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XIX DEVELOPMENT and CHARACTERISTICS of HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS I. DEVELOPMENT of SYSTEMS the Development of the Various Silvicultura

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XIX DEVELOPMENT and CHARACTERISTICS of HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS I. DEVELOPMENT of SYSTEMS the Development of the Various Silvicultura XIX DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS I. DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMS THEdevelopment of the various silvicultural systems of the present day has been brought about by a combination of silvicultural con- siderations on the one hand and economic considerations on the other. The former relate to conditions of growth and regeneration, maintenance of soil-fertility, and protection against damage of various kinds; the latter take into account market or other demands, reduction of working costs, and other factors of an economic character. A study of the history of the various high forest systems affords interesting evidence as to how these systems have arisen. The selection system in its scientific form of to-day is of recent introduc- tion, although it arose from a primitive form of cutting dating from early times. Clear cutting has been practised for some centuries, at first with natural and later with artificial regeneration, but it was only in the beginning of last century that it was systematized in its present form by Cotta. The uniform system has been evolved during the last four centuries or more, although it was first applied in its present-day form by G. L. Hartig rather more than a century ago; there is little doubt that it arose from the now obsolete tire et aire system of France or from similar old systems of Germany. Group fellings were systematized by Gayer in the latter part of last century, although they had been practised many years before. The shelter-wood strip system, representing an important modern de- velopment, was adapted from the uniform system, while Wagner's BZendersaumschlag and the wedge system of Eberhard and Philipp are more recent modifications of the strip system. It is apparent, from this brief retrospect, that the more modern systems are largely the result of a process of evolution, in the course of which the accumulated experience of the past has been brought together from time to time and systematized by some person of standing, who has generally added original ideas of his own and thus produced a new system. Judging by past experience, there is little reason to doubt that in Europe itself the future will see a steady development of silvicultural sy&ems, which may include the supersession of some of those now in operation by improved systems DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMS 183 based on the results of further research and experience. In other parts of the world, under conditions differing widely from those prevailing in Europe, there is great scope not only for the intelligent application of existing systems but also for the elaboration of new systems. In continental Europe the present trend of development is mani- festing itself in various ways, and some of the ideas which have gained prominence in recent years will be considered in the remain- ing portion of this chapter. 2. SOME PRESENT-DAY IDEAS Regeneration. There is at present a preponderating body of opinion in favour of natural as opposed to artificial regeneration, owing partly to the unfortunate experience of Saxony and Switzer- land in the matter of spruce plantations. The more recent systems all aim at natural regeneration to the utmost extent, and in practice the skill of a forest officer is not infreauentlvI d rated in inverse ratio to the amount of supplementary artificial regeneration which he finds it necessary to carry out. The development of ecology as a science has given a special impetus to the study of the physical and physiological conditions bearing on natural regeneration. In ecolo- gical language regeneration fellings are nothing more than a process of stimulating succession of a required kind. In order to achieve success it is necessary to study the conditions under which this can best be effected by a partial or complete removal of the forest cover, resulting in the reduction of root competition, the ad- mission of light, warmth, and precipitations, and the alteration of soil conditions. Modern continental practice recognizes two main forms of natural regeneration in high forest, the one from overhead trees (Schirmvevjiingung) and the other from the side (Seitenver- jiingung). In the former seedlings establish themselves under the cover of the old wood, while in the latter they establish themselves in the open. In practice a combination of bbth, as in the shelter- wood strip system, is common. Some writers regard the distinction between the two forms of regeneration as so fundamental that they make it the chief basis of classification of the high forest systems. The prevalence of strip fellings in one form or another, particularly in coniferous forests, is evidence of the popularity of this form of regeneration in many parts of Europe; so much is this the case that an era of strip fellings may be said to have commenced. Intensive and Extensive Treatment. Another matter which has exercised a profound influence on the development of European I 84 HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS systems in recent years is the policy, under certain conditions, of substituting intensive treatment over small units of area (Klein- fldchenwirtschaft) for more extensive treatment over large units (Grossja"chenwirtsc/Iaft). The underlying idea is that in European countries the area of forest is limited and cannot be extended in- definitely; hence it is necessary to increase to the utmost extent the production over those areas which are available. This entails the close study of every variation of soil and situation, and intensive working over small units of regeneration. For this reason advocates of intensive treatment hold that systems involving regeneration ex- tending over areas of some size, such as the uniform system, should be discarded in favour of systems involving intensive regeneration over separate small units of area, such as the strip system. They maintain that extensive treatment is successful only where con- ditions are unusually favourable for regeneration and growth. These contentions are reasonable in countries where forest organization has advanced so far as to make it possible to overcome difficulties of regeneration by highly intensive treatment: otherwise more ex- tensive methods may be unavoidable. From the cultural point of view the intensive treatment of small units may be regarded as the more highly developed form: on the other hand, where condi- tions are sufficiently favourable there may be distinct advantages in extensive treatment from an economic point of view. Regularity and Irregularity. There is one important question on which opinions are much divided, namely, that of regularity as against irregularity: the former generally denotes even-aged and the latter uneven-aged crops. The chief arguments on either side have been summarized in dealing with the advantages and disadvantages of the irregular shelter-wood system (p. 76). Advocates of regu- larity maintain first, that the old crop should not be retained a day longer than is necessary, otherwise it interferes with the free de- velopment of the young crop, while the latter is much damaged during felling and extraction, and second, that clean cylindrical stems of even growth are preferable to branchy conical stems. Ad- vocates of irregularity point to soil improvement, natural conditions of growth, and the development of the individual tree as of para- mount importance. The solution of this vexed question lies in the adoption of that method which best suits the various local conditions considered in relation to each other, since there is no single system applicable to all conditions. In connexion with irregularity, great prominence has been given in recent years to what is known as the DauerwaM idea, which will be explained in the next section. 3. DAUERWALD Definition. In an article published in I 920 and I 92 I under the title Kiefern-Dauerwaldwirtschaft,' attention was first drawn by the late Dr. Alfred Moller to a new method of treating- Scots ~ineforests. In this paper Moller described the managemeEt, over'a period of 29 years, of a forest in the estate of Barenthoren near Dessau in the German State of Anhalt, belonging to Kammerherr Friedrich von Kalitsch, who, himself a professionally trained forester, has been mainly r&ponkible for any'success attained by the treatment of the forest. The term Dauerwald may be translated briefly as 'continuous forest', that is, forest treated in such a manner that the soil is never exposed, the forest cover being continuously maintained over every Lvart of the area. Moller atdiesI I the term Dauerwald in 0~eneral not to any one particular method of treatment, but to any system not involvin~clear cutting- and the exposure of the soil. Thus he divides The various Lethods of treatment into two groups, (I) Dauerwaldmethods, in which the soil is never exposed, and (2) clear- cutting methods, in-which the soil is exposed fir a time be'fire it is covereh by a new crop. Among the former, for instance, he would include Wagner's Blendenuumschlap, as well as shelter-wood systems in general. Dr. Dengler of Eberswalde in I 92 5 proposed the following more detailed grouping of the systems in their relation to Dauerwald: (a) he ideal Dauerwa~dform : the selection system. (b) Systems approximating to DauerwaM: Wagner's Blender- saumschlag, long-period systems such as the Baden and Swiss Femelschlag, and two-storied high forest. (c) Systems having little connexion with Dauerwald: shelter- wood systems such as the uniform, group, strip, and wedge systems with short regeneration periods producing more or less even-aged crops. (d) The antithesis of Dauerw~ld:the clear-cutting system. Moller's paper was followed by numerous criticisms, some favourable, some the reverse, and the term DauerwaZd has enjoyed more notoriety than almost any other term in forestry during recent years. Since the discussions following Moller's paper have centred I ZeitscLriftfiir Forst- and Jagdwesen, January 1920, pp.
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