. 1250. Indicated with chequered diameter, whereas the southern gate lines is a zone surrounding the castle and town towers had a diameter of 5m.⁴⁹ It was, in centre that was probably fortified with hedges and short, an impressive fortress, and must have partially inhabited, thus linking castle to town. been the more impressive as several artillery devices were stationed in the Flobecq (before 1225/1227) castle. Arnold IV’s 1242 testament mentions It seems that this new castle type was quite ballistae (probably springald) established in soon applied to the fortresses of the lords of the castle.⁵⁰ The castle must have been Oudenaarde. The powerful Arnold IV of Oude- quite modern as it is shown around 1275 naarde, grand of Flanders, reconstructed having a portcullis in its main gate – a very the immense stronghold of Flobecq certainly recent invention, which for example was not before July 10, 1227, starting from which date yet present in the baronial castle of he resided regularly in the castle of Flobecq.⁴⁶ Trazegnies (c. 1200-1225) (fig. 54).⁵¹ Most probably the major works must have The residential building with its basse salle been concluded before its (unsuccessful) siege (as it was called in 1333) was situated in the in Spring 1225 by an impostor pretending to be bailey (as was the case in Zottegem (fig. 50), the real and Hainaut.⁴⁷ Condé, Crépy, Lewes, Chinon, Warwick and Thereby the strategic role of Flobecq, guarding Pleshey (fig. 48)), though also the keep had the border zone between Hainaut and (Impe- certain residential or at least ceremonial rial) Flanders, was underlined. functions, as indicated by the presence of an

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Fig. 10: The castle of Flobecq (c. 1275. Source: Verriest (1950), 41r.

market squares.⁵³ The active intervention of Fig. 9: The castle of Flobecq (c. 1250). the lordly family of Oudenaarde in Flobecq is further made clear by the (undated) renewal haute sale in 1333.⁵² Thus Flobecq seems to of the church of Flobecq by Alice of Rozoy, have been very similar to the castle of Harcourt widow of Arnold IV – so most probably (fig 39), (which even had two entrances as datable to 1242-1259.⁵⁴ Flobecq did), constructed just a bit later (c. 1230-1260). It was quite similar too to those of Another action was undertaken by John I of Yèvre (c. 1200), Billy (1232-1247); and Oudenaarde, son of Arnold IV and Alice, who Luzarches (1209-1222) (fig. 41); but here it is wanted to establish in 1283 a convent of the questionable whether the ancient keep on the Hermits of St. William at ‘Maryhill’ (“Mont motte was maintained). Though it was not Nostre Dame”) – a solitary site between the unusual for Philippian castles to be constructed towns of Flobecq and Ellezelles, destined to around older keeps (cf. Nogent-le-Rotrou (fig. evangelise both towns, though (because of 44), Mez-le-Maréchal (fig. 42), Vernon, Chinon, John’s conflicts with the count of Flanders) it and Caen), the castles of Houdan (c. 1200) and never (really) came into existence.⁵⁵ Rouen (1204-1216); (fig. 53) seem to have Lessines (before 1230)⁵⁶ been closest to a model for Flobecq, with a wall One of the masterpieces of Arnold IV’s building surrounding the keep and linked to the wall of campaign must have been the construction of the bailey. The Flobecq-solution then seems to the castle and town wall of Lessines, already have served c . 1300 as an example for the substantially completed by 1230, so only slightly castles of Blâmont and Condé-sur-l’, posterior to Flobecq.⁵⁷ That is was the pride of both built by families linked to the house of this lord of Oudenaarde, is made clear by a Oudenaarde. history the Annales Gandenses relates around At a small distance of the castle, but always 1310: “It was said that the lord of Oudenaarde more closely linked to the fortress, was who fortified it ..., said that Lessines could never situated the developing town of Flobecq. The be violently captured till a goose would be sold town must have had certain privileges by the for a coin [i.e. a penny] – and thus it happened” thirteenth century as the existence of a Cloth in 1303, when the city was conquered, being Hall is ascertained c. 1275, as probably three (partially?) burned after a long siege. ⁵⁸

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There is not too much known about the (contrary to the Flobecq image).⁶¹ It surely castle, save for its localisation, that is on the wasn’t the main element of the fortification spot of the preceding castles (of Matilda and anymore (as was still the case at Flobecq), Arnold III). Still, I presume that something because it could easily disappear without endangering the defensive or symbolic value of the castle. Closely linked to the castle of Lessines was the town wall, indeed even attached to it. The existence of (a part of) this wall is

Fig. 11: Lessines c. 1250. could still be derived from the southern and western walls of which at least the fundaments have been conserved till the sixteenth century.⁵⁹ These seem to suggest a Fig. 12: The castle of Lessines (c. 1250). castle quite similar to those of Château- Thierry (c. 1200; fig. 31), Caen (c. 1200); ascertained by 1230. Then a lock gate was Neufchâteau (c. 1226-1268); Marbais (c. constructed “under the arch of a [quadran- 1250); and Chinon (c. 1204-1220); most gular] stone tower”. Probably it was the big probably still with a dividing wall between “keep” on the right bank of the Dender, the upper court and the bailey (as became which is mentioned in 1337 and still visible again more important c. 1200), but without on the sixteenth-century map made by a (continued) moat as in Caen.⁶⁰ We notice James of Deventer.⁶² It must then have in fact that the outer walls of the castle of been in the 1220s and 1230s that the castle Lessines were not interrupted, though there and the town walls of Lessines, including still could be a remnant of a moat inside the four gates, were constructed.⁶³ This indi- walls, as was the case in Flobecq. cates that Lessines was enwalled at quite The residential building was probably an early stage if compared with Hainaut attached to the northern wall (i.e. the wall towns: the ‘capital’, Mons, had its first wall towards the city) of the castle’s upper court in 1195, the comital town of (slightly and it could well be that the keep was initially bigger than Lessines) was enwalled from conserved and formed the centre of the upper 1230 onwards, the lordly town of Le Roeulx court (as in Flobecq (figs. 8, 9), Caen (fig. 39), (fig. 40) was probably also enwalled c. Chinon and Marbais), though it must have 1230, but other small towns like Fontaine- disappeared before 1275, as the miniatures of L’Évêque, Enghien and Chièvres only later the lord of Oudenaarde’s Veil Rentier in the thirteenth or even fourteenth cen- represent Lessines by a strong city wall with tury.⁶⁴ The fortifications of Lessines were gates and a towering church, but no keep not only early, but also quite modern forti-

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 204 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) fications: portcullises were already used (as Pamele / Oudenaarde is shown in the 1275 Veil Rentier, cf . (before 1225 - before 1235) Flobecq) and the (twelfth-century?) ponds The third – and most important – castle built system was imitated at Mons at the begin- by Arnold IV of Oudenaarde was definitely ning of the fourteenth century.⁶⁵ the ancestral castle of Oudenaarde, the Arnold IV too crowned his works at Lessines (radical) reconstruction of which started most with religious foundations. In October 1226, probably in 1213-1225, that is between the when the fortification works were still on French invasion of Flanders (during which hand, Arnold founded a chantry of Our Lady Oudenaarde was conquered) and the in the parish church of Lessines, very exemption of his castle from the destruction generously funded with 40 lb. par.⁶⁶ Later of Flemish fortifications requested by the on, in 1242-1246, his widow Alice of Rozoy French king.⁶⁸ The fact that the wooden posts founded a richly endowed hospital in forming the foundation of the towers of the Lessines where her husband was reburied in castle can be dated to c . 1200, seems to 1248.⁶⁷ suggest a rather early construction date.⁶⁹ It seems, on the other hand, to have been terminated before 1234/1235, when the construction works on the parish church of Pamele and the abbey of Maagdendale in the same town were begun.⁷⁰ The Philippian castle of Oudenaarde – as the castle of Lessines – can possibly be constructed Fig. 13: Lessines (seen from the north: St. around the ancient keep, as was the case for Peter’s Church and Ancre Gate c. 1275). the royal castle of Amblény (c. 1190). In any Source: Verriest (1950), 100r. case, before 1275 the keep of Oudenaarde disappeared, as did its brother in Lessines. That the castle was built on the (topped-off) ancient motte seems quite probable, as has been indi- cated above and was quite often the case in the Low Countries.⁷¹ Still, already several castles without keep were built at that period, e.g. the royal castles of Montreuil-sur-Mer (c. 1200), Yèvre-le-Châtel (1200-1225); (the old keep was destroyed), Boulogne-sur-Mer (1228-1231); and the lordly castles of Druyes-les-Belles-Fon- taines (c. 1170-1190; fig. 35), Fère-en-Tardenois (1206-c. 1220), Poilvache (1208-1218); Crécy- en-Brie (1214-1219) (fig. 33); Passy-en-Valois (c. Fig. 14: Left: Lessines, Arnold Gate (c. 1275). 1214-1222/1252); Brie-Comte-Robert (1200- Source: Verriest (1950), 105r 1225) (fig. 28); Diant (c. 1220), Esnes (before Fig. 15: Right: Lessines, Ancre Gate (c. 1275) 1225; fig. 36), La Folie at Braine (c. 1226-1236), Source: Verriest (1950), 108r. Bazoches (1200-1232; fig. 25) and Montaiguil- lon (c. 1220-1240).

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Most of the castles without a keep had in fact constructed by a neighbour of the themselves the function of ‘keep’ (a symbol of Oudenaarde, as the lord of Landas did not [military] pre-eminence) in the town only possess the castle of Esnes, but had his fortifications – or, by extension, in the circuit main residence in Eine close to Oudenaarde.⁷⁴ of baileys around the castle itself.⁷² Still, the The castle of Oudenaarde was thus fact that in 1227 the castle is still referred to undoubtedly a (exemplary) Philippian castle, as “turrim Aldenardensem” (though by the though rather large, measuring 80m x 80m monks of when repeating the formula and with towers of 10m diameter. One of 1064), seems to indicate that a keep still notices furthermore that the towers in existed at that date.⁷³ Oudenaarde were more practically equipped than in the classical royal castles.

Fig. 17: The castle of Pamele / Oudenaarde (c. 1250). They had basements (like the towers of Fig. 16: Oudenaarde and Pamele c. 1250. Coucy Castle) and even a trash chute Indicated by diagonal lines are the older centres integrated in the walls (a possible latrine?). of Oudenaarde and Pamele. Thus a residential function could be Above all the castles of Bazoches, La Folie, suggested for the towers, having inner Montaiguillon and Diant are quite similar to rooms of c. 5m diameter, maybe as the castle of Oudenaarde, thus confirming residences for the knights of the lords’ the chronological vicinity of the construction mesnie (his military household), as was the of these castles. The vicinity between these case in Coucy. One could think of families as castles could, furthermore, be explained by De Dorper, Leupegem-, Machelen- the fact that most of them were constructed Ter Weede or even some younger sons from by families closely linked to the royal court the baronial Ligne or Roeulx families, who and the court factions (like the Oudenaarde appeared regularly at the court of themselves): the Dreux (who possessed Fère, Oudenaarde.⁷⁵ Brie, Braine), Tristan (Passy), Châtillon (Crécy- The castle of Oudenaarde probably served as en-Brie, Bazoches), Les Barres (Diant). The model for the castles of Le Roeulx (c. 1235; fig. castle of Esnes, on the other hand, was 40), Enghien (c. 1255), Gaasbeek (c. 1236-1260);

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 206 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) partially, especially for the localisation of the An important element of the fortifications of residential quarters and the gatehouse), Corroy- Pamele was (by 1290 at the latest) a large le-Château (c. 1265; fig. 32), Boelare (c. 1257- ‘keep’ on the left bank of the Scheldt shortcut 1312; fig. 26) and Picquigny (before 1307; fig. 47) (i.e. in Tussenbruggen), the so-called Den and Bois-de-Lessines (c. 1300; fig. 27), all con- Berch Tower or Perretoren.⁷⁹ A similar tower structed by kinsmen and/or neighbours of the can also be retrieved in Lessines, also in the Oudenaarde lords. north of the left bank of the Dender.⁸⁰ Indeed, such a second ‘keep’ (down river on the bank) Around this castle the old bailey was main- tained and refortified (a situation similar to seems to have been quite typical for Philippian Bazoches (fig. 25) and Boelare (fig. 26)), as the town walls (e.g. Crécy and Provins).⁸¹ moat between town and castle island was enlarged and a masonry wall built in the middle of it at an undated moment (but no doubt in 1213-1235).⁷⁶ Thus a defence line was created around the castle: the moated and walled bailey of the Burg. But also a second defence line came into existence in 1230-1260, proba- bly still part of the original plan of the castle’s defences: the town walls of Oudenaarde and Pamele. The walls (probably only earthen with stone gates) were already existing in 1202, with exception of the westernmost part (around the Meerspoort) that was extended in 1230-1260. In that same period the (second) wall of Pamele was constructed and linked with the fortifica- Fig. 18. Pamele/Oudenaarde (c. 1275). tions of Oudenaarde. They included the Source: Verriest (1950), 11v scarcely populated Ham (where Maagdendale Abbey was situated) and Bourgondiëkaai – The fortification works at Pamele seem to indicating that the primary scope was the have been closed and crowned by three defence of the castle rather than of the religious institutions. First the parish church, (smaller) town (cf. the implantation of the rebuilt in the 1230s-1250s, as we know that abbey of Le Roeulx; (fig. 40). The whole wall works on the choir started on , 12 1235, was surrounded by a 15m-wide moat and was as a stone in the outer wall of the church choir reconstructed in stone c . 1290-1360.⁷⁷ Thus still commemorates.⁸² The inscription tells us both towns were developed as a bulwark furthermore that the church was built (or at around the castle that became kind of an least initiated) by the master Arnold of “Île-de-la-Cité” in the centre of both towns, a Binche, a clergyman in the service of the lord situation quite similar to (fig. of Oudenaarde (in 1229 he was his bailiff at 34), Vernon and – in a certain sense also – Kortemark), who became later on, in Mons, Crécy (fig. 33) and Crépy, but absolutely 1238/1248 a canon of the cathedral chapter contrary to the comital castles in Flanders, who of . Basing myself on the fact that he were almost always constructed at the border was certainly no church architect (considering of the town (though in Oudenaarde – as in the manifold construction failures in the Dendermonde – there was always a way.⁷⁸ church of Our Lady of Pamele), I presume he

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 207 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) was the castle architect of the lord of of the abbey of Kornelimünster (for Ellezelles- Oudenaarde who then was conceded the Wodecq) and of St. Amand (for Wodecq).⁸⁸ privileged of starting to build his gothic parish According to Thoen this could be seen as a church (but was succeeded c. 1240/1245, i.e. reaction on the comital deforestation and on his acceding to the Cambrai living, by a ‘colonisation’ politics (similar to the more professional church architect), as he deforestation etc. at Flobecq), which inspired certainly got some architectural knowledge, also other noble lords in Hainaut to build their but didn’t know the fine details of church castles in deforested areas (e.g. Le Roeulx, architecture.⁸³ Trazegnies, Fontaine-l’Evêque, Avesnes, La Around the same time, at the beginning of Hamaide).⁸⁹ 1234, the sisters of Maagdendale Abbey in Flobecq moved to the Ham , close to the centre of the town of Oudenaarde and just opposite of the castle of Oudenaarde, at the bidding of Arnold IV of Oudenaarde and his wife Alice of Rozoy (who ‘expelled’ the Cistercian Abbey of Oudenaarde to for them). The abbey too seems to have been constructed in the 1230s-1250s.⁸⁴ Finally, in 1261, John I of Oudenaarde and his wife Matilda of Crecques erected the chapel of the beguinage (a court surrounded by houses inhabited by the so-called Beguines, semi-religious lay women living in community) in the bailey of their castle.⁸⁵ Fig. 19: Hubermont c. 1250. Indicated by a Hubermont (before 1235) dotted line is the presumable site of the ‘New Borough’ of Hubermont, indicated by hedges At an undated moment, but certainly also and ditches around the castle site. before 1235 Arnold IV constructed a fourth castle at Hubermont, most probably in 1225- The construction works at Hubermont were 1235 as Hubermont was a castle of lesser – again – crowned by a religious institution. importance and of rather modern outlay In June 1242 Arnold IV granted per testament (similar to the castle of Oudenaarde, though a living of 20 lb. par. a year for the chaplain probably more modest).⁸⁶ De Waha and of a chantry to be instituted in his castle of Dugnoille, in fact, associated the construction Hubermont, which his widow realised in of the castle with the acquisition of territory 1245-1257.⁹⁰ Hubermont must have been a at Wodecq in 1219 (the St. Sauveur Forest) smaller castle, probably quite similar to the and saw in the castle a protective element of walled manors of Esnes (fig. 36), Fagnolle (fig. the deforestation in that zone between the 37), Nanteuil-le-Hardouin (fig. 52) and Mez- towns of Lahaimaide, Ellezelles, Frasnes and le-Maréchal (fig. 42), i.e. a square masonry Wodecq.⁸⁷ It must furthermore be seen as an wall, flanked by four towers on the edges and important step in the process of growing with a towered gate, surrounding the manor control of the lord of Oudenaarde over this (as in the classical Lorraine castles, e.g. region, where he was in fact only an advocate Petegem (fig. 46), Leuven, and Morlanwelz –

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 208 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) revenues) around their castle. And it almost succeeded. In 1248 and 1289 John I of Oudenaarde was capable of dispensing graces in Wodecq as though it were his property (and not an advocacy he held) and in 1262 he was capable to transfer rents of the abbey of Kornelimünster to Ellezelles to make of Hubermont almost an free property.⁹² But because of his conflict with the count of Flanders in the 1280s John was finally forced to recognise Hubermont a fief of the count of , which slowly initiated the decline of Hubermont and its New Borough.⁹³ Fig. 20: The castle of Hubermont (c. 1250). The settlement of Hubermont could perhaps be compared to the towns of Dover, Nanteuil (fig. 52) and Painscastle, or the immediate castle surroundings at Nogent-le-Rotrou (fig. 44), Burwell (fig. 30) and Chevreuse, a noble residence in the inner bailey, the church/chapel in the outer bailey (?) and a town around the castle. La Royère In 1227 Arnold IV of Oudenaarde, at that time advocate of his underage cousin Arnold of Mortagne, castellan of Tournai, bought the castle of La Royère at Néchin, a moated castle from the end of the twelfth century on the border between the of Flanders and the castellany of Tournai. The castle he bought Fig. 21: La Royère c. 1250. .Indicated by consisted of a square keep (c. 8m diameter) diagonal lines is the settlement around the surrounded by an moated octagonal masonry (also inhabited) bailey of the castle, by wall (with perhaps small square towers on the chequered lines a second possible and edges) – quite similar to the castles of Arrou (fig. 51), Ath (fig. 24), Houdan, and Condé. In Kruishoutem (Aishove) front of the castle was a second moated zone where a small settlement with bailey-functions The castle of the lords of Machelen-Aishove must have existed.⁹⁴ Arnold decided in Kruishoutem seems to be retraceable to immediately to institute a chantry in the castle the thirteenth century. The lordship of – thus indicating his wish to make one of the Aishove (established around the castle and family strongholds out of it –, a purpose that supplanting Machelen as the main lordship he only carried out by testament in 1242, of the family) was first mentioned in 1227, endowing the chaplain with a living of 20 lb. but in 1252 there was already a chantry Par.⁹⁵ established in the castle. Thus we can

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surrounding the upper bailey (cf. the waterworks at Lessines and Flobecq).⁹⁶ The lords of Aishove were probably descendants of Olivier of Oudenaarde (1154-† 1162/1168) and therefore second cousins (and vassals) of Arnold IV, which brings us to integrate the castle in the present study, being probably kind of a northern defence for the Oudenaarde territories.⁹⁷ Conclusion The overview of the different phases in the establishment of the fortresses of the lords of Oudenaarde can enable us to get a glimpse of the overall plan of the incastellamento by these lords. At the beginning, in the eleventh century, there Fig. 22: The castle of La Royère (c. 1200). doesn’t seem to be too much of a systematic approach: the main goal was presume that a first castle had been built in controlling the newly gained possessions the 1220s-1240s. Two rooms in the and counterbalancing comital aspirations basement could still be remnants of this by the construction of the Tower of castle, thus individuating a square keep in Oudenaarde. When gaining new the south-eastern corner and a gate house possessions c. 1100, first the advocacy of in the middle of the south-western wall, one Ronse, then the whole castellany of Lessines almost touching the other, forming the small and Flobecq, other castles were erected, upper bailey (remnant of a motte?) with a presumably still rather ad hoc and without larger lower bailey attached to the big pond much of a system – though Matilda of Oudenaarde consciously started to establish (a) town(s) around her castle(s). A more systematic approach can be found c. 1150 under Arnold III, who seemed to have refortified all of his castles and to have centred his defence system on the enormous fortress of Flobecq. It was the same lord who started to organise and enwall his towns, thus starting a whole process of militarisation and fortification of several strongholds in his domain. Therefore, the activity of Arnold III could rightly be called the first phase of a real incastellamento . The Fig. 23: The castle of Kruishoutem (Aishove, approach of his grandfather was followed c. 1250?). by Arnold IV of Oudenaarde c. 1210-1240

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 210 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) who reconstructed all of the family development, then, was blocked c. 1280- fortresses, enlarged the walls of their 1300 by the deteriorated conflict between towns and established several the Flemish count and the Oudenaarde.⁹⁸ ecclesiastical and civil institutions. Thus c. 1250 the lords of Oudenaarde were Thus the incastellamento method of the capable of constructing a network of five or lords of Oudenaarde could be summarised six castles (depending on when Ronse was as: building of castle, town and religious abandoned) and a dependent castle at institution. Kruishoutem, thus grouping in total six Concretely in Pamele the Tower was built castles (of which at least four in their own c. 1050; a parish established in 1110 (with hands) around the “palace” of Oudenaarde. a cella of the Ename abbey); the town This grouping was considerable, organised and enwalled c. 1150; the castle especially considering the size of most of rebuilt c . 1220, the parish church rebuilt these fortresses, knowing that the count of and the monastery of Maagdendale Jülich had at the same time only four installed c. 1235 and, finally, the beguinage castles, the French queen mother Blanche installed in the bailey in 1261. of Castile eight residences and the count of At Lessines the castle seems to have been Champagne thirteen. Also the Flemish count rebuilt c. 1150 and the town moved at the had only five main residences (but still same period, the parish church built; town several other, less inhabited, fortress.⁹⁹ and castle were refortified c. 1220, a Quite significant seems the comparison with chantry established in 1226 and a hospital the lords of Bourbon, who had in their founded in the 1240s. “county” of about 10.000 km² 16 castles and 33 towns (but several of them were At Flobecq the enormous castle was enfeoffed; whereas Oudenaarde had five or (re)built c. 1150 and thoroughly modernised six castles and four towns on only about 300 c. 1220, the church was renewed in the km²), all grouped around the capital. The 1240s-1250s and an attempt to a monastic Land of Oudenaarde was thus much smaller, foundation made in 1283. but clearly denser populated and better At Hubermont a castle was built c. 1230, a defended.¹⁰⁰ settlement established around the same castle and a chapel instituted in the 1240s. The lords of Oudenaarde did, indeed, use their fortresses as a means of ‘colonisation’, At La Royère the old castle (c. 1200) was i.e. of acquisition or further integration of kept intact, as was the small settlement certain territories into their domain, with around the castle and a chapel instituted in quite an emphasis on the economic role of the 1240s. the castle – without ever forgetting the The lords of Aishove imitated their military significance in the border zone kinsmen and overlords by building a humble between Flanders and Hainaut, between and more classic castle, presumably in the kingdom and empire.¹⁰¹ Furthermore the 1220s, thus completing a defence system establishment of a (fortified) town around that was no longer concentrated on the the castle seems to have been a means of fortress Flobecq (Arnold III), but on the expressing their lordly power, as was “palace” of Pamele (Arnold IV). This whole especially typical in Hainaut and several

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 211 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300) parts of France (not in (the core of) Flanders, though).¹⁰² In Central Italy cities and castles seem to have been opposed realities, one more or less excluding and opposing the other. In the Land of Oudenaarde such doesn’t seem to have been the case at all. One rather notes a rather close interaction (for their mutual benefit) between town and overlord, between burghers and nobles.¹⁰³ The closure or coronation of this whole process of incastellamento seems to have been the erection of religious institutions (chantries, monasteries), mostly closely linked to the fortified complex, thus Fig. 25. Bazoches (1200-1232). Source: completing the central social role of the Mesqui (1979), 73. castle and its overlord (as a refuge, coercion castle, social centre and place of worship).¹⁰⁴ ****** Additional selected castle plans relevant to the text discussion. Not to scale.

Fig. 26: Boelare (eleventh century, rebuilt in 1257-1312?). Source: N.N. (2020). De Liedekerke (1961), 393-394.

Fig. 24. Ath (c. 1185). Fig. 27. Bois-de-Lessines (château de Lestriverie, c. 1300). Source: Mardaga e.a. (1997), 488. Moens (2017), 161-162.

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Fig. 30. Burwell Castle (c. 1143-1144, unfinished castle on the site of a roman villa). Source: Wright e.a. (2016), 25-50.

Fig. 28: Brie-Comte-Robert (c. 1200-1225, around a disappeared keep from c. 1160-1188). Source: Piechaczyk - Piechaczyk - Coindre- Fig. 31: Château-Thierry (1222-1236). Source: Béon (2007). Châtelain (1983), 433. Mesqui (1979), 66, 68. Mesqui (1991), 267.

Fig. 32: Corroy-le-Château (c. 1265). The Fig. 29. Bruges (ancient centre from the ninth dotted line (eastern part of the castle) indicates century, first town wall c. 1128). Source: what I presume to be the original project. Simons (1987), 188-189. Hillewaert (2014). Source: Bragard (1999), 146, 159.

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Fig. 36: Esnes (before 1225). Source: Bragard Fig. 33: Crécy-en-Brie (1214-1231). Source: (1999), 156, 161. Beaussart - Salamagne (1995), Châtelain (1983), 441. Mesqui (1979), 18, 33, 107. 78-79. Mesqui (1991), 67.

Fig. 34: Dendermonde (castle before c. 1050; Fig. 37: Fagnolle (c. 1225-1250). Source: first town wall c. 1190). Source: De Meulemeester Bragard (1999), 148, 156, 160. Génicot (1992), 17-18. Daem (2011), 33. N.N. (2014). (1975/2), 86.

Fig. 38: Ghent: the Count’s Castle (c. 1180) with its baileys. Source: Laleman (2004), 182. Laleman (2008), 5-42. Verhulst (1999), 77-78. Fig. 35: Druyes-les-Belles-Fontaines (c. De Meulemeester (1983), 214. De Meulemeester 1170-1190). Source : Mesqui (1997), 154-155. (1992), 19-20. Simons (1987), 194-195.

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Fig. 42: Mez-le-Maréchal (c. 1200-1214). Source: Fig. 39: Harcourt (c. 1230-1260). Source: N. Mesqui (1991), 47. Mesqui (1997), 238-239. N. (1994). Mesqui (1991), 76-77.

Fig. 43: Mortagne-du-Nord (c. 1150 ? – before 1186). Source: Beaussart - Salamagne (1995), 117-118. Gislebertus Montensis (1869), 551-552. Lepoivre, 1585-1622.

Fig. 40: Le Roeulx (before 1242). Source: Beaussart - Salamagne (1995), 164. De Waha (1995/1), 471-472.

Fig. 41: Luzarches (motte c. 1100, castle c. Fig. 44: Nogent-le-Rotrou (keep from the 1209-1222). Source: Mesqui (1991), 45. eleventh century, castle rebuilt c. 1226-1230). Châtelain (1983), 165-166. Source: Rozier, 2017. Mesqui (1997), 267-269.

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Fig. 45: Paris: the Louvre (c. 1190-1202). Source: Fig. 48: Pleshey (castle and borough 1135- Mesqui (1991), 42. Mesqui (1997), 279-281. 1144). Source: Pettifer (2002), 75. Babelon (1987), 5-25. Denis Hayot (2013), 3-10.

Fig. 46: Petegem (first castle at the end of the Fig. 49: Portchester castle (town wall from ninth century). Source: Callebaut (1981), 1-51. the 3rd century, castle c. 1130).Source: Goodall (2008), 23-34.

Fig. 50: Zottegem (before 1286 on a site from the early twelfth century). Source: Van Fig. 47: Picquigny (before 1307). Source: Eenhooge (1990), 55, 58. Van Eenhooge Crampon (1963). Seydoux (2002), 77-80. (2013), 262-270. Lamarcq (2017), 528-529.

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Fig. 54: Trazegnies (c. 1200-1225, basic structure with keep and inner wall c. 1130-1155). Source: De Waha (1983), 119-123. Beaussart - Salamagne (1995), 68, 160-161, 170. Guillaume - Chantraine Fig. 51: Arrou, château du Bois-Ruffin (c. 1100, - Van den Noortgaete (1994), 225-226. Piens round keep and stone inner wall c. 1250). (1921), 128-131. Source : Mesqui (1991), 22. Mesqui (1997), 46. Notes

¹ cf. some general studies on the evolution of castles: Châtelain (1983). Mesqui (1986). Mesqui (1991). Already some noble attempts, though still lacking, were made at the study of castle construction strategies: Doyen (2000). Germain (1992). Mesqui (1993). Mesqui (2008). Richard (1960). Mazurier (2006). For (part of) the Low Countries especially: Beaussart - Salamagne (1995). Bragard (1999). De Waha (1983). De Waha (1995/1). De Waha (2007- 2008). Génicot (1975/1). Bourgeois (2006). De Meule- meester (1983). De Meulemeester (1992). ² Philippe Mousket (1836), v. 24889-24892. ³ Coulson (2003), 64-92, 153, 285-291. Mesqui (1979), 12. Mesqui (1986), 188-189, 200. Warlop (1975-1976), I.1, Fig. 52: Nanteuil-le-Hardouin (c. 1214-1227, 244. Doperé (2011), 120-121. This terminology would small market place and probable bailey on the also widen the approach used by De Waha in inventory- ing the castles of the county of Hainaut: De Waha (1983). north of the castle). Source: Mesqui (1994/2), 303. ⁴ Mesqui (1979), 46, 82. Mesqui (1986), 208-211. Crouch (1992), 199. ⁵ cf. Bourgeois (2003). Zoni (2018), 192-193. Tosco (2003). Bragard (1999), 144. Châtelain (1983), 433. ⁶ Excellent overviews: Bianchi (2014), 157-169. Lauwers (2012), 218-227. Francovich - Ginatempo (2000), 13-20. Provero (2009). Fossier (1989), 288-601. Tabacco (1974), 901-918. Quiros Castillo - Santos Salazar (2018), 229-231. Zadora-Rio (1989). Zadora-Rio (2003). Brogiolo (2003). Lauwers (2005). Iogna-Prat (2006). There is a certain similarity with the French theory of the formation of the so-called ‘banal lordships’ (seigneuries banales) of Duby and Barthélemy: Duby (1953), 137-148, 173-213, 480-481. Duby (1978), 157-205. Duby (1996), 168-176. Barthélemy (1984). ⁷ Lauwers (2012), 222-224. Bianchi (2014), 157-169. Menant (1993), 100-101. Hubert (2002), 299-303, 453- 454. Wickham (1989), 81-82. Tabacco (1974), 901-918. Fig. 53: Rouen (c. 1204-1216). Source: Pitte - Francovich - Ginatempo (2000), 13-20. Bourgeois (2006). Quiros Castillo - Santos Salazar (2018), 229-230. Carocci Gauthiez (1987). Leost (2004). Levieux (2017). (2018), 525, 530-532, 535-536. De Waha (1995/1), 485, Mesqui (1991), 43. 490-492. Bur (1977), 202. Bur (1980), 75-92.

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⁸ Callebaut - De Groote - Ameels (2012), 25, 30. Vercauteren (2006), 104. Richard (1960), 440. De Meulemeester (1938), 269-271. Du Chesne (1631), Preuves, 180. Duvivier (1992), 15, 19. Beaussart - Salamagne (1995), 103-104. (1898), 174. Naz (1924), 20-22. Courtois (1981), 62-63. Piot ²³ De Waha (1982-1983), 144, 149 Sigebertus Gemblacensis (1881), 5-6. Nip (1995), 84-89. Dhondt (1952), 54-64. Koch (1848), 526. Roland (1921), 1-8. For the island origins: cf. De (1992), 68-73. Waha (1982-1983), 148. ⁹ Callebaut - De Groote - Ameels (2012), 25, 30. Cf. De Waha ²⁴ Zylbergeld (1983), 150. De Waha (1995/1), 465-468. De (1983), 119-123. SAO, 241.2, 16v. The principle of antiquity Meulemeester (1983), 201-202. would speak for a location of the Tower in the middle of the ²⁵ Warlop (1975-1976), I.1, 159. Piot (1881), 377-378. later castle: Mazurier (2006), 379. Hansson (2006), 104. Crouch (1992), 202. Mazurier (2006), 318. Coulson Richard (1960), 440. (2003), 233-239. Duby (1953), 137-145. Wickham ¹⁰ Koch (1992), 29-31. N.N. (s.d.), [2]. De Maeyer e.a. (2015), (1989), 82. Richard (1960), 438. Cf. the building cam- 26. Lemay - Langen (2002), 69-70. Vandendriessche e.a. paigns of the of Flanders and Hainaut, as well as (2014), 12, 17. Callebaut - De Groote - Ameels (2012), 29. of the Hainaut magnates c. 1150-1170: De Waha (1985), Ameels, - Moens - De Groote (2009), 80-81. Dhondt 121-122. De Waha (1995/1), 484-485, 488-490. Cauchies (1944), 78. Dhondt (1952), 62, 69. Castelain (1985), 48-52. (1995), 30. Verriest (1947-1948/1), 1-29. Piérard (1983), Castelain (1987), 172-173, 176-181. Van Hoecke, 43-49. 206-207, 209-211. Dugnoille (1965), 136. Zylbergeld Debonne - Lachaert (2007), 238-245. Van Lerberghe e.a. (1983), 147, 156. (1845-1855), II, 1-8, IV, 158-159, 168-176. ²⁶ Riou - Marteaux (2012), 242. Mesqui (1979), 16-17. ¹¹ De Meulemeester (1992), 16 (erroneously considering Mesqui (1991), 16. Claes - De Gryse (2006). Hansson Oudenaarde an exception amidst comital foundations). (2006), 43-44, 160. De Waha (1985), 114, 119. De Van Hoecke (2005), 43-49. Devos (1976), 60-69, 161. Meulemeester (1983), 203. ¹² Warlop (1972), 10. Bourgeois (2003), 151, 153, 155. De ²⁷ De Waha (1982-1983), 145-148, 164-165. De Waha Meulemeester (1983), 201-202, 207-208. DE Waha (2007- (1989), 123, 137-138. Milis (1965), 18. Miraeus - Foppens 2008), 15. Van Eenhooge (1990), 55. Mesqui (1991), 15-17, (1723), 75. De Waha (1995/1), 467-468, 473-4474, 476, 25-28, 34. Cf. : Richard (1960), 440. 481. Duvosquel (1981), 150. Le Glay (1829), 12-14. ¹³ De Waha (1995/1), 485. Mesqui (1991), 15-17, 24-25, 91-92, ²⁸ De Waha (1982-1983), 149-151, 154. Delferière (1933), 96, 106, 209. Wickham (1989), 82. Carocci (2018), 524, 36-51. Brigode (1949), 199-203. Cf. Verriest (1947- 526-528. Hansson (2006), 86, 127-128, 197-202. De Waha 1948/2), 205. Richard (1960), 446-447. Mesqui (1979), (2007-2008), 15-18 21. Bur (1999), 20, 29. Mazurier (2006), 16-17. Claes - De Gryse (2006). Doyen (2000), 134-135, 100-101. Coulson (2003), 187, 233-239, 291. Creighton 134-143. The first town c. 980 was situated on the right (2012), 26-27. Doperé (2011), 111-118, 122-125. Richard bank of the Dender (the Dender island): de Waha (1982- (1960), 437-441. Riou - Marteaux (2012), 242. 1983), 144, 149. ¹⁴ Mesqui (1991), 91 (“La tour maîtresse … incarnait la ²⁹ Longnon (1908), 322, 324-325, 365. Mardaga e.a. (1997), souveraineté du seigneur châtelain”), 106. For wooden 514-515. Devos (1976), 347-349. De Waha (1982-1983), 149. keeps: De Meulemeester (1983), 212, 214. Cf. the keep of Delferière (1933), 36-51. Brigode (1949), 199-203. Lesneucq- Ename: Callebaut e.a. (2002), 231-241. Callebaut (2011), Jouret (1906), 149. Guignies (1892), 250. Petit (1880), 269. 394, 400, 404-406, 415-420. Jacobus de Guisia (1896), 200-201. ¹⁵ De Meulemeester (1983), 202, 210. Van Bellingen (2007), ³⁰ De Waha (1982-1983), 146-151. De Waha (1985), 180-181. Doperé (2011), 115-116. 111-112, 114. Guignies (1892), 19. Jacobus de Guisia ¹⁶ Mesqui (1991), 18, 23. Van Eenhooge (1990), 55. Bourgeois (1896), 186-187. Bragard (1999), 153.For the evolution (2003), 151, 153, 155. Cf. the powerful fortress of Merkem, towards major use of stone in castle building, especially still a ringfort in 1115: Warlop (1972), 10. Walterus Terua- for the keep, c. 1150: Mesqui (1991), 34, 92, 150. De nensis (1887), 1146-1147. Waha (1983), 119-123. ¹⁷ N.N. (s.d.), [9]. De Maeyer - Cherretté (2015), 14. Berings ³¹ De Waha (1982-1983), 150-154. Guignies (1892), 19-20. (1989), 115. Cf. De Meulemeester (1992), 19-20, 25. De ³² cf. Zylbergeld (1983), 150. De Waha (1995/1), 483-484. Groote (2010), 256. Aarts (2016), 14. The Chronycke of ³³ De Meulemeester (1983), 203. Bragard (1999), 143, 153. Audenaerde affirmed that Arnold II of Oudenaarde De Waha (1989), 123. Mathys (1978), 90-91. Verbecelte constructed the Burgschelde: SAO, 241.2, 37r. (1971), 23-41. De Waha (1995), 155. ¹⁸ Milis (1963), 50, 52. ³⁴ cf. Germain (1992), 200-201. ¹⁹ Devos (2008), 226-228, 235-236. De Waha (1995/1), 486. ³⁵ Ameels (2006), 2. Ameels (2007), 21. ²⁰ Piot (1881), 14-16. De Maeyer e.a. (2015), 57-62. ³⁶ A link between the town and the lords of Oudenaarde ²¹ Piot (1881), 358-359, 361, 377-378. Milis (1963), 50-52. was maintained till the fifteenth century: Castelain Milis (1965), 3-7, 18, 20-21. Devillers (1869), IV, 167-172. (1987), 172-184. Cf. the Burbant Tower at Ath: De Waha Coppieters-Stochove (1902), 242, 253, 262. Coppieters- (1985), 120. Stochove (1906), 27, 35-36, 45-46. Verriest (1950), XX, ³⁷ N.N. (s.d.), [7-9]. De Maeyer - Cherretté (2015), 14. LXVII. Carton (2010), 99. Sigebertus Gemblacensis, (1952), 137. ²² De Waha (1995/1), 465-468, 478, 485-486. De Meule- Minnaert (1976), 33. De Rantere (1986), 21. Verriest meester (1983), 201-202. Mazurier (2006), 379. Hansson (1950), 10r. Cf. De Meulemeester (1983), 203.

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 218 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300)

³⁸ De Maeyer e.a. (2015), 57-62. De Maeyer - Cherretté ⁶² De Waha (1982-1983), 155-157, 159-160, 166-167. Devillers (2015), 13, 21, 23. Verriest (1950), 11v. N.N. (s.d.), [5]. (1881), 230-261. De Waha (1995/1), 467-468. Verriest Vandendriessche e.a. (2014), 10, 22. (1947-1948/2), 205. ³⁹ Devos (2008), 226-228, 235-236. Van Hoecke (2017), 110- ⁶³ Guignies (1892), 18. Verriest (1947-1948/2), 206. Verriest 112. Cf. De Meulemeester (1983), 203-204. Mesqui (1991), (1950), 111r. De Waha (1982-1983), 151, 154-155. 25-28, 34. ⁶⁴ The question still remains whether all these walls were ⁴⁰ Mesqui (1991), 38-42. masonry walls, as the wall of Mons was only constructed ⁴¹ Bragard (1999), 141-142, 156. Mesqui (1979), 51-54, 77, 84. in stone from 1346 onwards: De Waha (1982-1983), 155, Mesqui (1991), 28-55, 268-270, 290, 296, 319-320. Héliot 161. De Waha (1983), 125-126. Piérard (1983), 213-214, (1965), 238-257. Châtelain (1981), 66-75. Châtelain (1983), 216-218, 225. Zylbergeld (1983), 146, 166. Yante (2011), 431. Châtelain (1991), 115-161. Doperé (2011), 130-131. 989. ⁴² Bragard (1999), 141, 155-156. Mesqui (1979), 46, 48, 54, ⁶⁵ Piérard (1983), 216-218. Zylbergeld (1983), 146. De Waha 82-84. Mesqui (1991), 66, 68. Durdik (1992). Meckseper (1982-1983), 158. Mesqui (1981), 203-229. (1975), 135-144. ⁶⁶ Van Butsele (1986), 61. Moens (2017), 201. ⁴³ Mesqui (1991), 41-42, 264-267. ⁶⁷ Moens (2017), 243-246. ⁴⁴ Mesqui (1991), 77, 266. Salamagne (1995), 47-48. Bragard ⁶⁸ Kervyn de Lettenhove (1847), 182. Guillelmus Armoricus (1999), 153. The round flanking towers too were quite (1885), 272, 300. Holder-Egger (1882) 710. Sivéry (1990), typical for twelfth-century Lorraine castles: Bragard 96. Luykx (1946), 233. Wauters (1871), III, 639. Teulet (1999), 156. Salamagne (1995), 48. (1863), 53-54. ⁴⁵ Mesqui (1991), 59. Mesqui (1993), 125-131, 139-140. ⁶⁹ Callebaut - De Groote - Ameels (2012), 30. Mesqui (2015), 18, 20. ⁷⁰ Devos (1979), 16-18. Vandenabeele (1975), 46-71. ⁴⁶ Moens (2017), 160-161. Piot (1881), 163-164, 372. For the ⁷¹ cf. De Meulemeester (1983), 210, 215, 220-221. Van use of historical data (and especially war data) for dating Bellingen (2007), 182. Borremans (1982), 87-88. The castles cf. Mesqui (1979). Chronycke van Audenaerde, on the other hand, affirmed ⁴⁷ Philippe Mousket (1836), v. 24889-24892. Luykx (1946), that the (remnant of the) tower was only destructed in 213-214, 231-232. Mathys (1978), 91. Flobecq was not the 1550s: SAO, 241.2, 160r. only strategically important, it also dominated wide and ⁷² Mesqui (1979), 53. Mesqui (1991), 42, 53, 60-61, 63. profitable forests: Moens (2017), 141. Deltenre (2016/2), Salamagne (1995), 48. 87. Deltenre (2017/2), 70. Coutiez (1980), 127-128. ⁷³ Moens (2017), 153. Piot (1881), 5-6. Arnould (1974), 144-145, 188-190, 212. ⁷⁴ Warlop (1975-1976), II.1, 785-786. ⁴⁸ Berger (1895), 69. De Waha (1983), 117-119. De Waha ⁷⁵ Moens (2017), 184-185. Mesqui (1991), I, 163, 171, (1995/1), 485. Heirbaut (2011), 312, 314-315. Aurell 181-182. De Gryse - Pype (2008), 32. Ameels (2006), 1-2. (2015), 19. Cfr. lordly behaviour in the Champagne Callebaut - Van der Plaetsen - Decock (1986), 103-108. county: Mesqui (1979), 42-43, 46, 48-49, 82-83. Ameels (2007), 18-36. ⁴⁹ Mathys (1978), 90. Verbecelte (1971), 23-41. Deltenre (2015), ⁷⁶ Cf. Vereeken (2017), 60. Hoebeke (1985), 39. 71-72, 76. Deltenre (2017/2), 61. Deltenre (2018/1), 192. De ⁷⁷ Vereeken (2017), 42-48. Dhondt (1952), 78. Van de Walle Waha (1995/2), 155. (1949), 99-100. Hoebeke (1952), 116-118. Hoebkee ⁵⁰ Deltenre (2016/1), 33. (1965), 273, 278-282. N.N. (s.d.), [12]. Van Cauwenberghe ⁵¹ De Waha (1982-1983), 158. Mesqui (1981), 203-229. Le (2004), 23, 25. De Maeyer - Cherretté (2015), 13-14. polypitque illustré, 41r. Vandendriessche e.a. (2014), 10, 22, 31. De Maeyer e.a. ⁵² Deltenre (2015), 71-72, 76. Deltenre (2017/2), 61. (2015), 26, 57-62, 75. Taelman - Vanholme - Cherretté Deltenre (2018/1), 155, 192. (s.d.), 16. Callebaut - De Groote - Ameels (2012), 22. ⁵³ De Waha (1982-1983), 164-165. ⁷⁸ Simons (1987), 188-201. Châtelain (1983), 441. Mesqui ⁵⁴ Guignies (1892), 138. (1979), 18, 33, 78-79. De Meulemeester (1992), 17-18. ⁵⁵ De Reiffenberg (1874), III, 785. Verriest (1950), XLVIII. Daem (2011), 33. Mesqui (2011), 291-316. Deltenre (2016/1), 53-55. Vinchant (1853), 52-53. De ⁷⁹ Hoebeke (1952), 116-118. De Maeyer - Cherretté (2015), Saint-Genois (1782), 714-715. Bertrand (2010), 197. Elm 14. Vandendriessche e.a. (2014), 10. Callebaut - De Groote (1962), 30-36, 44, 52-53, 93. - Ameels (2012), 22. De Maeyer e.a. (2015), 75. ⁵⁶ In Moens (2017), 161-162, I erroneously identified this castle ⁸⁰ De Waha (1982-1983), 155-157, 159-160, 166-167. with the castle of Bois-de-Lessines, constructed c. 1300 by Devillers (1881), 230-261. De Waha (1995/1), 467-468. the lords of Lestriverie, vassals of the lords of Oudenaarde. ⁸¹ Mesqui (1979), 18, 21, 33, 78-79, 84-85. Mesqui (1991), ⁵⁷ De Waha (1982-1983), 155-157, 159-160, 166-167. 66. Châtelain (1983), 441. Devillers (1881), 230-261. De Waha (1995/1), 467-468. ⁸² Devos (1979), 16-18. ⁵⁸ Funck-Brentano (1896), 42-43. Deltenre (2017/2), 59. ⁸³ Piot (1881), 144-145. Devillers (1869), V, 156-157, 174. ⁵⁹ De Waha (1982-1983), 152-153. Guignies (1892), 19-20. Devos (1979), 16-18. ⁶⁰ Lallau - Debout (2014). De Meulemeester (1983), 210-211. ⁸⁴ Vandenabeele (1975), 46-71. SAO, 241.2, 28r-28v. Vander- ⁶¹ Verriest (1950), 100r. straeten (1858), 50. Vander Meersch (1854), 12-13. Van

THE CASTLE STUDIES GROUP 219 JOURNAL NO. 34 The Lords of Oudenaarde and their Fortresses (c. 1050-1300)

Bockstaele (2004), 36-42. De Rantere (1986), 67. SAO, fonds Bibliography / References Maagdendale, nr. 15. ⁸⁵ Moens (2017), 154-155. Longnon (1908), 363, 430. Maps Verriest (1950), 14r ArcGIS Online, Webmap ⁸⁶ Chartes de l’abbaye de St.-Martin, I, 437-438. (http://www.arcgis.com). Last consulted on January 3, 2020. ⁸⁷ De Waha (1982-1983), 166. De Waha (1989), 117-118, De Ferraris, J.-J.-F. (1771-1778), Carte de cabinet des Pays- 121-122. Dugnoille (2005), 376. Bas autrichiens levée à l'initiative du comte de Ferraris ⁸⁸ De Waha (1989), 114, 116. (conserved at Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek van België – ⁸⁹ Thoen (1988), 399. De Waha (1995/1), 488. Cf. Aarts online access (https://www.kbr.be). Last consulted on Jan. (2016), 11. Mazurier (2006), 239-241, 292-294. Coulson 3, 2020). (2003), 233-239. ⁹⁰ Moens (2017), 238. De Waha (1989), 124. Google Maps (https://maps.google.be). Last consulted on ⁹¹ De Waha (1982-1983), 166. De Waha (1989), 120-122, January 3, 2020. 125. De Waha (1995/2), 156. Verriest (1950), 82r, 85v. Lepoivre, P. (1585-1622), Recueil de plans de villes et de Deltenre (2017/2), 61-62. châteaux, de fortifications et de batailles, de cartes ⁹² De Waha (1989), 129, 131-133, 140, 144. De Reiffenberg topographiques et géographiques, se rapportant aux règnes (1869), II, 702, 717-719. Ganshof (1949), 416-419. de Charles-Quint, de Philippe II et d'Albert et Isabelle, s.l. ⁹³ De Reiffenberg (1844), 166-169. Devillers (1876), 14-15. Rozier, H. (2017), Carte de restitution de Nogent-le-Rotrou Deltenre (2016/1), 51-52. De Waha (1995/1), 484-485. au 13e siècle, Orléans. Online access: ⁹⁴ Deramaix e.a (2012), 47-48, 96-102. (https://patrimoine.regioncentre.fr). Last consulted on ⁹⁵ Moens (2017), 163-164, 238. January 23, 2020. ⁹⁶ Bogaert - Lanclus (2015). De Borggraeve e.a. (2017). Van Marcke (s.d.), 16. Balthau - Hanselaer - Verhaeghe (1988), 5-9. Van Deventer, J. (1545), Planos de ciudades de los Países Balthau - Verhaeghe (1989), 23-27. Bajos, Parte II / Stadsplattegronden van de Nederlanden, deel II (one version conserved at Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional ⁹⁷ Moens (2017), 25,31, 45, 184. Piot (1881), 42-43. Milis de España – online access at the Biblioteca Digital Hispánica (1965), 20, 22. Cf. Ganshof (1974), 322-323. Van Hoecke (http://bdh-rd.bne.es). Last consulted on January 3, 2020; (2005), 37, 56-57, 65-66. Castelain (1995), 11-13. another version at Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek van ⁹⁸ Deltenre (2016/2). Deltenre (2017/1). Deltenre (2017/2). België – online access at Belgica (https://belgica.kbr.be) . Deltenre (2018/1). Deltenre (2018/2). Last consulted on January 3, 2020). ⁹⁹ De Saint-Genois (1782), 611. Nieus (2017), 222-223. Mesqui (1979), 39. Vale (2001), 148. As a means of comparison it is Villaret, J. (1745-1748), Carte topographique de la partie also quite significant to note that in the whole Thiérache de la Belgique comprise entre Gand et Tournay, Maestricht (region in northern France, close to Hainaut) there were c. et Liège ..., levée par Villaret, Ingénieur du Roi (conserved 1300 only about 45 fortifications, of which 35 can be called at Saint-Mandé, Institut National de l’Information castles: Doyen (2000), 129. Géographique et Forestière – online access at ¹⁰⁰ Germain (1992), 200-201, 209-210. GeopuntVlaanderen ¹⁰¹ De Waha (1995/1), 483-485, 489-490. Germain (1992), (http://www.geopunt.be). Last consulted on Jan. 3, 2020). 200-201. Richard (1960), 446-447. Iconographic sources ¹⁰² De Waha (1986), 95-111. De Waha (1995/1), 463-468, Duvosquel, J.-M. (ed.) (1985-1996), Album de Croÿ, I-XXVI, 485. 488. Mazurier (2006), 338. Germain (1992), 202- Brussels. 203. Claes - De Gryse (2006). De Meulemeester (1983), 202-203. Doyen (2000), 134-143. Richard (1960), 436, Sanderus, A. (1641-1644), Flandria illustrata sive Descriptio 438. Cf. the “urbanisme villageois” (c. 1150-1250) of comitatus istius per totum terraru[m] orbem celeberrimi, Toubert: Carocci (2018), 531-532, 535-536. Toubert I-III, Cologne (conserved at Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek (1998), XIV. van België – online access at Belgica (https://belgica.kbr.be). ¹⁰³ Cortese (2018), 95-97. Last consulted on January 3, 2020; and at Ghent, University ¹⁰⁴ Hansson (2006), 181-182. Coulson (2003), 91, 291. Cf. Library (https://lib.ugent.be). Last consulted on January 3, De Waha (2007-2008), 15-18. Barthélemy (1984), 489- 2020). 496. Richard (1960), 437-441. Riou - Marteaux (2012), Archival sources 242. SAO: Oudenaarde, Stadsarchief. Edited sources Bethmann, L.C. (ed.) (1846), Gesta episcoporum Cameracensium, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores, VII, Hannover, 402-523. Butkens, C. (ed.) (1641), Trophées tant sacrés que prophanes de la duché de Brabant, I, Antwerp.

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