Ghana's high forests: trends, scenarios and pathways for future developments Kwame A. Oduro Thesis committee Promotors Prof. Dr G.M.J. Mohren Professor of Forest Ecology and Forest Management Wageningen University Prof. Dr B.J.M. Arts Professor of Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Wageningen University Co-promotor Dr B. Kyereh Associate professor, Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana Other members Prof. Dr E.H. Bulte, Wageningen University Dr C.P. Hansen, Copenhagen University, Denmark Prof. Dr R.G.A. Boot, Utrecht University Dr T.A. Groen, University of Twente, Enschede This research was conducted under the auspices of the C. T. de Wit Graduate School for Production Ecology and Resource Conservation (PE&RC). Ghana's high forests: trends, scenarios and pathways for future developments Kwame A. Oduro Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Monday 04 July 2016 at 4 p.m. in the Aula. Kwame Antwi Oduro Ghana's high forests: trends, scenarios and pathways for future developments 172 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2016) With references, with summary in English ISBN 978-94-6257-782-4 DOI 10.18174/378343 To Amma, Kwabena, Yaw and Kwaku TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 General Introduction 09 Chapter 2 Trends in timber production systems in the high forest zone of Ghana 25 Published in International Forestry Review (2014)16 (3): 289-300 Chapter 3 Exploring the future of timber resources in the high forest zone of Ghana 45 Published in International Forestry Review (2014) 16 (6): 573-585 Chapter 4 Farmers’ motivations to plant and manage on-farm trees in Ghana 69 Submitted for publication Chapter 5 Tracing forest resource development in Ghana through forest transition pathways 93 Published in Land Use Policy (2015)48:63-72 Chapter 6 General discussion and synthesis 117 References 139 Summary 157 Acknowledgements 162 Short biography 167 List of publications 169 PE&RC Training and Education Statement 171 Chapter 1 General introduction Chapter 1 1.1 Tropical deforestation and forest degradation Tropical deforestation is one of the most serious environmental problems in recent decades and has become a major global concern due to the importance of tropical forests in biodiversity conservation and its critical role in global climate change (Culas 2007, Kanninen et al. 2007, Nabuurs et al. 2007, Payn et al. 2015). Deforestation also affects economic activity and threatens the livelihood and cultural integrity of forest-dependent people at the local level. It reduces the supply of forest products and causes siltation, flooding and soil degradation (Culas 2007). Reducing tropical deforestation is therefore of global importance for the sustainable production of timber and non-timber forest products, the mitigation of climate change, and the conservation of biodiversity (IPCC 2007). Notwithstanding the global acknowledgement of the importance of forests, particularly tropical forests, recent data show that forest area has continued to decline (Keenan et al., 2015) while agricultural land continues to expand in tropical areas (Gibbs et al. 2010, Payn et al. 2015). Globally, total forest area declined from 4,128 million ha in 1990 to 3,999 million ha in 2015. The forest loss is occurring almost exclusively in the tropical forest areas having particularly high ecological value; with either stable or expanding forest in other domains (FAO 2015, Keenan et al. 2015, Morales-Hidalgo et al. 2015). In Africa, total forest area declined from approximately 706 million ha in 1990 to 624 million ha in 2015 (FAO 2015). In Ghana, however, the 2015 Global Forest Resources Assessment results showed that total forest area increased from 8.6 million ha in 1990 to 9.3 million ha in 2015, due mainly to a reclassification of more areas as forests (Affum-Baffoe 2015, FAO 2015). On the other hand, recent deforestation rate for Ghana has been estimated to be over 135,000 ha annually between 1990 to 2010 (FAO 2010a, FAO 2010b). At that rate of deforestation, it is estimated that forests outside forest reserves in Ghana are likely to be completely lost in the next 10 years, and the forest reserves will continue to be under a more acute threat of encroachment and other illegal activities if urgent and concerted action to eliminate the threats of deforestation and forest degradation is not taken (PWC 2015). As Ghana loses its forests, it threatens the security of supply of some of the most important foreign exchange earners in the country since the forests provide ecosystem services and functions that support the country’s predominantly agricultural economy (PWC 2015). The drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are complex and interconnected. Geist and Lambin (2002) distinguish between proximate, or direct, drivers and underlying, or indirect, 10 General introduction drivers. The proximate causes that impact directly on the forests are agricultural expansion, infrastructure, wood extraction, grazing, mining and fuelwood collection, among others. The underlying causes in general terms include demographic trends, economic decisions, technological change, and policy and cultural factors (Geist and Lambin 2002). In Latin America, commercial agriculture, including livestock, is the most important direct driver of deforestation, contributing around two-thirds of total deforestation. In Africa and sub-tropical Asia, commercial agriculture and subsistence agriculture accounted for approximately one- third of deforestation each. Both mining and infrastructure development are important drivers in Africa and Asia, more than in Latin America (Brack and Bailey 2013, Geist and Lambin 2002, Kissinger et al. 2012). Concerning forest degradation, timber and logging activities accounted for more than 70 per cent in Latin America and Asia, whereas fuelwood collection, charcoal production, forest fires and human settlements are among the main drivers for Africa (Brack and Bailey 2013, Damnyag 2012, Kissinger et al. 2012). The underlying, or indirect, drivers constitute an interplay between demographic, economic, technological, institutional, cultural and socio-political changes (Geist and Lambin 2002). Forest sector governance and institutions including conflicting policies beyond the forest sector, and increasing demand for timber and agricultural products in a globalizing economy are among the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation. Other causes are illegal activity relating to weak enforcement, poverty and insecure land tenure (Brack and Bailey 2013, Kissinger et al. 2012, Prince’s Rainforest Project 2009). For Ghana, the principal drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are agricultural expansion (50%), wood harvesting (35%), population and development pressures (10%), and mining and mineral exploitation (5%) (Ghana Readiness Preparation Proposal 2010). Thus, the direct causes of deforestation and forest degradation are clearing of forests for food and cash crop farming, logging (both legal and illegal), fuelwood harvesting, infrastructure expansion, and wild fires. The underlying causes are a high international demand for timber, cocoa and minerals, poverty, corruption, the overcapacity of the forest industry, low forest fees, the low enforcement of forestry rules, population growth, urbanization and land and tree tenure issues (Appiah et al. 2009, Benhin and Barbier 2004, Hansen et al. 2009). Over the years, the government of Ghana has become ever more concerned about the extent of deforestation and forest degradation and the future timber production prospects in the country. As a result, various measures are being pursued that are targeted at addressing deforestation and forest degradation and at increasing the forest resource base. These include 11 Chapter 1 policy and legislative reforms, capacity building, awareness creation, the establishment of a law enforcement unit to address illegal logging activities, the implementation of a stricter wood procurement policy, consultation with stakeholders in resource management, forest plantation development and the restoration of degraded forest lands (Abbey 2011, Bamfo 2009, Hansen et al. 2009). The measures being pursued in forest management today will have an impact on forest resources for decades to come and so insights into the future outlook of the Ghanaian forest resource base is important. The aim of this thesis, therefore is to generate insights into possible future developments of Ghana's high forests by assessing the trends in current forest use and management and by exploring future developments. 1.2 Major issues affecting forest resources in Ghana The forestry sector of Ghana has been recognized over the years to have played a significant role in the country’s development. Currently, the forestry sector contributes 2.3 percent (USD 862.9 million) to the country's gross domestic product (GDP) (GSS 2015). The timber industry is the fourth largest foreign exchange earner after minerals, cocoa and oil exports. In addition to timber, forests provide the main source of domestic energy in the form of fuelwood and charcoal. The average annual per capita wood energy consumption estimate is 1.3 m3, giving a total estimated wood removal of more than 30 million m3 for fuelwood and charcoal,